Received: 30 August 2021 Revised: 16 June 2022 Accepted: 8 July 2022

DOI: 10.1111/ijcs.12852

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

The role of intangible attributes of luxury brands for signalling

status: A systematic literature review

Humberto Fuentes | Jorge Vera-Martinez | Diana Kolbe

Tecnologico de Monterrey, EGADE Business

School, San Pedro Garza García, Mexico Abstract
Previously, signalling status had been primarily studied from the conspicuousness of
Correspondence
Humberto Fuentes, Tecnologico de luxury brands, including high prices and prominent designs. However, less attention
Monterrey, EGADE Business School, San has been directed toward other elements of brands that could be strategically managed
Pedro Garza García, Mexico.
Email: [email protected] in order to enable consumers signalling status. This study synthesizes the literature
using a framework based on four intangible attributes of luxury brands: user profile,
purchase usage, personality and values and heritage. The topics studied under each of
the four intangible attributes were analysed using a systematic approach. Based on the
interconnectedness of the topics studied, this review proposes that the intangible
attributes used as a framework may have a synergistic interaction, in contrast with the
current perspective that considers them as independently and equally relevant for
consumers signalling status. It also reports the psychological function of these
intangible attributes and supports the notion that consumers use luxury brands
either to routinely affirm their status within a group or to enhance that status. This
review contributes to the literature on luxury and signalling by considering luxury
consumption as a social process. A functional perspective on the intangible attri-
butes of luxury brands provides the basis for some insightful directions to advance
this field of research.

KEYWORDS
brand personality, intangible attributes, luxury brands, purchase usage, signalling status, user
profile

1 | I N T RO DU CT I O N characteristics that are valued in society (e.g., physical attractiveness

or wealth) (Sundie et al., 2011). Luxuries are sought out by affluent
Intangible attributes of luxury brands aim to satisfy symbolic needs of consumers because the ability to afford them conveys that they may
customers, such as signalling status (Dubois et al., 2021). In marketing possess some of these valued characteristics. Thus, signalling
and consumer studies, signalling status refers to the desire to demon- status through conspicuous consumption can be seen as a form of
strate affiliation with a social hierarchy through conspicuous con- personal advertisement (Bird & Smith, 2005). The display of wealth
sumption. Conspicuous consumption is often used as a synonym of from conspicuous consumption has significant implications for
luxury in the literature (Gurzki & Woisetschlaeger, 2017). Higher consumers' lives, for example, facilitating social adaptation (Goor
levels in the social hierarchy may be related to individuals who exhibit et al., 2021; Veblen & Mills, 2017), attracting a mate or deterring rivals

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© 2022 The Authors. International Journal of Consumer Studies published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

Int J Consum Stud. 2022;1–20. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ijcs 1

2 FUENTES ET AL.

(Sundie et al., 2020; Wang & Griskevicius, 2014) or making friends brand management conceptual models within the literature exploring
(Garcia et al., 2019). The demand for luxury brands can be explained luxury brand equity (Gurzki & Woisetschlaeger, 2017). The intangible
in terms of how these brands facilitate conspicuous exhibition in a attributes of brands may offer a perspective on consumer-based
publicly visible manner (Dubois et al., 2021; Shimul & Phau, 2022). brand equity, enabling an analysis at the consumer level (Keller, 2009).
Accordingly, luxury brands appear in highly visible categories in Thus, this framework is suitable for exploring status-signalling dynam-
which greater expenditures are associated with higher success (Han ics. Additionally, its previous use has resulted in relevant contribu-
et al., 2010), such as fashion (e.g., Dior), cars (e.g., Rolls-Royce) or tions, for example, managing industrial brand equity (Zaichkowsky
jewellery (e.g., Cartier). et al., 2010), examining conditions for effective brand advertising
However, consumers may have the need to signal status regard- (Wang et al., 2009) and understanding a brand as an intangible asset
ing aspects other than the ability to afford the high costs associated for firms (Sinclair & Lane Keller, 2014). Finally, these intangible attri-
with luxury purchases (Geiger-Oneto et al., 2013). Specifically, luxury butes have been widely researched but are often unexplored as core
brands' intangible attributes may shape consumers' attitudes and feel- concepts; therefore, this review addresses luxury brand intangible
ings concerning the brand (Myers, 2003), thus not only enhancing the attributes as the central subject and analyzes these signals from an
creation and strengthening of brand differentiation (Keller, 2020) but adaptive functional perspective.
also resulting in various signalling intentions beyond just signalling Within the field of consumer research, the attitudes generated by
wealth. the intangible attributes of luxury brands have been studied from a
The intangible attributes of luxury brands have been explored as functional perspective (Goenka & Thomas, 2019; Keller, 2020; Ngo
drivers of brand equity (Thomsen et al., 2020; Vigneron & et al., 2020). Functional theories of attitudes explain how certain atti-
Johnson, 2004; Wiedmann et al., 2009). In his brand equity model, tudinal manifestations and feelings (triggered by intangible attributes
Keller (2003) argues that these intangible attributes are as important of brands) enable consumers to achieve specific adaptive goals
as the performance of physical attributes of brands. According to (Katz, 1960; Ledgerwood et al., 2018). A functional perspective entails
Keller (2009), many intangible attributes can be linked to a brand, but that luxury brand value may arise when the generated attitudes tend
four of them are particularly relevant for luxury brands: (1) User profile, to correspond with consumers' social and emotional needs. According
which relates to the mental image held by customers of actual users to this, attitudes (psychological constructs) may improve social
or more aspirational, idealized users; (2) Purchase usage and intentions, adaptation through consumption. For example, a knowledge function
which refers to the conditions or situations in which the brand could (or object-appraisal function) may help individuals to assess the appro-
or should be bought and used; (3) Personality and values, which refers priateness of using/buying a certain product or brand; a utilitarian
to customers' thoughts of the brand and its function or values; and function may help consumers understand the benefits (value) or
(4) History, heritage and experiences, which relates to the noteworthy potential drawbacks from their consumption choices; meanwhile, an
events in the history of the brand. Through strategic management of ego defence function may help people to maintain their self-assurance
these intangible attributes, luxury brands may also cultivate unique after their purchase (Wilcox et al., 2009). For instance, when informa-
approaches to remain relevant with time or avoid becoming “too tion in advertising is more compatible with social identity goals,
precious,” thereby attending to consumers' essential and ever- individuals tend to become more agreeable (Shavitt et al., 1992),
evolving symbolic and psychological needs. suggesting a social adaptive function.
This study extends current claims that signalling status with lux- This study aims to assess different psychological functions that
ury brands is limited to consumer's intention to signal success through enable consumers to engage in status signalling, referred to as signal-
wealth (Goor et al., 2021). Furthermore, it seeks to expand previous ling functions in this paper (Dubois et al., 2021; Wilcox et al., 2009).
findings that suggest signalling status from luxury brands may only The research question of this study is as follows: Based on the extant
come from high prices, brand prominence, design extravagance or literature, how can the intangible attributes of luxury brands enable
other physical and performance attributes. This study contributes to consumers to signal status via specific psychological functions? To
filling a gap in the literature related to how the intangible attributes of answer this question, this study uses a framework-based approach for
luxury brands may function as a form of consumer signalling status. systematically analysing the literature (Paul & Criado, 2020). The
This review differentiates from other recent literature reviews by framework that is adopted here is Keller's (2009) four luxury brand
exploring in-depth intangible sources of luxury value through the the- intangible attributes, and the main topics are discussed and summa-
oretical lens of the signalling status theory. These intangible sources rized within the same framework. Additionally, the emotional/
of luxury value may complement recent efforts to examine literature psychological functions identified within these topics are exposed.
on luxury branding—for example, Kumar et al. (2020) and Sharma The main contribution of this systematic review is the proposition that
et al. (2022)—by providing a framework useful beyond conventional the four brand intangibles attributes may be synergistic with the con-
luxury brand management. For example, there are emerging forms of cept of consumers' signalling status. To this end, the remainder of this
luxury that are characterized by experiential, ephemeral and paper is structured as follows. The research methodology is described
consumer-defining qualities rather than physical brands and products in Section 2, and Section 3 presents the analysis of the results,
(Thomsen et al., 2020). The relevance of using the proposed luxury followed by a discussion, conclusions, the research implications and
brand intangibles as a framework relies on the high citation of Keller's suggestions for future research.
FUENTES ET AL. 3

2 | M E TH O DO LO GY

In this study, a framework-based approach for a systematic literature

review was applied as the research method to achieve the proposed
objectives (Paul & Criado, 2020). The framework used to develop this
study is Keller's (2009) four luxury brand intangible attributes, which
were proposed as particularly relevant to luxury brands. Regardless, non-
luxury brands, such as premium or masstige (mass prestige), may also
require management regarding these attributes (O'Cass & Frost, 2002).
Nonetheless, these brands were considered beyond the scope of this
study. In the following sections, the data collection process, study selec-
tion criteria and data extraction methods are described.

2.1 | Data collection

The studies included in the systematic review were identified by

searching the Scopus and Web of Science (WoS) databases. Both
databases were searched using the following combinations of key-
words: (1) luxury brand* AND status; (2) luxury brand* AND signalling;
(3) “conspicuous consumption” AND brand* (the [*] at the end of a
term is used to include derivative terms, for example, brand, brands,
branding; the “and” in capitals refers to the logical operator used).
This procedure yielded a set of 341 articles on WoS and 251 articles
on Scopus that were published between 1995 and 2021. Searches
were conducted during the first half of 2021, in addition to primarily
studying journal articles in the English language (excluding other forms
FIGURE 1 Steps of the literature selection process.
of publications, such as books or proceedings).

2009, the number of articles published is relatively low. A significant

2.2 | Studies evaluation increase in the number of annual publications is observed between
2015 and 2019, with no sign of abating. As aforementioned, the stud-
Several steps were followed to select the relevant studies (Figure 1). ies included in the systematic review have been analysed with specific
First, duplicate articles were removed. Then, the titles and abstracts attention to the four luxury brand intangible attributes: user profile,
were reviewed for an initial analysis of fit for any of the four catego- purchase usage, personality and values and heritage.
ries (brand luxury attributes) in the framework, excluding those deter- Table 1 shows the number of studies related to each of Keller's
mined to be irrelevant. This process yielded in 317 articles comprising (2009) luxury brand intangible attributes and the corresponding topics
the sample that was the subject of content analysis. During the study discussed by each group of articles. Here, the table reports on the
selection process, considering the focus of this study, nonrelevant topics that emerged with the highest frequency within each luxury
articles were excluded as follows. First, only empirical papers were brand intangible category. Most of the studies focus on attributes of
considered. Then, only papers that focused on luxury brands were purchase usage (44% of the final sample). Here, social fitness for
selected. Finally, articles regarding branding issues outside of any of assimilation versus differentiations in purchase intention is the most
the four intangible attribute categories in the framework were omit- studied theme. This is followed by the attribute of personality and
ted (the full list of references is available upon reasonable request). At values (33%), with most studies examining materialistic and hedonic
the end of this process, 252 articles were included in the systematic elements and 12% of the articles exploring the connection between
review. real user profile and brand's user profile. Finally, 11% of the studies
explore heritage, primarily from the shopping experience perspective.
As some of the studies concern more than one intangible attribute,
2.3 | Characteristics of studies included in the the main contribution of each article was considered in order to assign
review the article to one category. Table 1 presents the topics discussed in
literature according to its relative importance within the sample. The
The chronology of the number of studies over time is shown in table depicts that the primary research focus (28.5% of the articles in
Figure 2. The first study included in the review dates to 1995. Until the sample) has been explaining the brand choice from consumers'
4 FUENTES ET AL.

F I G U R E 2 Evolution of the
number of reviewed studies
over time.

TABLE 1 Relative importance of each theme The list of articles with a higher link strength offers a “forward look-
ing” perspective (bibliographic coupling) as these articles share most
Luxury brand
intangible Relative weightage references in common, thereby implying subject similarity and poten-
attributes Topics of each topica tial subject relevance.
Purchase usage and Social fitness: assimilation 28.5%
intentions vs. differentiation
Power 8.0% 2.4 | Data extraction and data analysis
Affect 7.5%
Personality and Moral adjustment 5.5% For each study included in the systematic review, data were extracted
values Hedonism and material 14.0% from the full text. These data include author(s) name(s), publication name,
values year of publication, title, abstract, main results from each study and main
Self-expression 13.0% contribution. Each article was assigned to one of the four categories in
User profile Self-adherence 2.0% the sample based on its contributions. In cases when an article is related
to more than one intangible attribute, the main contribution was consid-
Self-adherence contexts 5.0%
ered to assign the article to only one category. This procedure allowed
Self-adherence effects 5.5%
identifying redundant results and focused on relevant findings for each
History, heritage Retail experiences 4.0%
and experiences intangible attribute. The classification of the articles into the categories
Metaphysical properties 1.0%
was initially performed by one of the researchers. Subsequently, the
Cult objects: an open 5.5%
assignment of the articles was assessed by two peers. The peers were in
process
full agreement about their assessment after two additional rounds of
a
Based on the number of articles within the sample discussing each topic. sorting the literature. Following this preliminary classification of the liter-
ature, the data extracted from each article was the starting point for the
analysis. This analysis comprised identifying the three main topics dis-
intention to achieve social adaptation through assimilation (con- cussed around signalling status for each of the four luxury brand intangi-
sumer's desire to belong within a group) or differentiation (consumer's bles. Thus, the psychological functions of signalling status are identified
desire to express individuality). around these three main topics. The content of topics found for each
Table 2 presents the results of two bibliometric analyses per- brand intangible attribute emerge from an automated text analysis
formed using VosViewer software. These two bibliometric techniques known as “word embedding,” performed using the word2vec package in
comprised a co-citation and a bibliographic-coupling analysis (Ferreira, the R software. This routine implements several matrix operations from
2018). The 10 most cited references for each brand intangible and the data in plain text from the articles. The program learns to identify the
top 10 references with higher link strength (most cited references in concepts around signalling status and draws a vector. Subsequently, other
common with the rest of the sample) are reported in Table 2. The list vectors are projected and paired based on cosine similarity and the near-
of the most cited articles offers a “retrospective” perspective (co- est neighbour. This program offers advantages over other automatic text
citation analyses); however, a high level of citations may occur for dif- analyses as it shows hierarchical groups of terms related to a particular
ferent reasons other than subject relevance, such as early publication. topic (vs. simple word counts or clusters). A visualization in the form of a
FUENTES ET AL. 5

TABLE 2 Top 10 references of each intangible category

Top 10

Reference link strength (bibliographic-

Luxury brand intangible Most cited studies (co-citation analysis) coupling analysis)
Purchase usage and intention Berger and Ward (2010) Oe et al. (2018)
Main topic: Social fitness comes from the Kastanakis and Balabanis (2012) Jain and Mishra (2018)
activation of each function strategically Nelissen and Meijers (2011) Jain et al. (2019)
Dubois and Paternault (1995) Eastman et al. (2018)
Wang and Griskevicius (2014) Wu et al. (2015)
Chernev et al. (2011) Makkar and Yap (2018a)
Stokburger-Sauer and Teichmann (2013) Ajitha and Sivakumar (2019)
Kastanakis and Balabanis (2014) Shin et al. (2017)
Shukla (2010) Pino et al. (2019)
Commuri (2009) Kastanakis and Balabanis (2012)
Personality and values Torelli et al. (2012) Ajitha and Sivakumar (2017)
Main topic: Brands may exert a moralizing Hennigs et al. (2012) Zakaria et al. (2021)
role Segal and Podoshen (2013) Roux et al. (2017)
Gil et al. (2012) Shao et al. (2019)
McFerran et al. (2014) Shaikh et al. (2017)
Truong et al. (2010) Malik et al. (2020)
Ismail et al. (2018) Aliyev and Wagner (2018)
Roux et al. (2017) Sharda and Bhat (2018)
Amatulli et al. (2018) Sharda and Bhat (2019)
Kim et al. (2018) Amatulli et al. (2020)
User profiles Han et al. (2010) Makkar and Yap (2018b)
Main topic: User-brand Fuchs et al. (2013) Yang and Mattila (2014)
match Dion and Borraz (2017) Klabi (2020)
Otterbring et al. (2018) Li et al. (2020)
Yang and Mattila (2014) Lee et al. (2018)
Zheng et al. (2012) Han et al. (2010)
Bellezza and Keinan (2014) Bellezza and Keinan (2014)
Berger (2017) Wang and John (2019)
Hennighausen et al. (2016) Lai and Prendergast (2019)
Lee et al. (2018) Thomas (2015)
History, heritage and experiences Beverland (2005) Kim et al. (2016)
Main topic: Luxury experiences from Kim and Lee (2015) Chailan (2017)
participation in a “luxurification” Capone and Lazzeretti (2016) Peluso et al. (2017)
process Bartikowski et al. (2019) Kim and Lee (2015)
Pino et al. (2017) De Kerviler and Rodriguez (2019)
Lunardo and Mouangue (2019) O'Regan et al. (2019)
Peluso et al. (2017) Siew et al. (2018)
Kim et al. (2016) Pino et al. (2017)
Chailan (2017) Lunardo and Mouangue (2019)
Siew et al. (2018) Kumagai and Nagasawa (2017)

dendrogram shows the 50 most related concepts to the term “signalling emerged from the word-embedded analysis (cluster dendrograms). Based
status.” From these dendrograms, the number of themes is determined on these results, the signalling functions of each brand intangible attri-
by purposefully establishing a cutout to obtain three clusters of concepts. bute are identified and analysed. According to the findings with respect
A coefficient of approximation determines the level of similarity between to articles' importance (frequency of appearance) in the literature, the
terms under each of the three clusters (as lower the coefficient, higher results for each intangible attribute are presented below.
the proximity between terms, in other words, higher the similarity; the
coefficient ranges between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates no distance or
total similarity and 1 would indicate that the terms are totally uncorre- 3 | ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
lated). Each cluster of concepts sheds light into the main ideas discussed
under each brand intangible. Finally, each article in the sample has been 3.1 | Purchase usage and intention
assigned to each of the three topics identified based on its main contri-
bution. At this stage of review, the contents of the articles were thor- Purchase usage is the most researched brand intangible, as reflected
oughly scrutinized. The iterative process of reviewing and conceptually by the number of studies in Table 1. The main topic discussed by the
classifying the literature facilitated allocation in each of the clusters that studies categorized under this brand intangible is consumers achieving
6 FUENTES ET AL.

FIGURE 3 Structure of terms from the purchase usage literature sample. Source: Author.

social fitness, which is understood as the level of assimilation of an studies have explored the activation of both functions simultaneously,
individual into the group. The cutout was achieved at an approxi- for example, the experience reactions of consumers, such as flight
mated level of 0.30 (closer to 0 than to 1, indicating proximity or simi- (abandoning the brand), reclamation (elaborating the pioneering patron-
larity); from this coefficient, we can conclude that there is similarity age of a brand) and a-branding (disguising all brand cues), which
among the terms and that they are closely related to “signalling sta- refers to consumers' need to stand out from the group (Commuri,
tus.” Figure 3 shows the structure of the terms. Regarding the aims of 2009). Self-concept remains the main psychological factor in evaluating
this study, the most relevant articles were employed to assess and dis- interest in a brand (Najafi & Alvandi, 2017), and presumably it regulates
cuss each topic. the preferences for self-expression (Moreau et al., 2020). Consumers'
need for self-expression can be satisfied when exposed to self-
expressive brands (Chernev et al., 2011).
3.1.1 | Social fitness: Assimilation versus
differentiation
3.1.2 | Power
As an adaptive mechanism, luxury brands are sought from two pur-
poses. The purchase usage receives different names from different From the group of studies classified under this topic, power is defined
scholars, but the literature generally conceptualizes them as the ability as the intention to exert dominance over others, which may be an
to signal membership to a group (assimilation or social value) versus antecedent to social fitness purchase intention. Consumers may
the ability to stand out from the group (differentiation or individual desire power to influence others in order to strengthen affective ties
value). Assimilation refers to consumers' desire to belong to a group. with the group or a specific individual (Lee et al., 2015). This influence
Displays of luxury elicited different kinds of preferential treatment, may result in important outcomes, such as mating attraction (Hudders
resulting in social and financial benefits (Nelissen & Meijers, 2011). et al., 2014; Sundie et al., 2020) and rival deterrence (Wang &
Status insecurity may trigger susceptibility for normative influence, Griskevicius, 2014). Thus, luxury for women (Stokburger-Sauer &
which may result in a preference for specific brands (Kastanakis & Teichmann, 2013) may be different from men (Kiymalioglu et al.,
Balabanis, 2012). However, if the brand is over diffused, it will lose its 2018). Gender plays a moderating role for both social and individual
luxury character (Dubois & Paternault, 1995). In contrast to assimila- value perceptions (Jain & Mishra, 2018). Consumers seeking domi-
tion, regarding the second purchase usage, differentiation, some nance over others may use luxury brands (Jain & Mishra, 2018), and
FUENTES ET AL. 7

more cognitive resources are allocated to positional consumption cutout was achieved at a level of 0.12, indicating similarity between
when the income gap between the rich and poor is large (Walasek the terms within each group. Figure 4 shows the structure of the
et al., 2018). Perhaps brand choice is a mechanism of defence against terms. Each subtopic is assessed in the following paragraphs.
dominance, as even everyday brands can threaten the self-esteem of
people who experienced poor childhoods (Whelan & Hingston, 2018).
3.2.1 | Moral adjustment

3.1.3 | Affect Previous research has explored personality and values as variables
with mediating/moderating effects. These effects on consumer-
Despite being inherently threatening, consumers also seek luxury related outcomes may indicate that luxury brands can exert a moraliz-
brands to feel secured and protected. Furthermore, luxury represents ing role. Consumers may abandon their own personality/values and
self-protection when spending provides a sense of safety (Ma adopt those that the brand represents (Goenka & Thomas, 2019).
et al., 2019; Makkar & Yap, 2018a; Salonen et al., 2020). Motivations Consumers purchase luxury products for varied reasons but generally
for experiencing positive feelings or emotion seem to not be influenced possess similar values (Hennigs et al., 2012). Conservative values that
by new technologies (Bazi et al., 2020; Quach & Thaichon, 2017), espe- conform with social norms impact luxury for status maintenance (Kim
cially when consumers experience endearment (Brandão et al., 2019). et al., 2018). Conversely, an exploitative interpersonal strategy
Consumers contemplate affect and quality or exclusivity before consid- (marked by Machiavellianism, leadership and ruthless self-advance-
ering a brand to be a luxury (Hudders et al., 2013). According to their ment) may be accompanied with a positive attitude toward luxury
product category, luxury brands are usually expensive in absolute brands. In other words, luxury brands may be an ingredient for an
terms; however, consumers' need for affect may explain such a financial opportunistic and calculating life strategy (Mitic et al., 2018). Conspic-
sacrifice, even during economic recessions (Nunes et al., 2011). Fur- uous and status consumption may also contribute toward creating an
thermore, consumers may seek other alternatives for luxury optimiza- increasingly judgmental consumer society that is further cultivating
tion, such as counterfeits (Ngo et al., 2020), discounts (Yang materialistic values in an ongoing cycle (Arthur et al., 2019). Together,
et al., 2016) or preowned goods (Turunen et al., 2020). the studies indicate that consumers may abandon agreeable personali-
ties or binding values in favour of individualizing ones. Experiencing
unfavourable moral judgements and attitudes may alter consumers'
3.1.4 | Purchase usage and intention discussion preferences in conspicuous consumption. The antecedents of such
judgements and attitudes remain a subject for research regarding this
The effectiveness of this intangible attribute for status signalling may be intangible attribute and others.
contingent upon a consumer's ability to understand when to activate
assimilation or differentiation. Sometimes they may need to be recog-
nized by others and conform, while at other times they may need to dif- 3.2.2 | Hedonism and materialistic values
ferentiate themselves through self-expression. Activating a luxury
function in the wrong circumstances may backfire for consumers. Addi- Some studies have considered the relationship between hedonism and
tionally, the interplay of both functions remains unclear. Some scholars materialism in consumers' status signalling via self-expression. For
have argued that luxury for assimilation is, in phenomenological terms, example, a materialistic orientation is an antecedent for both forms of
distinct from differentiation (e.g., Oe et al., 2018), whereas others have luxury consumption—conspicuous and inconspicuous (Lee et al., 2021).
suggested that these motivations are part of the same continuum Still, materialism and hedonism also influence the social value of brands
(e.g., Ngo et al., 2020) or that striving for differentiation is a consequence (Ajitha & Sivakumar, 2017). Other values (masculinity, power distance
of having previously achieved assimilation (e.g., Perez et al., 2010). The and religious values) relate to collectivism and materialism (Zakaria
difference for purchase usage between luxury and nonluxury brands is et al., 2021). The relationship between materialistic tendencies and
unclear. However, the observed tendency among middle-class consumers preference for luxury brands have been confirmed by neurological
to trade up in product categories that they consider important for their research (Audrin et al., 2017). While extraversion is a trait required for
lives (Walasek et al., 2018) implies that almost anything can be turned materialism, conscientiousness and openness are traits required for
into a luxury (provided that it enables social adaptation). hedonism (Chang et al., 2019; Truong, 2010). Hedonism may rise above
social values for some consumers (Rouhani & Hanzaee, 2012). For
example, some scholars find significant differences between genders
3.2 | Personality and values (Segal & Podoshen, 2013). Young consumers show highlighted traits of
materialism (Sharda & Bhat, 2018), hedonism (Jain, 2021) and emo-
Personality and values is the second most researched intangible attri- tional attachment to brands (Kim, 2019). Hedonism and materialistic
bute (see Table 1). The main idea proposed by this group of studies is values are consumer traits that may incline consumers to luxury brands;
consumers adjusting their personalities and values when in proximity however, these purchases, rather than accomplishment, may signal
to the brand, suggesting a moralizing role for luxury brands. The arrogance to others (McFerran et al., 2014).
8 FUENTES ET AL.

FIGURE 4 Structure of terms from the personality and values literature sample. Source: Author.

3.2.3 | Self-expression and empowerment (Gil et al., 2012). Cognitive resources (emotion and neutralization strate-
gies) are likely to be invested according to socioeconomic status and the
Consumers may need to confidently resolve a series of concerns—from need for signalling status (Cekirdekci & Latif, 2019).
overcoming high-price resistance to guilt and to the risk of sending the
wrong signal. These nuances might cause cognitive dissonance. Self-
expression reduces cognitive dissonance, and personality traits influence 3.2.4 | The personality and values discussion
both social and individual perceptions of value (Shaikh et al., 2017).
Openness and extraversion shape consumers' preferences for extrava- The effectiveness of this intangible attribute for consumers' status sig-
gant designs in luxury brands (Greenberg et al., 2020). Consumers self- nalling may entail transformation. Empirical research suggests that con-
oriented purchase mediates the relationship between materialism level sumers may adjust or even abandon their values to assimilate those
and purchase-evoked happiness (Duan, 2020). Brand values may be that the luxury brand represents (Goenka & Thomas, 2019). Although
another source for consumer empowerment. Luxury brand values have the field of marketing recognizes personality/morality as antecedents
been defined as a four-factor model, including refinement, heritage, for brand choice, it may be the case for luxury (vs. nonluxury) brands
exclusivity and elitism (Roux et al., 2017). Values influence passion that these exert a reverse effect in which brand exposure can influence
through perceived “coolness” or nonconformist attitudes (Loureiro consumers' values, attitudes and life philosophies.
et al., 2020). Some studies have presented evidence of the outcomes
from consumer empowerment, for example, pride and gratitude have
shown to increase promotional electronic-word-of-mouth communica- 3.3 | User profile
tion (Septianto et al., 2021). Finally, certain consumers may be better
equipped to deal with the negative aspects of luxury consumption. The User profile is the third most researched brand intangible attribute
negative effects from luxury purchases diminish through communication (see Table 1). The main topic under this attribute is the importance of
among consumers with shared abstract mindsets (Torelli et al., 2012). achieving a brand–self congruity. The cutout was achieved at a level
Consumers whose self-concept is threatened may consequently avoid of 0.4. From this coefficient, we can conclude that there is less similar-
the purchase of perceived “arrogant” brands (Munichor & Steinhart, ity among the terms compared with other intangible attributes. How-
2016). Teenagers with clear self-beliefs have a strong tendency to resist ever, the coefficient is closer to 0 than to 1. Figure 5 shows the
social motivations as they have less incentive to supplement identities relationships among the terms. Each subtopic is summarized below.
FUENTES ET AL. 9

FIGURE 5 Structure of terms from the user profile literature sample. Source: Author.

3.3.1 | Self-adherence certain consumers (Lai & Prendergast, 2019). Similarly, men evaluate
other men driving a luxury car as rivals and mate poachers rather than
Consumers self-adhere into the class, prestige and status from the friends (Hennighausen et al., 2016). All these factors may have a posi-
user profile associated with the brand. Brands make consumers tive effect on emotional brand attachment (Klabi, 2020).
behave as subjects from a higher class when in direct contact with
their user profile (Dion & Borraz, 2017). Personal brand association is
the goal, which varies among different consumer segments across the 3.3.3 | Self-adherence contexts
social hierarchy (Li et al., 2020). These differences have been catego-
rized as reputation and prestige, credibility and prestige and reputa- Brand–self congruity can be driven by the consumer's self-concept.
tion and authentic pride (Loureiro et al., 2020). Consumers who rank For example, consumers with low self-esteem tend to react negatively
higher in the social hierarchy increase their willingness-to-pay for to physically attractive endorsers (Ono et al., 2020). When the func-
quiet (vs. loud) products with decreased brand prominence (Han tional aspect of the product/service is salient (e.g., an experience),
et al., 2010) To this end, the user profile may be the ideal intangible actual user image seems to be less relevant (Abel et al., 2013). Thus,
attribute to introduce a new luxury brand (Thomas, 2015). this intangible attribute (user profile) is less important for luxury hos-
pitality services (Yang & Mattila, 2013). Core brand consumers dislike
brand immigrants but may tolerate occasional brand users (Bellezza &
3.3.2 | Self-adherence effects Keinan, 2014). Furthermore, core brand consumers may dislike when
products are user-generated designs (Fuchs et al., 2013).
Consumers learn how to identify brand users from a dissimilar class
(Lee et al., 2018). Some consumers might desire disassociation
(Makkar & Yap, 2018a; Makkar & Yap, 2018b), while others may com- 3.3.4 | User profile discussion
pensate for their lack of similarity (Otterbring et al., 2018). Upgrading
is the preferred strategy for consumers with a strong self-brand con- The effectiveness of this intangible for consumers' status signalling
nection, who are unlikely to leave the brand if a dissimilar consumer seems contingent upon a brand–user match. Paradoxically, the users
starts using it (Wang & John, 2019). A luxurious brand can amplify a themselves determine this match. Thus, a self-adherence management
woman's apparent beauty and perceived class status in the eyes of issue arises for luxury branding. This issue may be less relevant for
10 FUENTES ET AL.

FIGURE 6 Structure of terms from the brand heritage literature sample. Source: Author.

nonluxury brands. The studies classified under this intangible category (Kumagai & Nagasawa, 2017), raising difficulties in creating allure for
do not provide enough evidence to explain how consumers may unknown brands by placing them next to other heritage brands. Never-
achieve a status-enhancing signalling function. Although consumers theless, pop-up stores (temporary retail spaces) might lead brands to be
may desire dissociation from dissimilar users, consumers' coping strat- perceived as less luxurious than traditional luxury stores, so they may
egy continues to be self-adherence to a specific user profile. The sig- lead to less embarrassment for consumers and may thus reveal a relevant
nalling function found for this intangible attribute is always related to retail format for luxury brands (Lunardo & Mouangue, 2019).
consumer's integration into the group.

3.4.2 | Metaphysical properties

3.4 | History, heritage and experiences
Luxury brands' communication content is commonly characterized by
The brand heritage intangible is the least explored (see Table 1). The metaphysical qualities assigned to products as part of the aura for this
main concept suggested by studies is an unconscious collaboration in kind of brand (Kim et al., 2016). For example, a sense of anachronism
a “luxurification” process. The cutout was determined at a level of (a sensation of altering time) may be associated with the use of a lux-
0.25, indicating similarity among the terms within each group. ury object (Oakley, 2015). Additionally, teenagers who seek a foreign
Figure 6 presents the relationships between the terms. brand may use them as “magic” cloaks of invisibility (a way to blend
within the group and pass unnoticed) (Sobh et al., 2014).

3.4.1 | Retail experience

3.4.3 | Cult objects: An open process
Consumers perceive the luxury retail experience as a core attribute of
luxury brands (Kim & Lee, 2015). The experience at the retail site may Luxury brands and products are susceptible to becoming cult objects.
provide consumers with an inner-felt validation/certainty on brand Three general steps characterize this process: sincerity (through
choice: shopping experiences strengthen relationship, perceptions of authentic artisanship or ties to a place of origin), disavowal of com-
quality and consumer–brand identification through self-expansion and mercial motives and modern marketing techniques (Beverland, 2005).
the moderating role of novelty seeking (De Kerviler & Rodriguez, 2019). Brands also build binding business models for business collaboration
Store location status may influence unknown brands very slightly (Chailan, 2017), through which brands could supplement capabilities
FUENTES ET AL. 11

and remain modern (Yeoman, 2014). The intervention of a group of them separately as sources of consumer–brand equity (Dwivedi
high-status consumers (such as royalty) influences these narratives et al., 2015; Valette-Florence et al., 2011) or examines their influence
(Otnes & MacLaran, 2018). To this end, consumers may also engage in on consumer-related outcomes, for example, the intention behind a
an unconscious collaboration on branding. While the effects on other purchase via consumer attitudes (Bian & Forsythe, 2012). Conversely,
brands' intangible attributes are moderated by culture and traditional the aim of this analysis was to explore the psychological functions of
values, brand heritage is defined by those consumers who already these attributes within the domain of signalling status. One finding in
enjoy a high status (O'Regan et al., 2019). Moreover, consumers use our study is that the signalling functions found in the subset of articles
the following drivers of value: (1) monetary appreciation, (2) potential classified under purchase usage permeate the literature on the other
to become vintage and (3) inheritance value (Halwani, 2020). intangible brand attributes.
Signalling status through luxury brands can be simplified as a
mechanism through which consumers achieve social fitness by
3.4.4 | Heritage discussion exercising two functions: status-affirmation versus status-enhance-
ment. By this token, these functions receive different names in the lit-
The effectivity of this intangible for consumers' status signalling erature and may be operationalized in different ways according to
entails an unconscious collaboration in the luxurification process of each intangible. For example, within purchase usage, Dubois (2020)
the product/brand. The articles categorized under this intangible attri- conceptualizes the social benefits that consumers get from luxury
bute outline an open process in which by experiencing luxury from a brands as assimilation versus differentiation. Several scholars have
brand experience, consumers are able to collaborate with the “his- defined these luxury functions as social-adjusting versus value-
tory” of the brand (De Kerviler & Rodriguez, 2019). expressive (Ngo et al., 2020). Likewise, within personality and values,
Although a nonluxury brand may also have history, it is rarely the these functions can be found in two senses: binding versus individual-
case that its consumption is celebratory or ritualistic. Similarly, mass izing values (Goenka & Thomas, 2019). For user profile, the literature
products may also reach cult status (e.g., a can of Campbell's soup or a only explores integration of the consumer into a group via self-adher-
bottle of Coca-Cola); however, it seems that luxury brands are keen to ence. Finally, for heritage, both functions may be operationalized as
give the consumer an intimate perspective and a role in this process. unconscious collaboration. However, unconscious collaboration may
By experiencing luxury, consumers take part in history, which also be contingent upon consumers belonging (or not) to a high-status
enables status signalling. group. Consumers who enjoy status and membership to an aspira-
Not every brand has a long history and not every brand with heri- tional group may seek to differentiate themselves by influencing
tage has its future guaranteed in the marketplace. Nevertheless, the brand narratives (Otnes & MacLaran, 2018), attaching metaphysical
experiential nature of heritage as an intangible attribute of a brand properties to goods and brands, for example, the “magic” cloak of
can be a driver of brand love (Joshi & Garg, 2021); therefore, it can be invisibility effect mentioned above (Sobh et al., 2014). Consumers with
useful for overcoming high-price resistance. Brands may engender the status aspiration may assimilate from retail experiences. These experi-
perceived value of a purchased product regardless of its lack of his- ences may strengthen brand relationships, perceptions of quality and
tory. This future value could come from the possibility of the product consumer–brand identification (De Kerviler & Rodriguez, 2019). Ulti-
becoming a cult object in the long term. Moreover, future value of the mately, social fitness results from the ability of consumers to under-
product may come from a merely monetary appreciation driven by the stand when to activate each luxury function to adjust their brand
demand generated from its adoption by a high-status group (Otnes & choice accordingly.
MacLaran, 2018). Consumers who are motivated to engage in status Masstige brands are those that incorporate certain elements of lux-
signalling from heritage brands may seek “future vintage” from which ury branding in their marketing mix (Kumar et al., 2020; Paul, 2019)
they may achieve a higher value in the future (Halwani, 2020). This while selling at more attainable prices in comparison to luxury brands
increase in value may come from successfully discerning between a (Das, Saha, & Roy, 2022). According to this, intangible attributes
timeless classic product or spotting a yet-to-become cult object. explored in this systematic review may also be strategically managed
for masstige branding. Thus, consumer-related outcomes may be
explained through the same mechanisms (Kumar et al., 2021;
4 | DISCUSSION Mansoor & Paul, 2022). Perhaps, consumers may signal status from
masstige brands (Purohit & Radia, 2022). However, masstige brands
Current perspectives on signalling status through the four intangible may only enable status signalling to consumers with a status-
attributes in this study's framework is that they operate indepen- affirmation goal. The status-affirmation signalling function may be con-
dently from one another and apparently with equal relevancy. This ceptualized as achieving a sense of belonging and legitimation from a
implies no connection between them, along with the assumption that social group. For example, acculturation patterns may shape the brand's
they have the same impact on branding or consumer-related out- masstige perception (Das, Saha, Jebarajakirthy, et al., 2022). Consumers
comes. According to Keller (2009), these four intangible attributes are may not be able to achieve status-enhancement from a brand that is
especially important for luxury brands as sources of brand differentia- widely distributed and associated with the mainstream consumption
tion; however, subsequent literature on branding continues to explore (Das, Saha, & Roy, 2022).
12 FUENTES ET AL.

TABLE 3 Sample avenues for future research

Luxury brand
intangible attribute Avenues for future research
Purchase usage and • Conduct studies with luxury products and assess the actual behaviours of participants (Pino et al., 2019)
intention • Comparing levels of a consumer's economic purchasing capacity and affluence on cross-cultural studies (Bellezza &
Keinan, 2014)
• Inconspicuousness can be further investigated by utilizing a more comprehensive viewpoint to evaluate if the
current literature holds any biases (Oe et al., 2018)
• Future research should acknowledge other cultural dimensions from emerging research streams, particularly from
those of Hofstede (Eastman et al., 2018)
Personality and • Further research should continue to examine the impact of traditional media marketing vs. social media marketing
values on variables related to personality/values (Ismail et al., 2018)
• Compare frequent luxury brand buyers with a nonbuyer sample in future studies. Measure relevant variables related
to participant personality/values, for example, adherence to gender beliefs and self-concept (Roux et al., 2017)
• Regarding ethical/sustainable luxury, future studies may consider the anticipated emotions associated with these
purchases (Amatulli et al., 2018)
• Explore the values behind the activation of a status maintenance goal (Kim et al., 2018)
• Determine the effects of religious commitment across different age groups (Zakaria et al., 2021)
• Undertake longitudinal research to build on previous findings. This agenda may include characteristics of
personality—for example, responsibility, loyalty, dedication and courage, among others; the characteristics can also
include other environmental/social factors, such as social norms or corruption (Malik et al., 2020)
• Investigate the effectiveness of symbolic messaging in advertisement (Amatulli et al., 2020)
User profile • Assess inequalities between social classes in service businesses. Consider the interplay of inequalities related to
class, gender and ethnicity, among other demographic variables. Investigate the role of non-Western influences
when understanding consumers (Dion & Borraz, 2017)
• Investigate the effect of physical attractiveness of service personnel. Examine the effect of a perceived dominance
of men over women. Examine if women would be more willing to buy luxurious goods in the presence of an
appearance-threatening female employee. Examine which type of individual has the most pronounced impact on
men's status-signalling consumption: a physically attractive woman or a physically dominant man (e.g., intersexual
attraction vs. intrasexual competition) (Otterbring et al., 2018)
• Identify factors that may reduce the negative effects of unearned luxury consumption and perceptions of fairness
on brand dilution (e.g., gift giving or the effect of brand loyalty). Consumers do not always get an opportunity to
express their attitude through behaviour immediately. Future work may explore the long-term effects of
consumption resources and fairness values on brand attitude (Lee et al., 2018)
• Future research in other cultures could reveal whether there are universal signals perceived by men while seeing
unknown women with luxury brands. Explore potential decoupling between luxury and conspicuousness (Lai &
Prendergast, 2019)
• Understand how the presence of dissimilar brand users influences the brand's image and meanings. Explore
consumers' characteristics among those who do not respond to the presence of dissimilar users at all (Wang &
John, 2019)
• Assess social influence and norms in the relationship between self-image congruence and consumer attitude toward
brands as well as analyse the relationship between personality traits and brand image (Klabi, 2020)
• Understand the effects of different personality traits on luxury consumption to identify the existence of variants of
conspicuous brand users (Li et al., 2020)
History, heritage • Conduct research on real buyers. Value-driven and lifestyle variables (e.g., effects of consumers' rich cultural capital)
and experiences may shed light on how to design brand experiences. Future studies can focus on negative reactions to brand-related
inputs and cognitive mechanisms to cope with these experiences (De Kerviler & Rodriguez, 2019)
• Future research can explore the conditions under which consumer embarrassment of visiting luxury stores can be
mitigated by brands. Examine if creating a sense of urgency prompts consumers to purchase (Lunardo &
Mouangue, 2019)
• Individual difference traits, such as consumer ethnocentrism, consumer xenocentrism or consumer cosmopolitanism,
may offer additional explanation of country-of-origin effects. Another avenue for future research can be to
acknowledge different cues on brand origin (e.g., design-in vs. made-in) (Bartikowski et al., 2019)
• Explore how to transform negative country associations into positive emotional consumer reactions (Siew
et al., 2018)
• Consider the influence of inheritance value and vintage potential on brand choice in order to explore the
relationship between “future vintage” products and signalling status dynamics (Halwani, 2020)

The analysis reveals that most research has explored status- conceptualized as a form of self-exclusion from the group. It seems
enhancement through differentiation signalling function. In the con- reasonable that researchers may have favoured this topic owing to
text of contemporary consumption, this signalling function may be shifts in contemporary consumer behaviour, where consumers
FUENTES ET AL. 13

TABLE 4 Signalling status functions found for each luxury brand apparently have stronger needs for self-expression or materialism/
intangible hedonism (Zakaria et al., 2021). The luxury marketplace is also shifting
Signalling status functions preferences—from traditional goods and products to more sophisti-
cated forms of unconventional luxury (Thomsen et al., 2020) and from
Luxury brand Status-
intangible Status-affirmation enhancement
experiences and services (Wirtz et al., 2020) to other forms of access
without owning the product (Bardhi et al., 2020). Dematerialized cir-
Purchase usage and Assimilation Differentiation
intention cumstances present an extreme form of intangibility wherein the per-
To belong or fit into To stand out from
Number of articles: formance of physical attributes become less relevant (Goor et al., 2021)
the group the group
111/252—44% and luxury is obtained in virtual social networks (Jung et al., 2019).
Personality and Agreeable Extroverted These trends entail the powerful insight that consumers continue to
values personalities OR personalities OR learn and adapt from signalling their status through conspicuous con-
Number of articles: Binding values Individualizing
sumption. The proposed future research perspective is to investigate
82/252—33% values
signalling status functions across the intangible attributes of luxury
Consumers adjust Nonconformist
values/ hedonistic or brands as well as consumer segments that may seek status-affirmation
personalities to materialistic self- versus status-enhancement. Table 3 highlights the suggested relevant
conform expression areas for further study based on the bibliometric analysis of papers in
User profiles Self-adherence the sample with the greatest levels of impact.
Number of articles: Consumers Not found Luxury brand intangible attributes may gain even more relevance
31/252—12% assimilate into for marketing nonphysical luxuries. Luxury services and experiences
the status
may still be subject to branding (Holmqvist et al., 2020). Moreover,
associated with a
brand's user emerging forms of luxury continue to be explored from a signalling
profile status perspective (Banister et al., 2020; Desmichel et al., 2020;
History, heritage Unconscious Unconscious Lawry, 2021). The framework used in this study allows the extension of
and experiences collaboration collaboration previous findings toward these emerging forms of conspicuous
Number of articles: Strengthen brand Influencing the consumption. Table 4 presents the signalling functions discussed in the
28/252—11% identification brand narrative; literature and their implications for each luxury brand intangible. The
from retail attachment of
same two signalling functions are found for each intangible attribute,
experiences metaphysical
properties summarized as status-affirmation versus status-enhancement. In the
case of the user profile intangible attribute, the status-enhancement

FIGURE 7 Proposed new perspective on luxury brand intangible attributes. Source: Keller (2009) with Authors' adaptations.
14 FUENTES ET AL.

function has not been clearly established, while it is possible that con- intangible attribute. For user profile, evidence supports the notion that
sumers self-exclude from current affiliations throughout the process of consumers will deflect their attitudes toward incongruent users.
self-adherence to an aspirational group. These psychological functions Branding could be centred on educating consumers on the profile of
may still prevail for other forms of conspicuous consumption (Dubois the ideal brand–user and how to identify them. Regarding purchase
et al., 2021). usage, brands could capture value in the market by simultaneously
To synthesis this study's contribution, several signalling functions addressing status-affirmation and status-enhancement. For example,
have been identified. These psychological functions can be classified as by wearing luxury watches that are advertised as unisex, luxury-
status-affirmation versus status-enhancement. The signalling functions oriented couples can simultaneously gain status-affirmation and
identified suggest a synergistic relationship between the four intangible status-enhancement collaboratively as a couple. For personality/values,
attributes. Therefore, the importance of their integration in a single stra- marketers and policymakers must be mindful of the moralizing role
tegic management vision can be useful to improve certain desired con- that luxury brands can exert on consumers. Finally, regarding heritage,
sumer outcomes. These findings refine Keller's (2009) notion; these brands could acknowledge and leverage the role of their consumers
brand intangibles may not be independent from each other nor equally today in building the brand's future heritage.
relevant for consumers' signalling status. Figure 7 presents Keller's In terms of implications for scholars, this study integrates existing
(2009) a priori model combined with the proposed signalling functions studies on the topic of the four intangible attributes of luxury brands.
based on the current findings. The classic signalling theory argues in In doing so, it provides a fertile theoretical framework of two psycho-
favour of the acquisition of goods with higher prices as a proxy for a logical status-signalling functions that demonstrate relationships with
costly signalling behaviour (McAndrew, 2019; Nelissen & Meijers, 2011); the different attributes. Finally, a summary of the potential directions
however, price itself may not guarantee the success of signalling status of research shared by the top 10 articles is presented in Table 3, and
(Gutsatz & Heine, 2018). The brand intangibles explored here introduce the main findings from the extant literature are delineated in Table 4.
important information that helps consumers assess the (signalling status) The two psychological functions (status-assimilation and status-
success of their luxury brand choice during the customer journey. Con- enhancement) identified within the literature discussing luxury brands'
sumers' need for status seems dynamic and contingent upon individual purchase usage and intentions permeate all other categories and may
social lives; thus, the effective configuration of brand intangible attri- advance different concerns for the industry, for example, luxury opti-
butes (designed according to the signalling functions sought by con- mization strategies (e.g., buying from discount websites and preowned
sumers) may stimulate the drivers for consumers' willingness-to-pay or or vintage luxury) or preferences for sustainable/ethical labelled luxu-
overcome high-price resistance for luxury brands. ries. Further insights may result from exploring emerging/specific
occasions of consumption other than luxury brands, such as weddings
(Mann & Sahni, 2015), healthcare (Klaus, 2017) or inheritance of a
5 | C O N CL U S I O N father's watch (Kessous et al., 2017). In parallel, some of the literature
discussing personality and values propose an interesting phenomenon
As aforementioned, this study differentiates from other systematic in which, apparently, there is a consumer segment modifying/switch-
reviews by identifying the interplay between the two signalling status ing/abandoning their own personalities and values in favour of those
goals and intangible sources of luxury brand value proposed by Keller that the brand represents, as an outcome of luxury brand consump-
(2009). The review only included empirical scientific articles (excluding tion. Determining the antecedents of this transformation may offer a
books or other type of publications), organized in a brand manage- fruitful avenue for research. The literature discussing the brand intan-
ment framework that comprised four intangible attributes of brands gible of user profile focuses on the importance of achieving a brand–
(excluding other physical or utilitarian brand attributes). The anal- self congruity. Future research could explore how luxury brands can
ysis confirms the trend in the evolution of the number of articles strategically set in place different user profiles to achieve specific
on luxury consumption found in previous review studies (Gurzki & goals like attracting or deterring undesired customers. Finally, the lit-
Woisetschlaeger, 2017), indicating that the interest in this topic erature suggests that the intangible attribute of history, heritage and
continues to grow and confirming the thesis that consumers con- experience is an open process in which consumers are involved. The
tinue to learn how to signal their status through consumption. activities performed by consumers in this process may result in signal-
The review analysed four intangible attributes of luxury brands ling status and could be further explored, as the literature regarding
using a functional perspective. Two psychological functions concern- this issue is unclear. Such research could consider the expanding roles
ing signalling status were identified, confirming that consumers use of consumers (e.g., creator, vendor, curator and patron). This could be
luxury brands for their status-affirmation or status-enhancement. As complemented by exploring differences in the symbolic meaning of
such, it has important implications for managers and scholars alike. pursuing other luxury experiences different from the retail experience,
In terms of implications for managers, a luxury brand may already which has been thoroughly documented. Finally, other metaphysical
have an established configuration of intangible attributes. In some attributes assigned to luxury goods can be investigated (e.g., the cloak
cases, these attributes may be even more significant than perfor- of invisibility).
mance attributes; thus, brands may capture value in the marketplace As a conceptual paper, a main limitation of this study is that the
by creating a unique configuration of luxury brand intangibles for each newly proposed perspective on luxury brand intangibles is not yet
FUENTES ET AL. 15

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Walasek, L., Bhatia, S., & Brown, G. D. A. (2018). Positional goods AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
and the social rank hypothesis: Income inequality affects online
chatter about high- and low-status brands on twitter. Journal of
Consumer Psychology, 28(1), 138–148. https://doi.org/10.1002/ Humberto Fuentes holds Ph.D. studies in Management Sciences
jcpy.1012 at EGADE Business School. He also lectures on brand communi-
Wang, F., Zhang, X. P., & Ouyang, M. (2009). Does advertising create sus- gico de Monterrey. His professional experience
cations at Tecnolo
tained firm value? The capitalization of brand intangible. Journal of the
is within retail for luxury and fashion. His research interests are
Academy of Marketing Science, 37(2), 130–143. https://doi.org/10.
1007/s11747-008-0112-2 luxury brand management and luxury consumer behaviour.
Wang, Y., & Griskevicius, V. (2014). Conspicuous consumption, relation-
Jorge Vera-Martinez holds a Ph.D. in Management Sciences, with
ships, and rivals: Women's luxury products as signals to other women.
Journal of Consumer Research, 40(5), 834–854. https://doi.org/10. an honorific mention, from the National University of Mexico
1086/673256 (UNAM) and an MBA from the Technological Institute of Mexico
Wang, Y., & John, D. R. (2019). Up, up, and away: Upgrading as a response (ITAM). He also holds a degree in experimental psychology from
to dissimilar brand users. Journal of Marketing Research, 56(1), 142–
the National University of Mexico (UNAM). Before his career in
157. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022243718820572
Whelan, J., & Hingston, T. S. (2018). Can everyday brands be threatening? academe, he made his mark as a market research manager for
Responses to brand primes depend on childhood socioeconomic sta- more than 10 years. Currently, Jorge Vera is a Research-Professor
tus. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 28(3), 477–486. https://doi.org/ gico de Monterrey's Business School since 2005.
in the Tecnolo
10.1002/jcpy.1029
He has taught, at graduate and undergraduate levels, subjects
Wiedmann, K., Hennigs, N., & Siebels, A. (2009). Value-based segmenta-
tion of luxury consumption behavior. Psychology & Marketing, 26(7), such as marketing research, brand management, sustainable mar-
625–651. https://doi.org/10.1002/mar keting, science methodology and multivariate methods for
20 FUENTES ET AL.

marketing decisions. He has published several research articles on System of Researchers (SNI) of the National Science and Technol-
topics such as consumer behaviour, service/product performance, ogy Council of Mexico (CONACyT) since 2021. Furthermore, she
consumer involvement/engagement, perceived value, brand per- forms part of the strategic research group Consumer Behaviour
ceptions and marketing strategies. At the EGADE Business and Conscious Marketing at EGADE Business School, where she
School, he is currently the leader-coordinator of the research has published several research articles related to topics such as
group (GIEE) on Consumer Behaviour and Conscious Marketing channel integration, dynamic marketing capabilities and interna-
and a member of the faculty of the Ph.D. Program in Administra- tionalization of SMEs in emerging markets.
tive Sciences. He has been an active member of the National Sys-
tem of Researchers (SNI) of the National Science and Technology
Council of Mexico (CONACyT) since 2006.
How to cite this article: Fuentes, H., Vera-Martinez, J., &
Diana Kolbe holds a PhD degree in Marketing from University of
Kolbe, D. (2022). The role of intangible attributes of luxury
Valencia (Spain). Currently Diana Kolbe is a research professor at
brands for signalling status: A systematic literature review.
EGADE Business School. She has taught marketing courses such
International Journal of Consumer Studies, 1–20. https://doi.
as marketing research, consumer behaviour, digital marketing,
org/10.1111/ijcs.12852
omnichannel marketing and sustainable marketing at graduate
and undergraduate levels. She has been a member of the National