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EE1111A Study notes

Electrical Engineering principles and practice I (National University of Singapore)

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#
analysis

KUL
Basic
equations :
-

Sum of rises set

voltage
1) V =
IR -Aroundas closed loop,
2) P =
VI

3) P = I R
Vs
=

Ve ,
+
VR =
+
VR
4 P
=
Instruments :

Voltmeter : Connected in
parallel to measure
voltage
Ammeter :
Connected in series to measure current Mode
Voltage analysis

-
vet flow of node be
charge into or out of a must

Zero

I i =
22 + is +
i4
I -
Us

in

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Superposition &
evenin
equivalent

Replace all
voltage sources with Short circuit

Replace all current sources with

open
circuit

* Not
applicable to circuits with non-linear elements

Lex :
diodes transistors etc)
, ,

Mircuit
analysis with
non-linear element

V
TH
=
Voc (voltage between A and B)

Kill
Rip : -

voltage sources (short circuit)

~

kill circuit)
current sources
(open
Calculate
-

equation
>
-
resistance

is
is
:

tapacitors
② id =
f(Va)

Load
line

is =

- Va t

Charging : V (t)
,
=
Ve +
Vg(I -

Vo
constant
Discharging :
Va (t) = e

Vo =Capacitor Voltage
before
It = RC
charging/discharging
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I
Series Series L
:

# .
:

Leg :
,
+ .....

Parallel : < =
4 +
C ....
Parallel :
=
....
eg + L
-

Inductor

#
circuits

Period
and
frequency

Period : Interval between two successive instances

Charging i(t)
V (1 E waveform
:
: -e of same definitive value of the

(distance between
peaks or
troughs)
E
Discharging : i(t) =
( =
e ) ie constant
.

Frequency : Number of
periods per unit time

T =
L

R
F =

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frequency
Angular
Peak = Peak to Peak
amp
amp
2

Amplitude of
asymmetric wareforms

I
As one
period :
Ii radians

Let be time seconds

Tp in :

=
2 i
Duty cycle :
- call this e
WTp
=
rad/sec

w =
Umean AD
I
:

W =
If Difference A-AD A (l-D)
f=1 and
As between Umean
: =

Umax :

Difference O-AD AD
between Umin and Umean =
= -

To waveform
express :

Umsin(wt) Vm Amplitude
-
>
V(t) =
As and not
equidistant here
min max are
, amplitude
refers to the eak to Peak
amplitude
Amplitude
tsquare mean

-
Peak-to-Peak Amplitude :
Difference between minimum

value and maximum value in Instead of

using amplitude for Ad calculations better
,

to
one
period use roof mean squared value
·

Peak RMs of sinusoidal Wave

-

amplitude :
If wave
swings equally
above or
:

below a reference value

, peak amplitude Vrms :
m Um -
> Ampliked e
is max difference from reference to

peak amplitude

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Urms of PWM wave :

If
phase difference between A and B is A&
Urms As D
: >
-
Duty cycle

time offset (Dt)

=
RMs of
any periodic wave

If time difference between A and B At

is

X
rms
= Ct de
Tp
X
period

Phase difference (10) : Wat :

&
At x

Phase * If cosine waveform : Ymcos(wt) =

Umsin(wt #) +

If waveform shows offset Resistors in Al circuits

an in time axis
, phase required
-

to
represent the offset

Current and
voltage are

sin function expression :

Umsin (wtI0) in
Phase

Negative phase angle :

if
expression is :
Umsin(wt -
0)

waveform waveform
original
s byO as .
Vp(t) =
Umsin(wt)

Positive phase angle

:
By ohms law :

if
expression is : Um sin (wt + &) ip(t)
=
Si(wt) =
[mSin(wt

waveform
ads
originalwaveforiarsby .

im =

V irms =
if > 0
Op-Op
A leads B
by Op-Op radians,

B A
or
lags by Op-Op radians

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Inductors Ad AC
in circuits
Capacitors in circuits

Current leads
voltage by I
-

-
radians
voltagee
curnttags

Vc(t) = Vmsin(wt)

For capacitors : i
,
(t) =
A
V (t)
=
Umsin(wt)
(
Vmcos(wt)
N

1
=

CVmsin(wt) = w

For inductors :
V (t)
,
=

At
As cos(wt) = sin(wE +
I
(o)
di = : sin
ic = w( Vm sin (wt +
#)
·
im sin (wt +
I)
integrating :
is =

/Sin(wt)dt =
M cos(ut h

As im =
WCVm <

As-cos(wt) :
reactance X

sinlat-bin(wt-E)
: =

,
I Te c
= imsinCut o
This

Product WL is called the reactance of L :

:in = acv"
X
,
= wL = Lif L s

units of X -
>
Ohms(1)

This:in the a
,

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Series RC in AL circuits

-
R does not shift tobeys
cause
phase
Ohn's law
-

-
2 and I shifts
cause
phase as
they
not ohn's law
obey

I
--

Amplitude US
Magnitude

Series RL in Al circuits

RC shift
phase dependency

-
In R2 circuit current will lead but
, voltage ,

shift be from 0 < shift

phase will
phase I

I
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Resonance in RLC circuits

Current in RLC : [lt) =

imsin(wt)

Voltage I
Resistance x Current

(reactance)

I
V (t) im WL
: inductor voltage :

,
=
sin (w + +
#)

Capacitor voltage : V (t)

,
=

sinCut-I

V
,
and U are it radians out of
phase Phasor
,

At a
particular frequency , amplitude of U
,
and V
,
are

equal

: 8
. Lim = -
, We

Ever formula : eio = cos8 + isind

Natural
Wr freq
-
>

AciO : A (cosp + isind

-
>
The circuit resonance at natural
experiences
frequency (Wr) .

-
> At of V and V
resonce
,
as
amplitude , "
is
equal
D)
and
they are it out of
phase : This : Afilw ++
: R =
A cos(wt + &
V + V
,
=
0 Im = A sin (wt + &)

=
Voltage across resistor =

supply voltage Given a sine waveform <(t):

=
A sin (wt + 0)
Amplitude current is
-

Ad
. of
at Wr phasor : X =

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phasor convention/notation Impe dance of resistor

① (t) =
A sin(wt + b) -
> * =
Acid Voltage : V (t) =
Umsin(wt) =
Um L
.

current :
[(t) =
Imsin(wt) =
im L

② (t) A cos(wt + 0)
= =
A sin (wt + 0 + I
Afi(0 + =)

I
=

impedance :

eO L
in
E :

Kno = . ↑

Notation : X = A :
AlcosO + isind) = A

of
Impedance capacitor

Voltage : V (t)
,
:
Vmsin(wt) Um =

Current ·
i (t) =
im Sin (Wt + 1) :
im

impedance :

I number
=

A
=

=+ complex
>
-
= (() E)
-

+
isin/
I
-

=)
Complex impedance
2
-To
resistance ,
inductance and capacitance all
represented by impedance
↑ -
>
Voltage phasor
z :

E i -
> Current
phasor impedance of inductor

Voltage :
V
:
(t) =
Umsie(wt) =
VL

current : [t) = Umsin (wt -

#) :
in
WLL
impedance
=- Lot
: =

= = u(((t) jsin(I) +

E = jwL
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of
impedance multiple components
AC circuit
analysis using phasor and
impedance

Series 2
:
Zeg :

,
+
Zzt . .. .
+ In

I
Parallel +

#
:
.
:

# & . .

In

impedance summary

Filters

Filter is 2 device that takes in

port
-

a
signal
Vir ,
and
produces a different
signal Vout

Potential divider as filter

Vort
I
- Vin
R , + R2

Filter (0) : 6 =

gGil
t =

ac

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Low
Pass filter

Complex gain

magnitude
:

of
gain
IFI
:
I Cutoff
frequency
Bode

:
plot

frequency
drops to
at which

-3 dB
response

I
181 :

Tomel na
Cutoff
Grequency =

Tr
161 :

mi

* As
frequency approches cutoff :

Vort g Vin

Vie Vort
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filter RC filter
High pass Bandpass
-

- .

low pass high pass

↑
low and filter
Combining a
pass a
high pass
means we can create a
range
of
frequencies that

are allowed to
pass through the filter

p
if , fz

* the orientation of the and

switching high pass
low does not alter the of the
pass range
filter
~

LC circuit filters

For LC circuits act ass

as
,
they
Cutoff :
-
frequency filters.
2πRC

Formula for
Asfreq cutoff

beingsi
:
away from
recoent
* is

VirtagsVo
e

As and
- cutoff in Vort in
phase
,
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DC Motor (PMDC)

Can use left hand rule to determine direction

of force current wire in

a
carrying experiences
field
.
a
magnetic

I
Force = [l B sin O O :
Angle between

current and For

magnetic the above
system
:

field

B: Magnetic field FW =
iRBW

strength

I ¡
:

length of wire AsW

charges
while
loop rotates (max at 4 = 0 and

Moments
min at 1 =
900)

it rotates
Moment produced by single loop varies as

Moments of multiple

loops accumulate and the

,

resultant moment is

Smoothed out and

nearly
Constant

EM
torque

Sum of -
> EM
moments in all
loops Torque
Moment :
FW W :
Distance between

both conductors Tem = nicBW n : number of

loops
L : Current
Cleft arm and rig ht R of each conductor
length
:

arm)
ro

B : flux density
Magnetic
W :
Max distance between
two conductors

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In an assembled DC Motor
,
BW is fixed

Therefore motor should increase to

theoretically ,
speed
neBW -
>
torque constant (K) infinity

K unit :
NM)A
:
Te n =
Kia However motor
speed reaches
steady state due to :

I
,

~
Friction
ia> -
Rotor/armature current
-
Back EM F

DC motor internal construction

Motor
speed :

2+ rad/sec
Rom units
w = :

Fictio tion exists

,
it will
oppose
the motiof e

armature :

T :
Friction
f torque
The += Te m -T f
EM
Tem :
torque

Friction
When DC motor connected to source -
> doesn '
spie torque is
proportional to motor
speed :

instantaneously
Friction
Armature coil is both inductive and resistive Tf =

Kg .
~ Ky :
constant

At
Electrical time constant :
Steady State :

La : inductance of coil
To
= Tem =

To
Ra : Resistance of coil

Thet"Tem-Tf G

I
=

Motor
speed

If Tem Wis Steady

stee
= :

Was =

motor
speed
From Fima
equations :
,
as mass of coil to and

F = ilB force is also I0 it

,
implies
that o
a #

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Back EME interim

Summary :

As coil it flux
moves
, experiences a
changing magnetic ,

which causes EMF to be induced in the coil

Induced the movement of the Coil

Voltage opposes

I
Circuit model of armature

induced is called back EMF

voltage

DC Motor can be modelled as a DC Circuit :

Back EMF is
proportional to the
angular velocity :

Ke : Back EMF constant

Ve =
Ke -
c unit :
Vs/ rad
(volt sec/rad)

For PMDL K Applying KVL the

a Motor :
Ke =

+ K :
Torque constant around circuit :

Ve Vs CaRa
-

Back EMF also causes

"back Current
Not an actual current

(force that limits normal

current)

As F I
= &B if i is reduced F is reduced ·

, ,

Thus acceleration is

reduced
$

Therefore back EMF limits motor

speed

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Vs ia is line with This fw is the of

negative slope W
equation
=

graph straight :
-
a a

relatio
Straight with a
negative slope of

to
ke

No load speed

Characteristic

By substituting

W =

I -
equation

is :

into
Tem
Ve
of

a
=
PMDC

and

Us
-

Tem
Ve

CaRa
Motor

=
R

we
get
:

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Stall/stalling torgue Torque graph at differentUs

Cre da VS
Torque graph differs with different
appliedstages :

Maximum

-
At

At
half

half
power

of

Operating point
of

OR
developed
stall

no

moves
torque

load

along
speed

,
occurs

trading
:

and
between

torque
speed

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↑ -

-
sloperemainsrechargedasUs Chargeonwards

Operating point
For

At
a
given Vs

Steady
w =

State
:

,
net
-Raa
torque = 0
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Operating point : No load attached to motor shaft Load line of PMDL motor
analysis

Asfriction exists ,
a small EM Torque (Tem) is
produced
to overcome friction torgue (Tf) so that Net torque
is Zero
.

I
Tem :

If

Friction torque to
is
proportional speed :

Tf =
Kf .
W

Thus we can derive the

equation :
Power
and efficiency :

K -
> Friction
w

I
=

constant

load attached to shaft

Operating point :
Mechanical motor

Motor must
produce enough torque to overcome load torque (T))
and friction torque (Tf) .

equilibrium
They Te n -Ty-Tf =

Input electrical
power
:
Pix =

Usia

:
Tem
=
Tc + Tf Power loss
(copper loss due to rotor resistance) :

Per-loss
=
L Ra

Power
developed by motor :

Paev =
Pin-Par-loss

I =
?
Vsia-i

Ve i a
Ra =
(Vs-iaRa) ja

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Port coT
output power
: H
=
:
L

efficiency : n =

ot
I :

I
DC
Stages of
making a
power supply
AC- DC rectifier

Half-wave rectifier :

Electrical transmission at
high voltage

Power loss in a transmission cable :

Poss :
[Riine Full wave rectifier :

P U i
Required power
to transmit : = x

: To P constant V is increased
keep ,

totipade

Ideal transformer

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Biode Full Wave rectifier

Diode rectifier
bridge :

Forward biased :

↑
P side than &
-

voltage applied at is higher

Current flows from P to N

Reverse biased half

:
During positive cycle
:

-Voltage applied thas

toPis Howe e current flow)

D, an d D2 -
> forward biased
Reverse biased
Da and Dy -
>

Half wave rectifier

Single diode serves as HWR :

During negative half

cycle :

rectification
efficiency delivered
-

is low
,
as
power
is Di an d D2 -
> reverse biased
Forward biased
half Da and Dy -
>

only cycle

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*V : Peak to peak ripple voltage

I
V
Average voltage of FWR
output AV L
Capacitance
"If
--
:

RC
R : load resistance

f
AC
: Al
frequency
voltage :
Vin(t)
=

Umsiewt level
V :
Output voltage

63
Average Voltage :
Vo = m = .
0
Vm Capacitance chosen is
usually large
so that it

,
arg
discharges Slowly

Ta ke s for fall below

↑
V to
I
approx ,

Al
Diode rectifier filter voltage
bridge with
Capacitor

be used
Capacitors can

to the
smooth
output
for a HWR

T
want the
discharge time to be :

ar
=

Fluctuation in is still but much

voltage ripple present ,

smaller than without

capacitor

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