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PHYSICAL SCIENCE 2. Inflation

______________________________________
 is a theory of exponential expansion of
LESSON 1: IN THE BEGINNING ((Big space in the early universe. The
Bang Theory and Formation of the Light inflationary epoch lasted from 10−36
Elements) seconds.

Physical Science 3. Nucleosynthesis

 It is a branch of natural science that  is the process that creates new atomic
studies non-living systems, in contrast to nuclei from pre-existing nucleons,
life science. It in turn has many branches, primarily protons and neutrons.
each referred to as a "physical science",
together called the "physical sciences".
4. Recombination

Lesson proper:  refers to the epoch at which charged

electrons and protons first became
Cosmology bound to form electrically neutral
o is a branch of astronomy that involves hydrogen atoms.
the origin and evolution of the
universe, from the Big Bang to today
and on into the future. 5. Annihilation
 in physics, reaction in which a particle
and its antiparticle collide and disappear
3 COSMIC STAGES – through which specific releasing energy
groups of elements were formed
1. Big bang nucleosynthesis formed the light
elements (H, He, and Li). 6. Redshift

2. Stellar formation and evolution formed  the displacement of spectral lines toward
the elements heavier than Be to Fe. longer wavelengths (the red end of the
spectrum) in radiation from distant
3. Stellar explosion , or supernova, formed galaxies and celestial objects.
the elements heavier than Fe. Object receding: Long Red Waves
Object approaching: Short blue waves

BIG BANG THEORY

o explains how the elements were initially COSMIC MICROWAVE BACKGROUND
formed the formation of different (CMB) - is electromagnetic radiation left over
elements involved many nuclear from an early stage of the universe in Big
reactions, including fusion, fission and Bang cosmology.
radioactive decay
o part of its proof is the amounts of H and
He we have in the universe today.

STAGES OF BIG BANG THEORY

1. Singularity
 a point in space and/or a moment intime
where the universe was infinitely hot and
dense
ATOM - are the smallest unit of matter that
have all the properties of an element. They
composed of smaller subatomic particles as
protons, neutrons, and electrons

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Ions - which are positively or negatively

charged particles, have the same number of
protons in different number of electrons.

PROTON – positive
NEUTRON – no charge
ELECTRON - negative

Atomic Number (Z) - indicates the number of

protons in an atom. In a neutral atom, number
of protons is equal to the number of electrons.

Atomic Mass (A) - is equal to the sum of the

number of protons and neutrons.

Isotope - refer to atoms with the same atomic

number but different atomic masses.
LESSON 2: STELLAR NUCLEOSYNTHESIS  Hydrogen burning (Proton-proton
chain, carbon cycle)
 Helium burning (Triple-Alpha process)
EVIDENCES OF THE BIGBANG  Burning of heavier elements
(Lithium-burning, Carbon-burning, Neon-
 Cosmic expansion, Edwin Hubble
burning, Oxygen-burning, Silicon-
 Cosmic Microwave Background,
burning)
George Gamow
 Primordial/ Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis
Stellar Nucleosynthesis: Hydrogen
Burning
Stellar Nucleosynthesis - Formation of heavy
elements during stellar evolution

A Brief Background about Stellar

Evolution
What eventually happens to stars depend
on their masses.
• A low-mass star ends up as white dwarf
• A high-mass star ends up either as a
neutron star (after a supernova
explosion) or a black hole

Stellar Nucleosynthesis: Helium Burning

• A star is formed when a cloud of gas and

dust collapse to the point where the
material in the center of the clump is so
dense and hot that nuclear fusion of
hydrogen nuclei and helium nuclei
occurs.
• The outflow of energy released by these
reactions provides the pressure
necessary to halt the collapse. The
pressure and gravity are in hydrostatic
equilibrium.

Stellar nucleosynthesis
- Nuclear reactions taking place in stars to
build the nuclei of the heavier elements.
- The important nuclear fusion
processes in stellar nucleosynthesis are:
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Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle
Stellar Nucleosynthesis: Burning of
heavier elements

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Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
LESSON 3: Atomos, Aristotle and Alchemy
(Chemistry before Modern History)

The Gnome Theory of Physics

Atoms
 Atoms are simply gnomes in their
I. ATOMISM
smallest form. So small, one can’t even
see these gnomes under a microscope.
Each of these itty-bitty gnomes hold
hands and feet to build webs of atoms Leucippus and Democritus
which create everything we have in our
infinite universe. From drawers to doors-
it's all made of gnomes! Radioactivity
arises when one unwanted gnome is
thrown from his structure and hurdles
toward another.  Were two of the most important theorists
about the natural and physical world
 They were called physicists in Ancient
Gravity Greece
 They considered the idea of atomism
 Gnomes like the ground. Gnomes throw
small invisible ropes to the ground. These
ropes attach to unseen hooks that enable Atomism
muscle-toned gnomes to pull themselves
toward the ground. All bodies experience o the idea that things are made up of
gravitational attraction to each other much smaller things that cannot be
quite simply because gnomes are, to put changed/divided.
it mildly, sociable creatures. o Atoms make up most of the things in the
universe; where there are no atoms,
there is a void
Light o Atoms are incredibly small and cannot
be divided, hence atomos (uncuttable)
 Gnomes that make up our eyes can see o Atoms themselves are solid,
what color hats other gnomes re wearing homogeneous and cannot change
to make up, say, a table. They then hi- o Atoms moving about and colliding in the
five gnomes in our ‘optical nerve’ who run void cause changes we see in our
to tell the brain gnomes want they have universe
seen. This makes us think we are seeing o The shapes, sizes and weight of
a table when in fact, it’s all gnomes. individual atoms influence the
characteristics of the thing they make up

States of Matter
 A solid is little more than a closely
compacted configuration of gnomes all
holding hands, wearing hats and having
legs. Heating causes gnomes to become
excited/tickled. They start to loosen their
grip of their neighbors (liquid). When Do not re-sell this reviewer:)

gnomes are tickled, they are no longer Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle

able to hold on and just float away in

groups of one or more (gas). Sometimes
the gnomes get so excited they catch fire
(plasma)
II. Non-atomistic views of the Greek III. Growth of alchemy across different
civilizations
Anaxagoras
o He is a philosopher
that argued that ALCHEMY
there was an
 a science that was used in the Middle
infinite number of
Ages with the goal of changing ordinary
elementary
metals into gold
natural
substances in the
form of
infinitesimally small particles that
combined to comprise the different
things in the universe
Mesopotamians
 Had techniques to utilize metals like gold
Empedocles and copper
 Assigned certain symbols to match
o He is a philosopher who stated that
metals with the heavenly bodies such as
everything is made
the Sun and Moon
up of four eternal
 Made use of other materials such as
and unchanging
dyes, glass, paints and perfumes
kinds of matter
fire, air (all

gases), water
(all liquids and
metals) and Egyptians
earth (all solids)  Adapted techniques from the
Mespotomians and perfected the use of
bronze, dye and glass that the Greeks
later copied
Plato
o Each of the 4 kinds of matter is composed Chinese
of geometrical solids (Platonic
solids) further divisible into  Had their own processes for metal work
triangles and ceramic materials
 Focused on finding minerals, plants, and
substances that could prolong life
 Some of the substance discovered in
o Chinese medicine have been found to
have actual positive effects while others
were found useless or even harmful like
Aristotle mercury
o The four elements Do not re-sell this reviewer:)
Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle

could be balanced in
substances in an Indians
infinite number of  Like the Chinese, had a kind of alchemy
ways, and that when (rasayana) that looked at diff. substances
combined gave and practices for Vedic medicine. This is
proportions of tied closely to Hindu and Buddhist beliefs
“essential qualities”, hot dry, cold and  Perfected the use of iron and steel
wet. Transformations between the four
elements caused changes in the universe
 Well-known manufacturers of dyes, Pseudoscience
glass, cement, solutions for textiles, and
o Consists of statements, beliefs or
soap
practices that are claimed to be
scientific and factual, in the absence
of evidence gathered and constrained
Arabs and Muslims
by appropriate scientific methods
 Enriched not only the practice but also
the literature of chemistry

Jabir Ibn-Hayyan
o A scholar, also ’Geber’
o Translated the practices and
Aristotelian thinking of the Greeks
and wrote extensively on how
metals can be purified. He came
up with the preparation of acids
such as nitric, hydrochloric and
sulfuric acids, as well as aqua
regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid)
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IV. Western Alchemy

Protoscience
o An unscientific field of study which later
developed into real science (e.g.
astrology toward astronomy and alchemy
toward chemistry)
o Also called “emerging science/near
science”
LESSON 4: NOT INDIVISIBLE (The structure RADIOACTIVITY
of the Atom)
 The spontaneous decay of atomic nuclei.
 During radioactivity, alpha particles,
beta-rays and gamma rays are emitted.
Important notes!
 The atom is composed of protons,
neutrons, and electrons.
 The nucleus was discovered by Ernest
Rutherford in 1909 using the gold foil
experiment.
 Radioactivity is the process by which
atomic nuclei spontaneously decay.
 Gamma rays are high-energy electrons
that are emitted by a nucleus during beta
decay.
 Matter is composed of an infinite number
of divisible particles called atoms that are
constantly moving.
 Brown observed the random movement
of microscopic particles, now known as
Brownian motion
 Atoms are the smallest particle of an
element and are indivisible.
 J.J. Thomson established the existence of
DEMOCRITUS (460-370 B.C.)
electrons in atoms
 Rutherford observed that alpha particles  There are various basic
were sometimes deflected at high angles elements from which all
when passing through a thin gold foil. matter is made
 Electrons in the Bohr model move in  Everything is composed
defined circular orbits around the of small atoms moving in
nucleus. a void
 Some atoms are round, pointy, oily, have
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Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle
 Ideas rejected by leading philosophers
ATOM because void = no existence
 sometimes known as the BILLIARD
 The smallest unit of matter as recognized
BALL concept of the atom, wherein the
by chemical properties of molecules.
atom is an incredibly small but smooth
composed of protons, neutrons and
and whole object.
electrons.

 very small; typical sizes are around 100
picometers (a ten-billionth of a meter, in
the short scale)
ROBERT BROWN
 He is known for his
NUCLEUS idea of the random
movement of
 is the small, dense region consisting
microscopic particles
of protons and neutrons at the
or "Brownian
center of an atom, discovered in 1911
motion."
by Ernest Rutherford based on the 1909
Geiger– Marsden gold foil experiment.
JOHN DALTON (1766-1844) subatomic level, or
changes within the
 Introduced his ideas in 1803 that each
atom itself. In 1902,
element is composed of extremely small
he worked in
particles called atoms
Thomson’s
 Proponent: John Dalton This model
laboratory where he
suggested that atoms:
distinguished two
 are the smallest particle of an element
kinds of radiation
 of different elements have different
based on their penetrating power: α (alpha)
masses
and β (beta). He studied these types of
 are solid, indestructible units.
radiation and noticed, from his experiments,
that alpha particles would sometimes
bounce off at a high angle when made to
J.J. THOMSON
penetrate a very thin gold foil.
 Conceptualized following cathode
Diagram of the Rutherford atomic
ray experiments
model. Physicist Ernest Rutherford
 First model to use idea of
envisioned the atom as like a miniature
subatomic particles
solar system, with electrons orbiting
Later in 1897, Joseph John around a massive nucleus, and as mostly
Thomson published the idea that electricity empty space, with the nucleus occupying
was in particles that were part of the atom. only a very small part of the atom.
Experimenting with cathode rays, he
Gold Foil Experiment
established the mass and charge properties
of these particles. These particles were
named electrons.
In 1904, he came up with the plum-
NIELS BOHR
pudding model, which was an idea of what
the atom looked like based on his  Has a nucleus
experiments.  Has energy levels/quanta
 Explains why electrons don’t fall into the
He would later conclude that the electron
nucleus
was not the only source of mass in the atom.
 proposed that the electrons “jumped”
This implied that the atom was composed of
between energy levels
other particles.
 Niels Bohr, another scientist in
Rutherford’s laboratory. He tackled one
of the big issues with the Rutherford
Thomson “Plum Pudding” Model - a
model in 1913. The system proposed by
sphere with a uniformly distributed
Rutherford was unstable because, under
positive charge and enough embedded
classical physics, the spinning electrons
electrons to neutralize the positive
would tend to be attracted to the
charge. A plum pudding is a sort of cake
positive nucleus and lose energy until
with raisins embedded in it.
they collapse into the center. Bohr
Cathode Ray Tube Experiment proposed that the electrons existed
only at fixed distances from the
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ERNEST RUTHERFORD quanta. Quanta was first conceptualized
mathematically by Max Planck by
 Has a nucleus absorbing or releasing discrete amounts
 Conceptualized following a-particle of energy.
elements However, the Bohr model of the
Ernest Rutherford, a student of atom was still unable to explain why
Thomson’s, who was among many who atoms bonded in certain ways to form
studied radioactivity. He concluded that compounds. For example, carbon
radioactivity occurred due to changes on a
formed compounds of CH4 while oxygen  The neutron was able to explain the
formed H2O. mass unaccounted for by a system of
protons and electrons only.
 In the Bohr model of the atom, electrons
 It also allowed for more far-reaching
travel in defined circular orbits around
advancements in nuclear physics and
the nucleus.
chemistry.
 The orbits are labeled by an integer, the
quantum number n.  It gave an understanding of isotopes
 Electrons can jump from one orbit to and radioactive decay, and provided
another by emitting or absorbing energy. the tools to synthesize new elements
and radioactive materials. These
advancements, for better or for
ERNEST SCHROEDINGER and WERNER worse, changed the landscape of
HEISENBERG science because they gave us the
ability to derive large amounts of
QUANTUM MODEL
energy from splitting the atom
 Has a nucleus (nuclear fission).
 Has energy levels or quanta
Gold Foil Experiment
 Explains why electrons don’t fall into the
nucleus
 Has idea of orbitals
 In quantum mechanics, this branch
augmented the Bohr model with new
explanations of how matter behaved at a
very tiny level that turned it into the
quantum model of the atom used today.
 The model is based on mathematical
equations by several scientists, including
Werner Heisenberg and Ernest
Schrödinger

Quantum Model
- This model uses complex shapes of
orbitals (sometimes called electron
clouds), volumes of space in which
there is likely to be an electron.

JAMES CHADWICK
 James Chadwick was a student of
Rutherford’s who built on this
possibility in 1926. He worked on
radiation emitted by beryllium that
took the form of particles heavy
enough to displace protons.
 These particles were as heavy as
protons, but they needed to have a
neutral charge that would allow them
to smash into the nucleus without
being repelled by electrons or
protons. He confirmed their existence
by measuring their mass and called
them NEUTRONS.
LESSON 5: Corpuscles to Chemical Atomic  Atoms combine in small, whole number
Theory (The development of Atomic Theory) ratios

Robert Boyle 3 FUNDAMENTAL LAWS

 He recognized elements as the simplest 1. Antoine Lavoisier’s Law of
substances that constitue mixtures, and Conservation of Mass
that elements are those that cannot be Mass is netiher created or
decomposed into other substances via destroyed during an ordinary chemical
chemical reactions. reaction/physical reaction
 He emphasized the need to observe and
test the presence of corpuscles in
alchemical experiments
 Had the idea of: Corpuscles “certain
primitive and simple, or perfectly
unmingled bodies’ that were indivisible
and whole
2. Joseph Proust’s Law of Definite
Proportions
Antoine Lavoisier Chemical compound contains the
same elements in exactly the same
 Father of Modern Chemistry proportions by mass regardless of the
 He opposed the Phlogiston Theory (a sample of the source of the compound
superseded scientific theory that
postulated that a fire-like element called
phlogiston is contained within
combustible bodies and released during
combustion.
 Defined CHEMICAL ELEMENT
(substance that cannot be broken down
into simpler components)
 Defined COMPOUND (a substance
composed of these elements
 Made an initial list of 33 elements, and 3. John Dalton’s Law of Multiple
created a systematic way of naming Proportions
elements and the compounds they If two or more different
created. compounds are composed of the same
 He also wrote the first Chemistry two elements, then the ratios of the
textbook masses of the second element, combined
with a certain mass of the 1st element is
always a ratio of small whole numbers

John Dalton
 His chemical atomic theory merged the
concepts of the atom and element

CHEMICAL ATOMIC THEORY

 Gases, and al chemically inseparable
elements, are made of atoms
 The atoms of an element are identical in
their masses
 Atoms of different elements have
different masses
DALTON’S CHEMICAL ATOMIC THEORY
 That elements were made of the same
atoms and had properties unique to the
element, while chemical compounds
were made of different
combined/compounded atoms, and
exhibited different sets of properties
 That one could compute the weights of
elements (and their atoms) by looking at
comparable amounts of the compounds
they formed
 That one could compute atomic weights
compared to a reference
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Joseph Gay-Lussac
 He determined that oxygen gas was
made of 2 atoms of oxygen and took
the form of a molecule instead of an
atom. This offered the possibility that an
element wasn’t necessarily made up of
one atom, thus distinguishing the atom
from the molecule

Amedeo Avogadro
 He figured out a reliable way of
weighing atoms and molecules
(MOLE). He determined that equivalent
volumes of two gases under similar
conditions contained equal numbers of
particles, and that differences in their
masses was a result of a difference in
their molecular masses

Dmitri Mendeleev
 He published a periodic table of
elements that ordered elements
according to their atomic weights.
He noted patterns in their properties that
enabled him to predict the discover of
other elements. His table became the
basis of the modern Periodic Table.
LESSON 5.2: Lewis Dot Structures and • One triple bond, or three single
Molecular Geometries bonds, or one double bond and
one single bond
 Carbon (and silicon) form four covalent
Lewis Dot Structures bonds.
• Two double bonds, or four single
 Created by Gilbert Lewis in 1916
bonds, or one triple and one
 Shows structural formulas for
single, or one double and two
compounds
singles
 Arrangement of atoms and bonds within
a compound
 Uses valence electrons LEWIS DOT STRUCTURES - COMPOUNDS
 One dot = one valence electron
 Make the atom wanting the most bonds
 One dash = a covalent bond = two
the central atom (if more than 2 total
electrons
atoms)
 Draw proper number of dots (= valence
Structural formula for electrons around each atom).
Methane, CH
4  Join atoms on the outside with the
central atom using electron pairs,
obeying the HONC rule
 Make sure every atom has a full valence
shell (2 e- for H, 8 for everything else)
 Boron the only exception we’ll cover, he
gets 6 valence electrons

Carbon Based Molecules

 Lewis structures show how valence

electrons are arranged among atoms in a
molecule.
 Lewis structures reflect the idea that
stability of a compound relates to the
octet rule
 Shared electrons pairs are covalent
bonds and can be represented by two
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY
dots (:) or by a single line ( - )
 Based on Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR) theory
 Electron pairs around a central atom
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arrange themselves so they can be as far

HONC RULE
apart as possible from each other.
 Hydrogen (and Halogens) form one  Compounds take a three-dimensional
covalent bond shape based on:
 Oxygen (and sulfur) form two covalent  Number of atoms attached
bonds  Number of unbonded electrons present
• One double bond, or two single  These are general rules for binary
bonds compounds
 Nitrogen (and phosphorus) form three  There are always exceptions!!! (including
covalent bonds organics)
FIVE MOLCEULAR SHAPES One pair of unbonded electrons, push
hydrogens out of plane
1. LINEAR

4. TRIGONAL PLANAR
Boron is central atom
surrounded by three fluorine
Carbon is central atom atoms (or H or other
Surrounded by two oxygen atoms halogen)

No unbonded electrons on carbon Boron can defy octet rule,

happy with six electrons
Look for AX2 geometry
No unbonded electrons on boron,
◦ Central atom is group 14 fluorine atoms stay within a single plane

2. BENT PLANAR VS. PYRAMIDAL

Oxygen is central atom

◦ Central atom is typically group 16.
Surrounded by two atoms (H or halogen)
5. TETRAHEDRAL
Two unbonded electron pairs on oxygen,
push hydrogens out of the plane

BENT vs. LINEAR - Difference

AX4 formula
Carbon (or silicon) surrounded by four
hydrogens (or halogens)
Only shape we’re concerned with four
surrounding atoms

3. TRIGONAL PYRAMIDAL

Nitrogen surrounded by three hydrogen

atoms (or halogens)
POLARITY
 Bond Polarity  Nonpolar shapes
 Difference in electronegativity between
 Linear
two atoms in a chemical bond
 Unequal sharing of electrons between  Trigonal Planar
elements
 Tetrahedral
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 These are just guidelines for binary
BOND POLARITY compounds (two elements).
Compounds with multiple elements and
Ionic
organics do not apply to these rules.
◦ Elements on opposite sides of

periodic table (metal + nonmetal)
◦ Examples
◦ NaCl, LiF, ZnCl
Polar Covalent (unequal sharing)
◦ Two elements on right side (both
nonmetals) of periodic table
◦ C-O, S-O, P-Br
Nonpolar covalent (equal sharing)
◦ Two of the same element on the
right side of the periodic table
◦ H-H, Cl-Cl, O=O

MOLECULAR POLARITIES
 Polar molecules occur when electrons
are NOT distributed equally
 Look for symmetry within molecule
 Only one line of symmetry –
Polar molecule
 Polar shapes
 Trigonal pyramidal
 Bent
 These rules will apply regardless of the
number of atoms on the molecule with
these shapes

 Nonpolar molecules occur when electrons

are distributed equally
 Look for symmetry within molecule
 More than one line of symmetry –
Nonpolar molecule
LESSON 6: TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR EXAMPLE:
FORCES Dipole-
dipole forces
are the
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES predominant
intermolecular
 The forces of attraction and repulsion
forces present
between molecules are known as
between
intermolecular forces
hydrogen
 These are the forces that physically
chloride
bind molecules, ions and atoms together
molecules.
Since the chlorine atom tends to
pull the electrons, it becomes the
Types of intermolecular forces: partially negative center while the
 London dispersion forces hydrogen atom becomes the partially
 Dipole-dipole forces positive center
Do not re-sell this reviewer:)
 Ion-dipole forces Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle

 Hydrogen bonding

HYDROGEN BONDING (H-BONDING)

LONDON DISPERSION FORCES (LDF)  Hydrogen bonding is a very strong
 LDF are weak and temporary type of dipole-dipole force that operates
attractive forces arising from in some H-containing molecules
momentary fluctuations in electron  These forces of attraction exist between
densities (concentration of electrons) molecules of compounds that have at
within the atoms of a molecule least one hydrogen-nitrogen,
 LDF is present in all molecular hydrogen-oxygen or hydrogen-
substances fluorine bond
 LDF are the only intermolecular forces of
attraction present in:
- Nonpolar substances
- Noblegases

ION-DIPOLE FORCES (IDF)

DIPOLE-DIPOLE FORCES
 An ion is an atom/molecule with a
 A dipole is a molecule with different positive or negative charge due to
centers of positive and negative charge loss/gain of electrons
 Dipole forces arise from electrostatic  IDF are attractive forces that result from
attraction between the partial positive the electrostatic attraction between
(δ+) and the partial negative (δ-) end of an ion and a dipole
another molecule  IDF are commonly found in solutions,
 These forces are observed to increase especially those that are comprised of
when the polarity of the molecule ionic compounds in polar liquids.
increases.
LESSON 6.2: TYPES OF
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES IN THE
REMEMBER!!!!!
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
 London dispersion forces
Weak and temporary attractive
forces arising from temporary fluctuation  The forces of attraction and
of electron denisities repulsion between molecules are
 Dipole-dipole forces known as intermolecular forces
Electrostatic interaction of the (IMF) (Ebbing & Gammon, 2009)
partial charges in dipoles.  These are forces that physically bind
 Ion-dipole forces molecules, ions and atoms together
Electrostatic interaction between
an ion and a dipole
 Hydrogen bonding
Very strong dipole-dipole between
molecules containing at least one
hydrogen-nitrogen, hydrogen-oxygen, or
hydrogen-fluorine bond

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Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle

IMF of SURFACE TENSION

 Surface tension is the tendency of
liquids to minimize surface area
 The higher the intermolecular forces
between molecules of the same kind, or
cohesive forces, the higher the surface
tension
 Intermolecular forces of attraction that
contribute to higher cohesive forces are:
- Hydrogen bonding
- Dipole-dipole forces
SUMMARY!!!

IMF on SOLUBILITY
 The Rule of thumb is: Like dissolves
like
 Polar solutes are soluble in polar
solvents
 Nonpolar solutes are soluble in nonpolar
solvents
 IMF that increases solubility in polar
solvents like water are:
- Hydrogen bonding
- Dipole-dipole forces
- Ion-dipole forces
 IMF that increases solubility in nonpolar
solvents are:
- London dispersion forces

IMF on MELTING POINT AND BOILING

POINT
 Polar molecules are soluble in polar
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 Ionic compounds and ion are highly

soluble in polar solvents.
LESSON 6.3: EXPLAINING THE EFFECT OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ON
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ON THE PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES OF SUBSTANCES
Asie from state/phrase, the following
properties of substances are also dictated by the
strength of the intermolecular forces present:
Intermolecular Forces
 Melting point (temperature at which solid
 Forces of attraction and repulsion
changes to liquid at atmospheric
between molecules are known
pressure)
intermolecular forces
 Boiling point
 Forces that physically bond different
 Viscosity
molecules
 Density
 Weaker than intramolecular forces
 Vapor presure
such as covalent bonds, ionic bonds and
metallic bond

Strength of Intermolecular Forces

IMFAo n Properties
 The strength of the intermolecular
forces between molecules dictates the
state (solid, liquid, gas) of a
substance at a room temperature (25
C) (Tro and Au-Yueng, 2015)
 Intermolecular forces of attraction
(IMFA) are generally stronger
compared to that of repulsion since the
molecules tend to align in an order at
which attraction is optimized
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Effect of IMFAo n Phase

 In general, the strongest
intermolecular forces of attraction
are present in solids followed by
liquids then gases. The molecules of
solids and qliuids are more closely packed
together due to higher electrostatic
attraction of their molecules.
VISCOSITY VAPOR PRESSURE

 Refers to a liquid’s resistance to flow  When a substance is in liquid/solid state

 The greater the viscotiy of a liquid, the there will be some molecules in the
more slowly it flows gas state.
Viscous substances:  Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted
- Honey (at a specific temperature) on a
- Glue solid/liquid compound by its molecules in
- Blood the gas state
- Jam  These molecules have enough energy to
overcome the intermolecular forces
holding the majority of the substance in
the condensed (solid/liquid) phase

------------SUMAARY----------------
LESSON 7: BIOLOGICAL FIRST BIOMOLECULE: CARBOHYDRATES
MACROMOLECULES
 C, H, O
SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATES
Organic Molecule
 They are the main source of
 Compounds made up of hydrocarbons energy for the body
 Carbon and Hydrogen atoms!!  Simple sugars-> Monosaccharide
 Living/once living (YOU are Organic!)  Glucose, (a monomer!!), is the
 (Not CO2. It’s a gas!!!!!) main product of photosynthesis!!
GLUCOSE = C6H12O6
ATOMS: C, H, O
Macromolecules
COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATES
 A very very large molecule
 Long-term storage for energy
 There are four classes of biological
 Polysaccharides -> made up
macromolecules we will be looking at:
of glucose polymers
1. Proteins
 polymer starch!!
2. Lipids
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4. Nucleic acid
Starch Continued
Found in: Grains (wheat, rice,
Biological Macromolecule corn, oats, barley) Tubers such as
potatoes are rich in starch.
 All biological macro-molecule are
organic, meaning they all contain
hydrocarbons…Carbon atoms (with
Cellulose
attached Hydrogens!) Other elements
may include Oxygen, Nitrogen,  ALSO a glucose polymer
Phosphorus and Sulfur  Offers the plant support
 Energy storage
 Makes up cell wall
Macromolecules, we’re looking at POLYMERS  Food source for seeds and
plant bulbs
Poly – many
Polymers - made up of many single units called
MONOMERS GLYCOGEN IN ANIMALS
 A branched polymer made up
of numerous glucose
Mono- one SO… a polymer is made up of
monomers
many monomers!!
 Long-term energy storage
found in the liver
 Quickly broken down into
glucose for immediate energy

Complex Carbs and Energy

 Starches, Cellulose and Glycogen are
broken down by proteins called enzymes
(remember digestion in
lysosomes!!??.....similar concept!)
 Broken down into their monomers 
Glucose
 Glucose is further broken down during BIOMOLECULE: PROTEINS
cellular respiration in the mitochondria
Made up of Mostly C, H, O and N
for energy
(Some sulfur)
 About 36 ATP molecules of energy per
 They are the major structural
each glucose molecule!!!
molecules in living things for growth
and repair : muscles, ligaments, tendons,
bones, hair, skin, nails…IN FACT ALL
CELL MEMBRANES have protein in
BIOMOLECULE: LIPIDS them
 They make up antibodies in the immune
Mostly C, H and some O
system
 STORED ENERGY-> Broken down for  They make up enzymes for helping
energy chemical reactions
 They INSULATE the body to help  They makeup non-steriod hormones
maintain normal body temperature and which
they THINK: Proteins= membranes,
 CUSHION the internal organs for enzymes, antibodies, non-steriod
protection. hormones, structural molecules,
 Include waxes, Oils “MEANS”
 include steroids such as cholesterol and  Aside from the protein found in animal
the sex hormones estrogen and sources…protein can also be found in
testosterone fruits, vegetables, grains, and nuts. (it
 Anabolic steroids build muscle just does not have as many amino acids)
 They waterproof surfaces of animals,  Made up of Amino Acid Monomers!!!
plants, and fruits- these are waxes!  A peptide bond bonds amino acids
 THINK: Waterproof, insulate, steroids, together
energy, cushion…  Creates a polypeptide
 The shapes of Proteins Determines its
Function (Amino acids)
 PhosphoLIPID bilayer of the cell  Ribosomes are Proteins that are
membrane? The fatty acid tails are lipids! Involved in Creating Proteins!!
INSULIN
 It’s semi-permeable, allowing only
certain molecules to diffuse across the  Chemical signaler protein produced in
membrane to enter or exit the cell. the pancreas
 Causes cells in the liver, muscle, and
EXAMPLES: Oils, butter and margarine
fat tissue to take up glucose from
blood and convert it to glycogen that
can be stored in the liver and muscles
FAT  Made up of fatty acid monomers –  Diabetes is a condition when a person
Glycerides that have a Glycerol Backbone has high blood glucose (blood sugar),
(Circled) and a Fatty Acid Tail(s). Mostly C, H either because insulin production is
with some O inadequate, or because the body's
Triglycerides Glycerol Group with 3 Fatty cells do not respond properly to
Acid Chains insulin, or both.

HEMOGLOBIN
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 A protein in red blood cells that
carries oxygen insulin, or both.

ANTIBODIES
 Antibodies are part of the immune
system.
**When something enters the 4th TYPE OF BIOMOLECULE: NUCLEIC
body that isn’t supposed to be ACIDS
there, like certain bacteria,
 The types of Nucleic Acids
antibodies find the invader and
- DNA (DeoxyriboNucleic Acid)
stick themselves onto it.
- RNA (RiboNucleic Acid)
**White Blood cells destroy the
 Monomers are called Nucleotides
invaders (hopefully)
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic Acid (Your
genetic makeup)
ENZYMES
RNA - Ribonucleic Acid (Works with DNA
 Speed up the rate of a chemical to create proteins
reaction (a catalyst) by lowering
the energy needed to begin the
reaction (Below)
 Re-usable
 Molecule specific – like a lock and
key
 Example: ONLY Lactase will break
down lactose. It will NEVER
break down proteins

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Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle
LESSON 9: AMOUNT OF SUBSTANCES
USED OR PRODUCED IN A CHEMICAL
REACTION

Chemical Reaction
 a process whereby a substance interacts
with another substance and gets
chemically changed in the process also
called chemical change

Law of Conservation of Mass

Chemical Equation
 states that the total mass of the reactants
 a symbolic representation of a chemical
is equal to the total mass of the products.
reaction.
 represents through symbols and
numbers the chemical changes that
STOICHIOMETRY
happen in an object.
 part of chemistry that deals with the
amount of reactants that are csumed and
the amount of products that are
produced in a chemical reaction
 Also known as Reaction
Stoichiometry
 It applies the Law of Conservation
Mass

PARTS OF A CHEMICAL EQUATION

 Reactants
- starting/reacting materials
- susbtances written on the left side

 Products
- final/resulting materials
- substances written on the right side

 Arrows
- show the
direction of
the reaction
- Separate the
reactants
from the Do not re-sell this reviewer:)

products Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle

MOLE AND MOLE RATIO
 The numerical coefficient of each
substance represents the number of
moles of the substance used/produced in
a chemical reaction
 The mole ratio is the proportion of a
reactant/product relative to another
reactant/product
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LESSON 10: Calculating-Percent-Yield-of- Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle
a-Reaction

Theoretical Yield
 Maximum amount of product that can be
obtained from a particular reaction.

How to Calculate the Theoretical Yield

 Write the balanced chemical equation
 Calculate the moles of the reactants
 Identify the limiting reactant
 Calculate the weight (grams) of the
product based on the weight (grams) of
the limiting reactant used.

The theoretical yield is based on the

assumption that the reaction is 100% complete.
In actual processes, the theoretical yield is
hardly obtained

ACTUAL YIELD
 The amount of product that is actually
obtained from a chemical reaction

PERCENT YIELD
 The percent yield (% yield) expresses the
efficiency of a particular chemical
reaction

 The higher the percent yield, the higher

the efficiency of a chemical reaction
LESSON 10.1: Determining the Limiting
Reactant in a Reaction and Calculating the
Amount of Product Formedc\

Limiting Reactant
 reactant that is completely used up at the
end of a chemical reaction
 limits the amount of product(s) that can
be formed.
 determines how much product or
theoretical yield will be obtained.

Excess Reactant
 when the limiting reactant is completely
consumed, and the reaction is
completed, what remains is called the
excess reactant.
 excess reactant remains because there
is nothing it can react with.

How to Determine the Limiting Reactant

1. Write the balanced chemical equation
2. Calculate the number of moles of
product that could be obtained for each
reactant given
3. Reactant that forms the least amount of
product is the limiting reactant
4. Identify the limiting reactant
5. Calculate the amount (grams) of product
formed based on the amount (grams) of
the limiting reactant.
6. The calculated amount of product
formed (grams) = theoretical yield.

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Original: NewEye-07_Yve Elle