Mustansiryah University

College of Science
Department of Chemistry
First Grade

Analytical Chemistry
Dr. Amer Saleh Mahdi Dr. Khitam Jaber Nabhan

1
Analytical Chemistry
First grade (2002-2021)
References:-
(1) “Analytical Chemistry” by Gary D. Christian, 6 th Edition, 2004, John Wiley and
Sons, Inc.
(2) “Fundamental of Analytical Chemistry” by Doglas [Link], Donald [Link] and
James Holler, 8th Edition, 2004.
(3)-“An Introduction to Analytical Chemistry” by Doglas A. Skooge & Donald
[Link], 4th Edition, 1986.
‫هادي كاظم‬.‫ تأليف د‬،’‫ االساسيات النظرية للكيمياء التحليلية الالعضوية’التحليل الكمي الوزني و الحجمي‬-)4(
.6891 ،‫عوض واخرون‬

Analytical Chemistry
The science seeks ever improved means of measuring the chemical composition of
natural and artificial materials by using techniques to identify the substances which
may be present in a material and to determine the exact amounts of the identified
substance. Analytical chemistry involves the analysis of matter to determine its
composition and the quantity of each kind of matter that is present. Analytical chemists
detect traces of toxic chemicals in water and air. They also develop methods to analyze
human body fluids for drugs, poisons, and levels of medication.
Analytical chemistry consists of:

(A) Qualitative analysis which deals with the identification of elements, ions, or
compounds present in a sample (tells us what chemicals are present in a sample).

(B) Quantitative analysis which is dealing with the determination of how much of one
or more component is present (tells how much amounts of chemicals are present in a
sample). This analysis can be divided into three branches .

(1) Volumetric analysis (Titrimetric analysis): The analyte reacts with a measured
volume of reagent of known concentration, in a process called titration.

2
(2) Gravimetric analysis: usually involves the selective separation of the analyte by
precipitation, followed by the very non-selective measurement of mass (of the
precipitate).

(3) Instrumental analysis: They are based on the measurement of a physical property
of the sample, for example, an electrical property or the absorption of electromagnetic
radiation. Examples are spectrophotometry (ultraviolet, visible, or infrared),
fluorimetry, atomic spectroscopy (absorption, emission), mass spectrometry, nuclear
magnetic resonance spectrometry (NMR), X-ray spectroscopy (absorption,
fluorescence).

Solutions

Solution: Homogeneous mixture of two or more substance produce from dissolved

(disappeared) solute particle (ions, atoms, molecules) (lesser amount) between solvent
particle (larger amount).
Solute (lesser amount) + Solvent (larger amount)  Solution

Concentrated Solution has a large amount of solute.

Dilute Solution has a small amount of solute.

Solvent
Solute
Gas Liquid Solid
Gas O2(g) in N2(g), Air CO2(g) in H2O(L), Soda H2(g) in Pd(s), H2 catalyst
Hg(L) in Ag(s), Dental
Liquid Perfume Alcohol(L) in H2O(L)
filling
Dust air, Smoke NaCl(s) in H2O(L), salt
Solid Zn(s) in Cu(s), Brass alloy
industry water, saline sol.

Classification of solutions according to amount of solute:

(1) Unsaturated solutions: if the amount of solute dissolved is less than the solubility
limit, or if the amount of solute is less than capacity of solvent.

3
(2) Saturated solutions: is one in which no more solute can dissolve in a given
amount of solvent at a given temperature, or if the amount of solute equal to capacity
of solvent.

(3) Super saturated solutions: solution that contains a dissolved amount of solute that
exceeds the normal solubility limit (saturated solution). Or a solution contains a larger
amount of solute than capacity of solvent. This it's occurs when the solution is heated
to a high temperature.

Classification of solution based on solute particle size:

(1) True solution: A homogeneous mixture of two or more substance in which

substance (solute) has a particle size less than 1 nm dissolved in solvent. Particles of
true solution cannot be filtered through filter paper and are not visible to naked eye
(NaCl in water).

(2) Suspension solution: heterogeneous mixtures which settles on standing and its
components can be separated by filtrating (Amoxcycilline Antibiotics), particle of
solute visible to naked eye.

(3) Colloidal solution: homogeneous mixture which does not settle on standing, nor
are their components filterable, solute particle visible with electron microscope (milk).

Stoichiometric Calculations
Gram atomic weight:
(gAw some time Awt): Is the weight of a specified number of atoms of that
element (contains exactly the same number of atoms of that element as there are
carbon atoms in exactly 12g of carbon 12 (this number is Avogadro’s number =
6.0221023 atoms).
Gram molecular weight:
(gMw some times [Link]): Defined as the sum of the atomic weight of the atoms
that make up a molecular compound. Or the weight of Avogadro's number of
molecules of any compound.

4
Gram formula weight:
(gFw some time [Link]): The sum of the atomic weight of the atoms that make up
an ionic formula. (is the more accurate description for substances that do not exist as
molecules but exist as ionic compounds e.q strong electrolytes-acids, bases, salts).
Sometimes use the term molar mass (Molecular weight, [Link]) in place of gram
formula weight, gFw).
Example (1):- Calculate the number of grams in one mole of CaSO4.7H2O (calculate
gram molecular or formula weight).
Solution:
One mole is the formula weight expressed in grams. The formula weight is
(Ca=40.08, S=32.06, O=16.00, H=1.01)
[ ]

Mwt of CaSO4.7H2O = Ca ×1 = 40.08×1 = 40.08

S × 1 = 32.06 ×1 = 32.06
O × 4 = 16 × 4 = 64.00
H ×14 = 1.01 × 14 = 14.14
O × 7 = 16 × 7 = 112.00
---------
262.28 (gm/mol)
Mole Concept: Mole

which is Avogadro’s number (6.0221023) of atoms, molecules, ions or other species.

Numerically: it is the atomic, molecular, or formula weight of a substance expressed in
grams.

( )

(1 ole = 1000 m ole)

( )
Where formula weight represents the atomic or molecular weight of the substance.

5
Example (2):-Calculate the number of moles in 500 mg Na2WO4.
Solution ([Link] W= 183,84 g/mole , Na = 23 g/mole, O = 16 g/mol )

Example (3): How many molecules are contained in 25.0 g H2.

Solution: ([Link] H= 1.008 g/mole)

No. Molecules = No. moles × Avogadro number

= 12.40 × 6.022X1023 = 7.74×1024 molecule

Example (4):-How many milligrams are in 0.250 mmole Fe2O3 (ferric oxide).
Solution: ([Link] O= 16 g/mole , Fe = 56.85 g/mole)

Mwt of Fe2O3 = Fe ×2 = 55.85×2 = 111.7

O × 3 = 16 × 3 = 48.0
-------
159.7
( )

Example (5):- Calculate the number of mole of NaCl required to prepare 1Kg of AgCl
according to the equation: ( Na=23, Cl=35.5, N=14 , Ag =107.86, O = 16 g/mole)

Solution: AgNO3 + NaCl NaNO3 + AgCl

( ) ( ) ( )

6
according to the balance equation the mole ratio between NaCl & AgCl equal 1:1
therefore we need 6.98 mol of NaCl .

Example (6 ):Calculate the number of mole of Ca(HCO3)2 required to prepare 1.5 mol
of CO2 according to the equation.

Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl CaCl2 + 2CO2 + 2H2O

solution: No. of mol of Ca(HCO3)2 = No. of mol of CO2× 0.5

= 1.5 × 0.5 = 0.75 mol of Ca(HCO3)2

Example (7): What mass of KI is needed to produce 69.6 gm of K2SO4 by the

reaction : (Mwt, K= 39.1 , S = 32 , O = 16 , I = 127 )

8KI + 5H2SO4 4K2SO4 + 4I2 + H2S + 4H2O

We divide the equation by 4

0KI + (5/4) H2SO4 K2SO4 + I2 + (1/4) H2S + H2O

solution :

No. of mol of K2SO4= wt / [Link] 69.6 gm / 174 )gm /mol) = 0.4 mol

No. of mol of KI = 2× 0.4= 0.8 mol

wt of KI = mol × [Link] = 0.8 × 166 = 133gm

Problems 1
+
Q1: Find the number of Na ions in 2.92 g of Na3PO4?
Q2: Find the number of K+ ions in 3.41 mol of K2HPO4?
Q3: Find the amount of the indicated element (in moles) in
(a) 8.75 g of B2O3. (b) 167.2 mg of Na2B4O7 . 10H2O.
(c) 4.96 g of Mn3O4. (d) 333 mg of CaC2O4.
Q4: Find the amount in millimoles of the indicated species in.
(a) 850 mg of P2O5. (b) 40.0 g of CO2.
(c) 12.92 g of NaHCO3. (d) 57 mg of MgNH4PO4.
Q5- What is the mass in grams of
a- 7.1 mol of KBr b- 20.1 mmol of PbO c- 3.76 mol of MgSO4
7
How do we express concentrations of solutions

1-The Molarity Concentration: -

Also called (Molarity, amount of concentration or substances concentration) is a
measure of the concentration of a chemical species in a particular of a solute in a
solution, in terms of amount of substance per unit volume of solution. In chemistry, the
most commonly used unit for molarity is the number of moles per litre, having the
unit symbol (mol./L). A solution with a concentration of 1 mol./L is said to be 1 Molar,
commonly designated as 1M.

A-Molarity concentration for solutions prepared from dissolving solid

solute in liquid solvent
defined as a number of solute moles dissolved in solution volumes in litre.

( ) 

( ) 

𝒘𝒕 𝒈
𝒈
𝑵𝒐 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑴 𝒘𝒕
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
𝒘𝒕 𝒈 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴 𝑽 𝒎𝑳 𝒈
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳 𝒎𝑳
𝑴 𝒘𝒕 𝑽 𝒎𝑳
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆
𝑳

Example (8):-A solution is prepared by dissolving 1.26 gm AgNO3 in a 250 mL

volumetric flask and diluting to volume. Calculate the molarity of the silver nitrate
solution. How many millimoles AgNO3 were dissolved?
Solution:

8
( ) ( )

Example (9):- How many grams per millilitre of NaCl are contained in a 0.250 M
solution.
Solution :

Example (10):-How many grams Na2SO4 should be weight out to prepare 500 mL of a
0.100 M solution.
Solution :
( )
( )

9
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )

Example (11):- Calculate the concentration of potassium ion in grams per litre after
mixing 100 mL of 0.250 M KCl and 200 mL of 0.100 M K2SO4.

Solution :

( ) [ ( )]

( ) [ ( )]
[ ]

( )

( )

Problems 2

Q1- How many grams of K2SO4 are contained in 50 ml of 0.200 M,

Q2- How many millimoles of K2SO4 are present?
Q3- Calculate the molar concentration of a brine solution obtained
by mixing equal volumes of two solutions of the same substance,
the first 0.1 M and the second 0.5 M
Q4-Calculate the molar concentrations of 1.00 mg/L solutions of each of the following.
(a) AgNO3, (b) Al2(SO4)3, (c) CO2, (d) (NH4)4Ce(SO4)4. 2H2O, (e) HCl, (f) HClO4.

10
B -Molarity concentration for solution prepared from dissolved liquid
solute in liquid solvent.

( )

Density: is the weight per unit volume at the specified temperature, usually (gm/mL)
or (gm/cm3) or ([Link]-3) in 20C (is the ratio of the mass in (gm) and volume (mL).

Specific gravity (sp. gr.): defined as the ratio of the mass of a body (e.g. a
solution) usually at 20C to the mass of an equal volume of water at 4C (or sometimes
20C) or (is the ratio of the densities of the two substances).

Notice -The Specific gravity (sp. gr.) its without unit.

(sp. gr.) =[d(substance)/d(water)] d(substance) = (sp. gr.) × d(water) (g/mL) =
d(substance) (g/mL)

Example (12):- Calculate the molarity of 28.0% NH3, density 0.898 = (sp. gr.).
Solution:

( )

( )
( )

11
Example (13):-How many millilitres of concentrated sulphuric acid, 94.0% (cg/g)
solution, density 1.831 g/cm3, are required to prepare 1 liter of a 0.100 M solution.
Solution:

( )

Of concentrated H2SO4 must be diluted to 1L (1000mL) to prepare (become) 0.1M.

Another solution:

( )

Diluting Solutions
We often must prepare dilute solutions from more concentrated stock solutions. For
example, we may prepare a dilute HCL solution from concentrated HCL to be used for
titration .Or, we may have a stock standard solution from which we wish to prepare a
series of more dilute standards. The millimoles of stock solution taken for dilution will
be identical to the millimoles in the final diluted solution

Mstock × Vstock = Mdiluted × Vdiluted

12
Example (14):-You wish to prepare a calibration curve for the spectrophotometric
determination of permanganate. You have a stock 0.100 M solution of KMnO4 and a
series of 100 mL volumetric flasks. What volumes of the stock solution will you have
to pipet into the flasks to prepare standards of 1.00, 2.00, 5.00, and 10.0x10 -3 M
KMnO4 solutions?

Solution: 1.0x10-3 M

( ) ( )

Also to prepare 2.0, 5.0, 10.0 x10-3 M

Example (15):-You wish to prepare 500 mL of 0.1 M K2Cr2O7 solution from a 0.250
M solution. What volume of the 0.250 M solution must be diluted to 500 mL.
Solution:

( ) ( )

Example (16):-What is the molarity of a 13.0% solution of H2SO4? and what is the
volume should be diluted to prepare a 100 mL of 1.25 M H2SO4 solution?
Solution:
From specific gravity table in the appendix, the specific gravity of the acid is 1.090.

)M1 V1 ( conc. = (M2 V2 ) dilu. 1.45× V1 = 1.25×100

V1 = 86.20 mL .
Example (17):- How many mL of permanganate KMnO4 (0.100 M) should be used to
prepare 100 mL of 1.0×10-3 M solution.
Solution:

( ) ( )

13
Example (18):- What volume of the 0.250 M of K2Cr2O7 solution must be diluted to
prepare 500 mL of 0.1 M solution.

( ) ( )

Example (19):- What volume of 0.40 M Ba(OH)2 must be added to 50 mL of 0.30 M

NaOH to give a solution 0.50 M in [OH-]
Solution:
mmol of Solution3 = 2mmol of Solution 1 + mmol of Solution 2
Solution 1 = 0.40 M Ba(OH)2 , v = (x mL)
Solution 2 = 0.30 M NaOH , v = (50 mL)
Solution 3 = Mix (Ba(OH)2+NaOH) , v = ( x + 50) mL
(Solution 3)

Problems 3

Q1:How many milliliters of concentration hydrochloric acid , 38 %(wt/wt) , specific

gravity 1.19, are required to prepare 1L of a 0.1 M solution?

Q2:Calculate the molarity of each of the following commercial acid or base

solutions:(a) 70% HClO4 , sp. gr. 1.668 , (b) 69% HNO3 , sp. gr. 1.409 .

Formal concentration
(Formality) F: - Chemists sometime use the term formality for solutions of ionic
salts that do not exist as molecules in the solid or in solution. The concentration is
given as formal (F). Formality is numerically the same as molarity.

The term use for solutions of ionic salts that do not exist as molecules in the solid or in
solution. Operationally, formality is identical to molarity.

14
Example (22): Exactly 4.57 g of BaCl2.2H2O are dissolved in sufficient water to give
250mL of solution. Calculate the formal concentration of BaCl2 and Cl- in this
solution.

Solution:

Example (01):-Prepare 500mL of 0.010 F solution of Na+ from Na2CO3.

Solution:

Equilibrium Molarity

Equilibrium Molarity: The equilibrium molarity expresses the molar

concentration of a particular species in a solution at equilibrium. To state the
species molarity, it is necessary to know how the solute behaves when it is
dissolved in a solvent. For example, the species molarity of H2SO4 in a
solution with an analytical concentration of 1.0 M is 0.0 M because the
sulfuric acid is entirely dissociated into a mixture of H+, HSO4-, and SO42-
ions; essentially no H2SO4 molecules as such are present in this solution. The
equilibrium concentrations and thus the species molarity of these three ions
are 1.01, 0.99, and 0.01 M, respectively.

15
Example (00):- Calculate the formal concentration of: (a) an aqueous solution that
contains 1.80g of ethanol in 750mL. (b) An aqueous solution that contains 365mg of
iodic acid HIO3 in 20.0mL (the acid is 71.0% ionized in this solution).

Solution: (a)

The only solute species present in significant amount in an aqueous solution of ethanol
is C2H5OH, therefore;
(b)

Here, only 29.0% (100% - 71.0% = 29.0%) of the solute exists as un dissociated
HIO3. Thus, the molar concentration of this species will be:

Example (02):- Calculate the analytical and equilibrium molar concentration of the
solute species in an aqueous solution that contains 285 mg of trichloroacetic acid,
Cl3CCOOH (Fwt=163.4) in 10.0mL (the acid is 73% ionized in water). Employing HA
as the symbol for Cl3CCOOH, we substitute into equation (law) to obtain the analytical
or total concentration of the acid.
Solution:

Because all but 27% of the acid is undissociated into H3O+ and A-, the species
concentration of HA is:

[ ]

The molarity of H3O+ as well as that of A- equal to the analytical concentration of the
acid minus the species concentration of dissociated acid.
[ ] [ ]

16
Note: the analytical concentration of HA is the sum of the species concentration of HA
and A- [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Equivalent weight ([Link])

Is the formula weight divided by the number of reacting units (H+ or OH- for acid-base
and electron for oxidation-reduction reaction).
Equivalent weight: of a compound is defined as ratio between molecular weight
and total charge on cation or total charge on anion.

( )

( )

( )


Example (24):- Calculate the equivalent weight of the following substances:

2- (Acids )

A- H2SO4 (in reaction with NaOH) H2SO4 + 2NaOH = Na2SO4 + 2H2O

B- H2C2O4 (in reaction with NaOH) H2C2O4 + 2NaOH = Na2C2O4 + 2H2O

3- (Oxidizing agents) KMnO4 [Mn7+ is reduced to Mn2+]

17
4- ( Salts) Al2(SO4)3 .

5- NaCl - Eq wt =

6- CaCl2 - Eq wt =

7-AlCl3 - Eq wt =

8 - Na2CO3 - Eq wt =

9 – NaHCO3 - Eq wt =

Normal concentration
Normality (N): Number of equivalent solute in solution volume in litre.

( )

18
( ) 

( ) 

( )

( )

( )

Example (25):- Calculate the normality of the solutions containing the following:
(a) 5.300gm/L Na2CO3 (when the CO3-2 reacts with two protons),
(b) 5.267 gm/L K2Cr2O7 (the Cr6+ is reduced to Cr3+).
Solution :( a)
Na2CO3 + CO3-2

(b)

Example (26):- How many millilitres of a 0.25M solution of H2SO4 will react with
10mL of a 0.25M solution of NaOH.
19
Solution: H2SO4 2H+ + SO4-2 + 2NaOH =Na2SO4 + 2H2O

( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Example (27):- A solution contains 3.30 gm of Na2CO3.10H2O in each 15 ml.

1- What is its molarity?
2- What is its normality?
3- How many millilitres of 3.1N acetic acid CH3COOH will react with 25 ml of the
carbonate solution, the reaction doing according to this equation
2CH3COOH 2CH3COO- + 2H+
Na2CO3 2Na+ + CO3=
2H+ + CO2= H2O + CO2
4- How many millilitres of 3.1N H2SO4 will react with 25 ml of the carbonate solution,
the reaction doing according to this equation
H2SO4 SO4- + 2H+
Na2CO3 2Na+ + CO3=
2H+ + CO2= H2O + CO2
Solution:

20
2- N = a(eq/mol) M(mol/L) = 2 × 0.77 = 1.53N (eq/L)

3- N1 V1= N2 V2 , 3.1 ×V1 =1.53 ×25

V1 =12.4 ml acetic acid.

4- N1 V1= N2 V2 , 3.1 ×V1 =1.53 ×25

V1 =12.4 ml H2SO4.

Example (28):- A solution of sodium carbonate is prepared by dissolving 0.212 gm

Na2CO3 and diluting to 100mL. Calculate the normality of the solution
(a) if it is used as a monoacidic base.
(b) if it is used as a diacidic base.

Example (29):- Iodine (I2) is an oxidizing agent that in reactions with reducing agent is
reduced to iodide (I-). How many grams I2 would you weigh out to prepare 100mL of a
0.10N I2 solution?
Solution:

Example (30):-Calculate the normality of a solution of 0.25 g/L H2C2O4, both as an

acid and as a reducing agent.

Solution:

( )

21
Example (31):- How many milliequivalents are involved in 43.50 mL of 0.1379 N
K2Cr2O7?
Solution:

Example (32):- What is normality of 0.3 M H3PO3 when it undergoes the following
reaction ? H3PO3 + 2OH- HPO3-2 + 2H2O
Solution: Normality = a × molarity = 2 × 0.3 = 0.6 N .

Example (33):- calculate the number of mg present in 1 mL of

a) – 0.3 N H2SO4 (Mwt = 98 g/mol) solution.
b) – 0.4 N Ca(OH)2 ( Mwt = 74 g/mol) solution.

Solution a-

( )

0.0147 gm × 1000 (mg/gm) = 14.7 mg

Solution another way: ( ) 

( ) ( ) ( )

In the same way, branch b can be resolved.

22
Example (34): What volume of a 0.232 N solution contains (a) 3.17 meq of solute (b)
6.5 eq of solute ?
Solution:
(a )

Concentration by percent

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

23
( ) ( ) ( )

( )

Example(35):-Calculate the weight percentage of solution prepare by mixing 5.0g

AgNO3 with 100mL water (density of water 1g/cm3).

Solution:

( )

( )

( ) ( )

Example (36):- Calculate number of grams in 500mL silane solution (wt/v%)=

(0.859%).
Solution:

( )

Solution another way: The percent concentration = 0.859 ( ) × V(mL)

= 0.859 ( )× 500(mL) = 429.5 cg × ( )

Example (37):-Calculate the weight of glucose in litter solution (wt /v %) = 5 %.

Solution:

24
( )

Solution another way: The percent concentration = 5 ( ) × V(mL)

=5( )× 1000(mL) = 5000 cg × ( )

Example (38):- Calculate the volume percentage of solution preparing by mixing

50mL methyl alcohol with water to give 250mL of solution.

Solution:

( )

( )

Example (39):-Calculate the volume of ethanol in litter solution cconsists of ethanol

and water 0.9 ).
Solution:

( )

Solution another way: The volume percent concentration = 0.9 ( ) × V(L)

= 0.9 ( )× 1 (L) = 0.9 cL × ( )

Example (40):- A 12.5% (w/w) NiCl2 (Mwt = 129.61 g/mol) solution has a density of
1.149 g/mL Calculate (a) the molar concentration of NiCl2 in this solution.
(b) The mass in grams of NiCl2 contained in each liter of this solution.
Solution (a) –
25
( )

( ) ( )
Solution another way:

Solution (b) –

( ) ( ) ( )

Solution another way: ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

Problems 4

Q1- Change 0.1 M NaCl to wt/v%.

Q2- Change 0.2 N NaCl to, g/mL.
Q3- Change 0.3 M NaCl to mg/Kg, (Mwt Na = 23g/mol , Cl = 35.5 g/mol).

molal concentration

molality(m):-The solution concentration produce from dissolved solute (mole) in

solvent (kg), molality does not change with temperature and used for
physicochemical measurements.

molality(m):- Number moles of solute in mass of solvent by kg.

26
( ) 

( ) 

Example (41):- Calculate the molal concentration of solution its prepared by dissolve
4 g of NaOH in 500 g of solvent (distilled water).

The relationship between Molarity concentration, molality concentration

and density :

* + * +

[ ( )]
M = Molarity , m = molality , d = density of solution, Mwt = molecular weight of solute

27
Example (42):- calculate the molality and Molarity concentration of solution consist of 0.5 mole
solute in 200 gm of solvent, density of solution is 1.02 ( g/mL) and the Mwt of solute
(67g/moL).
Solution :-

Example (43):- calculate the density of solution consist of 15 g solute in 400 gm of solvent, the
Molarity of this solution 0.4 M, the Mwt of solute (100 g/moL).
Solution :-

( ) ( )

Example (44):- The molality of a solution of ethanol , C2H5OH , in water is 1.54 m.

How many gm of ethanol is dissolved in 2.50 kg water ?

Solution :-

mole = 2.50 × 1.54 = 3.85 mol

and mass of ethanol = mole × [Link] 3.85 × 46.1 = 177 gm

Mole fraction concentration (X)

Mole fraction concentration (X):- The ratio between number of mole for solute
or solvent to solution, the terms used in physical chemistry (phases equilibrium for
example). Note the molar fraction without units.

28
Example (45):- One litter of acetic acid solution contain 80.8 g of acetic acid, the
solution density 1.00978 g/cm3 or g/mL. (cm3 = mL) calculate the mole fraction (X1)
for the solute and mole fraction (X2) for the solvent in this solution

Solution:

( )

( ( ) )
( )

( ) ( ) ( )

( )
( ) ( )
( )

( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

( ) ( )
( ) ( )

The mole fraction - for a homogeneous solution consisting of three compounds A, B,

and C is (X1) for compound A and (X2) for compound B and (X3) for compound C .

29
Example (46):-A solution contains 116 gm acetone ( CH3COCH3 ) , 138 gm ethyl
alcohol ( C2H5OH ) , and 126 gm water . Determine the mole fraction of each ?

Solution -

Mol acetone = wt / [Link] 116 / 58.0 = 2.0 mol

Mol C2H5OH = wt / [Link] 138 / 46.0 = 3.0mol

Mol water = wt / [Link] 126 / 18 = 7.0 mol

Sum of mole = 2.0 + 3.0 + 7.0 = 12.0 mole

X1+X2+X3= 1 , 0.167 + 0.250 + 0.583 = 1

The relationship between molarity and normality with percentage

concentration

Example (47):-Calculate the molar and normal concentration for 0.85% (w/v%)
sodium chloride solution.

N = n × M = 1 × 0.145 = 0.145 N

30
- Concentration in parts per thousand or million or billion:-

( )

( )

( )

Divisions of volume unit

1L = 10dL = 102cL = 103mL = 106𝜇L = 109nL = 1012 pL

Divisions of mass unit

1g = 10dg = 102 cg = 103mg = 106𝜇g = 109ng = 1012 pg

Example (48):- A 2.6 g sample of plant tissue was analyzed and found to contain 3.6
g zinc, what is the concentration of zinc in the plant in ppm? in ppb?

31
( )

( )

Example (49-A):- A 25.0 L serum sample was analyzed for glucose content and
found to contain 26.7 g. Calculate the concentration of glucose in ppm and in mg/dL.
Solution: Note: 1dL = 100 mL

Example (49-B):- prove the

( )

Solution:

( )

( )

( )

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

32
The relationship between molarity, normality and part per million

( )

( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

33
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Example (50):- (a) Calculate the molar conc. of 1.0 ppm solutions each of Li+ and
Pb+2.(b) What weight of Pb(NO3)2 will have to be dissolved in 1 liter of water to
prepare a 100 ppm Pb+2 solution.
Solution:

(a)

(b)

Example (11):-The concentration of Zinc ion (Zn+2) in blood serum is about (1ppm).
Express this as meq/L.

34
Problems
Q1:- Calculate the molar concentration of 1 ppm solutions of each of the following?

a) AgNO3 b) Al2 (SO4)3 c) CO2 d) HClO4

Q2: Calculate the ppm conc. Of 2.5  10 -4 M solutions of each of the following ?

a) Ca+2 b) CaCl2 c) HNO3 d) KCN

Q3: You want to prepare 1L of a solution containing 1ppm Fe+2 . How many grams
ferrous ammonium sulfate, Fe SO4 (NH4)2 SO4. 6H2O , must be dissolved and diluted in
1L ? What would be the molarity of this solution?

Q4: How many grams NaCl should be weighed out to prepare 1L of a 100 ppm solution
of (a) Na+ and (b) Cl-

Q5- One liter of a 500 ppm solution of KClO3 contains how many grams of K+?

p- Functions
Scientists frequently express the concentration of a species in terms of its
p-function, or p-value. The p-value is the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of
the molar concentration of that species. Thus, for the species X,
pX = -log [X]
As shown by the following examples, p-values offer the advantage of allowing
concentrations that vary over ten or more orders of magnitude to be expressed in
terms of small positive numbers.

35
Example (52):- Calculate the p-value for each ion in a solution that is 2.00 X 10-3 M in
NaCl and 5.4 X 10-4 M in HCl.

NaCl Na+ + Cl- , HCl H+ + Cl-

Solution pH = -log [H+] = -log (5.4 × 10-4) = 3.27

pNa = -log (2.00 × 10-3) = -log 2.00 × 10-3 = 2.699
[Cl-] = 2.00 × 10-3 M + 5.4 × 10-4 M
=2.00 × 10-3 M + 0.54 × 10-3 M = 2.54 × 10-3 M
pCl = -log 2.54 × 10-3 M = 2.595
Example (53):- Calculate the molar concentration of Ag+ in a solution that has a pAg
of 6.372.
Solution:
pAg = -log [Ag+] = 6.372, log [Ag+] = - 6.372
[Ag +] = = Log -1 (- 6.372 ) = 4.246 × 10-7 = 4.25 ×10-7 M

Acid-Base Equilibria
Acid-base theories:-
1) Arrhenius Theory (H+ and OH-):-

Acid:-any substance that ionizes (partially or completely) in water to give hydrogen

ion (which associate with the solvent to give hydronium ion H3O+):

Base:-any substance that ionizes in water to give hydroxyl ions. Weak (partially
ionized) to generally ionize as follows:-

While strong bases such as metal hydroxides (e.g. NaOH) dissociate as

This theory is obviously restricted to water as the solvent.

2) Bronsted-Lowry Theory (taking and giving protons, H+):-

36
Acid:-any substance that can donate a proton.

Base:-any substance that can accept a proton. Thus, we can write a half reaction:

Acid = H+ + Base

3) Lewis Theory (taking and giving electrons):-

Acid:-a substance that can accept an electron pair.

Base:-a substance that can donate an electron pair.

Strong acids: - H2SO4, HClO4, HNO3, HI and HCl .

Strong bases: - LiOH, KOH, NaOH and Ca(OH)2 .

Acid-Base Equilibria in water

when an acid or base is dissolved in water, it will dissociate, or ionize, the amount of
ionization being dependent on the strength of the acid or base. A strong electrolyte is
completely dissociated, while a weak electrolyte is partially dissociated.

HOAC +H2O H3O+ +OAC- (weak acid, partially ionized)

Thermodynamic acidity constant K

In dilute solutions, the activity of water remains essentially constant, and is taken as
unity at standard state:

Pure water ionizes slightly, or undergoes auto protolysis (self-ionization of solvent to

give a cation and anion):-
37
The equilibrium constant for this is:

Again, the activity of water is constant in dilute solution (its concentration is

essentially constant at ~ 55.3M), so:-

(thermodynamic auto protolysis or self - ionization constant)

We will use H+ in place of H3O+ for simplification, also, molar concentration will
generally be used instead of activities and represented by square brackets [ ] around
the species).

[ ][ ]

[ ][ ]

[ ][ ]

[ ] [ ]

Example (55):-A 1.010-3 M solution of HCl prepared. What is the hydroxyl ion
concentration [OH-] & pH?
Solution:
[ ][ ]
[ ]

[ ] , pOH = 11
The pH scale: =3

Buffer solution

38
A buffer is defined as a solution that resists change in pH when a small amount of an
acid or base is added or when the solution is diluted. A buffer solutions consist of a
weak base and their salt (conjugate acid ) or a weak acid and its salt (conjugate base ).

Types of Buffer Solution

The two primary types into which buffer solutions are broadly classified into are acidic
and alkaline buffers.

Acidic Buffers:
As the name suggests, these solutions are used to maintain acidic environments. Acid
buffer has acidic pH and is prepared by mixing a weak acid and its salt with a strong
acid. An aqueous solution of an equal concentration of acetic acid and sodium acetate
has a pH of 4.74.

 pH of these solutions is below seven

 These solutions consist of a weak acid and a salt of a weak acid.
 An example of an acidic buffer solution is a mixture of sodium acetate and
acetic acid (pH = 4.75).

Alkaline (basic) Buffers:

These buffer solutions are used to maintain basic conditions. Basic buffer has a basic
pH and is prepared by mixing a weak base and its salt with strong base. The
aqueous solution of an equal concentration of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium
chloride has a pH of 9.25.

 The pH of these solutions is above seven

 They contain a weak base and a salt of the weak base.
 An example of an alkaline buffer solution is a mixture of ammonium hydroxide
and ammonium chloride (pH = 9.25).
Significance of Handerson –H, Equation:- Handerson-H, Equation can be used to:

1. Calculate the pH of the buffer prepared from a mixture of the salt and weak
acid/base.
2. Calculate the pKa value.
3. Prepare buffer solution of needed pH.

Derivation of Henderson-H, equation for acidic buffer solutions

{ }{ }
HA+H2O  A- + H3O+ , { }{
,
}

39
{ }{ }
{ } { }
{ }

{ }
{ }{ } { } { }
{ }

{ } { }
{ } { }
{ } { }
{ }
{ } { } { } { }
{ }

{ }
{ }

In same way we can to derivation of Henderson-H, equation for alkaline (basic) buffer
solutions
{ }{ }
B +H2O  BH+ + OH- , { }{ }

{ }{ }
{ }

{ }
{ }{ } { } { }
{ }

{ } { }
{ } { }
{ } { }
{ }
{ } { } { } { }
{ }

{ }
{ }

Example (56):- Calculate the pH of a buffer prepared by adding 10mL of 0.1M acetic
acid to 20mL of 0.1M sodium acetate ?

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation:-
[ ]
[ ]

40
( )
( )

We can use millimoles of acids and salt in place of molarity.

Buffer capacity (β) is defined as the moles of an acid or base necessary to change the
pH of a solution by 1, divided by the pH change and the volume of buffer in liters; it is
a unitless number.

Buffer capacity (β) = ( )

β is buffer capacity

n is the number of moles of an acid or a base added per liter of buffer solution
dpH is the change in pH: dpH = final pH - initial pH
Example (57):- A buffer solution is 0.2M of acetic acid and sodium acetate. Calculate
the change in pH upon adding 1.0mL of 0.1M hydrochloric acid to 10mL of this
solution and Buffer capacity (β) of this solution.
[ ] [ ]
Solution: = + [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]
( )2 = . + [ ] [
.
]

[ ]
( )1 = . + = .
[ ]

∆ =( ) −( ) = . 6− . 1 = .

The change in pH is ( 0.05). This is rather small especially if we consider that had the
HCl been added to unbuffered neutral solution the final concentration would have been
approximately 10-2M, and the pH would be 2.0.

Buffer capacity (β) = ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( )

41
Example (58):- You have acidic solution with pH = 4 it was diluted 100 times.
Calculate the pH value of this solution after dilution.
Solution:

pH = 4 (before dilution), pH = -log [H+], 4 = - log [H+],

[H +] = = Log -1 (- 4 ) = 1 × 10-4 M

(M1×V1) before dilution=(M2×V2) after dilution

(1 × 10-4 × V ) = ( M2 × 100V), M2 = ( ) =1 × 10-6 M

pH=-Log (H+) , pH = -Log (1 × 10-6) = 6 (after dilution)

Example (59):- You have acidic Buffer solution with pH = 4 it was diluted 100 times.
Calculate the pH value of this solution after dilution.
Solution: The equation of acidic Buffer solution
{ }
{ }

{ }
{ }

{ } { } { } { } { }

{ } { } { } { } { }

{ } { }
{ } { }

{ }
{ }
=4

This result means that the pH of this solution did not change due to dilution because
it is a buffer solution.

Volumetric analysis (titration analysis)

42
Are the most useful and accurate analytical techniques, especially for millimole
amounts of analyte. They are rapid and can be automated, and they can be applied to
smaller amounts of analyte when combined with a sensitive instrumental technique for
detecting the completion of the titration reaction, for example, pH measurement. In a
titration the test substance (analyte) in a flash react with a reagent added from a buret
as a solution of known concentration. This is referred to as a standard solution and is
called the titrant. The volume of titrant required to just completely react with the
analyte is measured. Since we know the concentration as well as the reaction between
the analyte and the reagent, we can calculate the amount of analyte.

The requirements of a titration are as follows

(1) The reaction must be stoichiometric: That is, there must be a well-defined and
known reaction between the analyte and the titrant..

(2) The reaction should be rapid. Most ionic reactions.

(3) There should be no side reaction, and the reaction should be specific.
(4) There should be a marked change in some property of the solution when the
reaction is complete. This may be a change in color of the solution or in some electrical
or other physical property of the solution (by used indicator or pH meter).
(5) The point at which an equivalent or stoichiometric amount of titrant is added is
called the equivalence point. The point at which the reaction is observed to be
complete is called the end point, that is, when a change in some property of the
solution.
(6) The reaction should be quantitative. That is, the equilibrium of the reaction should
be far to the right so that a sufficiently sharp change will occur at the end point to
obtain the desired accuracy. The equivalence point is the theoretical end of the titration
where the number of moles of titrant = number of moles of analyte. The end point is
the observed end of the titration.

Standard solution
43
A solution is prepared by dissolving an accurately weighed quantity of a highly pure
material called a primary standard and diluting to an accurately known volume in a
volumetric flask.

A primary standard should fulfil these requirements

(1) It should be 100.00% pure, although 0.01 to 0.02% impurity is tolerable if it is

accurately known.

(2) It should be stable to drying temperature, and it should be stable indefinitely at

room temperature. The primary standard is always dried before weighing.
(3) It should be readily available and fairly inexpensive.
(4) Although not necessary, it should have a high formula weight.
(5) If it is to be used in titration, it should possess the properties required for a titration
listed above. In particular, the equilibrium of the reaction should be far to the right so
that a very sharp end point will be obtained.
A solution standardized by titrating a primary standard is itself a secondary standard. It
will be less accurate than a primary standard solution due to the errors of titrations. A
high formula weight means a larger weight must be taken for a given number of moles.
This reduces the error in weighing.

Classification of volumetric or titration methods

(1) Neutralization (acid-base) titrations: Many compounds, both inorganic and

organic, are either acids or bases can be titrated with a standard solution of a strong
base or a strong acid. The end point of these titrations are easy to detect, either by
means of indicator or by following the change in pH with a pH meter.
(2) Precipitation titrations: In the case of precipitation, the titrant forms an insoluble
product with the analyte. An example is the titration of chloride ion with silver nitrate
solution to form silver chloride precipitate.

44
(3) Complexometric titrations :In Complexometric titrations ,the titrant is a reagent
that forms a water-soluble complex with the analyte , a metal ion .The titrant is often a
chelating.
(4) Reduction-Oxidation titrations: These (redox) titrations involve the titration of
an oxidizing agent with a reducing agent, or vice versa .An oxidizing agent gains
electrons and a reducing agent loses electrons in a reaction between them.

Acid-Base Titrations
An Acid-Base titration involves a neutralization reaction in which an acid is
reacted with an equivalent amount of base at equivalence point or endpoint. The
titration is always a strong acid or strong base

A) Titration of strong acid versus strong base.

For Example:

The equivalent point is where the reaction is theoretically complete while the
endpoint where the colour of indicator were changed.

Example (60):- Calculate the pH at (0, 5, 45, 50, 55 mL) titration of 50.0mL of
0.10M HCl with 0.10M NaOH?

Solution:
(1) At 0 titration: before addition of 0.1M NaOH
[ ]

(2) At 5 mL titration: before equivalence point

45
(3) At 45 mL titration: before equivalence point

(4) At 50 mL titration: Equivalence Point

[ ][ ]

√ [ ] [ ]

(5) At 55 mL titration: after equivalence point

46
Construction (plot) titration curve of strong acid versus strong base:-
The relationship between pH calculated for HCl remaining or unreacted (excess)
or NaOH on Y axis and the volume of titrant (0.1M NaOH) added on X axis, this
curve called titration curve. This curve used for estimation the equivalence point
(theoretically) and selection of the indicator for detecting the endpoint reaction
by the colour change of the indicator.

Note: The selection of the indicator become more critical as the solution become
more dilute and the sharpness endpoint decrease as the concentration. The point
at which the reaction is observed to be complete at the indicator colour where
changed is called endpoint.
Indicators (Acid-Base):- are substances which change colour with change pH.

47
They are usually weak acids or bases, which when dissolved in water dissociate
slightly and form ions. Phenolphthalein is a colourless, weak acid which
dissociates in water forming pink anions. Under acidic conditions, the
equilibrium is to the left, and the concentration of the anions is too low for the
pink colour to be observed. However, under alkaline conditions, the equilibrium
is to the right, and the concentration of the anion becomes sufficient for the pink
colour to be observed.

Common Acid – Base Indicators

Indicator Approximate pH Range Color Change
for Color Change
Methyl Orange 3.2-4.4 Red to yellow
Bromthymol blue 6.0-7.6 Yellow to blue
Phenolphthalein 8.2-10 Colorless to pink
Litmus 5.5-8.2 Red to blue
Bromcresol green 3.8-5.4 Yellow to blue
Thymol blue 8.0-9.6 Yellow to blue

48
B) Titration of weak acid versus strong base:-
Acetic acid with sodium hydroxide

Example (61):- Calculate the pH at 0, 10, 25, 50, and 60mL titrant in the titration
of 50mL of 0.1M acetic acid (Ka=1.75×10-5) with 0.10M NaOH?

Solution:
(1) At 0mL titrant (0.1M NaOH): HOAC solution only

[ ] √ √

[ ]

(2)At 10mL titrant (0.1M NaOH):before equivalence point (buffer formation

region)

49
[ ]
[ ]

(3) At 25mL titrant (0.1M NaOH): before equivalence point (buffer formation
region)

[ ]
[ ]

(4) At 50mL titrant (0.1M NaOH): equivalence point

All NaOH reacted with all HOAC and converted it to its salt sodium acetate.

[ ] √ √ √

[ ]

(5) At 60mL titrant (0.1M NaOH): after equivalence point (NaOH solution alone)

50
Construction (plotting) titration curve of weak acid versus strong base:-

The sharpness endpoint decreases as the concentration decreases.

Titration curves for 50mL 0.1M weak acids of different Ka value versus 0.1M NaOH

The sharpness of the endpoint decreases as Ka decreases.

(C) Titration of weak base versus strong acid:-Titration of ammonia solution

versus hydrochloric acid.
Example (62):- Calculate the pH at 0, 10, 25, 50, and 60mL of titrant of 50mL of
0.1M NH3 (Kb=1.75×10-5) with 0.1M HCl?
(1) At 0mL titrant (0.1M HCl): NH3 solution alone

51
[ ] √ √

[ ]

(2) At 10mL titrant (0.1M HCl): before equivalence point (buffer formation
region)

[ ]
[ ]

(3) At 25mL titrant (0.1M HCl): before equivalence point (buffer formation
region)

[ ]
[ ]

(4) At 50mL titrant (0.1M HCl): equivalence point region

The all HCl added converted all NH3 to its salt NH4Cl

[ ] √ √ √

52
(5) At 60mL titrant (0.1M HCl): after equivalence point

Construction (plotting) titration curve:-

Titration curve for 50mL 0.1M weak base of different Kb values versus 0.1M

HCl. The sharpness of the endpoint decreases as Kb decreases of weak bases.

Back titration (indirect titration)

Sometimes
1 - a reaction is slow to go to completion.

2 - a sharp end point cannot be obtained.

53
A back titration will often yield useful results. In this technique, a measured amount
of the reagent, which would normally be the tritrant, is added to the sample so that
there is a slight excess. After the reaction with the analyte is allowed to go to
completion, the amount of excess (unreacted) reagent is determined by titration with
another standard solution. In back-titration, a known number of millimoles of reaction
it is taken, in excess of the analyte. The unreacted portion is titrated. A back titration is
a titration method where the concentration of an analyte is determined by reacting it
with a known amount of excess reagent. The remaining excess reagent is then titrated
with another, second reagent. The second titration's result shows how much of the
excess reagent was used in the first titration, thus allowing the original analyte's
concentration to be calculated. A back titration may also be called an indirect titration.

mmol of analyte = mmol first titrant – mmol back titrant

Example (54 ):- A 0.50 g sample containing Na2CO3 plus inert matter in analyzed by
adding 50.0mL of 0.1M HCl, a slight excess, boiling to remove CO2, and then back-
titrating the excess acid with 0.1M NaOH. If 5.6mL of NaOH is required for the back-
titration, what is the percent Na2CO3 in the sample.

Solution:

CO3 + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2CO3

H2CO3 H2O + CO2

(Excess) HCl + NaOH NaCl + H 2O

=( × )−

( ) =( × × ) −( × )

( × )=( . × × )−( . × . )

= (2.5) – (0.56) , = (1.94)

54
= (1.94 ) ,

= . 6 m , % = ×

= × = .2 %

Precipitation Reactions and Titrations

A number of anions form slightly precipitates with certain ions and can be
titrated with the metal solutions.
Ag+ + Cl- AgCl

Ba+2 + SO4 -2 BaSO4

55
Effect of acidity on solubility of precipitates Conditional solubility product [ ].

The solubility of a precipitate whose anion is derived from a weak acid will increase in
the presence of added acid because the acid will lead to combine with the anion and
thus remove the anion from solution for example the precipitate MA that partially
dissolves to give M+ and A- ions will exhibit the following.

MA M+ + A-
+
H+ = C HA

HA

The anion [A-] can combine with protons to increase the solubility of the precipitates.
The combined equilibrium concentrations of A- and HA make up the total analytical
concentration, C HA, which will be equal to [M+] from the dissolved precipitate (M+ or
A- excess).

Ca2C2O4 Ca +2 + C2O4 -2 +2
Ksp = [Ca ][C2O4 ] = 2.6x 10
-2 -9
(1)

[ ][ ]
C2O4 -2 + H+ HC2O4 - Ka2 = = 6.1x 10-5 (2)
[ ]

[ ][ ]
HC2O4 – + H+ H2C2O4 Ka1 = = 6.5x 10-2 (3)
[ ]

The solubility S of Ca2C2O4 is equal to [Ca+2] = CH2C2O4, where CH2C2O4 represents the
- -2
concentration of all the oxalate species in equilibrium =[H2C2O4] + [HC2O4 ]+[C2O4 ].
We can substitute CH2C2O4 α2 for [C2O4 -2] in the Ksp expression:-

[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]
0 = [ ] 
[ ] [ ] [ ]

56
[ ] [ ]
1 = = [ ] 
[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]
2 = [ ] 
[ ] [ ] [ ]

Ksp = [Ca+2][C2O4 -2] = [Ca ]

+2
α2

We can write then

[ ]



[ ] [ ]

Where is the conditional solubility product.

Note: - The conditional solubility product value holds for only a specified pH

Example 1 : Calculate the solubility of CaC2O4 in water and in a solution containing

0.001M HCl and compare them? CaC2O4 ⇌ Ca+2 + C2O4-2

Solubility of CaC2O4 in water Ksp(CaC2O4) = [Ca+2][ C2O4-2]= S2

√ √ M

Solubility of CaC2O4 in a solution containing 0.001M HCl, (acid solution).


[ ] [ ]

57
 √ √


Method of driving values of α0 ,α1 and α2

{ }{ }
HA  A- + H+ , ……………(1)
{ }

{ } { }
{HA}T = {HA} + {A-} , 0 = { , 1 = {
} { } } { }

{ }{ }
From equation no 1 { }

{ }{ }
{ } { }
 
{ }{ }
{ } { }
{ }

{ }

{ } { } { }

{ }{ }
H2A  HA- + H+ , ……………(1)
{ }

{ }{ }
HA-  A-2 + H+ , { }
……………(2)

{ } = {H2A} + { } {A-2 }
58
{ }
0 = { } {
{ } }

{ }
1 =
{ } { } { }

{ }
2 = { } {
{ } }

{ }{ }
From equation no 1 { }

{ }{ }

0 = { }{ }
{ } { }

{ }{ }
From equation no 2 { }

{ }{ }
{ }

0 = { }{ }
{ } { }{ }
{ }

59
{ }{ }
{ }
0 = 
{ }{ } { }{ }
{ } { }

{ }
0 = { } { }

{ }
In the same way 1 =
{ } { }


{ } { }

Example 2 :- Calculate the solubility of CaF2 in 0.1 M HCl. Also calculate equilibrium
concentration of F- and HF. Ksp(CaF2( = 3.910-11 , Ka (HF) = 6.810-4 ,

solution
CaF2  [Ca+2] + 2[F-], Ksp(CaF2( = [Ca+2] [F-] [F-] = [Ca+2] [F-]2

HCl  H+ + Cl- , H+ + F-  HF , CHF = [HF] + [F-]

Ksp(CaF2( = [Ca+2] [F-]2 [F-]=1 CHF

Ksp(CaF2( = [Ca+2] [1 C2HF ] ,

2
Ksp(CaF2( = [Ca+2] [1 CHF ]2 ,

[Ca+2] [C2HF ] , CHF = 2S S = solubility , [Ca+2] = S

[S] [2S]2  4S3 ,

 
1= [ = 
] 


8.559  10-7 , [S] [2S]2  4S3


60

S √ , S √ =√  

CHF = 2S = 5.98 10-3  2 = 0.01196 M

[F-]eq.= 1 CHF = 6.75 10-3  0.01196 = 8.073 10-5 M

[HF]eq.= CHF - [F-] = 0.01196 - 8.073 10-5 = 1.1879 10-2 M

OR -- [HF]eq.= 0 CHF = (1-1) CHF = (1-  )  0.01196 =1.1879 10-2 M

Effect of Complexation on solubility (Conditional solubility product )

The Complexing agent can compete for the metal ion in a precipitate, just as acids
compete for the anion. A precipitate [MA] that dissociate to give [M+] and [A-] and
whose metal complexes with the ligand L to form [ML+] would have the following
equilibria:-

MA M+ + A-
+
L = CM

ML
The sum of M+ and [ML+] is the analytical concentration CM in equilibrium, which is equal to [A-].
Calculation for such a situation are handled in a manner completely analogous to those for the effects
of acids on solubility Consider the solubility of AgBr in the presence of NH3. The equilibria are:-

AgBr Ag+ + Br -

{ }
Ag+ + NH3 Ag (NH3)+ ,
{ }{ }

{ }
Ag (NH3)+ + NH3 Ag (NH3)2+ ,
{ }{ }

Ksp = [Ag+][Br-] = CAg × ꞵ0 ×[Br -] = 4 x 10-13

61
= K'sp= CAg [Br-] = S2

The solubility S of [AgBr] is equal to [Br -] = CAg, where CAg represents the
concentrations of all the silver species in equilibrium = [Ag +] + [Ag (NH3)+]
+[Ag(NH3)2+]. we can substitute CAg ꞵ0 for [Ag +] in the expression. Where ꞵ0 is
the fraction of silver species present as [Ag +].

[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]
ꞵ0 = [ ] ꞵ
[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]
ꞵ1 = [ ] ꞵ
[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]
ꞵ2 = [ ] ꞵ
[ ] [ ] [ ]

Ksp = [Ag+][Br-] = ꞵ [Br-]

We can write then

[ ]
ꞵ

{ } { }

62
Where K'sp is again the conditional solubility product, whose value depends on the
concentration of Ammonia.

Example 3:- Calculate the molar solubility of AgBr (silver bromide) in water and in (0.1M)
of Ammonia solution and compare them? Ksp = 4 ×10 -13, Kf1 = 2.5×103, Kf2 = 1.0× 104 .

+ -
Solubility of AgBr in water Ksp(AgBr) = [Ag ][Br ] = S2

√ √

Solubility of AgBr in a solution containing 0. 1M NH3.

{ } { }

√ √
ꞵ

Method of deriving values of

{ }
Ag+ +NH3  Ag (NH3)+ , …………(1)
{ }{ }

63
{ }
Ag (NH3)+ +NH3  Ag (NH3)2+ , ..(2)
{ }{ }

{ } { } { } { }

{ }
{ } {
,
} { }

{ }
{ } { } { }

{ }
{ } {
,
} { }

From equation no 2 { } { }{ }

{ }
{ } { } { }

{ }
,
{ } { } { }{ }

From equation no 1 { } { }{ }

{ }
{ } { }{ } { }{ }{ }

{ }
{ }( { } { } )

64
{ } { }

In the same way

{ }
{ } { }

{ }
{ } { }

Precipitation Titration (Argenometric Titration)

Example 4:- Calculate pCl for the titration of 100 mL of 0.10 M NaCl with (0.1 M) AgNO3 after
addition of [ 0.0, 20.0, 99.0, 99.50, 100.0, 100.50 and 110.0 mL] AgNO3?
Ksp (AgCl) =1.0 x10-10
NaCl + AgNO3 AgCl + NaNO3

At 0.00 mL

pCl = - log [Cl-] - log [0.1] pCl- = 1.00

At 20.0 mL

mmol Cl- = M × V = 0.1 mmol/mL × 100 mL =10.0 mmol

mmolAg+ = M × V = 0.1 mmol/mL × 20 mL =2.0 mmol

Cl- left = 10 -2 = 8 mmol [Cl-] = (mmol/VT)= 8/120 = 0.0667M

pCl- = - Log [0.0667] = 1.18

At 99.0 mL

mmolAg+ = 99 mL × 0.1 mmol/mL = 9.9 mmol

65
Cl- left = 10 -9.9 = 0.1 mmol [Cl-] = (mmol/VT)= 0.1/199 = 5 × 10-4M

pCl- = - Log [5 × 10-4] = 3.26

At 99.5 mL

mmolAg+ = 99.5 mL × 0.1 mmol/mL=9.95 mmol

Cl- left = 10 -9.95 = 0.05 mmol [Cl-] = (mmol/VT)= 0.05/199.5 = 2.5 × 10-4M

pCl- = - Log [2.5 × 10-4] = 3.6

At 100 mL

All the Cl- is reacted with Ag+:- [Equivalent point]

[ ] √ √ = 1.0 x10-5 M

pCl- = - Log [1.0 x10-5] = 5

At 100.5 mL

mmolAg+ = 100.5 mL × 0.1 mmol/mL=10.05 mmol

Ag+ left = 10.05 -10 = 0.05 mmol [Ag+] = (mmol/VT)= 0.05/200.5 = 2.5 ×10-4 M

[ ] = 4 × 10-7 M
[ ]

pCl- = - Log [4 ×10-7] = 6.4

At 110 mL

mmolAg+ = 110 mL × 0.1 mmol/mL= 11 mmol

Ag+ left = 11 -10 = 1 mmol [Ag+] = (mmol/VT)= 1/210 = 4.76 ×10-3 M

[ ] = 2.1 × 10-8 M
[ ]

pCl- = - Log [2.1 × 10-8] = 7.67

66
The detection of the endpoint (indicators):
We can detect the endpoint by measuring either pCl or pAg with two types of
indicators:
(1) Indicators Reacting with the Titrant:
There are several examples of an indicator forming a colored compound with a
titrant, two common method were:
(a) Mohr Method

used for determining chloride ion, after chloride ion consumed by reacting with equal
mmol of AgNO3, the excess (after drops) of AgNO3 than reacting with the indicator
(K2CrO4) to form red precipitate Ag2CrO4.

Cl - + Ag + AgCl Ksp = 1.0 x10 -10

Analyte titrant white precipitate

CrO4 -2 + 2Ag + Ag2CrO4 Ksp = 1.1 x10 -12

Analyte titrant red precipitate

67
The concentration of the indicator is important. The Ag2CrO4 should just start
precipitating at the equivalent point, where we have a saturated solution of AgCl. From
Ksp, the concentration of Ag+ at the equivalent point is 10-5M. (It is less than this
before the equivalent point). So, Ag2CrO4 should precipitate just when Ag+ = 10-5M.
The solubility product of Ag2CrO4 is 1.1 x10 -12. By inserting the Ag+concentration in
the Ksp equation for Ag2CrO4,we calculate that, for this to occur,[CrO4-2 ]should be
0.011M.
[10-5]2 × [CrO4-2] = 1.1 × 10 -12

[CrO4 -2] = 1.1 × 10 -2 M

If the concentration is greater than Ag2CrO4 will begin to precipitate when [Ag+]
is less than 10-5 M (before the equivalent point). If it is less than 0.011M, then the
[Ag+] will have exceed 10-5 M (beyond the equivalent point) before precipitation of
Ag2CrO4 begins. In actual practice, the indicator concentration is kept at 0.002 to
0.005 M. If it is much higher than this, the intense yellow color of the Chromate ion
obscures the red Ag2CrO4 precipitate color, and an excess of Ag+ is required to
produce enough precipitate to be seen. An indicator blank should always be run and
subtracted from the titration to correct for errors.

The Mohr titration must be performed at a pH of about 8. If the solution is too

acid (pH ˂ 6), then part of the indicator is present as [HCrO4-], and more [Ag+] will be
required to form the [Ag2CrO4] precipitate. Above (pH 8), silver hydroxide may be
precipitated at (pH ˃ 10). The pH is properly maintained by adding solid calcium
carbonate to the solution. (While the carbonate ion is a fairly strong Brønsted base, the
concentration in a saturated calcium carbonate solution is just sufficient to give a pH
about 8.) The Mohr titration is useful for determining chloride in neutral or unbuffered
solutions, such as drinking water.

(b) Volhard Titration ( Back Titration)

This is an indirect titration procedure for determining anions that precipitate with silver
(Cl- , Br-, and SCN-) and it is performed in acid (HNO3) solution. In this procedure,
we add a measured excess of AgNO3 to precipitate the anion and then determine the
excess Ag+ by back titration with standard potassium thiocyanate solution:-
X- + Ag + AgX + excess Ag +

excess Ag + + SCN- AgSCN

68
We detect the End Point by adding iron (Ⅲ) as a (Ferric ammonium sulfate),
which forms a soluble red complex with the first excess of titrant:-

Fe+3 + SCN- Fe (SCN)+2

If the precipitate AgX is less soluble than AgSCN, we do not have to remove the
precipitate before titrating. Such is the case with (Br-, and SCN-). In the case of I-
we do not add the indicator until all the I- is precipitated, since it would be oxidized
by the iron (Ⅲ). If the precipitate is more soluble than AgSCN, it will react with
the titrant to give a high and diffuse end point. Such is the case with AgCl:-

Ag + + SCN - AgSCN + Cl-

Therefore, we remove the precipitate by filtration before titrating. Obviously, these

indicators must not form a compound with the titrant that is more stable than the
precipitate, or the color reaction would occur when the first drop of titrant is added.

(2) Adsorption Indicators (Fajanʼs Methods)

With adsorption indicators, the indicator reaction takes place on the surface of the
precipitate. The Fluorescein indicators such as fluorescein, methyl violet and
Rhodamine and Bromophenol blue are dyes, exists in solution as ionized form,
usually anion In-. Consider the titration of Cl¯ with Ag+, before the equivalent
point, Cl¯ is in excess, and the primary adsorbed layer is Cl¯.This repulses the
indicator anion, and the more loosely held secondary layer (counter ion) of
adsorbed ions is cations, such as Na+.

AgCl ꞉ Cl¯ ⸬ Na+

Beyond the equivalent point, Ag+ is excess and the surface of the precipitate become
positively charged, with the primary layer being Ag+. This will now attract the
indicator anion and adsorb it in the secondary layer.

AgCl ꞉ Ag+ ⸬ In-

The color of the adsorbed indicator is different from that of the unabsorbed indicators,
and the difference signals the completion of the titration. The more insoluble
precipitate can be titrated in more strongly adsorbed indicators. We want the maximum
69
surface area for adsorption in contrast to gravimetry. Coagulate decreases the surface
area for absorption of the indicator, which in turn decrease the sharpness of the end
point, we can prevent coagulation of silver chloride by adding some Dextrin to
solution.

Problems

1- Explain the Volhard Titration of Chloride, the Fajanʼs titration which is used for
acid solutions. Why?
2- Explain the principles of adsorption indicators.
3- Calculate the solubility of PbS in (0.01M) HCl? And calculate the equilibrium
concentrations of S-2, HS- and H2S. Ksp(PbS)= 3×10 -28, Ka1=9.6 ×10-8, Ka2=1.3×10-14.

70
Complexometric Reactions and Titrations
Many metal ions form slightly dissociated with various ligand (complexing agents).
Complexometric titration is useful for determining a large number of metals.
Selectivity can be achieved by appropriate use of masking agents (addition of other
complexing agents that react with interfering metal ions) and by pH control.

Complexes and formation constant:-

Complexes play an important role in many chemical and biochemical processes, for
example, the heme molecule in blood holds the iron atom tightly because the nitrogen
atoms of the heme form strong ligand or complexing bonds, which means nitrogen is a
good complexer.

[ ]
⇌
[ ][ ]
[ ]
⇌
[ ][ ]
[ ]
⇌
[ ][ ]
[ ]
⇌
[ ][ ]

71
For a given species like ML, we can calculate an alpha value, which is the fraction of
the total metal concentration existing in that form. Thus, M is the fraction of the total
metal present at equilibrium as the free metal, ML is the fraction present as ML, and
so on. the alpha values are given by:

Calculation of Alpha Values for Metal complexes

The alpha values for metal ligand complexes can be derived in the same way that we
derived values for polyfunctional acids . The alphas are defined as
[ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]

The total metal concentration [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

From the overall formation constants the concentration of the complexes can be
expressed in the terms of the free metal concentration [M], to give

[ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ]

[ ]{ [ ] [ ] [ ] }

Now αM can be found as:

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ]
[ ] [ ]
[ ]{ [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] }

[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

From above Equations. We can find αML from

[ ] [ ][ ]
[ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ] [ ][ ]

[ ] [ ][ ]
[ ]{ [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] }

72
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
[ ]
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Many cations will form complexes in solution with a variety of substances have a pair
of unshared electron (e.g. on N, O, S atoms in molecule) capable of satisfying the
coordination number of the metal. The metal ion is a Lewis acid (electron pair
acceptor), and the complexer is a Lewis base (electron pair donor). The number of
molecules of the complexing agent, called the ligand, will depend on the coordination
number of the metal and on the number of complexing group on the ligand molecules.

[ ]
[ ][ ]

[ ]
[ ][ ]

[ ]
[ ][ ]

Formation constant (Kf):- the formation constant is also called the stability constant Ks
or Ksp.

[ ][ ]
[ ]

73
Example (1) :- A divalent metal M+2 reacts with a ligand L to form 1:1 complex.
[ ]
[ ][ ]

Calculate the conc. of M+2 in a solution prepared by mixing equal volume of 0.2M
(M+2) and 0.2M (L), Kf =1.0×108.

Solution:

The concentration of complex =

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]
[ ][ ]

, ( )

√ [ ]
Example(2) :- Silver ion forms a stable 1:1 complex with triethylene tetramine (trien)
[NH2(CH2)2NH(CH2)2NH(CH2)2NH2]. Calculate the silver ion conc. at equilibrium
when 25mL of 0.01M silver nitrate is added to 50mL of 0.015M trien, Kf = 5.0×107 ?

Solution
[ ]
[ ][ ]

[Ag+] unreacted = x

74
M

[ ]
[ ][ ]

[ ]

Chelates:-EDTA (the ultimate titrating agent for metals): An organic agent that has
two or more groups capable of complexing with a metal ion is called a chelating agent,
the complex formed is called a chelate. The chelating agent is called the ligand.
Titration with a chelating agent is called a chelometric titration.

The term chelate is derived from the Greek term meaning (claw like) chelating agents
literally wrap themselves around a metal ion.

EDTA equilibrium:-The protons in EDTA Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic acid are
displaced upon complexing with a metal ion. Negatively charged chelate results

Tetraprotic acid (H4Y): six complexing groups (hexadentate) multidentate

Formation constant:-Lets EDTA =

[ ][ ]
⇌

75
[ ][ ]
⇌
[ ]

[ ][ ]
⇌
[ ]

[ ][ ]
⇌
[ ]

Effect of pH on EDTA equilibria :-

Composition of EDTA solutions as a function of pH

[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Example 3:- A solution has 0.1 M of EDTA Calculate the approximate concentration
of this species [ ][ ][ ][ ][ ] .

76
Solution: - the concentration of [ ] = 0 × 0.1 = 0 M

the concentration of [ ] = 0 × 0.1 = 0 M

the concentration of [ ] = ~ 0.1 × 0.1= ~ 0.01 M

the concentration of [ ] = ~ 0.6 × 0.1= ~ 0.06 M

the concentration of [ ] = ~ 0.4 × 0.1= ~ 0.04 M

In the same way, we can calculate the species concentration at different pH values.

Example 4:- Calculate the fraction of EDTA that exists as Y-4 at pH 10, and from this
calculate pCa in 100mL of solution of 0.1M Ca+2 at pH 10 (α4 = 0.35) after adding
100mL of 0.1M EDTA. Kf =4.9431010

[ ]
The fraction of [Y-4] at pH = 10 [ ]

[ ]

We have formed 10.0mmol CaY-2 in 200mL, or 0.050M

[ ]
[ ] [ ]

 

77
Conditional formation constant (used for a fixed pH):

[ ]
[ ][ ]

The conditional formation constant value holds for only a specified pH.

Example 5: - Calculate the equilibrium concentration of Ni2+ in a solution

with an analytical Niy2- concentration of 0.0150 M at pH (a) 3.0 and (b) 8.0
(α4 is 2.5×10-11 at pH 3 and 5.4×10-3 at pH 8). Kf = 4.2 × 1018
[ ]
⇌ [ ][ ]

Since the complex is the only source of both Ni+2 and the EDTA species,
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]
a) At pH 3
[ ]
[ ] [ ]

[ ]

[ ]

[ ]

[ ] √

78
b) At pH 8

[ ]
[ ] [ ]

[ ]
[ ]

[ ]

[ ] √

2-
Example 6:- The formation constant for CaY is 1.8×1010 at pH10.
Calculate pCa in 100mL of a solution of 0.10M Ca+2 at pH10 after addition
of a 0mL, 50mL, 100mL and 150mL of 0.1M EDTA?
(1) At 0mL: (0.10M Ca+2 alone) [ ]

(2) At 50mL: before equivalence point

[ ]

(3) At 100mL: equivalence point

[ ]
[ ][ ]

= = 2.8 × 10-12 ,

79
√
[ ]

(4) At 150mL: after equivalence point

[ ]

[ ]
[ ][ ] [ ]

[ ] , [ ] =

[ ]

Spreadsheet for the titration of 50.00 mL of 0.00500 M Ca2+ with 0.01 M

EDTA in a solution buffered at pH 10

80
Metal-EDTA titration curves:-Only some metal chelates are stable enough to
allow titration in acid solution, others require alkaline solution. Titration curves for
100mL 0.1M Ca+2 versus 0.1M Na2EDTA at pH7 and pH10.

Detection of the endpoint (indicators: they are chelating agents indicators used for

chelometric titrations are themselves chelating agents. They are usually dyes of the
o,o’-dihydroxyazo type.: is a typical indicator it contains three ionisable protons, so we
will represent it by H3In. This indicator can be used for the titration of Mg+2 with
EDTA. A small amount of indicator is added to the sample solution, and its forms a
red complex with part of the Mg+2, the colour of the uncomplexed indicator is blue, as
soon as all the Mg+2 is titrated, the EDTA displaces the indicator from the magnesium,
causing a change in the colour from red to blue.

This will occur over a pMg range, and the change will be sharper if the indicator is
kept as dilute as possible and will still give a good colour.

Figure below shows the minimum pH at which different metals can be titrated with
EDTA. The points on the curve represent the pH at which the conditional formation
constant Kf for each metal is 106 (log Kf = 6), which was arbitrarily chosen as the
minimum needed for a sharp end point. Note that the smaller the Kf , the more alkaline
the solution must be to obtain a Kf of 106 (i.e., the larger α4 must be). Thus, Ca2+ with
Kf only about 1010 requires a pH of ∼≥ 8. The dashed lines in the figure divide the
metals into separate groups according to their formation constants. One group is
titrated in a highly acidic (pH < ∼3) solution, a second group at pH ∼3 to 7, and a
third group at pH > 7. At the highest pH range, all the metals will react, but not all can
81
be titrated directly due to precipitation of hydroxides. For example, titration of Fe3+ or
Th4+ is not possible without the use of back-titration or auxiliary complexing agents to
prevent hydrolysis. At the intermediate pH range, the third group will not titrate, and
the second group of metals can be titrated in the presence of the third group. And
finally, in the most acidic pH range, only the first group will titrate and can be
determined in the presence of the others. Note that a moderately acidic environment is
satisfactory for many divalent heavy-metal cations and that a strongly acidic medium
can be tolerated in the titration of such ions as iron (Ill) and indium(Ill).

Minimum pH needed for satisfactory titration of various cations with EDTA.

82
REDUCTION - OXIDATION TITRATION
REDOX TITRATION

Oxidation is defined as a loss of electrons to give a higher oxidation state (more

positive).

Reduction is defined as a gain of electrons to give a lower oxidation state (more

negative).

OXIDATION NUMBERS The following rules predict the oxidation number for
each of the atoms/ions in a compound or ion.
General Rules (Always applicable–No exceptions)
1. For any uncombined element, the oxidation number is zero.
Examples: Fe, Xe, O2, H2 (0 for all of these)
2. For any monatomic ion, the oxidation number is equal to the charge on the ion.
Examples: Fe2+, F-, O2-, H+ (+2, -1, -2, and +1 respectively)
3. For any compound, the sum of the oxidation numbers must be zero.
Examples: NaCl = Na+ + Cl- = +1 + (-1) = 0
MgF2 = Mg2+ + 2 F- = +2 + 2(-1) = 0
K2Cr2O7 = 2 K+ + 2 Cr + 7× O2-
= 2(+1) + 2(X) + 7× (-2) = 0 ---- X = +6

Special Rules These rules only apply to certain columns on the Periodic Table.
1. Column IA +1 (Except H with a metal, then H = -1)
2. Column IIA +2
3. Column IIIA +3 (Normally, however +1 possible near the bottom of the table)
4. Column IVA +4
5. Column VA +5 to -3
6. Column VIA -2 (Oxygen is -2 except when combined with F, or in O22-)
7. Column VIIA -1 (Fluorine is -1 in compounds)
8. Column VIIIA (Usually only 0)
83
9. Transition Metals (3-12)

84
Oxidizing agent an oxidizing substance which tend to take on an electron or
electrons and be reduced to a lower oxidation state. For example -

Ce4+ + e- Ce3+

 Oxidizing ability depends strongly on pH value.

KMnO4 in presence of dil. H2SO4

MnO4-1 +8H+ +5e- Mn+2 + 4H2O E0red = + 1.52 V

Reducing agent an reducing substance which tend to give up an electron or

electrons and be oxidized to a higher oxidation state. For example -

Fe2+ Fe3+ + e- Eored = + 0.771V

Oxalic acid H2C2O42H2O ::: C2O42- = 0CO2 +2e-

Q – Calculate the oxidation number for the central atom in the following
compounds.

KMnO4, K2Cr2O7, H2O2, HNO3, H2SO4, KIO3 , H2C2O42H2O, H2S, SnCl2

H2SO4 : (+12)+(S)+(-24) = 0 S=+6

REDUCTION - OXIDATION REACTION

Is one that occurs between a reducing and an oxidizing agent,

For example Ox1 + Red2 Red1 + Ox2

Ce 4+ + Fe 2+ Ce3+ + Fe 3+
2H+ + Zn(s) H2(g) + Zn2+

Electro chemical cells:

There are two kinds of electrochemical cells, galvanic (voltaic) and electrolytic cell.

1- galvanic cells In this type of cells the chemical reaction spontaneously occurs to
produce electrical energy for example , zinc - copper cell, lead storage battery , copper
- silver cell.

85
Copper - Silver cell

2- Electrolytic cell electrical energy is used to force a nonspontaneous chemical

reaction to occur, that is to go in the reverse direction it would in a galvanic cell. An
example is the electrolysis of water

2H2O H2(g) + 2O2(g) (acid solution)

An electrochemical cell consists of two conductors called electrodes each of which is

immersed in an electrolyte solution.
Anode is the electrode at which oxidation occurs.
Cathode is the electrode at which reduction occurs.
The solutions surrounding the two electrodes are different and must be separated to
avoid direct reaction between the reactants.
The most common way of avoiding mixing is to insert a salt bridge.
Salt bridge allows charge transfer through the solution but prevent mixing of the
solution .
Q- The equation that is not represented as a redox reaction is,

a- AgNO3+ NaCl AgCl + NaNO3

b- 2H2 + O2 2H2O

c- 2H2O2 2H2O + O2 (g)

d- Cu(s) +2 AgNO3 Cu(NO3)2 + 2Ag(s)

86
Redox reaction as two half reaction As a redox reaction involves both oxidation
and reduction components, it is possible to divide the total reaction , these clearly
demonstrate which species gains electrons and which losses them .
This can be suitably illustrated by the reaction between iron ( III ) and tin (II).

2Fe 3+ + Sn 2+ Sn4+ + 2 Fe 2+
This reaction can be divided into two half reactions show below

2Fe 3+ + 2e- 2 Fe 2+ (reduction)

Sn 2+ Sn4+ + 2e- (oxidation)

Total 2Fe 3+ + Sn 2+ + 2e- Sn4+ + 2 Fe 2+ + 2e-

This method of expressing a redox reaction as two half reactions provide a kind of
flexibility to the concept of redox reaction.
No half reaction occur by itself there must be an electron donor (reducing agent ) and
an electron accepter (an oxidizing agent ) Fe3+ oxidizing agent Sn2+ reducing agent .
(SHE) standard hydrogen electrode:
the electrode potential of the half reaction
2H+ + 2e-  H2 E0 = 0.00 V

This figure show the (SHE)

87
The potential have differences between this half reaction and other half reactions have
been measured and arranged in increasing order.
Table - standard potentials of some element

88
Expression of cells the electrochemical cell by convention a cell is written with
the anode on the left

anode /solution /cathode

For example Ce4+ + Fe2+ Ce3+ + Fe3+

Pt/ Fe2+(C1) , Fe3+(C2) // Ce4+(C3) , Ce3+(C4) /Pt

C1 C2 C3 and C4 represent the concentration of the different species , the double line
represents the salt bridge.
Since oxidation occurs at the anode and reduction occurs at the cathode, the stronger
reducing agent is placed on the left and the stronger oxidizing agent is placed on the
right.
The potential of the cell is given by
Ecell = Ecathode - Eanode
So a positive potential difference provides the necessary negative free energy and the
chemical reaction spontaneously. For example Electro chemical cells
Fe3+ + e- = Fe2+ Eored = +0.771V
Sn4++2e- = Sn 2+ Eored = +0.154V
Eocell = Eocathode - Eoanode 
= 0.771 – (0.154) = 0.617V
2Fe3+ + Sn 2+ = 2Fe2+ + Sn4+

Example (1) - determine the reaction between the following half-reaction and calculate
the corresponding cell voltage:
Fe3+ + e- = Fe2+ Eored = +0.771V
I3- + 2e- = 3I- Eored = +0.5355V

Solution: since the Fe3+ / Fe2+ potential is the more positive, Fe3+ is a better
oxidizing agent than I3-. Fe3+ will oxidize I- to give I3- (Triiodide ion) and
Eocell = Eocathode - Eoanode = Eocell = Eo I3-/ I-
89
In the some fashion, the second half-reaction must be subtracted from the first
(multiplied by 2) to give the overall cell reaction,
2Fe3+ + 3I- = 2Fe2+ +I3- Eocell = 0.771 V- 0.536 V = +0.235 V
* That multiplying a half-reaction by any number does not change its potential.
Balancing Redox Equations
Knowing how to balance oxidation- reduction reactions is essential to understanding
all the concepts covered in this course .
Q- Complete and balance the following equation after adding H+ OH-, or H2O as
needed
MnO4- + NO2- Mn2+ + NO3-
1- We write and balance the two half-reaction involved.
For MnO4-, we write MnO4- Mn2+
To account for the 4 oxygen atoms on the left-hand side of the equation we add 4H2O
on the right-hand side of the equation, which means that we must provide 8H+ on the
left.
MnO4- + 8H+ Mn2+ +4H2O
MnO4- = Mn × 1 + O × 4 = - 1, Mn + (-2) ×4 = -1, Mn = +7
To balance the charge, we need to add 5 electrons to the left side of the equation. Thus
MnO4- + 8H+ +5e- Mn2+ +4H2O

For the other half-reaction

NO2- NO3-
We add one H2O to the left side of the equation to supply the needed oxygen and 2H +
on the right to balance hydrogen
NO2- + H2O NO3- + 2H+
NO2- = N × 1 + O × 2 = -1, N + (-2) × 2 = -1, N = +3
NO3- = N × 1 + O × 3 = -1, N + (-2) × 3 = -1, N = +5
Then we add two electrons to the right-hand side to balance the charge
NO2- + H2O NO3- + 2H+ + 2e-
90
Before combining the two equation, we must multiply the first by 2 and the second by
5 so that the number of electrons lost will be equal to the number of electrons gained.
We then add the two half-reactions to obtain
2MnO4-+16H++ 10e-+ 5NO2-+5 H2O 2Mn2++8H2O+5NO3- +10 H+ +10e-
Which then rearranges to the balanced equation
2MnO4- + 6H+ + 5NO2- 2Mn2+ + 5NO3- + 3H2O
-------------------------------------------------------------
Q - Complete and balance the following equation after adding H+ OH-, or H2O as
needed
MnO4- + Fe2+ Mn2+ + Fe3+

Nernst equation
The effect of concentration on electrode potential . A mathematical expression that
related the potential of an electrode to the activities of those species in solution that is
responsible for potential. For a cell with the following general equation

aA + bB + ------ + ne cC + dD + -------

The electrode potential for this reaction is given by the equation

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]

Where E0 = the standard electrode potential which is characteristic for each half-
reaction, R= the gas constant 8.314 K-1 mol-1 ,T= temperature K, n = number of moles
of electrons that appear in the half –reaction for the electrode process as written, F =
faraday constant = 96485 C, In = natural logarithm = 2.303 log,
If we substitute numerical values for the constants convert to bas 10 logarithms and
specify 25 0C for the temperature, we gat

[ ] [ ]
[ ] [ ]

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Examples : Typical half-cell reactions and their corresponding nernst expressions
follow. 1- Zn2+ +2e Zn(s) E = E0 – log
[ ]
Zn(s) is not included in the logarithmic because it is a pure solid. Thus, the electrode
potential varies linearly with the logarithm of the reciprocal of the zinc ion
concentration [Zn2+].

[ ]
2- Fe 3+ + e Fe2+ E = E0 – log
[ ]

The potential for this couple can be measured with an inert metallic electrode
immersed in a solution containing both iron species.
The potential depends on the logarithm of the ratio between the molar concentrations
of these ions.

3- 2H+ + 2e H2 (g) E = E0 – log

[ ]

In this example PH2 is the pressure of hydrogen (in atm) at the surface of the
electrode.

0 [ ]
4- MnO4- + 5e +8H+ Mn2+ + 4H2O, E = E – log
[ ][ ]

Here, the potential depends not only on the concentration of manganese species but
also on the pH of the solution.

5- AgCl(s) + e Ag(s) + Cl- E = E0 – log [ ] This

half-cell reaction describes the behavior of silver electrode immersed in a chloride

solution that is saturated with AgCl.

Example (2) : Calculate the electrode potential of a silver electrode immersed in a solution
containing 0.05 M NaCl and saturated with [Link] Ksp(AgCl) =1.82 x 10-10.

(a) E0Ag+/Ag = 0.776 V Ag+ + e Ag(s)

(b) E0AgCl/Ag = 0.222 V AgCl(s) + e Ag(s) + Cl-

Solution : (a) Ag+ + e Ag(s) E0Ag+/Ag = 0.776 V

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E = E0Ag+/Ag – log
[ ]
The [Ag+ ] concentration of this solution is given by

[ ]
[ ]

Substitution into Nernst expression gives:

– = 0.299 V

(b) - AgCl(s) + e Ag(s) + Cl- E0AgCl/Ag = 0.222 V

E = E0AgCl/Ag – log [ ] Concentration of [ ] = 0.05 M

Here we may write

E = 0.222 – 0.0592 log [Cl-] = 0.222 – 0.0592 log 0.05 = 0.299 V

Oxidation-reduction (redox) Titration: In redox titrations the concentration of

the substances or ions involved in the reaction continuously keeps changing in the
course of the titration. Hence the redox potential of the solution must also change (the
phenomenon may be compared to the change of the pH of solution during acid-base
titration) by plotting the redox potential corresponding to different points in the
titration, a titration curve similar to the curve obtained in an acid-base method is
obtained. The titration curve in redox reactions can be drawn by plotting the potential
of half cell against the volume in millimeter of the titrant.
Points in the redox titration
1- Before titration
2- Prior to the equivalence point
3- At the equivalence point
3- After the equivalence point

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Example (3): consider the titration of 50.0 ml of 0.05 M Fe2+ with 0.10 M Ce4+ in a
medium that is 1.0 M in H2SO4 at all time.
Ce4+ + e- Ce3+ Eo = 1.44 V (1M H2SO4)
Fe3+ + e- Fe2+ Eo= 0.68 V (1M H2SO4)
Solution:
At all times during the titration this reaction is rapid and reversible and in equilibrium
hence .
Esystem is the potential of the titration and is the value plotted on the y-axis.
Esystem represents the potential of the electrochemical cell:
Ce4+ + Fe2+ Ce3+ + Fe3+

SHE// Ce4+, Ce3+, Fe3+, Fe2+/Pt

We can follow either or

Esystem = =
(a) At Volume [Ce4+ ]solution = 0 mL
In the beginning of the titration the solution would contain only Fe2+ ions and may
have traces of Fe3+ due the aerial oxidation of the solution.
As the concentration of the Fe3+ ion is too small the calculation of the potential has
no meaningful significance.
(b) At Volume [Ce4+] solution = 5 mL
Excess of Fe2+ concentration of (Fe2+ / Fe3+) are measurable.
[ ]
Esystem = =
[ ]

[Fe2+]= [ ]

[Fe3+]= [ ]

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( )
Esystem = =
( )

(c)- At Volume [Ce4+] solution = 25 mL at the eq. point : no excess of [Fe2+]

[Ce4+]Vtotal = [Fe2+] Vtotal and [Ce3+ ]Vtotal = [Fe3+] Vtotal
The reaction takes place in one vessel
[Ce4+] = [Fe2+] and [Ce3+] = [Fe3+]
[ ]
Eeq= = ------(1)
[ ]

[ ]
Eeq= = ------(2)
[ ]

Summation of eq(1) and eq(2)

[ ][ ]
2Eeq=
[ ][ ]

Eeq=

(d)- At Volume [Ce4+ ]solution = 25.10 mL > Veq = 25 mL

After the eq. point : excess of [Ce4+] and concentration of [Ce3+ ]/ [Ce4+]
Are measurable. Hence Esystem post-eq =
[ ]
Esystem =
[ ]

[Ce4+]= [ ]

[Ce3+]= [ ]

95
Redox titration methods :
1- Permanganometry
2- Dichromatometry
3- Cerimetry
4- Iodometry and Iodimetry
5- Iodametry
6- Bromatometry
Permanganometrc Titration :

This method is based on reactions of oxidation by permanganate ion.

Oxidation may proceed in acid or in alkaline or neutral solution. When KMnO4 acts as
an oxidizing agent in acidic solution the septivalent Mn in it
reduced to Mn2+ ions and a manganous salt of the acid used formed.
For example if FeSO4 is the reducing agent and if it is oxidized in the presence of
H2SO4 the reaction is represented by the equation;
10FeSO4 + 2KMnO4 + 8H2SO4 = 5Fe2(SO4)3 + 2MnSO4 +K2SO4 + 8H2O
Or in ionic form
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+ = 5Fe3+ + Mn2+ + 4H2O
The decrease of the valence of manganese by 5 shows that the KMnO4 molecule
gains 5 electrons this is also very clear from the following equation:
MnO4- + 8H+ + 5e- = Mn2+ + 4H2O
It follows that in this case the gram-equivalent of KMnO4 is
g/eq =158.03/5 =31.61 g/eq

96
during oxidation in alkaline or neutral solution the Mn7+ ion is reduced to Mn4+ with
the formation of manganese oxide MnO2 in the form of a brown precipitate for
example
Cr2 (SO4)3 + 2KMnO4 +8KOH = 2K2CrO4 + 2MnO2 + 2K2SO4 + 4H2O
MnO4- + 4H+ + 3e- = MnO2 + 2H2O
Therefore in this case the gram-equivalent of KMnO4 has a different value namly
g/eq = 158.03/3 = 52.68 g/eq

A redox indicator

(Also called an oxidation-reduction indicator) is an indicator which undergoes a

definite color change at a specific electrode potential. The requirement for fast and
reversible color change means that the oxidation-reduction equilibrium for an indicator
redox system needs to be established very quickly. Therefore, only a few classes of
organic redox systems can be used for indicator purposes.
There are two common types of redox indicators:
 metal-organic complexes (Ex. phenanthroline)
 true organic redox systems (Ex. Methylene blue)
Sometimes colored inorganic oxidants or reductants (Ex. Potassium permanganate,
Potassium dichromate) are also incorrectly called redox indicators. They can’t be
classified as true redox indicators because of their irreversibility. Almost all redox
indicators with true organic redox systems involve a proton as a participant in their
electrochemical reaction. Therefore, sometimes redox indicators are also divided into
two general groups: independent or dependent on pH.

Questions:
1- What is an oxidizing agent? A reducing agent?
2- What is the Nernst equation?
3- What is the standard potential?
4- What is the redox indicator?
97
4- Complete and balance the following equation after adding H+ OH-, or H2O as
needed
(a) - IO3- + I- I2
(b) - MnO4- + H2SO3 Mn2+ + SO42-
(c) - MnO4- + H2S Mn2+ + S
(d) – Al + NO3- AlO2- + NH3
(e) - 2ClO3- + SO2 = SO4-2 + Cl2 ,

(f) - 2ClO3- + H2S = SO4-2 + Cl2

(g)- Cu + 4HNO3 → Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO2 +2H2O
5- What is the potential of a solution containing 10.0 ml of 0.1 M Fe2+ with 10 mL of
0.05 M Ce4+ in a medium that is 1.0 M in H2SO4 at all time?
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
6- Prove the - =
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Knowing that R = 8.314 K-1 mol-1 and F = faraday constant = 96485 C

7- Describe the types of electrochemical cells with examples.
8- What are the types of electrochemical cells and then explain the difference between
them.
9- Determine the reaction between the following half-reaction and calculate the
corresponding cell voltage:
Cu2+ + 2e- = Cu Eored = +0.34V
Zn2+ + 2e- = Zn Eored = - 0.76V
10 - The element that undergoes oxidation is: H2 +O2 H2O
11- The element that undergoes reduction is: N2 +3H2 2NH3

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