CDI 6 - FIRE TECHNOLOGY AND ARSON INVESTIGATION

FIRE
 The heat and light energy that produced by the combustion of substances.

COMBUSTION
 Burning is also called Combustion
 Rapid Oxidation of material

OXIDATION
 The chemical reaction in which oxygen chemically combines with the organic elements of combustible
substances.

Flash point
 The temperature at which substance give off vapor that burns momentarily when a flame of spark is
adopted.
Fire point
 The temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to keep burning.
Auto Ignition or Self Ignition Point
 The temperature at which the substance can be heated to release vapors that will ignite without the
application of flame or spark.

Two Methods In Producing Fire

1. Friction
2. Percussion

IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES AND THEIR INVENTIONS

1. JOHN WALKER
 He was the English Pharmacist who invented the first match in 1827. The tip of this match was
coated a mixture of antimony sulfide and potassium chlorate that was held on the wooden
matchstick by gum Arabic and starch.
2. Antoine Laurent Lavoisier
 A French Chemist who proved in 1777 that burning is the result of rapid union of oxygen with
other substances. As substances burn, heat and light are produced. He was the Father of Modern
Chemistry. He named both oxygen and hydrogen.

FIRE TRIANGLE - the graphical representation of the three elements of fire. (Fuel, Heat and Oxygen)

a. Oxygen
Composition of Air: Oxygen Requirements
 Oxygen- 21% 12% -No fire
 Nitrogen-78% 14%-Flash Point
 Inert gases-1% 21%- Fire Point
b. Heat
 A form of energy generated by the transmission of some other form of energy, as in
combustion or burning.

c. Fuel
 Any substance (Combustible Materials) which reacts chemically with oxygen and flames.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS:

1. Class A Fuels
 Ordinary combustible materials that are usually made of organic substances such as wood and wood-
based products; includes some of those synthetic and/or inorganic materials like rubber, leather and
plastics.
2. Class B Fuels
 Materials which are in the form of flammable liquids such as alcohol, acidic solutions, oil, and other
chemicals such those liquid petroleum products
3. Class C Fuels
 Normally fire resistant materials; these are materials used in electrical wirings and other electrical
appliances.
4. Class D Fuels
 Combustible metallic substances such as magnesium. Titanium, zirconium, sodium and potassium

Two (2) general groups of Liquid Fuels:

1. FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
-liquids have a flash point below 37.8o C (100 o F)
2. COMBUSTIBLE LIQUIDS
- Liquids have a flash point at or above 37.8o C (100 o F)

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 Technically speaking, flammable and combustible liquids do not cause fire. It is the vapors they produce
which burn or explode when exposed to air under the influence of heat. Gasoline is the most widely used
flammable liquid.

FIRE TETRAHEDRON
 A four sided representation of causes of fire. The fourth element that is added is the Chemical
reaction.

PROPERTIES OF FIRE

A. Physical Properties

1. Specific Gravity
2. Vapor Density
3. Vapor Pressure
4. Temperature
5. Boiling Point
6. Ignition temperature or Kindling temperature
7. Fire point
8. Flash point

B. Chemical Properties
1. Endothermic reaction
-These are changes whereby energy (heat) is absorbed or added before the reaction takes place.
2. Exothermic Reaction
-Reactions or changes that release or gives off energy thus they produced substances with less energy
than the reactants.
3. Oxidation
4. Combustion flame
-The manifestation of fire when the fire is in its gas-phased combustion. A matter that is produced by
fire.

PYROLYSIS
 It refers to the chemical process whereby fire consumes the most solid part of the fuel. It is the
thermal decomposition of a solid fuel through the action of heat.

The process of Pyrolysis involves the following:

1. The fuel is heated until its temperature reaches its fire point;
2. Decomposition takes place — moisture in the fuel is converted to vapor;
3. Decomposition produces combustible vapors that rise to the surface of the fuel. These
combustible vapors are technically termed as free radicals;
4. Free-radicals undergo combustion if proper amount of oxygen is present.

PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
1. FIRE GASES
 Are those that remain when other products of combustion cool to its normal temperature. The fire gases
formed depends on

Carbon Monoxide burns rapidly when combined with the oxygen at high temperature which caused
backdraft explosions. Carbon Monoxide which is also produced by slow oxidation, is found in sewers,
caves, wells, mines, stoves, and automobile exhaust.
TYPES OF POISONOUS GAS
A. Hydrogen Sulfide ( H2S )- a fire gas formed during fires involving organic material containing
sulfurs, It is colorless, highly toxic gas with the strong odor of rotten eggs.
B. Hydrogen Cyanide ( HCN ) a toxic fire gas found in oxygen-starved fires involving nitrogen
containing materials such as:
The gas is also used as a fumigant which can pose serious danger to firefighters
working in recently fumigated buildings. It smells like bitter almonds.
C. Hydrogen Chloride ( HCl )
A gas which can be fatal after a few breaths. It is commonly produced in fires involving
Chloride containing plastics. Plastics can be found to electrical insulations, conduit and
piping’s.
2. FLAME
 It is the luminous body of a burning gas which gets hotter and less luminous when mixed with more
oxygen. Flame fades when carbon burns completely, therefore flame is somewhat a product of
incomplete combustion.

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TYPES OF FLAME
A. According to Color and Completeness of Combustion
1. Luminous Flame
 A reddish-orange or yellow in color; it deposits soot because it is a product of incomplete combustion; it
has a lower temperature and takes time to heat another objects because it is cooler than the non-
luminous flame. Carbon dioxide is present.
2. Non- luminous flame
 Bluish in color; it does not deposit soot because it is a product of complete combustion; it has a higher
temperature than luminous flame. Oxygen is present.
B. According to Burning Fuel and Air mixture
1. Premixed Flame
 Exemplified by the Bunsen burner. The oxidizer are mixed before the combustion zone occurs.
2. Diffusion Flame
 Diffused or disperse flame; widely spread type of flame. It is a type of flame in which the oxidizer
combines with the fuel by diffusion. As a result, the flame speed is limited by the rate of diffusion.
 Diffusion flames tend to burn slower and to produce more soot because there may not be sufficient
oxidizer for the reaction to go to completion.

C. Based on the Smoothness

1. Laminar Flame
 (Smooth flame) flame is laminar when a particle follows a smooth path through a gaseous flame. A
flame which do not bounce around significantly.
2. Turbulent Flame
 (rough flame) those having unsteady, irregular swirls and eddies
3. HEAT
 A form of energy measured in degree of temperature. It is a product of combustion that spread the fire.
It causes burns and other injuries such as dehydration, heat exhaustion, and respiratory tract injuries.
4. SMOKE
 A visible product of incomplete combustion, usually a mixture of oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide and products that released from the burning material

LOI (LIMITING OXYGEN INDEX)

 A numerical basis of measuring the tendency of a fabric to continuously burn once source of ignition is
removed.
 If the LOI of a fabric is high, the probability that it will cease to burn once the flame is removed is also
high. Fabrics with high LOI and high ignition temperature are safer for clothing and furnishing because
they do not ignite easily. Also, they will not continue burning after the source of heat or flame is
removed.

PLASTICS
 Plastics are included as ordinary fuels under class A except those materials composed of or containing
cellulose nitrate. Cellulose nitrate is a chemical (powder) used in bombs. Materials that use cellulose
nitrate are also called PYROXYLIN.

LATENT HEAT
 The quantity of heat absorbed by a substance from a solid to a liquid, and from a liquid to a gas.
Conversely, heat is released during conversion of gas to liquid or liquid to gas.
EXPLOSION
 A violent effect of chemical reaction when combustion process is confined so that appreciable
pressure occurs.
DETONATION
 A violent reaction beginning with a very simple ignition that initiates a chain reaction; a rapid and
confined combustion process that produces energy waves that propagates (spreads) in supersonic
(very fast) speed; energy waves develop into “shock front” that results to a very strong explosion

CHEMICAL FUELS
 Chemical fuels, which are produced in solid and liquid form, create great amounts of heat and
power. They are used chiefly in rocket engines. Chemical rocket propellants consist of both fuel and
an oxidizer. A common rocket fuel is the chemical hydrazine. The oxidizer is a substance, such as
nitrogen tetroxide, that contains oxygen. When the propellant is ignited, the oxidizer provides the
oxygen the fuel needs to burn. Chemical fuels are also used in some racing cars.

NUCLEAR FUELS
 Nuclear fuels provide energy through the fission or fusion of their atoms.
 Uranium is the most commonly used nuclear fuel, though plutonium also provides nuclear energy.
 When the atoms of these elements undergo fission, they release tremendous amounts of heat.
Nuclear fuels are used mainly o generate electricity. They also power some submarines and ships.
Nuclear energy can also be produced through the fusion of hydrogen atoms.
Nuclear Fission- split of the nucleus of the atoms
Nuclear Fusion- combination two light nuclei of atom

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FIRE BEHAVIOR

1.THERMAL BALANCE
 Refers to the rising movement or pattern of the fire; the normal behavior when the fire is undisturbed.

2.THERMAL IMBALANCE
 On the other hand is the abnormal movement of fire due to interference of foreign matter. Thermal
imbalance often confuses the fire investigator in determining the exact point where the fire originated.

DANGEROUS/ FATAL BEHAVIOR OF FIRE:

1. BACKDRAFT
 The sudden and rapid (violent) burning of heated gases in a confined area that occurs in the
form of explosion.
 This may occur because of improper ventilation. If room is not properly ventilated, highly
flammable vapors maybe accumulated such that when a door or a window is suddenly opened,
the room violently sucks the oxygen and simultaneously, a sudden combustion may occur which
may happen as an explosion (combustion explosion).
2. FLASHOVER
 The sudden ignition of accumulated radical gases produced when there is incomplete
combustion of fuels. It is the sudden burning of accumulated free radicals, which is initiated by
a spark/flash produced when temperature rises until flash point is reached. When accumulated
volume of radical gases suddenly burn, there will be a very intense fire that is capable of
causing flames to jump at a certain distance in the form of FIREBALLS. Fireballs can travel to
a hundred yards within a few seconds.
3. BITEBACK
 A fatal condition that takes place when the fire resists the extinguishment operation and
becomes stronger and bigger instead.
4. FLASHFIRE is better known as dust explosion
 This may happen when a metal post that is completely covered with dust is going to be hit by
lightning. The dust particles covering the metal burn simultaneously thus creating a violent
chemical reaction that produces a very bright flash followed by an explosion.

The Three Stages of Fire

1. Incipient/Beginning phase - it is the initial stage of fire.

2. Free-Burning Phase - the second phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in the
presence of adequate oxygen.
3. Smoldering Phase - the final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and heat completely
fill the confined room.

CLASSIFICATION OF FIRES

A. Based on Cause:
1. Natural fire
2. Accidental fire
3. Intentional fire

B. Based on Burning Fuel:

1. CLASS A FIRES
2. CLASS B FIRES
3. CLASS C FIRES
4. CLASS D FIRES
5. CLASS E FIRES
6. CLASS K FIRES

PROPAGATION OF FIRE
 It simply define how the fire being spread and propagate to different size. It is the transmission of heat
by the nearby materials.

FIRE IS BEING TRANSFERRED IN DIFFERENT WAYS. SUCH WAYS ARE AS FOLLOWS:

1. Conduction
 The transmission of heat through a medium or conductor, such as pipe, hot air duct, wire or
even the wall.
2. Radiation
 The transfer of fire and spread of fire from a heated or burning object. It takes place through
the air or through space, and sometimes causing the object to ignite.
3. Convection
 The transmission of heat by moving currents of liquid or gas. When this gases or liquids are
heated, they begin to move within themselves; and by their free motion, the circulation starts.

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4. Direct Flame contact

 It is the transfer of heat in one body to another. When a material is heated to the point where
flammable vapors are given off, the vapors and the materials may be react and creates
combustion.

INTENSITY OF FIRE
 It determines how hot the fire is burning. Some types of fuels naturally burn hotter than other.

Take Note: Fire suppression is the process of slowing the rate of burning, while Fire control is the process of
holding the fire in spreading and Fire Extinguishment is putting the fire completely out.

METHODS OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT:

1. Cooling
 This method uses an agent whose primary characteristics are heat absorption. Water is the best
example of the agent which can help in cooling down the heat temperature. Water is basically
being used in Class A fire. Water can be used also in the Class B fire which includes
flammable petroleum products.
2. Smothering
 This excludes the oxygen from the fuel so that the gases or vapors of the fuel cannot ignite and
continue the combustion. Carbon Dioxide (Aqueous Film Forming Foam) is used for this
purpose.
3. Separation
 The removal of the fuel, it can be compared to the turning off of the gas valve which prevents
the fuel and oxygen from coming together.
4. Inhibition of the Chemical Chain Reaction
 Interrupting the continuous action of the Chemical.

MOST COMMONLY USED EXTINGUISHING AGENTS

1. WATER
 It is commonly used in extinguishing Class A fires. Water is the most effective in cooling the
burning material below its ignition temperature. It is highly stable and maybe used to
extinguish most of types of fire if properly applied. Due to its conductive properties, water
should not be used on electrical fires. Water is generally used in class A fires, but it maybe
used on fires involving high flashpoint liquids such as heavy fuel oil, lubricating oil and
asphalt if the water is properly applied in spray form.

2. CARBON DIOXIDE
 It is non combustible and non reactive with most substances. Due to its non-conductivity, CO2
is very effective on Class C fires. It is also used on Class B fires.

3. DRY CHEMICAL- There are two basic types of Dry chemicals extinguishing agent:

a. Ordinary and Regular Dry Chemicals- generally refer to those powders that are listed
for use on Class B or Class C fires.
b. Multi- Purpose Dry Chemical- refers to the powders listed for use on Class A, B, C,
fires.

4. DRY POWDER
 Generally accepted term for agents used to extinguish combustible metal fires. It should not be
used on other types of fire due to its limited value on Class D fires.

5. AFFF- Aqueous Film Foaming Foam

 The quick “knock-down” and “heat reduction” properties of AFFF have proven it to be
effective agent. It has the ability to seal the surface of burning hydrocarbon fires to prevent
flashback. When it is applied to the surface of the flammable liquid, the surface active
materials or the surfactant provides a vapor sealing effect. This not only extinguishes fires but
also prevents the release of the fuel vapors. The vapor of AFFF is very hard to break.

6. HALONS
 Halogenated agents work chemically to extinguish fire. It stops the combustion process by
breaking the fire chain reaction and prevents further fire propagation. Halons can be applied by
locally by using non combustible gas similar to Carbon Dioxide.This type of agent is effective
in controlling or extinguishing surface fires involving flammable liquid, solids or gases such as
dip tanks, spray booths, oil filled transformers, or vapor vents. Halons are effective on Class B
and Class C fires.

FIRE EXTINGUISHER

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 It is a mechanical device usually made of metal, containing chemicals, fluids or gases for stopping fires.
It is used for the purpose of putting out the fire before it propagates.
 It is a portable device used to put out fires of limited size. Extinguishers are designed to cope with fires
in their infancy and are not intended to act as substitute for automatic sprinklers, standpipe and hose ,the
fire department. There are classes of extinguishers, each type has different value, but all is not equally
effective upon all causes of fires.
 Fire extinguisher classification consists of a letter which indicates the class of fire on which an
extinguisher has been found to be effective, preceded by a rating NUMERAL. Fire extinguishers must
always be fully charged and in condition which will permit efficient operation at any moment without
delay.

CLASSES OF EXTINGUISHER
1. Portable Fire Extinguisher
 It offers the greatest potential for immediately controlling workplace fires. It is not a substitute
for sprinkler systems, hose streams or other fire fighting devices.
Steps in using Portable Fire Extinguishers
a. Pull the pin at the top of extinguisher.
b. Point the nozzle or outlet toward the base of the fire
c. Press the handle above the carrying handle to discharge the agent.
d. Sweep the nozzle back and forth or in side to side motion before the flames.
2. Semi Portable / Wheeled Extinguisher
 This type of extinguisher provides a way of getting a sizeable amount of extinguishing agent.
Its capacity is ranging from 100 to 350 lbs. of dry chemical agent. The units typically have a
50 ft or 15m hose that allows considerable maneuverability while fighting fires.
Steps in using Semi portable/ Wheeled Extinguisher:
a. Open the compressed gas cylinder to pressurize the agent;
b. Free the hose from its reel and move toward the fire;
c. Point the nozzle toward the base of the fire;
d. Squeeze the nozzle to discharge the agent. To stop the extinguisher from discharging, release
the nozzle action.

TYPES AND USES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER

1. Water Extinguisher
 These extinguishers are effective on small fires in ordinary combustible materials such as wood,
paper, textiles, rubbish, etc. ( Class A fires ) where quenching and cooling effect of water or a
solution containing a large percentage of water is of first importance. These extinguishers are not
effective in fires involving flammable liquids, greases, etc.,in vats, tanks, open vessels, or any other
class B fire where blanketing effect is essential. It is dangerous to use in burning fats or oil and in
electrical appliances. There are four types of water fire extinguishers most commonly found in the
fire service.
a. Pressurized Water extinguisher
b. Pump operated water extinguisher
c. Cartridge operated water extinguisher
d. Indian Fire pump
2. Dry Powder Extinguisher
a. Dry Powder Extinguisher (Multi-purpose)
 It is best for fires involving organic solids, liquids such as grease, fats, oil.
Similarly to almost all extinguishing agents, the powders act as thermal ballast
making the flames too cool for the chemical reactions to continue.
b. Dry powder Extinguisher (Standard)
 It is best for liquids such as grease, fats, oil, paint, petrol but not on domestic fat
pan fires.
c. Dry powder extinguisher (special powders)
 It is designed to tackle fires involving combustible metals such as lithium,
magnesium, sodium or aluminum. The extinguisher works by forming a crust
which insulates the metal to prevent access to other combustible materials
nearby and smothering the fire to prevent oxygen the fire to prevent oxygen
from the atmosphere reacting with the metal.
3. Foam Extinguisher (AFFF)
a. Foam Extinguisher (AFFF)
 They are mainly water based with a foaming agent so that the foam can float on
top of the burning liquid and break the interaction between the flames and the
fuel surface. For fires involving solids. Liquids such as grease, fats, oil, paint,
petrol etc. but not on domestic chip or fat pan fires. It can be used on Class fires
but not recommended.
b. Foam Extinguisher (Standard)
 It has the same characteristics from the AFFF, but it is somewhat less effective.
4. Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher
 It is best for live electrical equipment when it is not possible to isolate the electric supply and
flammable liquids such as grease, fats, oil paint, petrol etc. but not on domestic chip or fan fires.

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Carbon Dioxide extinguisher works on classes B and C and work by suffocating the fire. Carbon
Dioxide will not burn and displaces air.

5. Wet Chemical
 Most Class K extinguishers contain a solution of potassium acetate, sometimes with some
potassium citrate or potassium bicarbonate. The extinguisher sprays the agent out as a fine mist. The
mists act to cool the flame front while the potassium salts saponify the surface of the burning
cooking oil, producing a layer of foam over the surface. This agent producing the same effect
similar to the effect of foam extinguisher, but with greater cooling effect. Saponification works only
on animal fats and vegetable oil.
6. Fire Blanket
 Are made of fire resistant materials. They are particularly useful for smothering flammable liquid
fires or for wrapping round a person whose clothing is on fire. Fire blankets conforming to British
Standard. If blanket does not completely cover the fire. It will not be able to extinguished the fire.

SOME FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENTS AND TOOLS

1. ADAPTER
 A device that converts attributes of one device or system to those of an otherwise incompatible
device or system. It connects two incompatible coupling or hose.
2. Breathing apparatus
 It is for general use for the purpose of affording respiratory protection against poisonous or
irrespirable atmospheres.
3. Fire shelter
 A safety device of last resort used by wild land firefighters when trapped by wildfires.An
aluminized tent offering protection by means of reflecting radiant heat and providing a volume of
breathable air in a fire entrapment situation.
4. Firefighter flashlight
 A flashlight of high quality should include a high intensity halogen or LED bulb, an adjustable
beam that can be used for spot or flood focus, a heavy-duty outer casing, and a comfortable grip.
 Because firefighters often work in dark, low-visibility situations it is extremely important for them
to have a FLASHLIGNT.
5. Fire hose
 A high-pressure hose used to carry water or other fire retardant (such as foam) to a fire to extinguish it.
Outdoors, it is attached either to a fire engine or a fire hydrant. Indoors, it can be permanently attached
to a building's standpipe or plumbing system. It was invented by Hero of Alexandria in the basis of
Ctesibius' double action piston pump.
6. Hose Jacket
 A hollow cylindrical or barrel shaped device that opens lengthwise through the center on a set of
hinges. When the jacket is clamped around the leaking hose connection, the water is confined by the
hose jacket. This tool can prevent the disablement of the entire hose layout.
7. Hose clamp
 A tool used to stop the flow of water in a fire hose without shutting off the source of water supply. It
can stop the flow of water through a hose while hose lay is being completed or cut-off the flow of water
in a charged line. Apply the hose clamp to a section of hose approximately 6 feet from the coupling.
8. Hydrant wrench
 A tool used to remove fire hydrant caps and open the valve of the hydrant. They are usually adjustable
so as to fit different sized hydrant nuts.
9. Spanner wrench
 A tool used to tighten leaking connections and to loosen connections that are too tight.
10. Hose strap (also known as a rope hose tool)
 A piece of firefighting equipment. It can be "a short length of rope with an eye loop at one end and a
metal hook at the other “or a piece of "flat nylon webbing sewn into a four-foot loop". They share a
wide variety of established uses, including carrying un-charged fire hose, opening doors, closing doors,
securing hose lines, dragging victims, and even carrying boots. The use that gives the tool its name,
however, is securing a charged hose line, allowing a firefighter to better control and maneuver the line
while flowing water.
11. Rope
 A length of fibres, twisted or braided together to improve strength for pulling and connecting. It has
tensile strength but is too flexible to provide compressive strength (i.e. it can be used for pulling, but
not pushing). Rope is thicker and stronger than similarly constructed cord, line, string, and twine.

OTHER HAND TOOLS TYPICALLY USED BY THE FIREFIGHTERS

1. Hose Hook
 An innovative patent pending multi-purpose tool that acts as a handle for carrying hose rolls.
2. The pick (actually referred to as a pall)
 Allows the user to pry through plaster laths, dry wall, etc.
3. Pike Hook
 The old stand-by in manganese bronze with greater pulling through.
4. Teeth of sheet hook
 Penetrate tin roofs in three places to allow a better purchase so it will not pull through.

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5. Boston Rake Hook

 Ideal for pulling lath and plaster walls and ceiling, spreading out debris during overhaul, and other
difficult overhaul jobs.
6. Bolt cutter
 Being used to cut locks which are hard to open, or metals which are in hindrance to firefighters
operation.
 The non conductive cable cutters are being used to cut any live wires which may cause electric shock
that may cause danger to everyone surrounding the area most especially the firefighters who will
operate in the area involving fires.
7. Ladders
 Are very vital during an emergency, when every second counts towards the success or failure of an
operation. The members of fire protection organizations must know the proper procedures for
carrying, raising, and climbing ladders so thoroughly that their actions are governed by habit. Even
after procedures are well established, they need constant practice to achieve the degree of
efficiency. Originally, ladders were built of hard wood, with solid beams. Even in the short lengths,
these ladders were heavy and hard to handle. Eventually, to overcome the limit sheer weight
imposed on handling and carrying a ladder, a metal ladder made of lightweight metal alloys were
introduced and are most commonly used in fire service today.

LADDER TERMINOLOGY
a. Bed Ladder- the lowest section of an extension ladder
b. Fly Ladder- the top section of an extension ladder
c. Butt- the bottom end of a ladder
d. Heel- the part of the ladder that touches the ground.
e. Halyard- a rope or cable used to raise the fly ladder
f. Pawl or Dog- the mechanism on the end of the fly ladder that locks to the bed ladder.
g. Rung- the cross member used in climbing
h. Top or Tip- the top of the ladder
i. Hooks- used to hook over a roof peak, sills, or walls where the heel does not rest on a foundation.
j. Stops- wood or metal blocks used to prevent the fly of the ladder from extending out further from the
ladder.
k. Guides- light metal strips of an extension ladder while it is being raised or lowered.

TYPES OF LADDERS:
A. Ground ladders
 Its sizes vary from 3.1 to 17 meters (10-55 feet) long. It is being carried on a pumper or fire
trucks.
Forms of Ground Ladders:
1. Straight ladder
 This is a type of ladder that contains only one section. It ranges in length from 12 to 16 feet.
The most common size is the 14 foot straight ladder. The roof or hook ladder is a straight
ladder adapter for a special purpose. Hooks are mounted on a movable socket that permits
them to fold inward when not in use.
2. Extension ladder
 Consists of a bed and one or more fly ladders. The fly ladder slides through guides on the
upper end of the bed ladder. It contains locks (pawls or dogs) which hook over a rung of the
bed ladder. This secures it in a designated position, dependent upon the desired length of the
ladder. The fly ladder is usually raised by a halyard fastened to the lower rung and operated
over a pulley on the upper end of the bed ladder. The 24, 35, or 36 foot ladders are the types
commonly found on the pumpers.
3. Attic Ladders
 It provides means of reaching through an opening into attics, lofts, and other areas that are
somewhat difficult to reach without a special ladder. It can be folded or collapsed for a small
room or closet works. They are usually short because they are required to reach only a short
distance.
4. Wall Ladders
 Types of ladder best used in rescue where a ladder in place already falls short of the
endangered person. It allows the user to climb up or down, one storey at a time.

B. AERIAL LADDERS
 Are mounted on a turntable, capable of extending up to 30.5 meters ( 100 feet ), have three or
four metal sections of ladder, that can be raised or lowered by hydraulically controlled cables.

Forms of Aerial Ladders :

1. Hydraulic Aerial Ladders
2. Elevating Platform
Uses :
 Provide a source of heave streams in combating fire;
 Best used for rescue operations;
 Can be used as an elevator to lift handlines, hand tools and short ladders up to its load limits
 Used as reconnaissance platform or a place from which to direct operations.

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LADDER CARRIES
1. One –man carry
 Remove the ladder from the apparatus and pass either arm through the ladder at the middle of
its length. Carry it with the hooks forward and lowered.
2. Two-man carry
 Normally extension ladders from 24 to 36 feet in length require at least two men. To remove
the ladder from the apparatus, place one man near each end. Each man then passes one arm
through the ladder, grasps the second rung forward. Both men should be in the same side of the
ladder.
3. Four-man carry
 The four men should be positioned in at least two men in each end.
4. Six-man carry
 This type of carry is used for very large or heavy ladders and is the same as the four man carry,
except that two additional men are laced in the middle on the opposite sides of the ladder.

LADDER RAISES
 Ladder rising requires practice and cooperation. Before raising a ladder, you must know how far
you should place the heel of the ladder from the building.
 Ways or methods to determine how far is the heel from the building

a. Divide the length of the ladder by 5 and add 2.

 i.e., if the ladder is fully extended, the heel should be 9 feet from the building
( 35/5=7 + 2 = 9)
b. Divide the length of the ladder by 4. If you used a fully extended 35 foot ladder, divide 35 by 4
and the result is also a distance approximately 9 feet
c.

Arson investigation

ARSON
 It is the malicious destruction of property by means of fire.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO 1613

 AMENDING THE LAW ON ARSON

Section 1: arson
 Any person who burns or sets fire to the property of another shall be punished by prison mayor.
 The same penalty shall be imposed when a person sets fire to his own property under circumstances
which expose to danger the life or property of another.

Section 2.Destructive arson

 The penalty of reclusion temporal in its maximum period to Reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if the
property burned is any of the following:
1. Any ammunition factory and other establishment where explosives, inflammable or combustible
materials are stored.
2. Any archive, museum, whether public or private, or any edifice evoked to culture, education or
social services.
3. Any church or place of worship or other building where people usually assemble
4. Any train, airplane or any aircraft, vessel or water craft or conveyance for transportation of person
or property.
5. Any building where evidence is kept for use in any legislative, judicial, administrative or other
official proceeding.
6. Any hospital, hotel, dormitory, lodging house, housing tenement, shopping center, public or private
market. Theatre or movie house or any similar place or building .
7. Any building used as a dwelling or not situated in populated or congested area.

Section 3.Other cases of arson

 The penalty of reclusion temporal to reclusion Perpetua shall be imposed if the property burned is any
of the fallowing.
1. Any building used as offices of the Government or any of its agencies
2. Any inhabited house or dwelling
3. Any industrial establishment, shipyard oil well or mine shaft, platform or tunnel.
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4. Any rice mill, sugar mill, cane mill, or mill central

5. Any plantation, farm, pasture land, growing crop, grain field, orchard, bamboo grove or forest.
6. Any railway or bus station, airport, wharf or warehouse

Section 4 Special aggravating circumstances in arson-

1. If committed with intent to gain;
2. If committed for the benefit of another
3. If the offender is motivated by spite or hatred towards the owner or occupant of the property
burned.
4. If committed by a syndicate

 The offense is committed by a syndicate if it is plan or carried out by a group of three or or more
persons
Section 5.Where death results from arson
 If by reason of or on occasion of arson death results, the penalty of reclusion perpetua shall be imposed
to death shall be imposed.

Section 6.Prima facie evidence of arson

1. If the fire started simultaneously in more than one part of building or establishment.
2. If substantial amount of flammable substances or material are stored in within the building not of
the offender or for household used.
3. If gasoline, kerosene, petroleum, or other inflammable, or combustible substances or material
soaked therewith or containers thereof, or any mechanical, electrical, chemical, or electronic
contrivance designed to start a fire or ashes or traces of any of the foregoing are founds in the ruins
or premises of the burn building or property.
4. If the building or property is insured for substantially more than its actual value at the time of
issuance of the policy.
5. If during the lifetime of the corresponding fire insurance policy more than two fires have occurred
in the same or other premises owned or under the control of the offender and or insured.
6. If shortly before the fire, a substantial portion of the effects insured and stored in a building or
property had been withdrawn from the premises except in the ordinary course of business.
7. If a demand for money or other valuable consideration was made before the fire in exchange for the
desistance of the offender or for the safety of the person or property of the victim

Section 7.Conspiracy to commit arson

 Conspiracy to commit arson shall be punished by prison mayor in its minimum period.

LAWS RELATED WITH FIRE PREVENTION AND FIRE PROTECTION IN THE PHILIPPINE
SETTING INCLUDES THE FALLOWING.
1. P.D. NO. 1185 Fire Code of the Philippines
 Date of effectively- August 1977

2. P.D. NO. 1096, Building Code of the Philippine.

 Date of effectively- February 1977
3. R.A. 6541. National Building Code of the Philippines
 Approved on August 26, 1972

4. R.A. NO.6975, the DILG Act of 1990 (sec 53 R.A NO 6975)

CLASSIFICATION OF ARSON

1. Attempted arson
 If a person intended to burn a wooden house, collected rags soaked in gasoline and placed it beside
the wall, but when he was about to light it he was seen by another who ran after him. The crime is
attempted arson .If the person was able to light the rags but the fire was put out before any part of
the building was burn then it is frustrated arson but if before the fire was put out ,part of the
building was burned then it is consummated arson.

Note - there is no more frustrated arson under PD 1613

2. Consummated arson
a. The mere discoloration or scorching of a wooden wall by fire is consummated arson
b. If the scorching is on the concrete wall where there is remote possibility of the fire to spread it is
attempted arson.
c. The act to set fire with the preparation of inflammable material at the place to be burned is
attempted arson.
d. There is no frustrated arson
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BASIS OF CRIMINAL LIABILITY

1. Kind and character of the building burned
2. The location of the building
3. Extent of value and damage cause
4. Whether or not the offender knows that the building burned was occupied or not

 In arson, it is not necessary that there be flame or that the structure be consumed or materially
damage .Ignition satisfies the requirement in burning.
 Malicious intent of the offender must be proven in arson, otherwise no crime exist. The law
presumes that a fire accidental in origin, hence the criminal design must be shown .fire caused by
accident or negligence does not constitute arson. The intent can be inferred from the facts of the
case, like application for fire insurance, threat, quarrels, etc.

THE INVESTIGATION OF FIRE

 The responsible for the prevention and suppression of all destructive fires on building, houses and other
structures , forest, land transportation vehicles, equipment, ship or vessel docked at piers or major
seaport ,petroleum industry installation, plane crashes and other similar incidents ,as well as the
enforcement of the Fire Code and other related laws. It has the power to investigate all causes fire and if
necessary, file the proper complaints with the proper authority that has jurisdiction over the case (R.A.
NO 6975, sec 54)

WHY FIRES SHOULD BE INVESTIGATED

 The reason why fires should be investigated is to determine the cause of fire in order to prevent similar
occurrence. The determination of the origin and cause of fire is arrived at only after a thorough
investigation. Since basic investigation focus on the discovery of the cause of the fire, an understanding
of the chemistry of fire and its attendant behavior should be a concern for successful investigation.

 After corpus delicti has been established, any evidence direct or circumstantial may be introduced to
show that the act was committed by the accused and that it was done with criminal intent.

1. Evidence associating the suspect with the crime scene.

 Clue material such as tools, matches, and articles of clothing’s may be found at the scene of the
crime and sometimes traced to the suspect ,or the suspect may have carried on his person or
clothing’s traces which link him to the scene of the crime.
2. Evidence showing intent
 Removal of valuable articles substitution of interior articles, ill feeling, unfriendly relations
between the accused and occupants of the burn building, absence of effort to extinguish the fire
or to turn the fire alarm may prove intent.

BASIC LINES OF INQUIRY

1. Origin of fires
2. Motive
3. Prima facie evidence and prime suspects
4. Tell tale signs

MOTIVES OF ARSONIST

 Motive is not necessary to be proven in a criminal proceeding but once motive is shown, then intent
can easily be established .Motive therefore can be established by:

1. Economic gain

A. Insurance fraud with the assured directly benefiting

B. Profit by Perpetrator other than the assured.
2. Concealment of crime
3. Punitive measure
4. Intimidation or Economic disabling
5. Pyromania
6.
Types of pyromania

1. Abnormal Youth
 Epileptics, imbeciles and morons may set fire without knowing the seriousness of the act.

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2. The hero type

 A person may set fire on a building ,subsequently pretends to discover it, and turn in the alarm
so that he will appear a here to the public .A person may burn a building and endeavor to
achieve spectacular rescue in order to attract the attention of spectators.
3. Alcoholic and drug addicts
 Person who subject themselves to intense artificial stimulants such as alcohol or narcotics
sometimes develop a strong urge towards incendiarism.
4. Sexual deviates
 Some sex perverts derive sexual stimulation from setting a fire and watching the
flame .Frequently he is a chronic masturbator who stimulates and enhances his sexual
gratification by means of arson.
5. Vandalism
 During demonstration, riots and other civil disturbances, fires are set on by participant as a
result of mob mentality.
 During the disturbances, looters will set fires to divert the attention of the police
6. Land lord tenants Feuds
 Arson may be resorted to in order to terminate lease contract.

7. Diversionary tactics-

 The arsonist sometimes will devise ways and means to distract the attention of law enforcement
officers from the actual commission of crime

METHOD EMPLOYED BY THE ARSONIST

1. By the use of incendiary materials
Incendiary material are burning material or fuel, which are used by the arsonist to accelerate the
spread of fires .they may be present at the fire scene or later introduced before arson is committed .
The following are classification of incendiary materials.
a. Liquids
 Such gasoline, alcohol ,petroleum ,kerosene, turpentine, and diesel fuel
b. Gases
 Such as acetylene carbon monoxide, hydrogen, natural gas, ethylene to include some gases
when mixed with air posses excellent ignition property and when present in an enclosed area
can lead explosion
c. Solids
 Such as chlorates, chromates, nitrates, permanganates when solid exist in finely ground or
powdered condition .They are excellent combustible substances generate intense heat on
contract with water others give of oxygen on decomposition thus aiding combustion.

2. By the use of plants and other contrivances.

a. Use of heating appliance
b. Used of mechanical devices such as;
c. Use of trailers such as :
d. Used of inflammable gases such as
e. Use of chemical devices such as
f. Use of explosives bomb

A. INVESTIGATION DURING THE FIRE

 The investigator must be promptly notified about the occurrence of the fire this could be maintained by
proper liaison with the local fire department .It is necessary since the investigator must conduct some
observation and examination during the fire which includes the following:

1. Observation of smoke and vapors

 The characteristic and color of the smoke .steam or other vapors which emanates from the fire may
indicate the nature of burning substances such as

a. Steam and smoke

 It indicates that humid substances come in contact with combustible substances .the water
presence in humid substances evaporates before the substance begins to burn.

b. White smoke
 It indicates the presence of phosphorous.
c. Grayish smoke
 It may be caused of flying ashes or soot of loosely packed substances such as straw or hay.
d. Black smoke

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 It may be produced in the burning material of a product or the preponderance in the burning
material of a product with petroleum based such as rubber, tar coal turpentine or petroleum.
e. Reddish brown or yellow smoke
 It may indicate the presence of nitrates or substances which are compounded with nitrates it
may be observed in burning nitric acid, plastics, film or smokeless gun powder.
f. Setting smokes, irritating the nose and throat, causing lacrymation and coughing indicates presence of
chlorine

2. Observation of the color of the flame

 The color of the flame may indicate the intensity of the fire and the nature of combustible material .If
the fire is observed in its early stage the color of the flame can help determine the accelerator. The color
of the flame ranges from red to yellow and finally a blinding white. Alcohol in small portion has blue
flame, Orange flame, usually indicates a large amount of alcohol while petroleum product produces red
flame the temperature of the flame varies from 500 to 1500 c.
3. Observation of the size of the fire
 The size of the fire can be appreciated at the time of arrival and subsequently thereafter .Unusual
extension indicates use of accelerants knowledge of type construction, the ventilation facilities and the
normal contents of the building will enable a professional’s observer to form an opinion as to whether
the fire has travelled abnormally fast.
4. Direction of travel
 The flame tend to rise until meeting an obstacle wherein it projects horizontally to seek other vertical
outlet .The extent and rate of travel in the horizontal direction will depend primarily on the direction of
the wind and on ventilation such as the availability of doors and windows. The spread of the fire in
unusual condition indicates the presence of accelerant.
5. Location of flame
 Investigator must take note the location and number of points of origin .Unrelated fire in different places
are indicative of arson
6. Odors
 Manny accelerants have characteristic smell the smell of highly inflammable substance in an area where
it is not normally used should arouse suspicion in an area where it is not normally used should arouse
suspicion .Turpentine, alcohol, kerosene and gasoline are among the accelerants which emit
characteristic odors.

B. EXAMINATION DURING THE FIRE

 After observation, the investigator can make important examination of the building and the scene.
1. Exterior Openings
2. Preliminary examination of the scene

A. INVESTIGATIONS OF THE SCENE AFTER THE FIRE

 If the fire has been promptly reported and extinguished, the discovery of incriminating evidence may be
simple, but if the area has been reduced to ashes, recovery of traces of evidence will be a difficult
matter. Whatever is the condition of the scene, a patient or perseverance, methodical study of the area
may reveal the criminal design and the method of operation of the arsonist.

In this connection, the following are the procedure that may guide any arson investigator in its investigation
after the fire.

1. Safeguard the scene

 The investigator must prevent unnecessary disturbance of the debris and the intrusion of
unauthorized persons. This can be done with closed cooperation of the fire department.
2. Order of searching
 The area surrounding the burned property should thoroughly examine for traces and clue. Doors
and windows should be examined for the presence of break, tool impression, broken windows
panes forced looks, and the investigator may go to the interior for clues of accelerants from
remains.
3. Locating the point of origin
 The area surrounding the burned property should be thoroughly examined for traces and
clue .Doors and windows should be examined for the presence of break, tool impressions,
broken windows panes, forced locks. the investigator may go to the interior for clues of
accelerants from the remains
4. Examining the point of origin
 The remains at the point of origin should be studied carefully for the purpose of determining the
cause of the fire .A search should be made for traces of combustible materials .substances such

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as peculiarly colored materials should be collected for laboratory examination .Peculiar odor
should be noted.
5. Traces of accelerants attention should be focused for the presence of traces of the accelerants like
kerosene, gasoline, or turpentine .A study of the manner in which wood are charred sometimes
reveal indication as to an accelerant .if a wood is soaked with a petroleum product, such as
gasoline or kerosene, prior to burning it, it will acquire a distinctive appearance in charring.
6. Altered protective devices
 To insure destruction, the arsonist sometimes tampers the alarm device. The Water flow may be
examined for sign of tampering .abnormal condition of the fire doors, transoms and window
should be observed.

THE PHYSICAL EVIDENCE AND ITS COLLECTION

 Any piece of evidence that appears to have unusual significance should be photographed and
located on a sketch before it is removed .the following kinds of physical evidence should be
collected in the fire scene.
a. Containers
 bottles ,cans, barrels, pails or boxes to hold the combustible liquid may be recovered from the
fire scene .the original container should be collected and preserved
b. Ashes and debris
 May possibly contain clothing which normally not completely burned unless soaked with
accelerant may be significant in the examination.
c. Fingerprint and impression
 A search for fingerprint should be given attention especially on suspicious container of
accelerant .the object containing the print should be preserved, packed and transported to the
laboratory for further study.
d. Incendiary devices
 Suspicious articles like wires, fuses straw or candles which may form part of the incendiary
device should be collected.
e. Tools
 Tools might have been brought there and abandoned by the arsonist in his preparation. If tool
marks are present on door jambs and window as a result of forcible entry, the blades
comparison of size and for paint particles.
f. Documents
 Arsonist may expose the incriminating document to flame .in the examination of such
document, the absence of certain papers, such as insurance policy, which are normally kept in
the area, should be investigated.
WITNESSES

 A valuable information may be obtained by arson investigator thru the process of careful
questioning the various persons associated with the discovery and control of the fire ,the
occupants of the building ,including its watchmen ,if any .evidences tending to establish intent
and motive as well as the location and identification of the perpetrator.

1. Person first arriving at the fire

 Every effort should be made to locate and question the person the person who first saw the
fire .identify of the person who turned in the alarm should be made, and he can determine the
exact point where the fire began and the number of places it started .the opinion as regards the
probable origin of the fire, color of the smoke, the general appearance of the conflagration may
be determine d by the person who first arrived at the fire.
2. Fireman
 The fireman should be asked questions concerning the nature of the fire, color of the flames and
smoke and the receptible odor .He can also give the investigator information as to condition of
the doors and windows.
3. Watchman
 The watchman of the building can give detailed information concerning the condition of the
building before the fire. Inquiries from the watchman must be made regarding the recent
behavior of the occupants and the movements of the stock and pieces of furniture .information
regarding the last person to leave the building, his suspicion and theory concerning the origin of
the fire may be asked from him.
4. Occupants
 Occupants and employees in the building must be interviewed separately .they should be
encouraged state their theories and suspicion of the fire.
5. The owner
 Must be questioned with regard to prior arrest, apprehension, previous, convictions, previous
fires, financial standing, business domestic conditions, hobbies or amusements.
HOW TO LOCATE THE ORIGIN OF FIRE

a. By witnesses
 the first who discovered the fire

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b. Low point of burning

 The lowest point of burning should be given the outmost consideration in locating the origin of
fire. Fire will normally burn upward. The hot gasses and carbon particles will continue to rise
for any period of time before the fire spreads downward.
c. Charring
 The char will generally be deepest from where the fire originated. When the fire is extinguished
quickly, the charring is only slightly below the surface.
Alligatoring Patterns
 It is produced if fire extinguished quickly.
 A char pattern that is deep and pronounced occurs for a longer period.
 In woods it is exactly looks like the hide of a black alligator.

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