1. What is Remote Sensing?
“The measurement or acquisition of information of some property of an object or phenomenon, by a
recording device that is not in physical or intimate contact with the object or phenomenon under study”
(Colwell, 1997).
Photogrammetry and remote sensing as (Colwell, 1997): “The art, science, and technology of obtaining
reliable information about physical objects and the environment, through the process of recording,
measuring and interpreting imagery and digital representations of energy patterns derived from
noncontact sensor systems”
In simple word we can say that, anything which can sense from our eyes or cameras or sensor without
physical contact then we can say we are dong remote sensing.
This is done by sensing and recording reflected or emitted energy and processing, analysing and applying
that information apply for different applications
2. Process and Stages of Remote Sensing
Remote sensing process involves an interaction between incident radiation and the targets of interest.
This is exemplified by the use of imaging systems where the following seven elements are involved
1. Energy Source or Illumination (A) - an energy source illuminates or provides electromagnetic energy to
the target of interest.
2. Radiation and the Atmosphere (B) - as the energy travels from its source to the target, it will come in
contact with and interact with the atmosphere it passes through.
3. Interaction with the Target (C) - interacts with the target depending on the properties of both the target
and the radiation.
4. Recording of Energy by the Sensor (D) - after the energy has been scattered by, or emitted from the
target, we require a sensor to collect and record the electromagnetic radiation.
5. Transmission, Reception, and Processing (E) - the energy recorded by the sensor has to be transmitted,
often in electronic form, to a receiving and processing station where the data are processed into an image
(hardcopy and/or digital).
6. Interpretation and Analysis (F) - the processed image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally or
electronically, to extract information about the target which was illuminated for different purpose or
application.
7. Application (G) - Apply the information we have been able to extract from the imagery about the target
in order to better understand it, reveal some new information, or assist in solving a particular problem
3. REMOTE SENSING PLATFORMS
➢ Altitude: Altitude is the height of operation of a remote sensing satellite. The nature of an imagery
captured by a remote sensing satellite varies depending on the altitude
1. Ground Based
2. Air Based
3. Space Based
✓ Balloons, UAVs / DRONES, Helicopters, Airplanes, Satellites
1. Ground based Platforms
Terrestrial Platform: Tripod
Mobile hydraulic platforms: Portable Masts (unstable in wind condition), Weather surveillance Radar
(Detects and tracks typhoons and cloud masses
Low Altitude Platform: pole, kite, drone, blimp
2. Airborne Platforms
✓Altitude range is 22 – 40 km.
✓Tool to probing the atmosphere
✓Useful to test the instruments under development
Advantages
✓High spatial resolution (20 cm or less)
✓Analog photograph is possible
✓Easy to change their schedule to avoid weather problems
✓Sensor maintenance and repair is easy
3. Space borne Platform
✓Sensors are mounted on board a spacecraft
✓Example: Rockets, satellites and space shuttles
Advantages
✓Cover large geographical area
✓Repetitive coverage of an area of interest
4. REMOTE SENSING AND WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
Satellite remote sensing, machine learning (neural networks processing), geographic information systems
(GIS), and global positioning systems (GPS) have greatly expanded opportunities for data collection,
integration, analysis, modelling, and satellite map production for wildlife monitoring and assessment.
High-resolution satellite imagery gives scientists and researchers increasingly up-to-date geospatial data
by using neural networks processing, reliable statistics is obtained for monitoring wildlife
migrations, habitat mapping, and tracking endangered species in remote areas of the world to assist in
management and conservation activities. With spectral signatures collected for wildlife monitoring and
utilizing neural networks algorithms, statistics are obtained during the migration of wildlife, counting
adult and calf species
Using high-resolution satellite images and GPS position data, received by collars or tags placed on wildlife,
are relayed via communication satellites to scientists and researchers. This technology allows researchers
to track wildlife in remote areas of the world. The data collected from GPS and high-resolution satellite
imagery allow researchers to identify and monitor wildlife movement, patterns, species numbers,
behaviours, and to prevent poaching. By utilizing high-resolution satellite sensors, with revisit times of 2-
3 days or by using suitable small sats, micro, cubic or Nano satellites with daily revisit times wildlife can
be detected, identified, classified and counted by AI/ML algorithms, supporting a CV or GIS wildlife
management system, covering land and aquatic regions around the world.
GeoEye-1 Satellite Map (0.5m)
Wildebeest Migration
In remote sensing different types resolution exist, which are relevant for biodiversity conservation
application:
1) Spatial resolution: Spatial resolution the size of pixel inside an image. The spatial resolution of a
satellite image depends on sensor have very high-resolution data set by Quick bird, WorldView-2
etc. provide spatial resolution upto half a meter. Other like have a spatial resolution of 30m which is
available in Landsat imagery. When the spatial accuracy decreases, the extent of imagery increase.
2) Spectral resolution: It refers to ability of distinguishing between different objects based on their
unique spectral signatures, which may be quantified using a portable spectrometer. This
measurement process yields separate signals for each object type. Spectral remote sensing data
encompasses the breadth and quantity of bands that span several spectral ranges.
3) Thematic resolution: It refers to a characteristic of a collection of rules employed to delineate a
hierarchical structure of land cover categories, the criteria employed to differentiate them, and the
interconnections between these categories.
4) Temporal resolution: The temporal resolution is not directly related to sensor. It corresponds to
frequency of revisits and is therefore dependent on the orbitography of platform or satellite on
which sensor is hosted. Biodiversity conservation categories using remote sensing and GIS: It can be
grouped into three categories:
Biodiversity mapping
Biodiversity monitoring
Biodiversity modelling.
A. Biodiversity mapping for individual species, species assemblages and habitats: Satellite based
data combined with field-based habitat data, land scape structure and species abundance
information to identify the habitat boundaries and biophysical characteristics to map species
assemblage. The utilization of remote sensing technology to generate habitat maps and gather data
on species habitat associations is commonly employed in order to obtain insights into species
distribution patterns.
B. Biodiversity monitoring: It plays a crucial role in assessing and enhancing biodiversity
conservation efforts with meticulously planned and executed biodiversity monitoring program
aiming to (i) provide insights into the changing patterns of key biodiversity elements, (ii) serve as an
early indicator of potential issues, and (iii) yield measurable evidence of both successful and
unsuccessful conservation endeavours. (iv) For enhancing management practices effectiveness and
(v) to furnish pertinent details regarding the return on investment in conservation efforts.
C. Biodiversity modelling: Remote sensing and GIS have been used to predict species distribution
and risk to biodiversity to aid visualization, exploration and modelling of data on species
distributions, modelling, ecological niche modelling and habitats suitability modelling has been
growing at a striking rate in the recent years. Species distribution or ecological niche models (ENMs)
offer a valuable approach to solve the issue of insufficient data on species distribution. These
models can effectively bridge knowledge gaps by projecting habitats in areas that have little or no
occurrence records, thereby providing a means to enhance our understanding of species
distributions. The process of species distribution modelling involves the integration of
geographically referenced occurrence data points with various environmental data sets that
provide information about the habitats in which the focal species are found. The sets are merged
and examined with the objective of constructing a depiction of the ecological needs of the focal
species.
5. Applications of GIS and Remote Sensing in biodiversity conservation :
GIS and Remote sensing technology has revolutionized the way we study and conserve biodiversity via
various ways in which this technology is being used to develop conservation plans to protect critical
habitats and species that depend on them.
1. Habitat Mapping and Monitoring: Habitat mapping is process of identifying the spatial distribution of
habitats in a specific area. Remote sensing technology can provide high resolution images of study area
that enables identification of different types of vegetation and land cover. This information is useful for
developing habitat maps that can be used to identify and manage critical habitats for various species. In
addition to habitat mapping, remote sensing can be used for habitat monitoring. By regularly monitoring
changes in habitat, conservationists can detect any threats to biodiversity and implement necessary
actions. These can detect changes in land cover and vegetation, which may indicate habitat degradation or
fragmentation.
2. Species Distribution Modelling: Remote sensing can also be used to develop species distribution models,
which can be used to predict the spatial distribution of species based on environmental variables. This
information is valuable for biodiversity conservation efforts because it enables conservationists to identify
areas that are important for specific species survival. By combining remote sensing data with field data on
species occurrence and environmental variables, conservationists can develop accurate species distribution
models to develop conservation plans that target critical habitats for specific species.
3. Monitoring of Invasive Species: Invasive species are a major threat to biodiversity, and remote sensing
can be used to monitor their spread and distribution. Remote sensing technology can detect changes in
vegetation patterns and identify areas where invasive species are becoming established.
4. Assessment of Forest Cover Change: Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in forest cover
over time. By comparing satellite images from different time periods, conservationists can assess the
extent and rate of forest cover change useful for developing conservation plans to protect forest habitats
and species that depend on them.
5. Monitoring of Wetland Ecosystems: Wetland ecosystems are important habitats for many species, but
they are also threatened by human activities such as land use change and pollution. Remote sensing can be
used to monitor changes in wetland ecosystems, including changes in vegetation, water quality, and water
levels that can be useful for developing conservation plans to protect wetland habitats and species that
depend on them.
6. Monitoring of Coral Reefs: Coral reefs are important habitats for many marine species, but they are also
threatened by climate change and human activities such as pollution and overfishing. Remote sensing can
be used to monitor changes in coral reefs, including changes in coral cover and water temperature for
developing conservation plans to protect coral reef habitats and species that depend on them.
7. Detection of Wildlife Poaching: Remote sensing can also be used to detect illegal activities such as
wildlife poaching. By monitoring changes in vegetation patterns, conservationists can identify areas where
poaching may be occurring to target anti-poaching efforts and prevent further damage to wildlife
populations.
8. Assessment of Land Use Change: Human activities such as agriculture and urbanization can have a
significant impact on biodiversity. Remote sensing can be used to assess changes in land use over time,
including changes in vegetation patterns and urbanization extent for developing conservation plans to
mitigate negative impacts of human activities on biodiversity.
9. Monitoring of Water Bodies: Water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans are important habitats for
many species. Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in water quality, water levels, and
vegetation patterns in and around water bodies for developing conservation plans that aim to protect
aquatic habitats and the species that depend on them.
10. Monitoring of Grassland Ecosystems: Grassland ecosystems are important habitats for many species,
including large herbivores such as bison and pronghorn. Remote sensing can be used to monitor changes in
grassland ecosystems, including changes in vegetation patterns, land use, and water availability useful for
developing conservation plans that aim to protect grassland habitats and depending species.
11. Detection of Forest Fires: Forest fires can have a significant impact on biodiversity, and remote sensing
can be used to detect and monitor forest fires. By monitoring changes in vegetation patterns and
temperature, conservationists can identify areas where forest fires may be occurring or are at risk of
occurring with early warning systems and responding to forest fires quickly, thereby minimizing their
impact on biodiversity.
6. Challenges in Biodiversity Conservation by GIS and Remote Sensing
Remote sensing has benefits for biodiversity conservation, but challenges include data quality and
availability, lack of standardization, technical limitations, and limited expertise. Addressing these
challenges can lead to effective use of remote sensing in conservation. Some of the challenges are:
a) Data Availability and Quality: Remote sensing relies heavily on data, and availability and quality of data
can be a major challenge. In some cases, the data may be incomplete or outdated, making it difficult to
accurately assess changes in biodiversity over time. Additionally, the quality of data may vary depending on
source and method of collection, which can impact analysis accuracy.
b) Lack of Standardized Methods: Another challenge in using remote sensing for biodiversity conservation
is the lack of standardized methods. Different organizations and researchers may use different techniques
and approaches, which can make it difficult to compare and analyze data across different studies. A lack of
standardization can also make it difficult to replicate studies and ensure consistency in the results.
c) Technical Limitations: Remote sensing technology is advancing rapidly, but there are still some technical
limitations that can impact its effectiveness for biodiversity conservation. For example, some remote
sensing techniques may not be able to accurately detect small or hidden species, which can limit their
usefulness for monitoring biodiversity in certain ecosystems. In addition, some techniques may be limited
by weather conditions, such as cloud cover or rain, which can impact the quality of the data.
d) Limited Knowledge and Expertise: Lack of knowledge and expertise can be a challenge in using remote
sensing for biodiversity conservation. Remote sensing is a highly specialized field, and many conservation
practitioners may not have the necessary training or experience to effectively use and data interpretation.
This can lead to data misinterpretation and inaccurate or ineffective conservation strategies. Additionally,
there may be a limited pool of experts who are able to provide guidance and support remote sensing
projects in biodiversity conservation
