Module 3 - The Act

Site: New Era University Printed by: Carl Angelo C. Somera

Course: GECETH-18 - Ethics Date: Monday, 13 March 2023, 10:40 PM
Book: Module 3 - The Act
Table of contents

1. Introduction/Overview

2. Topic 1: Feelings and Moral Decision-Making

2.1. Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas
2.2. Feelings as Obstacles to Making the Right Decisions
2.3. Emotivism
2.4. Ethical Subjectivism
2.5. Emotivism vs Subjectivism
2.6. Evaluating Emotivism
2.7. Feelings and Decisions

3. Learning Outcomes
3.1. Reason and Impartiality Defined

4. Topic 2: Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality

5. The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model

6. The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model

6.1. The Importance of Will and Moral Courage

7. Topic 3: Moral Courage

7.1. Developing Will and Moral Courage
7.2. Forum Discussion Activity
7.3. Assignment 3
7.4. Quiz #3 -Module 3
1. Introduction/Overview

One of the most difficult things in life is making decisions. In our decision, at stake is not only our own destiny but of our companions, peers, co-
workers, and loved ones or perhaps even a greater number of people.

At this juncture, we are going to examine how we decide, the things that influence our decisions. When can we say that we have made the
right decision? Is there such thing as objectively right or wrong?

As leaders, no matter how small or large an organization may be, we need to make the right decision. At this point, we need to examine how
we make decisions. What are the factors that affect our decision? Should we decide on the basis of our feelings or emotions? What are the
obstacles to make the right decision? When can we say that we made the right decision? These are some of the questions that we will
attempt to answer in this module.
2. Topic 1: Feelings and Moral Decision-Making

The Act

Most of the time we tend to respond to a moral dilemma without understanding why we reacted that way. Sometimes we are highly emotional
as we express our approval or disapproval of various acts. Our feeling can be an obstacle in becoming ethical. Thus, it is important to
understand the role of feelings on morality.

Feelings and Moral Decision-Making

There are at least two theories in ethics that give focus on the role of feelings on morality. They are (1) Ethical subjectivism and (2) Emotivism.
But before the discussion of these theories, let us first deal with the view that feelings are instinctive and trained response to moral dilemmas.

Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas

Some ethicists believe that ethics is also a matter of emotion. They hold that moral judgments at their best should also be emotional. Feelings
are seen necessary in ethical judgment as they are even deemed by some as instinctive and trained responses to moral dilemmas.
2.1. Feelings as Instinctive Response to Moral Dilemmas
2.2. Feelings as Obstacles to Making the Right Decisions
2.3. Emotivism

One way to look at Emotivism is to view it as an improved version of subjectivism. Considered by its proponents as far more subtle and
sophisticated than subjectivism, emotivism is deemed invulnerable to many objections. This theory was developed chiefly by the American
Philosopher Charles L. Stevenson (1909-1979) who has been one of the most influential theories of Ethics in the 20th Century.

The theory basically states that moral judgments express positive or negative feelings. “X is right” merely means “Hooray for X! and “X is
immoral” just means “Boo on X!” Since ethical judgments are essentially commands and exclamations, they are not true or false; so there
cannot be moral truth and moral knowledge. Emotivism is actually the most popular form of non-cognitivism, the meta-ethical theory that
claims that ethical sentences do not convey, authentic propositions. Moral judgments, according to Emotivism, are not statements of act but
are mere expression of the emotion of the speaker, especially since they usually feelings-based.

To understand how the theory views moral judgments, it would help to note that language is used in a variety of ways. Principally language is
used to state facts or what we believe to be facts. Thus, we may say, Marcos was president of the Philippines”, Gasoline cost Php 50 per liter,”
and Jose Rizal is the author of Noli Me Tangere.” In each case, we are saying something that is either true or false, and the purpose of our
utterance is typically, to convey information to the listener.

But there are other purposes for which language may be used. Suppose one says, “Close the door!” This utterance is neither true nor false. It is
not a statement of any kind but a command. Its purpose is not to convey information but to get one to do something. In giving you a command, I
am not trying to alter your beliefs; instead I am trying to influence your conduct.

Emotivism claims that they have two entirely different purposes: First, they are used as a means of influencing others behavior. If someone says
“Stealing is immoral,” Emotivism interpret it as an attempt to stop you from doing the act. Thus, the utterance is more like command – it is
equivalent to saying, “Don’t do that!”

Second, moral sentences are used to express (not report the speaker’s attitude. Accordingly, saying “Fair play is good is not like saying approve
of fair play, but it is like saying “Hurrah for fair play!”. So there lies the difference between Emotivism and Subjectivism
2.4. Ethical Subjectivism
2.5. Emotivism vs Subjectivism
2.6. Evaluating Emotivism
2.7. Feelings and Decisions
3. Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, the students will be able to:

1. Learn how to handle moral dilemmas

2. Ensure appropriate response to a dilemma that controls feeling or emotion.

3. Compare and contrast the Strength and weaknesses of subjectivism and emotivism.

4. Master the art of making decisions by understanding the 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model
3.1. Reason and Impartiality Defined

Reason. Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reasons plays a vital role in Ethics. In fact, moral truths of reasons; that
is, a moral judgment is true if it is espoused by better reasons than the alternatives.

If someone tells us that a certain action is immoral, we may ask why it is so, and if there is no reasonable answer, we may discard the
proposition as absurd. Also, if somebody utters that a particular act is wrong and explains that is because it does not happen to fit
his taste, then we also do not count his claim as a legitimate ethical judgment. Clearly thus, reason is a necessary requirement for
morality.

At least in Philosophy, reason is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it refers to the capacity for
logical, rational and analytic thought; for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying common
sense and logic, and justifying and if necessary, changing practices, institutions, and beliefs based on existing new exiting
information.

Actually, reason spells the difference of moral judgments from mere expression of personal preference. If after eating, someone says,
I like a sweet cake,” he is not required to support it with good reasons for that is a statement about his/her personal state and nothing
more. But in the case of moral judgments, they require backing by reasons. In the absence of sensible rational, they are merely
capricious and ignorable.

Moral deliberation is a matter of weighing reasons and being guided by them. In understanding the nature of morality, considering
reason is indispensable. Truth in ethics entails being justified by good reasons. That is the rightful moral decision involves selecting
the option that has power of reason on its side.

Impartiality. On the other hand, impartiality involves the idea that each individuals interest and point of view are equally important.
Also called even handedness or fair-mindedness, impartiality is a principle of justice holding that decisions ought to be based on
objective criteria rather than on the basis of bias, prejudice, or preferring the benefit to one person another for improper reasons.

Impartiality in morality requires that we give equal and or adequate consideration to the interest of all concerned parties. The
principle of impartiality assumes that every person, generally speaking, is equally important; that is no one is seen as intrinsically
more significant than anyone else.

Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reasons plays a vital role in Ethics. In fact, moral truths of reasons; that is, a
moral judgment is true if it is espoused by better reasons than the alternatives.

If someone tells us that a certain action is immoral, we may ask why it is so, and if there is no reasonable answer, we may discard the
proposition as absurd. Also, if somebody utters that a particular act is wrong and explains that is because it does not happen to fit
his taste, then we also do not count his claim as a legitimate ethical judgment. Clearly thus, reason is a necessary requirement for
morality.

At least in Philosophy, reason is the basis or motive for an action, decision, or conviction. As a quality, it refers to the capacity for
logical, rational and analytic thought; for consciously making sense of things, establishing and verifying facts, applying common
sense and logic, and justifying and if necessary, changing practices, institutions, and beliefs based on existing new exiting
information.

Actually, reason spells the difference of moral judgments from mere expression of personal preference. If after eating, someone says,
I like a sweet cake,” he is not required to support it with good reasons for that is a statement about his/her personal state and nothing
more. But in the case of moral judgments, they require backing by reasons. In the absence of sensible rational, they are merely
capricious and ignorable.
Moral deliberation is a matter of weighing reasons and being guided by them. In understanding the nature of morality, considering
reason is indispensable. Truth in ethics entails being justified by good reasons. That is the rightful moral decision involves selecting
the option that has power of reason on its side.
4. Topic 2: Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirements for Morality
5. The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model

The following are the steps or elements of a model for making moral decision:

1. Gather the Facts. Some moral dilemmas can be resolved just by clarifying the facts of the case in question. But in more complex cases,
gathering the facts is the indispensable first step prior to any ethical analysis and reflection on the case.
2. Determine the Ethical Issues. The moral issues should be correctly stated in terms of competing interests. It is these conflicting interests
that practically make for a moral dilemma.
3. Identify the Principles that Have a Bearing on the Case. What principles have a bearing on the case? In any moral dilemma, there are sure
moral values or principles that are vital to the rival positions being taken. It is very significant value or principles that are vital to the rival
positions being taken. For Rae, biblical principles will be clearly weighted the most heavily. But there may be other principles essentially
relevant to the case that may come from other sources.
4. List the Alternatives. This step involves coming up with various alternatives courses of actions as part of the creative thinking included in
resolving a moral dilemma.
5. Compare the Alternatives with the Principles. This step involves eliminating alternatives according to the moral principles that have a
bearing on the case. In many cases, the case will be resolved at this point, since the principles will remove all alternatives except one. As
a matter, of fact, the purpose of this comparison is to determine whether there is a clear decision that can be made without further
deliberation.
6. Weigh the Consequences. If the principles do not produce a clear decision, then a consideration of the consequences of the remaining
available alternative is in order
7. Make a Decision. After deliberation, the decision should be made.
6. The 7-Step Moral Reasoning Model
6.1. The Importance of Will and Moral Courage

Both will and moral courage are important in a good rational moral decision. But we need to clarify the definition of the moral courage.

Moral courage means doing the right thing even at the risk of inconvenience, ridicule, punishment, loss of job or security or social status, etc.
Moral courage requires that we rise above the apathy or social status, etc. Moral courage requires that we rise above the apathy, complacency,
hatred, cynicism and fear-mongering in our political systems , socioeconomic division and cultural religious differences.

One sense of the concept will refers to that faculty of the mind which chooses at the moment of making decisions, the strongest desire from
among the various desires present. Will does not refer to any particular desire, but rather to the capacity to act decisively on one’s desires.
Within philosophy the will is important as one of the distinct parts of the mind, along with reason and understanding. It is considered important
to ethics because of its central role in enabling a person to act deliberately. Commonly, we think of will in the active sense, of self-control, of
working toward attaining goals.

The German Philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer explained that when we become conscious of ourselves, we recognize that our essential
qualities are endless urging, craving, striving, wanting and desiring. These are the features of that which we call our will. He further explained
that "Will" is the innermost essence. He also believed that the will uses knowledge in order to find an object that will satisfy its craving.

Having moral courage and will means doing the right thing, which may include listening to our conscience. Disregarding our conscience may
lead to feeling of inadequacy, guilt and diminished personal integrity.
7. Topic 3: Moral Courage

We have learned that reliance on feelings is disadvantageous. In resolving dilemmas, we are thus advised to guide our emotion with reason, if
not totally suppress them. But reason, for many ethicists, is also not enough in carrying out moral decisions. Moral

Courage is also as important.

7.1. Developing Will and Moral Courage

The following are tips or suggestions on how to develop will and moral courage.

Develop and practice self-discipline. One way to develop moral courage and will is to develop and practice self-discipline. Developing will and
courage involves developing self-control. It includes nurturing the ability to stick to actions, thoughts and behavior, which lead to moral
improvement and success. It encompasses endowing the inner strength to focus all the energy on a moral goal and persevere until it is
accomplished.

Do mental strength training. One of the most simple and effective methods under this mental strength training involves declining to satisfy
unimportant and unnecessary desires.

Draw inspiration from people of great courage. People usually admire and respect courageous persons who won great success by manifesting
self-discipline and will power.

Repeatedly do acts that exhibit moral courage and will. A person must strive doing the acts that manifest them whenever opportunity allows it.
The following are some examples.

1. helping someone push a car

2. picking up litter

3. do what your preach

4. becoming a company whistle blower.

5. participating in a peaceful protest.

6. Avoid deeds that show lack of moral courage and will. This involves evading acts that show irresponsibility, cowardice, apathy, rashness,
imprudence, ill will and wickedness.

7. walking away from someone in need

8. taking more than you fair share

9. laughing at someone’s misfortune or accident.

10. grabbing the spotlight from someone who has earned it

11. remaining silent in the face of wrong doing or injustice

12. rationalization or justification for action/lack of action.

13. being inconsistent or capricious with rules and standards for one’s children

14. breaking a promise

15. lying or cheating.

7.2. Forum Discussion Activity

Click here to access the Forum discussion.

7.3. Assignment 3

Click here to access the assignment.

7.4. Quiz #3 -Module 3

Click here to access quiz number 3.