Subject Title: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

Module I: Understanding Learning

Module Overview: This chapter will discuss about the understanding of the
learner-centered theories, nature and types of learning.

Facilitating Learner-centered teaching is an approach to teaching that

increasingly encouraged in education. Learner-centered teachers do not
employ a single teaching method. It emphasizes a variety of methods and
teaching models and modes that shifts the role of the teachers from givers of
information to facilitators in student learning. It’s the student do their part and
the teacher will only guide, direct and facilitate. It gives time, space and
circumstances for students to learn the resource material of learning based on
their needs, interests, ability and learning styles. And, they deserve to be
provided a conducive teaching, learning environment in order to develop their
own God-given richness.

Module/Lessons Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Analyze the learner-centered theories of learning

2. Compared child, adolescent, and adult learning

3. Categorize knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and

functional knowledge
Lesson/Subject Matter or Concepts to be learned:
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

[Link] the nature and theories of learning

2. define learner-centered

3. identify and explain the learner-centered psychological principles and its

instructional strategies

4. describe a learner-centered classroom

5. determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively

6. explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and Bandura’s social learning

theory

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Lesson 1- Learner-Centered Theories of learning

Activity :

Let’s start your mind working. Just fill up the chart.

What you know….. What you want to know… What you learned…
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Analysis:

As a future teacher, I must consider first what my learners already

knew, what they want to learn and what they have learned so that...
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Abstraction:

When we hear the word “learning”, the first thing that comes to our
mind is studying subjects or courses like mathematics, science, and
languages in school. In a broader sense though, learning extends much more
beyond the confines of the classroom or the school. People learn everyday of
their lives in various places and conditions.
The term “learning” and all other concepts related to it, expectedly from
a major part of the experiences for you who are studying to become teachers.
It is important to understand the nature of learning, because you play a major
role in the students’ learning. Knowing and understanding learning-related
concepts will enable you to better develop teaching methodologies and other
interventions meant to improve, enhance, and facilitate learning.
The goal of education is to effect learning among students and the
population at large. Learning connotes observed changes in a person as a
result of environmental events and interventions. The process of education is

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a deliberate effort to ensure that as students go up the educational ladder,
developmental changes in their personality are affected. This has to do with
improved and enhanced physical, emotional, social and cognitive skills, an
knowledge and other personality behaviour.

The Nature of Learning

Learning is generally defined as any change in the behaviour of the

learner. The change can be deliberate or unintentional, for better or for worse,
correct or incorrect and conscious or unconscious ( Mayer, 2011; and Schunk,
2012 in Woolfolk, 2013). To qualify for learning , the change should be
brought about by experience or by interaction of the person with the
environment. It is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge,
attitudes and skills that are necessary to meet the demands of life. It is not
learning if the change is brought about by maturation like getting taller or hair
turning gray. Temporary changes due to illness, fatigue, or hunger are not
also included as examples of learning. While touching a burning candle, a
child gets burnt and he withdraws the fingers. When he faces a similar
situation again he withdraws his fingers faster. Gradually he learns to avoid
not only the burning candle but also other burning things. The behaviour of an
individual is thus changed through experiences. This change in behaviour
brought about by experiences is commonly known as learning.

Thus , learning can be the result from both vicarious and direct
experiences. Vicarious means observing someone and learning from that
observation and not being directly involved in the experience. For example, a
child learns how to clap hands by seeing someone else do it. Learning also
takes place from direct experiences. For example, a child learns to write by
practicing writing. A child normally learns from his parents, teachers and
environments.

Learning is a process that brings together personal and environmental

experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s
knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, behaviour and world views (“Education, “
n.d)

Burns (1995) defined learning as a relatively permanent change in

behaviour with behaviour including both observable activity and internal
processes such as thinking, attitudes, and emotions.

Santrock (2012, p 217) defined learning as relatively permanent

influence on behaviour, knowledge, and thinking skills that comes about
through experience.

Types of Learning

Activity : Searching is Learning.

Using your internet connection, search for the meaning of learning
according to:

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a. Gardener Murphy
b. Henry P. Smith
c. Crow and Crow

Analysis

Why is there a need to study the types of learning in dealing with the
learners?

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Abstraction:

These types of learning are basic ingredients to success in school.

These are what schools desire to develop.

a. Motor Learning. It is a form of learning for one to maintain and go

through daily life activities.
b. Verbal Learning. It involves the use of spoken language as well as the
communication devices used.
c. Concept Learning. A form of learning which requires the use of
higher-order mental process.
d. Discrimination Learning. It is learning to differentiate between stimuli
and responding appropriately to these stimuli.
e. Learning Principles. It is principle related to science, mathematics,
grammar and the like. Principles show the relationship between two or
more concepts.
f. Problem Solving. This is a high-order thinking process. This requires
the use of cognitive abilities.
g. Attitude Learning. Attitude is predisposition which determines and
predicts behaviour.

Nature of Theories of Learning

The nature of learning or the changes occurring within an individual is

difficult to visualize and understand because it is an internal process.
Hence it is not easy to present, or explain in concrete terms what this
complex process is all about.

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Learning is a very comprehensive and complex concept, and it covers
wide range of activities which cannot be explained with a limited
framework. This may be the reason why there is available wide range of
theories of learning, each propounding and focusing on a particular
perspective or view to explain what is learning.

Learning theory describes how students absorb, process, and retain

knowledge during learning, cognitive, emotional, and environmental
influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in now understanding,
or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained.
This try to explain how people learn and why they learn. They also try to
explain the phenomenon of learning-its nature, and the conditions under
which learning best occurs. These theories especially guide teachers to have
a better understanding of how learning occurs and how learners learn.
( Educational Learning and Learning Theories,” n.d.)

The term “learning” may mean differently to different people and used
differently by different theorists. As theories of learning evolved over time,
definitions of learning shifted from changes that occur in the mind or
behaviour of an individual, to changes in participation in ongoing activities with
other individuals, to changes in a person’s identity within group. (Theories of
learning,” n. d.)

Defining “Learner-Centered”

Learner-centered is the perspective that focuses on individual

learners-their heredity, experiences, perspective, backgrounds, talents,
interests, capacities, and needs, with a focus on learning- the best available
knowledge about learning and how it occurs, and about teaching practices
that are most effective in promoting the highest levels of motivation, learning
and achievement for all learners.

The following are the learner-centered principles:

a. They pertain to the learner and the learning process.

b. They focus on psychological factors primarily internal and under the
control of the learner.
c. They deal which external or contextual factors that interact with the
internal factors.
d. They are seen as an organized set of principles; no principle to be
viewed in isolation.
e. The principles are classified under cognitive, metacognitive,
motivational, affective, developmental, social, individual difference
factors related to learning.
f. The principles apply not only to all learners but to everybody involved
in the educational system, as for example, teachers, administrators,
parents, staff, and guidance counsellors.

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Learner-Centered Psychological Principles

Activity :

Do this activity before you read about the Learner-Centered Psychological

Principles.

1. Examine the title, “ Learner-Centered Psychological Principles”.

Quickly jot down at least 10 words that come to your mind.
1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9.
5. 10.

2. Go back to each word and write phrases about why you think the word
can be associated with LCP.

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Analysis:

Share your responses from 5 of your classmates. Summarize your

classmates responses.

We think that Learner-Centered Psychological Principles focus on

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Abstraction:
The learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by
the American Psychological Association. These provide the bases for
understanding better the learner, and what learning is and should be
(Workgroup of the American Psychological Association Board of Educational
Affairs, 1997 cite in Santrock 2011). Learner-centered does not only refer to
learner-characteristics, but also to the beliefs, dispositions and practices that
are created by teachers.

The 14 principles are divided into four:

1. Cognitive and Metacognitive
2. Motivitional and affective
3. Developmental and Social
4. Individual differences factors

Cognitive and Metacognitive

1. Nature of the Learning Process

The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when
it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information
and experience.

2. Goals of the Learning Process

The successful learner, over time and with support and
instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representation
of knowledge.

3. Construction of Knowledge
The successful learner can link new information with existing
knowledge in meaningful ways.

4. Strategic Thinking
The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of
thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.

5. Thinking about thinking

Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental
operations facilitate creative and critical thinking.

6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including
culture, technology and instructional practices.

Motivational and Affective Factors

7. Motivational and Emotional Influences on Learning

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What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s
motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn , is influenced by the individual’s
emotional status, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.

8. Intrinsic Motivation to Learn

The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural
curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is
stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty.

9. Effects of Motivation on Effort

Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended
learner effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn,
the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion.

Developmental and Social Factors

10. Developmental influences on Learning

As individuals develop, they encounter different opportunities
and experiences, as well as constraints for learning. Learning is most
effective when differential within and across physical, intellectual,
emotional and social domains is taken into account.

11. Social Influences on Learning

Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal
relations and communication with others.

Individual Differences Factors

12. Individual Differences in Learning

Learners have different strategies, approaches and capabilities
for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity.

13. Learning and Diversity

Learning is most effective when differences in learners’
linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds are taken into account.

14. Standards and Assessment

Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and
assessing the learner as well as learning progress-including diagnostic
process and outcome assessment-are integral parts of the learning
process.

Santrock (2011) identifies some learner-centered instructional

strategies which address learners’ needs.

1. Problem-Based Learning
This strategy emphasizes real-life problem-solving. It exposes
learners to authentic life problems that they meet in their daily lives.

2. Essentials Questions

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Essential questions are asked of learners, which perplex them.
This is followed by other questions, which motivate the students to
explore the questions and look for answers.

3. Discovery Learning
This approach is in contrast to direct-instruction approach.
Teachers create the situation where students explore and figure out
things for themselves.

Theories of Learning

Activity :

1. Think of a teacher that’s most unforgettable to you in elementary or

High school.
2. Are there things that when you encounter at present ( see, hear, touch,
smell) make you “go back to the past” and recall this teacher? What
are these things?
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3. What kinds of rewards and punishment did/she apply in your class?

For what student behaviours were the rewards and punishments for?

Student Behavior Reward/Punishment

1.
2.
3.
4.

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Analysis :

1. What make this teacher unforgettable to you?

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2. Why do your answers is no. 1 make you recall this teacher? Describe
the connection these things have on your past teacher.
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3. Were the rewards and punishments given effective? Please elaborate.

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Abstraction:

It must be noted that there are many theories of learning as a result of

continuous study and research, in search for the truth. It is the dynamic nature
of theories that enable us to understand better complex phenomenon, as
learning.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism

Classical Conditioning Connectionism Operant Conditioning

(Pavlov/Watson) (Thorndike) (Skinner)

Primary Laws
Reinforcement

Law of Effect

Shaping of Behavior
Law of Exercise

Law of Readiness

The theory behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable

behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning
and reinforcement (rewards and punishment).

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian psychologist, is well known for his work in

classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned
experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, he was measuring the
dog’s salivation in order to study digestion.

Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell caused no

response from the dog. Placing food in front of the dog initiated salivation.
During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was
presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone produced
salivation.

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See illustration below:

Stage 1- Before conditioning

Bell No response
(neutral stimulus)

Stage 2 – During conditioning

Bell
(neutral stimulus)

Paired with

Meat Salivation
(unconditioned stimulus) (unconditioned response)

Stage 3 – After conditioning

Bell Salivation
(conditioned stimulus) (Conditioned Response)

Pavlov also had the following findings:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound
of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.

Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually
cease in response to the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after

an elapse time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not
presented with food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells

( stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of
food and which would not.

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Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to
associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a
light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually,
the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the
bell.

Edward L. Thorndike. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us

the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than 100
years ago he wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He
was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the
result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and response (R).
Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by
the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. The model for S-R theory
was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be
repeated more than others because of rewards. The main principle of
connectionism (like all behavioral theory) was that learning could be
adequately explained without considering unobservable internal states.

Thorndike’s theory on connectionism, states that learning has

taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus
and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws.

Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between a

stimulus and response is strengthened when the consequences is
positive (reward) and the connection between stimulus and the response
is weakened when the consequence is negative.

Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-

response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes
perfect” seem to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect,
the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that
practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.

Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has
to respond to the stimulus, the stronger will be the bond between them.

Other Laws of Learning

Law of Primacy. It implies that learning a concept or skills again is

more difficult that the first time one has learned it. This explains why teachers
correct students who have misconceptions in a new lesson.

Law of Intensity. Thorndike believed that exciting, immediate, or even

dramatic learning within the real context of the students would tremendously
facilitate learning. Hence, the Law of Intensity implies that exposing the
students in real-world applications of the skills and concepts makes them
most likely to remember the experience.

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The concepts or skills most recently learned are least forgotten. This is
the gist of the Law of Recency. Thus, when learners are isolated in time from
learning a new concept, the more difficult it is for them to remember.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of

effect/exercise).
2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong
to the same action sequence 9 law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered
situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson. John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work
with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was initially involved in animal studies, then
later became involved in human behavior research. He consider that
humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of
love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response
associations through conditioning.

Experiment on Albert. Watson applied classical conditioning in his

experiment concerning Albert, a young child and a white rat. In the
beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat. Because Albert was
frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and
avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small
animals. Now, he was also afraid of small animals. Watson then
“extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat
without the loud noise.

Burrhus Frederick Skinner. Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner

believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His
theory zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior, excluding
any likehood of any process taking place in the mind.

Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before

him in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in
operating on the environment). Thus, his theory came to be known as
Operant Conditioning.

Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a

result of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result
of an individual’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a
word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular
Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the
individual is conditioned to respond.

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Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner’s S-R theory. A
reinforce is anything that strengthens that desired response. There is
a positive reinforce and a negative reinforce.

A positive reinforce is any stimulus given or added to increase

the response. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher
promises extra time in the play area to children who behave well during
the lesson.

A negative reinforce is any stimulus that results in the

increased frequency of a response when it is withdrawn or removed. A
negative reinforce is not a punishment, in fact it is a reward.
A negative reinforce is different from a punishment because a
punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced responses.

Shaping of Behavior. An animal on a cage may take a very

long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To
accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior
are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever
and the food reward.

Behavioral Chaining. Comes about when a series of steps are

needed to be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence
until the entire sequence is learned.

Reinforcement Schedules. Once the desired behavioral

response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in
fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner
referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement
schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules.

Fixed Interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced

after fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.

Variable Interval Schedules. This is similar to fixed interval

schedules but the amount of time that must pass between
reinforcement varies.

Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses

must occur before reinforcement may recur.

Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of

the correct response for reinforcement varies.

Following are the assumptions of behaviorism, which many

behaviorists share (Ormrod, 2015. 52-53)

a. Principles of learning should apply equally to different behaviors

and to a variety of animal species. This is on the assumption that
humans and other animals learn in similar ways. Thus behaviorists-

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researchers apply to humans what they have derived from the
studies of animals.
b. Learning processes can be studied most objectively when the focus
of the study is on the stimuli and responses.
c. Internal processes tend to be excluded or minimized in theoretical
explanations. This thinking stemmed from the argument that these
internal behaviors cannot be directly observed.
d. Learning involves a behavior change.
e. Organisms are born as blank slates.
f. Learning is largely the result of environmental events
g. The most useful theories tend to be parsimonious ( or concise)

The areas of application of theories under behaviorism are listed below:

( Ormrod, 2015 and Kelly, September, 2012)

a. Drill/Rote work
b. Repetitive practice
c. Giving bonus points
d. Giving participation points
e. Verbal reinforcement
f. Establishing rules
g. Giving rewards
h. Applying punishment
i. Giving Feedback
j. Positive reinforcement
k. Token reinforces
l. Negative reinforcement

Skinner’s Operant Conditioning

One of the most popular behavioral theorists of all time is B.F.

(Burrhus Frederic) Skinner ( 1904-1190). He postulated the operant
conditioning. Classical conditioning refers to the association of the stimuli
whereas operant conditioning actively involves the subject’s participation.
The subject in the operant conditioning has a choice to respond. In, other
words, operant conditioning is the type of learning whereby learning occurs as
a consequence of the learner’s behavior.

B.F. Skinner made this conclusion after experimenting on animals

through his Skinner’s box, a device that modified the animal’s behavior. In his
experiment, he put a rat in a box with a lever, a bowl, and a closed chamber.
If the lever was pushed, the chamber opened and dispensed food.
Unconscious about this mechanism, the rat accidentally pushed the lever, and
the food was dispensed. The rat learned that continuously pushing the lever
could open the food dispenser to the bowl. Skinner termed the food in such an
experiment as the reward.

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Reinforcement
Skinner’s operant condition is dichotomized into reinforcement and
punishment. Each category is also divided into positive or negative.
Reinforcement is defined as something that strengthens the behavior or is
sometimes called as the response strengthener ( Schultz, 2006)
Positive Reinforcement. Defined as the addition of a pleasant
stimulus. This is exactly what is illustrated in the Skinner’s box. The
dispensed food became a positive reinforcement that caused the rat to
continually push the lever ( behavior).

Positive reinforcement has many classroom applications. Preschool

teachers stamp three big stars on the hands of the pupil who may have
behaved throughout the class, achieved the highest score, or become friendly
within the academic time.
Negative Reinforcement. Taking something away from a situation that
subsequently increases the occurrence of the response. In other words, it is
taking away an unpleasant consequences to cause the behavior to happen
again.
Punishment. It’s main aim is to weaken the response. However, punishment
does not necessarily eliminate the behavior; when the threat of punishment is
removed, the punished response may occur ( Merrett & Whedall, 1984).
Positive punishment is an addition of an unpleasant stimulus to
decrease the behavior.
Negative punishment is the removal of rewarding stimulus to
decrease the behavior.
Alternatives to Punishment

Punishment is often applied in schools to address disruptions. Maag

(2001) enumerated some common punishments like loss of privileges,
removals from the classroom, in- and out-of-school suspensions, and
expulsion.
Cognitivism or Cognitive Constructivism
Activity:

Read the question below:

What concepts/ideas/images came to your mind when you read

“Teaching as filling up the pail”? Elaborate. ____________________________
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What concept/ideas/images came to your mind when you read “Teaching is
about lighting a fire”? Elaborate. ___________________________________
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Analysis:

What do you think the quotation meant? What two kinds of teaching are being
referred to?
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Abstraction:

The cognitive revolution in the 1950s to 1960s replaced behaviorism as

the dominant paradigm for learning. The human mind is seen as a “black box’
and it is necessary to open it for a better understanding of how people learn.
Mental process such as memory, knowing, problem-solving, reasoning and
other such processes need to be explored.

Cognitivism requires active participation in order to learn and actions

are seen as a result of thinking. Knowledge can be seen as schema or
symbolic mental construction, thus learning is defined as change in a learner’s
schemata. Change in behavior are observed but this only indicates what is
going on in the learner’s head. The learner’s mind is compared to a computer
which does a lot of processing of data fed into it. Thus individuals are thought
of as active learners, actively engaged in their learning; and actively seeking
ways to understand and process information that they receive and relate this

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to what is already known and stored within memory. Learning involves the
reorganization of experiences, either by attaining new insights or changing old
ones. Thus, learning is a change in knowledge which is stored in memory and
not just a change in behavior (Kelly, September 2012).

Examples and application of the cognitive learning theory (Kelly, September

2012).

a. Classifying or chunking information

b. Linking concepts (associate new content with something known)
c. Providing structure ( Organizing lectures in efficient and meaningful
ways)
d. Real world examples
e. Discussions
f. Problem-solving
g. Analogies
h. Imagery/providing pictures
i. Mnemonics

Two Views of Constructivism

Individual Constructivism. This is also called cognitive

constructivism. It emphasizes individual, internal construction of
knowledge. It is largely based on Piaget’s theory. Proponents of this type
choose child-centered and discovery learning. They believe the learners
should be allowed to discover principles through their own exploration rather
than direct instruction by the teacher.

Social Constructivism. This view emphasizes that “Knowledge

exists in a social context and is initially shared with others instead of
being represented solely in the mind of an individual.” Vygotsky’s theory.
According to social constructivists, the opportunity to interact and sharre
among learners help to shape and refine their ideas. Knowledge construction
becomes social, not individual.

Social Constructivism

As a worldview or paradigm that emerged in the 1970s and 1980s, it

posits that learning is an active constructive process. The learner himself
constructs knowledge. People actively construct or create their own
representation of objective reality. In information is linked to prior knowledge,
thus mental representations are subjective. Learning is seen as an active
contextualized process of constructing knowledge instead of simply acquiring
it. Knowledge is best on the learners’ personal experiences and expectations
of the environment and where they continuously test these expectations
through social negotiations. Each person may have a different interpretation
and construction of the knowledge process. The person is not a blank slate
but brings social and cultural factors to a situation. It assumes that all
knowledge is constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge regardless of
how one was taught.

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Following are some applications of social constructivism (Kelly,
September 2012).
a. Case Studies
b. Research Projects
c. Problem Solving
d. Brainstorming
e. Collaborative Learning/Group Work
f. Discovery Learning
g. Simulations

The applications of social constructivism show that class activities

which requires the participation and contributions of many learners in a
atsk enables learning to occur.

The table below presents some salient points about the above-
mentioned theories of learning considered as basic to the further study of
learning.

Behaviorism Cognitive Constructivism Social Constructivism

View of Knowledge is a Knowledge systems of Knowledge is
Knowledge repertoire of cognitive structures are constructed within
behavioral actively constructed by social contexts through
responses to learners based on cognitive interactions with a
environmental structures. knowledge community.
stimuli
View of Passive Active assimilation and integration of students
Learning absorption of a accommodation of new into a knowledge
predefined body information to existing community.
of knowledge by cognitive structures. Collaborative
the learner. Discovery by learners. assimilation and
Promoted by accommodation of
repetition and new information.
positive
reinforcement.
View of Extrinsic, Intrinsic, learners set their Intrinsic and extrinsic.
Motivation involving positive own goals and motivate Learning goals and
and negative themselves to learn. motives are
reinforcement. determined both by
learners and extrinsic
rewards provided by
the knowledge
community.
Implication Correct Teacher facilitates learning Collaborative learning
s for behavioral by providing an environment is facilitated and
Teaching responses are that promotes discovery and guided by the teacher.
transmitted by assimilation/accommodation. Group work.
teachers and
absorbed by
students.

Of the study of learning theories. Each theory projects its own points
and tries to relate specific factors along a particular perspective to learning. It
would be good, however, to look at the other theories of learning that

20
consequently evolved following the basic theories (“Strengthening Education,”
n.d.).

[Link] Learning Theory

This theory was espoused by Albert Bandura who works with both
cognitive and behaviorist frameworks that embrace attention, memory, and
motivation. This theory suggests that people learn within a social context and
learning is facilitated through concepts like modelling, observational learning,
and imitation.

Implications of Social Learning on the Practice of Education

a. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing people.

b. Describing consequences of the behavior can effectively increase
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
c. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new
behaviors. It can provide a faster, more efficient means of teaching
new behavior.
d. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care
not to model inappropriate behaviors.
e. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models to break
down traditional stereotypes.

[Link]-Constructivism

In the late 20th century, the constructivist view of learning was further
changed by the perspective of “situated cognition and learning”. It
emphasized the significant role of context particularly social interaction in
learning.

Implications should create of Socio-Constructivism on the Practice of

Education

a. Teachers should create opportunities for students to engage in group

work or cooperative learning.
b. In group or cooperative work, teachers should make sure that each
learner is able to make his contribution to accomplish the task.
c. The topics or subject matter should contain local instructional materials
which are familiar to the learners. This is for more meaningful learning.
d. Local resources should be used as jump-off point for group discussion,
and problem solving tasks.

[Link] Learning

21
Experiential learning theories build on social and constructivist theories
of learning but situate experience at the core of the learning process. They
aim to understand the manner in which experiences. Whether first-or
secondhand motivate learners and promote their learning. Therefore, learning
is about meaningful experiences in every life-that lead to a change in
individual’s knowledge and behaviors. Carl Rogers is an influential proponent
of these theories suggesting that experiential learning is “self-initiated”
learning as people have a natural inclination to learn; and they learn if they
are fully involved in the learning process. Rogers put forward the following
insights: a) learning can only be facilitated; we cannot teach another person
directly; b) learners become more rigid under threat; c) significant learning
occurs in an environment where threat to the learner is reduced to a
minimum; d) learning is most likely to occur and to last if is it self-initiated.

Implications of Experiential Learning to the Practice of Education

a. Teachers should be keen and sensitive to the history and experiences

of the learners, which could serve as inputs for related lessons.
b. Teacher’s should make sure that they have a feel of experiences of the
students, so that they are better able to create an atmosphere for
students that is relaxed.
c. Teachers should apply strategies means to facilitate and guide
students’ learning, so that they do not have to always be the source of
learning materials.

[Link] Intelligences (MI)

This theory challenges the assumption in many learning theories that

learning is a universal human process that all individuals experience
accordi2ng to the same principles. Howard Gardner’s theory of intelligence
challenges the understanding that intelligence is dominated by a single
general ability. He argues that intelligence actually consists of many distinct
intelligences: logico-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-
kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal ability, and naturalistic ability. The
MI theory “requires” the teachers to come up with a variety of instructional
materials and strategies, to make sure that the needs of students with specific
intelligences or abilities are addressed.

[Link] Learning Theory and Community of Practice

These concepts were developed by Jean lave and Ettiene Wenger.

Situated learning recognizes that there is no learning that is not situated. It
emphasizes the rational and negotiated character of knowledge and learning
as well as the engaged nature of learning activity for the individuals involved.

According to McCarthy (1981, 1987) the concept of communities of

practice is based on the following assumptions:

a. Learning is fundamentally a social phenomenon.

22
b. Knowledge is integrated in the life of communities that share values,
beliefs, language and ways of doing things.
c. The processes of learning and membership in a community of practice
are inseparable.
d. Knowledge is inseparable from practice.
e. Empowerment or the ability to contribute to a community creates the
potential for learning.

6.21st Century Learning Skills

The century or exploration of 21st century learning or skills emerged

from the concerns about transforming the goals and daily practice of the
learning to meet the new demands of the 21 st century characterized as
knowledge and technology-driven.

Neo Behaviorism: Tolman and Bandura

As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill in the

gap between behaviorism and cognitive learning beliefs. It is called neo-
behaviorism. Notable psychologists that contributed much in the development
of neo-behaviorism included Edward Tolman and Albert Bandura. The neo-
behaviorist were more self-consciously trying to formalize the laws of
behavior. They believe that some mediating variables into the established
stimulus-response theory contribute much to learning.

Neo Behaviorism

Bandura
Tolman’s Purposive
Social-Learning Theory
Behaviorism

Goal-Directedness Principles

Cognitive Maps Modeling

Latent Learning Four Conditions

For Effective
Modeling

Intervening
Variables
Activity:

Solve maze A. Enter on the left side and exit at the top. 23
Solve maze B. Enter on the top and exit on the left side
Analysis:

1. How did you solve Maze A? What strategy did you use?
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_________________

2. What is easier to solve maze B? Why?

___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
_______________________
Abstraction

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Usually, people who worked on the maze activity which you just did
would say they found the second maze easier. This is because they saw that
the two mazes were identical, except that the entrance and exit points were

24
reversed. Their experience in doing maze a helped them answer maze B a
lot easier. People create mental maps of things they perceived. These mental
maps help them respond to other things or tasks later, especially if they see
the similarity. You may begin to respond with trial and error (behavioristic),
but later on your response becomes more internally driven (cognitive
perspective). This is what neobehaviorism is about. It has aspects of
behaviorism but it also reaches out to the cognitive perspective.

There are two theories reflecting Neobehaviorism that stands out.

Edward Tolman’s Purposive and Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory.
Both theories are influenced by behaviorism ( which is focused on external
elements in learning), but their principles seem to also be reflective of the
cognitive perspective ( focused on more internal elements).

Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive behaviorism has also been referred to as Sign Learning

Theory and is often sees as the link between behaviorism and cognitive
theory. Tolman’s theory was founded on two-psychological views: those of the
Gestalt psychologist and those of John Watson, the behaviorist.

Tolman believed that learning is cognitive process. Learning involves

forming beliefs and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then
revealing that knowledge through purposeful and goal-directed behavior.

In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes for 17 days.
The first group of rats was fed (rewarded) every time they found their way out.
The second group of rats was non-reinforced. The rats did not receive any
food from days 1 to 10 even if they have seen the end point later, it was
observed that in the first 10 days, the rats developed a cognitive map. Hence,
from day 11 onward, they were motivated to perform and look for the end
point faster than the first group to find food because they were hungry.

From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism perform’s a

behavior because it has a purpose or a goal. It has also led to the birth of
latent learning- a form of learning that occurs without any visible
reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. In addition,
latent learning occurs every time an organism sees a reason to perform or
show it. For instance, a 4-year-old boy observed his father in using the TV
remote control. When he would be left alone and had the opportunity to turn
on the TV using the remote control, he could easily demonstrate the learning.
Another distinctive feature of the purposive behaviorism is the coining
of the term “cognitive map.” According to Tolman, it is a mental illustration of
the layout of the environment. It is believed that everything in our cognitive
map influences our interaction with the environment. Hence, making our
cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning.
Tolman’s Other salient Principles
1. Behavior is always purposive. By this, he meant that all behavior is
ignited to accomplish a specific goal. In its purest sense, a

25
demonstration of learning is the outcome of possessing a purpose to
show it.
2. Behavior is cognitive. The expectations that underlie and guide
behavior are cognitions. This mean that an organism is mindful of the
connections between specific actions and certain outcomes (cognitive
map). Such mental map is developed by expanding the experiences,
coupled with the stimluli and rewards.
3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies. Tolman also
underscored the role of reinforcement in learning. As previously stated
stated, learning, according to Tolman, deals with connections between
stimuli and expectancies or perceptions, representations, needs, and
other intervening variables.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Activity:

1. Read the following news article.

10-Year-Old Boy in Texas hangs Himself
After Watching Saddan Execution
The Associated Press
Houston jan.4, 2007 (AP)

Police and family members said a 10-year-old boy who died by hanging himself from a
bunk bed was apparently mimicking the execution of former Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein.
Sergio Pelico was found dead Sunday in his apartment bedroom in the Houston-area
city of Webster, said Webster police Lt. Tom Claunch. Pelico’s mother told police he had
previously watched a news report on Saddam’s death.
“it appears to be accidental, “ Claunch said. “Our gut reaction is that he was
experimenting.”
An autopsy of the fifth grader-grader’s Body was pending.
Julio Gustavo, Sergio’s uncle, said the boy was a happy and curios child.
He said Sergio had watched TV news with another uncle on Saturday and asked the
uncle about Saddam’s death.
“His uncle told him it was because Saddam was real bad,” Gustavo said. “ He (Sergio)
said, ‘OK. And that was it.”
Sergio’s mother, Sara Pelico Deleon, was at work Sunday while Sergio and other
children were under the care of an uncle, Gustavo said. One of the Children found Sergio’s
body in his bedroom.
Police said the boy had tied a slipknot around his neck while a bunk bed.
getting a Christmaslearned
Police investigators that
gift from hisSergio had
father, nutbeen
theyupset
don’tabout not the boy
believe
intentionally killed himself.
Clinical psychologist Edward Bischof of California said children of
Sergio’s age mimic risky behaviours they see on TV such as wrestling or
extreme sports without realizing the dangers .He said TV appeared to be
the stimulant in Sergio’s case.
“I would think maybe this kid is trying something that he thinks fun to
act out without having the emotional and psychological maturity to think the
thing through before he acts on it,” Bischof said.
Family members held a memorial for the boy Wednesday in the
apartment complex activity center. Gustavo said the family is trying to put
together enough to send Sergio’s body to Guatemala for burial.
“I don’t think he thought it was real,” Gustavo said of Saddam’s
hanging. “They showed them putting the boose around his neck and
everything. Why show that on TV?” 26
(retrieved from [Link] )
Analysis:

1. What do authorities say might be the reason why Sergio hanged

himself? _____________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_______________________________
What facts made them give this reason?
_______________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_______________________________
2. Comment on the opinion of the clinical psychologist.
_________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
_______________________________
__________________________________________________________
________________________________________

[Link] do you think is the effect of television on the behaviour of

young people (preschool to college)? Cite Specific examples .
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Abstraction:

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a

social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including
such concepts as observational learning, imitation and modelling.
27
Fundamental Principles of Social Learning Theory

1. One way learn without his or her behavior.

2. Learning takes place by imitating a model.
3. An observing person will always react to the one being imitated
depending on whether the model is rewarded or punished.
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning.
6. Learning is self-regulated.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously.
8. Learning may be reinforced by the model or by others.

Contemporary social learning perspective of reinforcement and

punishment

1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and

punishment have indirect effect on learning.
2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an
individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned.
3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that
promote learning.

Components of Successful Modeling

1. Attention. The person must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention. The observer must be able to remember the behavior
that has been observed..
3. Production. The ability to replicate the behavior that the model has
just demonstrated.
4. Motivation. Individual perform actions they believe will result in
rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be
responded to negatively (Schunk,1987).

Effects of modelling on behavior:

1. Modeling teaches new behavior

2. Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behavior.
3. Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
4. Modeling increases the frequency of similar behavior.

Educational Implications of social learning theory

Social Learning theory has numerous implications for classroom use.

1. Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people.

2. Describing the consequence of behavior can effectively increase the
appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones.
3. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new
behaviors.

28
4. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care
that they do not model inappropriate behaviors
5. Teachers should expose students to a variety of their models

Application:

A. Following are learning activities and practices commonly applied

inside the classroom. Identify what theory is applied in each learning
activity and why you think so.

Learning Activities Theory Applied

1. The teacher assigned the students to
memorize the multiplication table.
2. The trainer showed a ten-minute
video about an effective teacher to a
group of teacher-trainees.
3. The teacher gave five algebra
problems for students to solve
4. The teacher first gave a lecture on a
topic on Philippine history, after
which he asked the students to
answer recall questions.
5. The teacher asked the student to
memorize and recite Jose Rizal’s “My
Last Farewell.”

6. The teacher invited one resource

person to give a lecture on
developing habits of cleanliness and
hygiene. After the lecture, the
students were encouraged to ask
questions to the speaker.
7. In a science class, the teacher asked
the students to do an experiment and
answer questions based on the
results of the experiment.
8. The teacher gives a “ star” to the
pupil who gave correct answers to
her questions.
9. In a statistics class, the students
were asked to interpret the data
illustrated in graphs.
10. The teacher asked the students to
observe a chef on the correct way of
cooking a recipe.

B. State a personal message derived from the key concepts of

Tolman’s purposive behaviorism. Use the Table provided below.

Key Concept of Tolman’s Theory Personal Message

29
On Purposive Behaviorism
1. Learning is always purposive 1.1 To make my students do what I
and goal-oriented require them to do, I should state the
goal clearly and specifically.
1.2
1.3
2. Cognitive maps help students
perform well. Organisms select 2.1
the shortest or easiest path to
achieve a goal.
2.2
2.3
3. Latent learning stays with the 3.1
individual until needed.
3.2
3.3
4. Learning is influenced by
expectations, perceptions, 4.1
needs and other variables
like hunger
4.2
4.3

Assessment:
A. Name two important reason why students should learn and
develop 21st century skills.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
__________________________________________

B. Given all the theories presented and learned, what gives them the
characteristics of being learner-centered?
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

30
_________________________________________________________
__________________________________
C. Fill in the Venn Diagram by pointing out the similarities and
differences in Behaviorism by Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and
Skinner to Neo-Behaviorism by Tolman.

Behaviorism Neo-Behaviorism

Lesson 2. Child, Adolescent, and Adult Learning

Lesson/Subject Matter or Concepts to be learned:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Compare child, adolescent, and adult learning
2. Discuss the principles of Cognitive Development
3. Discuss the characteristics of young, adolescent and adult learners

Activity:

Conduct a simple interview with a child, adolescent and an adult in

your family members.
Ask: “Where do you want to live, in the city? Or in the barrio? State
your reason why.
Take note of their answers. Encourage each one to talk about or
explain his/her answer in greater detail.
Child

31
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
Adolescent
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Adulthood
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Analysis:

Why is it important for teachers to be aware of and know patterns of

behaviour that characterize developmental levels?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Abstraction:

32
Several factors both internal and external to the individual relate to the
kind, or even rate of learning. One of these factors is age, which in fact is tied
to developmental levels. Human development goes through stages, each
having unique characteristics. It is expected that patterns of growth and
development differ from one developmental stage to other. Hence, there are
differences in learning among individuals across developmental stages.

Principles of Cognitive Learning

1. Development proceeds in an orderly and predictable manner.

Development occurs through developmental milestones, defined as
the appearance of developmentally more advanced behavior, which
appear in a predictable manner.

2. There are periods of rapid growth spurts in between periods of

slower growth. It means development is not constant.

3. Different individuals develop at different rates. Most often, average

age for the entire development period is used to describe learners.

4. Development is continually affected by both nature (heredity) and

nurture (environment).

This principles are necessary for teachers to know, so they could

better address the learning needs, abilities, and expectations from learners.

Young Learners (Children)

Following are the characteristics of young learners.

1. They can learn through talking about themselves, families , and their
lives.
2. They are curious to learn and discover new concepts on their own.
3. They like to use their imagination and discover things.
4. They naturally need to touch, see hear and interact to learn.
5. Their attention span is very short, thus they need engaging and
entertaining activities so as not to lose their interest.
6. They to cooperate and work in groups.
7. They need support and encouragement while learning.
8. They need to work with their students individually because they need to
be guided (“Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult Learners,”
2018)

33
Adolescent Learning

Following are the characteristics of adolescent learners.

1. They are in search for personal identity.

2. They are in need of activities that meet their needs and learning
expectations.
3. They become disruptive when they lost interest in the lesson or if they
feel bored.
4. They need help and support from the teacher and to be provided with
constructive feedback.
5. They can draw upon a variety of resources in the learning environment
including personal experience, the local community, and the internet.
6. They need the teachers to build bridges between the syllabus and their
world of interests and experiences.
7. They can learn abstract issues and do challenging activities.
8. Their personal initiative and energy and energy are moved into action
through meaningful involvement with relevant and current content
( “Differences of Young, Adolescent and Adult Learners,” 2018).

Adult Learning

Malcolm Knowles is a theorist who did research on adult learning and

who popularized the concept of andragogy. This means, the art and science
of helping adults to learn ,in contrast with pedagogy which is the art and
science of teaching children.

The following are the characteristics of adult learners.

1. Self-concept. Adults move from dependency to increasing self-

directedness as they mature.

2. Adult Learner experience. They draw on their accumulated

experiences as their resource learning.

3. Readiness to learn. They are ready to learn when they assume new
social or life roles.

4. Orientation to learning. They are problem-centered and they want to

apply new learning immediately.

5. Motivation to learn. They are motivated to learn by internal; rather

than external factors (“Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy,” 2011).

The difference of Adult learners from Adolescent and Young Learners

1. Adults are more disciplined than adolescents.

34
2. They have a clear understanding of their learning objectives.
3. They need to be involved in choosing what and how to learn.
4. They prefer to rely on themselves and work on their own pace.
5. They come to the classroom with wide range of knowledge,
expectations, and experiences.
6. They are able to do a wide range of activities.
7. Adults learn at various rates and in different ways according to their
intellectual abilities, educational level, personality and cognitive
learning styles.
8. They come into the classroom with diverse experiences, opinions,
thought and beliefs which they need to be respected ( “Differences Of
Young, adolescent and Adult Learners, 2018)

Educational Implications for Teaching Adult Learners

On the basis of the characteristics of adults, following are some

implications for teaching this group of learners, and suggestions given by
Malcolm Knowles.

1. Set a cooperative climate for learning in the classroom.

2. Assess the learner’s specific needs and interest because these are th
more important things h wants to learn.
3. Develop learning objectives based on the learner’s need, interests and
skill levels.
4. Design sequential activities to achieve the objectives.
5. Work collaboratively with the learner to select methods, materials and
resources for instructions.
6. Evaluate the quality of the learning experience and make adjustments
as needed, while assessing needs for further learning.
7. The experiences provided them should be problem-centered rather
than content oriented ( Kearsley , 2010; Knowles, n.d.).
8. They have to be involved in the planning and evaluation of their
instruction.

The physiological changes being experienced by adolescents at that

stage, influence their emotional, cognitive, social and even physical
development. The growth spurt occurs at this developmental stage. Because
the influence of peers is very strong at this time, expectedly, they are
confronted with many distractions and concerns that veer their attention away
from their school activities and experiences.

Application:

A. Assume that you are a teacher teaching the concept of adding 2 + 3 to

Grade 1 pupils. Write the steps on how you are going to approach
teaching the concept to ensure a better understanding of the task. Give
your reasons why.

Steps

35
Reasons:
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Assessment:

A. As a whole, what are the developmental characteristics of young

learners that make them different from adolescent and adult
learners?

Child Learners Adolescent Learners Adult Learners

36
B. Below is a list of classroom activities. Identify whose needs will be
addressed by each activity- young? Adolescents? Adults?

1. Students to go the seashore to study kinds of shells.

2. Students name and identify real fruits shown by the teacher.
3. Students are given ingredients and were asked to cook these using
their own method.
4. Students were grouped into three and were given two problems to
solve.
5. Students were doing an experiment and the teacher was present to
guide them.
6. The students were asked to tell stories about their family using
pictures.

7. Students were asked to interpret poem.

8. Students were asked to interview five leaders in the community, from
which they were to make assessment of how effective or ineffective the
leaders are.
9. Students were asked to make a table in two hours.
10. Students were asked to observe the leaves of plants in the garden.

Lesson 3 – Declarative, Procedural, and Functional Knowledge

Lesson/Subject Matter or Concepts to be learned:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Categorize knowledge according to type: declarative, procedural, and
functional
2. Describe the processes involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving
knowledge.

Activity:

37
Form a group of about 3-5 members each.

1. Brainstorm on how you can liken man’s cognitive process, like

acquiring information, putting them to memory, remembering, etc., to
that of the functioning of a computer.

Analysis:

Let’s find out.

1. In what ways are our cognitive process like the functioning of a

computer?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

2. In what ways do our cognitive process differ from the functioning of a

computer?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________-
________________________________________________________

3. Can a computer perform all our cognitive process? Explain your

answer.

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Abstraction:

It is important for teachers to know the types of learning and to

differentiate one from the other. By knowing all these things, teachers can
determine ways of carrying out methodologies and activities in the classroom,
most appropriate for the learners. This will ensure that learning will be raised

38
to higher levels. It must be noted that one of the outcomes of the learning
process is the acquisition of knowledge.

Categories of knowledge

1. Declarative Knowledge
It is also called as personal knowledge, the learner’s
knowledge about things. It refers to the understanding of own
abilities, and the knowledge about oneself as a learner and of the
factors that moderate one’s performance.

Three types of declarative knowledge cognition (Harris, n.d).

a. Labels and names ( pairing information)

b. Facts and lists ( describing relationships)
c. Organizational discourse (thread of meaning running
throughout)

2. Procedural Knowledge
It refers to what one can do and what one is able to do. As
opposed to declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge may not
have a language component; can be performed without conscious
thought or attention given to the process; sometimes learned
implicitly rather than explicitly (“Declarative Learning,” n.d.).

3. Functional Knowledge
It is any piece of stored information that can be adapted and applied
to different circumstances, or are transferable to different settings.

Other Ways of Classifying Knowledge

a. Episodic Knowledge
Refers to biological memory reflecting not only what happened but
also where when it happened.

b. Semantic Knowledge
Deals with memories and information but not tied to personal
biographies. It is organized knowledge about facts, concepts,
generalizations, and their associations.

Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) claim that there are three sub
types of semantic knowledge.

a. Declarative. Statement of truth that deals with what we know

about the world.
b. Procedural. Knowledge of about how things are done.

39
c. Conditional. If declarative knowledge accounts for what, if
procedural knowledge accounts for how, conditional knowledge
accounts for knowing when.

Declarative knowledge is organized according to various level:

a. Descriptions
b. Time elements
c. Process
d. Causal relationship
e. Episodes
f. Generalization
g. Principles
h. Concepts

Dimensions of Knowledge (Anderson and Krathwohl, 2001)

a. Conceptual Knowledge. Knowledge of classification, principles,

generalizations, theories, models, situations pertinent to a particular
discipline.
b. Metacognitive Knowledge. Awareness of one’s own cognition and
particular cognitive processes.
c. Factual. Knowledge basic to specific disciplines like science and
math.

Educational Implications of Knowledge Acquisition

Studies shown that experts are better than novices along the following :

a. Detecting features and meaningful Patterns of information

b. Accumulating more content knowledge and organizing it in a manner
that indicates understanding the topic
c. Retrieving important aspects of knowledge with little effort
d. Adapting an approach to new situations
e. Using affective strategies

Knowing the above approaches that experts use in dealing with

knowledge or
Information, teachers would be able to determine appropriate strategies
to help students also apply these approaches that expert use.

a. Detecting Features and Meaningful Patterns of Organization.

b. Organization and Depth of Information.
c. Fluent Retrieval.
d. Adaptive Expertise.
e. Strategies.
f. Spreading out and Consolidated Learning.
g. Asking Themselves Questions.
h. Taking Good Notes.
i. Using a Study System.

40
Types of teaching methods or techniques that are appropriate to best
develop particular types of knowledge and outcomes.

a. For developing declarative knowledge, the appropriate methods

would be provide activities on organizing, listing, and elaborating to
facilitate learning.
b. For developing concept learning, applications of learning is the
most appropriate.
c. For learning procedures, the application of procedural methods to
reach the final product is a good approach.
d. For learning principles, cause and effect strategies are effective
to teach principles.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory

register, short-term memory and the long-term memory.

Three primary stages in IPT

 Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.

 Storage – The information is stored for either a brief or extended
period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding.
 Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time and
reactivated for use on a current task, the true effective memory.

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very
brief time.

 Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is

more than
what our minds can hold or perceive.
 Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an
extremely
brief period- in the order of I to 3 seconds.

The Role of Attention

To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give

attention to it. Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those
things that pass through our attention “gate”.

Short-term Memory (STM or Working Memory)

41
 Capacity: It can only hold 5 to 9 “ Chunks” of information. It is also
called as working memory because it is where new information is
temporarily placed while it is mentally processed.
 Duration: Around 18 seconds or less. To reduce the loss of
information in 18 seconds, you need to do maintenance rehearsal.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

It is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It
holds the stored information until needed again.

 Capacity: It has unlimited capacity

 Duration: Indefinite

Executive Control Process

It involve executive processor or what is referred to as metacognitive

skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the system, help
the learner make informed decisions about how to categorize, organize or
interpret information.

Forgetting

It is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

Two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:

 Decay – Information is not attended to; and eventually “fades” away.

 Interference – New or old information “blocks” access to the
information in question.

Methods of Increasing Retrieval of Information

 Rehearsal- this is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or

aloud.
 Meaningful Learning- this is making connections between new
information and prior knowledge.
 Organization- It is making connections among various pieces of
information.
 Elaboration- This is adding additional ideas to new information based
on what one already knows.
 Visual Imagery- This means forming a “picture” of the information.
 Generation – Things we “produce” are easier to remember than things
we “hear”.
 Context- Remembering the situation helps recover information.
 Personalization- It is making the information relevant to the individual.

Application:

42
[Link] are ways or strategies by which students can improve the
quality of knowledge they have developed and acquired. Can you
suggest one strategy or one method ( apart from those mentioned in
this lesson) to improve the quality of the knowledge that you have
acquired?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

[Link] if the knowledge is declarative, procedural or functional.

Write the following in each proper column.

Declarative Procedural Functional

1. Putting together the parts of a microscope earlier demonstrated by the

teacher
2. Reciting a poem earlier memorized
3. Naming the parts of a flower correctly as read from a science book
4. Reciting the table of multiplication

43
5. Knowing how to ride a bicycle
6. Knowing how to drive
7. Applying first aid procedure to a person who drowned
8. The teacher gave different types of rewards to his students who scored
high
9. Knowing how to bake a chocolate cake
10. With knowledge of simple machines, Mario was able to move a load in a
cylindrical container.

Assessment:

Describe the process involved in acquiring, storing and retrieving

knowledge.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

[Link] educational implications of the theory on information processing.

Elaborate your answer.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
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44
Module II: Dimensions of Learner-Centered Learning

Module Overview: This chapter will discuss about the Key components of
Socio-cultural learning, social constructivism, socio-constructivist view of
learning and situated learning theory

In the earlier lessons, the basic theories of learning have been

discussed. Another school of thought also posits that learning happens
because of internal cognitive processes. In addition, there is another thinking
which tries to explain that learning occurs because of the context upon which
he exists or operates. This school of thought argues that learning is socially
constructed. It keeps to the idea that learning is influenced by social
interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others. This is
because human beings are social creatures and that much of learning
involves interacting with people, as well as acquiring knowledge and skills
from them.

Module/Lesson Outcome:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

45
1. Relate the dimensions of learning in selecting effective strategies and
methodologies

Lesson/Subject Matter or Concepts to be learned:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. analyze the developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning

2. explain the socio-cultural theory of cognitive development
3. discuss the major terms and concepts related to the theory
4. cite classroom implications of the theory

Lesson 4- Developmental and Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Learning

Activity:

“Playing house” is a part of kid’s childhood experiences. How

beneficial is it in cognitive development?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Analysis:

Why should a teacher used certain teaching methodologies,

approaches and techniques in teaching? Elaborate your answer.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Abstraction:

The sociocultural theory of cognitive development was formulated by

Lev Semenovich Vygotsky, A Russian Psychologist. Its major argument is that

46
social interaction, mediated through language is a key factor in the child’s
development. From the child’s interaction with others, concepts and social
behavior are formed (social level), and he or she later thinks internally (see
Figure 7). The theory underscores his belief that children’s thinking is affected
by their knowledge of social community, which Vygotsky condidered as
learned from either technical or psychological cultural tools (Vygotsky, 1978).
By cultural tools, it meant real tools ( like measuring instruments, calculators,
etc.) and symbol systems (like numbers, language, etc.) that allow people to
communicate, think, solve problems, and create knowledge (Woolfolk, 2016)

Cognitive
Development Language
Social
Interactions

Cultural Context

Key components of sociocultural learning

The Role of Social Interaction

Vygotsky emphasize the significance of social interaction in one’s

thinking. Children from the more knowledgeable others (MKOs), which include
parents, teachers, adults and more advanced peers. An MKO is anyone who
has a higher skill level than the learner in terms of the specific task to perform

Role of Language

Vygotsky theory emphasizes that language plays a central role in the

theory of human cognitive development. Language plays multiple roles,
including culturally shaping the overt behavior of individuals as well
influencing their covert, such as thinking( Burkholder & Pelaez, 2000).
Through language, human cognitive development and higher mental functions
are initiated from social communications. As people engage in social
activities, they are involved in mental and communicative functions (Vygotsky,
1986).

Stages of speech development were identified by Vygotsky ( Johnson, 2014).

Egocentric
 Thinking not related Speech  Speech Internalized
to speech  Speech guides
 Thinking in the form  Thinking out loud thinking, behavior
of images, emotions  Talking to oneself

Social or
External Speech Inner Speech 47
1. Social or external speech. At this stage ( birth to approximately age
3), thinking is not related to speech at all. Instead, thinking is primarily
in the form of images, emotions, and impressions.
2. Egocentric speech. At this stage ( approximately ages 3-7), children
think out loud or talk to themselves as they are doing something.
3. Inner speech. Soundless speech or thought. Speech becomes
internalized and is used to guide thinking and behavior.

Zone of Proximal Development

One major feature of Vygotsky’s theory is the zone of proximal

development by Wheeler (2013). He argued that at anytime, children find
difficulties in performing tasks or problems posed to them as they are not yet
matured enough to handle them. With the guidance of their parents and elder
siblings, they could perform the task. The goal of ZPD is to help the child
move from the level of current independent performance to the level of
potential performance.

Knowledgeable Technology and

Others Tools

What can I learn by

myself

What can I learn with assistance from others

Scaffolding as intervention to reach the zone of proximal development

Source: Wheeler (2013)

Key terms to better understand the socio-cultural dimensions of

learning.

a. Context. The surrounding circumstances, or conditions or environment

upon which learning occurs in them.

48
b. Community of practice. A group of people who share common
interest or goals, and regularly interact and coordinate their efforts, in
pursuit of their interest and goals.
c. Authenticity. Closeness or resemblance to real-life situations and real-
world tasks and problems; close resemblance of an activity or a task to
what one will most likely encounter in the outside world.
d. Scaffolding. It is the help and support provided by an expert to a
person or student while in the process of learning.
e. Culture. Refers to the characteristics of the individual or society or of
some subgroup within a society.
f. Social Constructivism. Refers to the emphasis on the social contexts
of learning and the idea that knowledge is mutually built and
constructed. Social contexts, provide an important mechanism for
developing students’ thinking (Santrock, 2011).

The Socio-constructivist view of learning

 Key ideas and concepts in Vygotsky’s theory (Ormrod, 2015)

1. Some cognitive processes are seen in a variety of species, but some

are unique to human beings. Lower species exhibit lower mental
functions but humans use their higher mental functions.
2. Through both informal conversations and formal schooling, adult
convey children the ways in which the culture interprets and responds
to the world.
3. Every culture not only teaches its members how to interpret their
experiences, but also passes along the physical and cognitive tools
that make daily living more effective and efficient.
4. Thought and language become increasingly interdependent the first
years of life.
5. Complex mental processes emerge out of social activities; as children
develop, they gradually internalize the process they use in social
contexts and begin to use them independently.
6. Children appropriate their culture’s tools in their own idiosyncratic
manner.
7. Children can accomplish more difficult tasks if they are assisted by
people more advanced and competent than they are.
8. Challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth.
9. Play allows children to cognitively “stretch themselves. Play serves as
the children training ground for adulthood.

Analyzing Vygotsky’s theory, focus is on the processes through

which children develop their social and cognitive skills for learning, as
opposed to what developmental theorists claim ( one of whom is Jean
Piaget) that children develop the characteristics that they are more
likely to exhibit at the appropriate developmental stages.

 Interaction with adults will help the child make sense of the world
through discussion of phenomenon or event which both of them are
experiencing. This encourage the child to think about the particular

49
phenomenon, attach labels to it, or even recall the principle underlying
it. This type of learning is mediated learning experiences.
 Scaffolding is a supportive technique, carried out by experts or
competent people which helps students of any age to perform and
accomplish challenging tasks even if at that time, they cannot yet
perform these tasks independently-in Vygotsky’s terms, even if such
tasks are within their zone of proximal development.

Some form of scaffolding ( ormrod, 2015)

a. Modelling the correct way of performing a task

b. Dividing a big or complex task into smaller and simpler activities.
c. Setting guidelines for accomplishing a task
d. Providing technology aids to make the task easier
e. Keeping students’ attention focused on critical aspects of the task
f. Asking questions that get the students focus on the task
g. Giving frequent feedback about how student is progressing

 Participation and gradual entry into adult activities increase the

probability that children will engage in behaviours and thinking skills
within their zone of proximal development.
 Apprenticeship is actually a guided participation where a novice
works with an expert mentor for a certain period to learn how to
perform complex tasks in a particular domain. Apprenticeship can show
novices how experts typically think about a task or activity. This is
known as cognitive apprenticeship.

Features of apprenticeship

a. Modelling. The mentor performs the task at the same time thinking
aloud or talking about the process while the learner listens.
b. Coaching. The mentor frequently gives suggestions, hints and
feedback as learner performs the task.
c. Scaffolding. The mentor provides different forms of support for the
learner, like simplifying the task, breaking a task into smaller and more
manageable units, or providing less complicated equipment.
d. Articulation. The learner explains what he is doing and why, allowing
the mentor to examine or analyze the learner’s knowledge, reasoning
and problem-solving strategies.
e. Reflection. The mentor asks the learner to compare his performance
with that of experts, or with a model of how task should be done.
f. Increasing Complexity and Diversity of Tasks. The mentor presents
more complex, challenging and varied tasks to accomplish.
g. Exploration. The mentor encourages the learner to frame questions
and problems on his own and in doing so refine and expand his
acquired skills.

 Acquisition of teaching skills is also one benefit gained from the use
of social constructivist approach in learning. As children acquire and

50
gain new and firs-hand information and skills from experienced
members of the community, they can, in turn, teach their new
knowledge to others.
 Dynamic assessment often reveal more objective evaluation of
children’s cognitive capabilities. It requires first the identification of
tasks that children cannot do independently, then provide in-depth
instruction, and practice in developing cognitive behaviours along
these tasks; and finally determine the extent to which the learner
benefited from the intervention.

Teaching methodologies, approaches, and techniques that the teacher can

use based on Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist view of learning.

a. Peer Tutoring. This involves allowing students to act as tutors and

tutees.
b. Cooperative Learning. This is giving opportunity for students to
work in small groups and help each other learn. Groups may vary
in size, as in dyad or groups of four.
c. Group Discussion. A problem-solving task may be assigned to a
group, and the group can develop its own structure on how to go
about solving the problem.

The Situated Learning Theory

The situated learning theory which exemplifies the view that learning is
a product of cultural context where one lives or exists. Situated cognition or
situated learning is a theory that suggests learning is “naturally tied to
authentic activity, context and culture ( Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989). It
means that most learning occurs naturally through social activities, contexts,
and the culture which learners are exposed to.
Situated learning is deriving and creating meaning from the real
activities of daily living where learning occurs in a pro-social but informal
learning.
A sociologist-anthropologist and learning theorist Jean Lave, is one of
the notable proponents of situated learning theory. Following are the
highlights or main ideas of the situated learning theory that she advanced
(Brown, Collins & Duguid, 1989, Vol 89, pp. 32-42).
a. Knowledge is socially-constructed.
b. Knowledge evolves naturally as a result of individuals participating in
and negotiating their way through new situations.
c. Knowing, learning and cognition are socially-constructed, that are seen
or expressed in actions of people and people interacting.
d. Construction of meaning is tied to specific contexts and purposes.
e. Learning is fundamentally social and inseparable from the practice it is
supposed to develop.
f. Learning is situated within authentic activity, context and culture.
g. Situated cognition is a way of naming the kind of learning that takes
place in and through common practices among a group of people with
similar goals and interests.

51
h. Learning is in part about increased participation and that it is legitimate
to participate in different ways.
i. Cultural models are not held by individuals but live in the practices of
community and how people engage with each other, as well as any
tools they use, and the specific cultural context.
j. Designing learning experiences from situated learning perspective start
with some assumptions that learning is grounded in the actions of
everyday situations:
 Knowledge is acquired situationally and transfers only to stimuli
situations.
 Social processes influence the way people think, perceive, solve
problems, perform procedures, build declarative knowledge and
interact.
 Learning is enmeshed in participation in complex social environments
where there are people, situations and activities.
K. Knowledge undergoes construction and transformation through
continuous use.

The following are the importance of authenticity in situated learning:

1. Knowledge is a product of making and creating meanings, and cannot
be separated from its context.
2. Learning is a continuous , life-long process from acting within and
reacting to situations.
3. The tools of learning and their usage reflect the particular accumulated
insights of communities of practice.
4. Learning is a process enculturation.

These concepts highlight the role and importance of socio-cultural factors

in creating ;earning and deriving meaning using materials, meaningful and
real-life experiences, and even culturally desired behaviors and
expectations.

Teaching Implications of Vygotsky’s Theory

The theory of sociocultural learning has greatly influenced practices in

facilitating learning. Vgotsky’s theory promotes learning context in which
students play an active role in learning. His theory requires that the teacher
and student are collaborators in the learning process, with the teacher as
facilitator or guide in learner’s construction of knowledge and development of
skills. The process makes learning a reciprocal experience for both the
teacher and learners.
Citing research findings (e.g., John-Steiner & Mann, 2003; Webb,
2008; Slavin, 2014), Slavin (2018) proposed the following teaching practices
for consideration by the facilitator of learning. In the use of ZPD, teachers can
organize classroom activities in the following ways:
1. Instruction can be planned to provide practice within the ZPD for
individual children or groups of children.

52
2. Scaffolding provides hints and prompts at different levels. In
scaffolding, the adult does not simplify the task, but the role of the
learner is simplified “through the graduated intervention of the teacher.”
3. Cooperative learning activities can be planned with groups of children
at different levels who can help each other to learn.

Assessment:

A. What is your idea about the following?

1. Authentic learning
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
2. Zone of proximal development
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

3. Socio-cultural factors related to learning

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

4. Expound on two of the main ideas of Jean Lave’s situated

learning theory.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

53
Lesson/Subject Matter or Concepts to be learned:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Relate social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication

in the learning process.

Lesson 5: Social Interactions, Interpersonal Relations, and

Communication in the learning Process

This lesson looks into how specific relationships have a hand on

learning. It also looks into the consequences of social interaction behaviors on
socio-emotional climate in the classroom.

Activitiy:

As a future teacher, what learning activities will you give to your

learners to enhance their collaborative skills and why?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Analysis:

When learners work with their peers and classmates I realize that
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

54
MEANING OF SOCIAL INTERACTIONS, INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS,
AND COMMUNICATION

The basic and key words related to social dimensions of learning will
first have to defined and understood. These are social interactions,
interpersonal relations, and communication. All of these connote “exchange”
and “relationship”. Learning can be enhanced when the learner has the
opportunity to interact and collaborate with others, specially on instructional
tasks, in school.

Social Interaction
It is an exchange between two or more individuals. By interacting with
one another, people design rules, systems, and institutions. It is a dynamic
changing sequence of social actions between individual. It provide the
foundation or bases for social cultures and structures. Social interaction refer
to how people act, and hoe they react to people around them.
Ervin Goffman, a sociologist identified five types of social interaction.
a. Exchange- it is a social process whereby social behavior is exchanged
for some type of reward of equal or greater value.
b. Competition- a social process by which two or more people attempt
to attain a goal, which only one can.
c. Cooperation- a process by which two or more people work together to
attain a common goal.
d. Conflict- it happens when there is disagreement or dissent on certain
points among other group members.
e. Coercion- a process of persuading someone to do something or to
cooperate, using force, threat, or intimidation.

Positive or negative consequences of these types of social interaction

could either be positive or negative depending on how these interactions are
managed or handled.

Interpersonal Relation
It has something to do with close. Deep or strong association or
acquaintance between two or more people that may range in duration from
brief to enduring; a bond or close association that exists between two or more
people who share common interests or goals (Juneja, n.d.)

Types of interpersonal relationships:

a. Friendship- is an unconditional interpersonal relationship which

individual enter into by their own choice and will.
b. Love- is a relationship characterized by love, intimacy, trust and
respect between individuals and might end up in marriage.
c. Platonic relationship – is a relationship between individuals but
without feelings of desire for each other.
d. Family relationship- relationship of individuals related each other by
blood or marriage.
e. Work relationship- relationship of individuals who work for the same
organization (Juneja, nd.).

55
Communication

It refers to the exchange in meanings between individuals through a

common system of symbols, signs, behavior. It is a two way process of
reaching understanding in which participants not only exchange information,
news, ideas or feelings but also create and share meaning. Communication is
a means to connect people and places.
Communication has something to do with the concepts of “exchange,”
“relationship” and “bond.” There is a socio-emotional component involved
when these interactions happen. This socio-emotional component has
implications for the kind of climate there is in the classroom, which
consequently, will bear on students’ learning.

The School/Classroom as a Social Entity

The school is a social entity comprising many individuals and groups,

mainly, students and teachers. In the classroom, teaching-learning activities,
as well as those outside of it, are all social events because many exchanges
happen in these activities. The classroom or the school is an important
institution from which the child learns his first lessons in socialization.
Students should be made to feel that they are accepted by their peers and
teachers. The absence of approval and acceptance may result in serious
negative implications on the socio-emotional climate of the school. Negativity
bring about fear, anxiety, restlessness. It can also result in disinterest in the
lesson, or decrease in motivation levels.
Children’s relationship with their parents, peers and friends have a
tremendous impact in their lives. Their interactions with teachers, mentors
and others also can profoundly affect their achievement and social motivation
( Santrock, 2011).
Children’s social concerns influence their lives in school (Anderman &
Anderman, 2010, Santrock 2011). Teachers play an important role in
students’ achievement. It is found effective, engaging teachers not only
provide supports students to make good progress, but also encourages
students to become self-regulated learners (Pressly, in Santrock, 2011).

Application:

Below are critical incidents that would most likely occur inside the
classroom. As a future teacher, indicate what you are going to do, if the
situations below happen in your classroom.

1. The teacher asked a student to stand and answer a question, but the
student cannot answer the question.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

56
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

2. The teacher noticed that Paul was shy and would not want to answer
the teacher’s questions nor participate in class activities.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

3. The teacher noticed that three of his students were “isolates” and
wouldn’t want to participate in problem-solving task.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Assessment:

Connect the given situations to the concept below.

a. Platonic relationship
b. Coercion
c. Negative socio-emotional classroom activities
d. Cooperation
e. Social interaction
f. Friendship
g. Communication

______ 1. Two students, both girl and boy enjoy swimming and biking
during weekends.
______ 2. A group of five students work together, each one having his
own assigned task to work and finish a class project.
______ 3. The teacher told her students that they will receive a failing

57
grade if they do not submit their term papers on time.
______4. About 90% of the students in the class, feel anxious every time
they enter the science class. The teacher is known to be a
terror.
______ 5. The teacher gives a real-life examples as a way to explain
clearly the concepts she is teaching.
______ 6. In a certain barangay, people plan together, and contribute
their ideas on how to celebrate fiesta.
______ 7. When two professionals, a man and a woman meet together,
they like to share and discuss the findings of the students they
are doing.
______ 8. The student volunteer to participate in the feeding program for
malnourished children. They plan and discuss how to attain the
goals of the program.
______ 9. The teacher likes to teach but talks at the top of his voice. The
students feel afraid the teacher might ask them questions.
______ 10. The teacher encourages students to ask questions, in case
they do not understand some things being taught. When this
happens, the teacher tries her best to clarify the students’
misconceptions or mistakes.

Lesson/Subject Matter or Concept to be learned:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Analyze and discuss research findings on the influences of

developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning.
2. Discuss how parents, peer and teachers influenced the learners.
Lesson 6- Research Findings on the Influences of Developmental and
Socio-Cultural Dimensions of Learning

Activity:

Discuss how your parents motivates/influence you on your studies?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

58
Analysis:

As a student, how important research is in your daily life?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Abstraction:

The purpose of research is to inform action. It must always be of high

quality in order to produce knowledge that is applicable outside of the
research setting.
Man by nature is a social being, and as such, his social nature has
been studied and used as bases to explain many of his behaviors. Much of
the study of learning has as its basis the different theories developed by
experts. Proof of the veracity of the theories cab be obtained with the conduct
of researchers and studies. Studies have been conducted along the socio-
cultural dimensions of learning to gather data as proof to the veracity or
“strength” of that theory.
Research findings also give ideas and provide knowledge to
practitioners so that they could use and apply these to effectively deal with
classroom situations or come up with effective teaching methodologies
especially as they relate to the socio-cultural dimensions of learning.

Importance of Research Findings on Developmental and Socio-Cultural

Dimensions of L earning

Research is a systematic and an orderly way of studying and looking

for a new information meant to add to and build up existing knowledge.
People do research in various fields of study and for different purposes or
reasons. Research has been and I being done to gather more data on the
developmental and socio-cultural dimensions of learning. This will enable
especially the practitioners to analyze and evaluate for themselves what best
practices to adopt and apply in their teaching tasks.
Research findings would lead practitioners to modify their views,
perspectives and philosophy of education considering the realities happening
in classroom and in the educational system.

Research Findings on the Influences of Development and Socio-Cultural

Dimensions of Learning

59
 Parental Involvement

Ongoing research shows that family engagement in schools improves

student achievement, reduces absenteeism, and restores parents’ confidence
in their children’s education. Students with involved parents or other
caregivers earn higher grades and test scores, have better social skills, and
show improved behavior.
In the study by Schneider and Coleman (1993, in Santrock, 2011) they
found that parents with higher education are more likely to think and believe
that their involvement in the children’s education is very important than
parents of lower education- to be active participants in their children’s
education and to provide for their intellectually stimulating materials at home.
This may also be explained by the fact that as children grow older and
develop more complex thought process, parents with higher education would
likely be able to address and respond better to such complex processes.
Vinograd-Bausell & Bausell ( 1987) wanted to determine the effects of
home-teaching on achievement. They involved 195 parent-participants to
determine the effects of teaching after the home-tutoring program, measures
of word-recognition skills were taken. The students taught by parents at home
significantly performed better in word-recognition than those who did not go
through this home-tutoring program (Vinogard-Baussell & Bausell, 1987, pp.
57-65). The interaction between parent and child occurring during the home
teaching period could have created a good and satisfying climate for learning
which motivated these children to perform better.

 Parenting Style and child-rearing

The Effects of child-rearing practices which

involve interaction behaviors between parents and
children, to learning have also been studied.
Wigfield et. Al (2006, in Stanrock, 2011, p. 459)
found the following parenting services to result in
improved motivation and achievement.

a. Knowing enough about the child to provide the right amount of

challenge and the right amount of support.
b. Providing a positive emotional climate which motivates children to
internalize their parents’ values and goals.
c. Modelling motivated achievement behavior – working hard and
persisting with effort at challenging tasks.

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The parenting styles commonly used in psychology today are based on
the work of Diana Baumrind, a developmental psychologist at the
University of California at Berkeley, in the 1960s. Maccoby and Martin also
contributed by refining the model in the 1980s.

Diana Baumrind’s Parenting Styles Theory

Baumrind noticed that preschoolers exhibited distinctly

different types of behavior. Each type of behavior was
highly correlated to a specific kind of parenting. Her
theory is that there is a close relationship between the
type of parenting style and children’s behavior. Different
parenting styles can lead to different child development
and child outcomes.

Based on extensive observation, interviews and

analyses, Baumrind initially identified three different types
of parenting styles: authoritative parenting, authoritarian parenting and
permissive parenting1.
Although Diana Baumrind is known for her work on categorizing parenting
styles, Maccoby and Martin (1983) were the ones who expanded this 3-
parenting-styles model using a two-dimensional framework2.

They expanded Baumrind’s permissive parenting style into two

different types: permissive parenting (also known as indulgent parenting style)
and neglectful parenting (also known as uninvolved parenting style).

These four parenting styles are sometimes called the Baumrind

parenting styles or Maccoby and Martin parenting styles.

The four types of parenting styles are:

 Authoritative

 Authoritarian (or Disciplinarian)

 Permissive (or Indulgent)
 Neglectful (or Uninvolved)

Parenting Styles Definition and Their Effects on Children’s

Behavior:

 Demandingness refers to the extend parents control their children’s

behavior or demand their maturity.

 Responsiveness refers to the degree parents are accepting and

sensitive to their children’s emotional and developmental needs.

1. Authoritative Parenting

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High demandingness. High
responsiveness.
Authoritative parents have high expectations
for achievement and maturity, but they are also
warm and responsive.
These parents set rules and enforce
boundaries by having open discussion,
providing guidance and using reasoning.
These parents provide their kids with
reasoning and explanation for their action.
Explanations allow children to have a sense of awareness and teach
kids about values, morals, and goals.
Their disciplinary methods are confrontive, i.e. reasoned, negotiable,
outcome-oriented, and concerning with regulating behaviors.
Authoritative parents are affectionate and supportive. They provide
their children with autonomy and encourage independence.
They also allow bidirectional communication. This parenting style is also
known as the democratic parenting style.
Children of authoritative parents are cherished.
Based on Baumrind’s research on parenting styles, children of authoritative
parents tend to:
 Appear happy and content.
 Are more independent
 Are more active.
 Achieve higher academic success.
 Develop good self-esteem.
 Interact with peers using competent social skills11.
 Have better mental health — less depression, anxiety, suicide attempts,
delinquency, alcohol and drug use.
 Exhibit less violent tendencies.

2. Authoritarian Parenting
High demandingness. Low
responsiveness.

High levels of parental control

and low levels of responsiveness are
the two characteristics of authoritarian
parents.
Although authoritarian parenting and
authoritative parenting styles have similar
names, they have several important
differences in parenting belief, demand
and approach.
While both parental styles demand high standards, authoritarian
parents demand blind obedience using reasons such as “because I said so“.
They only allow one way communication through rules and orders. Any
attempts to reason with them are seen as backtalk.

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These parents use stern discipline and often employ harsh
punishment, such as corporal punishment, as a way to control children’s
behavior. Their disciplinary methods are coercive, i.e. arbitrary, peremptory,
domineering, and concerned with marking status distinctions.
Authoritarian parents are unresponsive to their children’s needs and
are generally not nurturing. They usually justify their mean treatment of their
kids as tough love.

Children whose parents have an authoritarian parenting style tend to:

 Have an unhappy disposition.
 Be less independent.
 Appear insecure.
 Possess low self-esteem.
 Exhibit more behavioral problems.
 Perform worse academically.
 Have poorer social skills.
 Be more prone to mental issues17.
 Be more likely to have drug use problems18.
 Have worse coping mechanism19.

3. Permissive Parenting (Indulgent)

Low demandingness. High
responsiveness
Permissive parents set very few
rules and boundaries and they are
reluctant to enforce rules.
These indulgent parents are warm
and indulgent but they do not like to say no
or disappoint their children.
Children of permissive parenting tend
to have the worst outcomes:
 Cannot follow rules.
 Have worse self-control.
 Possess egocentric tendencies.
 Encounter more problems in relationships and social interactions.

4. Neglectful Parenting (Uninvolved)

Low demandingness. Low
responsiveness.
Neglectful parents do not set firm boundaries
or high standards.
They are indifferent to their children’s needs
and uninvolved in their lives.
These uninvolved parents may have mental
issues themselves such as depression, or
physical abuse or child neglect when they
were kids.

Children raised by neglectful parents:

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 Are more impulsive.
 Cannot self-regulate emotion.
 Encounter more delinquency and addictions problems.
 Have more mental issues — e.g. suicidal behavior in adolescents.

From decades of studies, researchers found that authoritative

parenting is consistently linked to the best outcomes in kids.
Authoritative parenting style is considered the best parenting style by
psychologists and [Link] classification of child rearing styles has
been studied for over 25 years in different countries.
Results are generally found to be as expected for each parenting style.
However, inconsistencies and exceptions in some areas remain.
Here are some factors that may also play a part in determining how a child
turns out.

Cultural and Ethnics Differences

Some studies found that the authoritative style isn’t always linked to the
best school achievement across families from diverse ethnic (e.g. Asian,
Black, Hispanic) and socioeconomic backgrounds (e.g. income level, parental
education, number of active parents)
For example, in one study, researchers found that African-American
students with authoritative parents but without peer support did not perform
the best academically.
As for Asian-American students, in some studies, they performed the
best in school when they had authoritarian parents and peer support21.
In Spain, a study showed that both indulgent and authoritative parenting
styles were associated with good outcomes.

Child Temperament
Children’s own behavior can affect the parent’s choice and the
outcomes, too.
For example, kids with a more sensitive temperament may be
perceived as difficult causing the parents to change their parenting style
towards more authoritarian.
In a study, it was also found that some aspect of child behavior such
as sociable and aggressive behaviors are better correlated to the child’s
temperament than to the parenting style of their parents.
It seems like parenting style is not the only determining factor in the child’s
outcomes.
Differences in social context and in child temperaments can make a
difference, too.
But it is worth noting that, despite being widely publicized, not all of these
study results have been successfully reproduced by other researchers.
In addition, these results are also not consistent across other types of
outcomes, such as behavior or mental health.

64
For example, while some studies found the use of authoritarian
parenting in the Chinese American population was associated with the best
academic outcomes others found the authoritative parenting to be the best in
predicting school performance.
To this date, no study has conclusively disproved the benefits of
authoritative parenting, while many others have consistently shown its
advantages.

Authoritative parenting is still the parenting style of choice

recommended by experts.

Parenting Styles vs Parenting Practices

Another component that can impact the outcome is the distinction
between parenting style and parenting practice.

Parenting style is the emotional climate and control in which parents

raise their children.

Parenting practices are specific actions that parents employ in their

parenting.
Even for parents with the same parenting style, they may choose to utilize
different parenting practices which may affect the degree of outcomes.

 Provision for Specific Experiences at Home

The kind of experiences and resources, made available to the children
by their parents at home are also found to influence students’ interest and
motivation to pursue various activities. For example, regarding to one’s
preschool child was found to be positively related to the child’s later reading
achievement and motivation (Wigfield & Asher, 1984, in Santrock, 2011). Also
it was found out that work habits and skills of children when they enter
kindergarten best predict academic motivation and performance in elementary
and high school (Entwesile & Alexander, 1993 in Santrock 20110
Research has shown that the process of literacy acquisition starts way
before a child enters formal schooling (Storch & Whitehurst 2001; Van
Steensel 2006; Weigel, Martin & Benett 2006). It is in the home and the
immediate environment that a child is first socialised in the world of literacy
and for some children the home provides a platform on which they first
encounter written material Snow, Burns & Griffin 1998; Snow, Tabon &
Dickinson 2001).
Early literacy skills reflect the competencies needed to engage ore
conventional reading. Children’s early literacy achievements are related to
academic performance in grade school and are predictive of career and
economic potential.
Parents Play a crucial role in shaping children’s early literacy skills,
and the most powerful and frequently examined pathway for the influence is
the home learning environment (HLE). The HLE includes parenting practices
that are specifically aimed at enhancing early educational outcomes such as
shared reading, instructional activities, and educational games.
Maria Evans and associates did a study on the importance of
providing resources such as books at home. They found that having books at

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home is twice as important as parental education in determining children’s
academic and educational level. The findings are the same for both Chinese
and American parents. This suggest that having educational resources at
home is a better predictor of achievement than ethnic.

Peer Influence

Peer influence was also found to affect a

student’s motivation in many ways. It was found
that students who are accepted by their peers and
who have good social skills often do better in
school and have positive academic achievement
motivation.
The interactions among peers in the
classroom are a normal and essential part of the
learning process that influence the lifelong learning
habits of students. The potential effects of peer
relationships are reciprocal: Some students are
more receptive than others. On one extreme, for example, if the student who
values and seeks peer input on every decision; on the other is the social
isolate who avoids interaction in and out of the classroom. This entry
examines selected variables that can influence learners, including
developmental differences, motivational and learning considerations, and the
function of the classroom contexts.
According to a study published by the Williams Project
on the Study of Economics in Higher Education, stronger
students do have an impact on their peers and actually help
improve the overall academic performance of the peer group.
A recent study revealed that having disruptive friends in adolescence
was linked to lower likelihood of graduation from high school. In the same
manner, having friends who are academically oriented is linked to higher
achievement (Dodge, 2010; Croesno et. Al. 2008 in Santrock, 2011).
Kirk Johnsos made an analysis of data on peer influences and social
interaction and other factors linked to academic achievement, taken from the
1998 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP). From his
analysis, he came up with the following findings.
a. The peer effect is a particularly strong influence in academic
achievement, especially for fourth graders.
b. The peer effect is independent of other factors such as race, ethnicity,
gender, income, and other background variables.
c. Family background factors such as household environment and parental
education also play an important role in explaining achievement in both
the fourth and eighth grades.

Similar results regarding the link between peer influence and

achievement were obtained from the research of Liu (2010) where she
found that peer influence and academic outcomes in reading and
mathematics were strongly related.

Teachers

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“It is the supreme art of the teacher to
awaken joy in creative expression and
knowledge-Albert Einstein.”
Education is an important tool that can
shape an individual and allow creativity,
opportunity and growth. Teachers are
significant persons to students. Teachers
carry with them the big amount of influence
on the learners.
Student learning can be positively
impacted by the encouragement of teachers
to their students. A teacher’s influence, ideas
ad expectations of his or her students’ capabilities have an effect on student
academic performance and achievements.
A study by Perry, Donahue, and Weinstein, (2007 in Santrock, 2011)
found that instructional and socio-emotional support were linked to the first
grade students’ achievement. Also, the study examined view’s on the qualities
of good relationships with the teacher by asking them how they knew if their
teacher cared for them.
If the teachers believe in their students, their students begin to believe
in themselves. Students take into effect the beliefs their teachers have on
them and accept it as part of who they are and their abilities. When students
are viewed in negative way, they take on those beliefs about themselves.
According to research finding, teacher’s beliefs translate into
differential behavior toward their students.
Muntner (2008) identified ten important factors that should be
considered in classrooms to improve and increase student-teacher
interaction, which they believed should subsequently improve social
development and learning. The ten factors have been classified and lumped
into three, namely; emotional support, classroom organization, and
instructional support.

How Peer Groups Influence

There are several ways in which peers influence each other. Not all of
them are bad. Variables of peer influence include the ethnicity of the students,
the socio-economic background of the students, family relationships and
group interests.

Negative Influences
In some peer groups, being smart is looked down upon. Similarly,
these groups tend to share low aspirations of going to college or getting
certain careers. There may be other values in place, such as taking care of
the family or making money sooner rather than going to college first.

Positive Influences
Many peer groups can be a positive influence on their friends as well. It
is thought that intelligent students help their peers bring up their grades.
Likewise, girls with good friends who are considered intelligent tend to do

67
better in school. There definitely seems to be a pattern in the influence of
studious kids. With that said, another common theme is similar aspirations.
Students that want to go to a four-year college tend to hang out with others
with similar aspirations.

Application:

A. Conduct a simple survey by interviewing five grade 6 pupils in your

community. Ask each one the following questions.

1. When you talk with your parents, what topics do you usually talk
about? Do they ask questions about how you are dong in school, or
say what score you got in the exam?
2. Do your parents come to school and talk to your teacher about how
you are doing?
3. Do your parents attend meetings called by your teacher or the
principal?

B. Compare the responses of the pupils on the three questions.

Determine whose parents are highly involved in the studies of their
children. Whose parents are least involved.

Assessment:

Answer the following:

1. From the review of research findings, what factors with socio-cultural

character are linked to student learning and achievement?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

2. Of what importance are research findings to teachers and

practitioners?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Lesson/Subject Matter or Concept to be learned:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Determine the significance of developmental and socio-cultural

dimensions of learning in selecting strategies and methodologies
2. Discuss the different strategies and methodologies in learning

Lesson 7- Significance of Developmental and Socio-Cultural Dimensions

of Learning in Selecting Strategies and Methodologies

In the previous chapter, the learner-centered theories as well as results

of research along the socio-cultural dimensions of learning were presented.
Findings of research are empirical bases that lend proof to the veracity or
accuracy of a theory. Empirical findings provide the test of how close the
ideas and concepts advanced by the theories are, to reality.

69
This chapter deals with the presentation and discussion of ideas on
methodologies and educational perspectives that can be deduced from the
socio-cultural theories of learning and the concomitant research findings,
which teachers and other practitioners can adopt in their respective
classroom.

Activity:

Discuss the factors to consider the choice of a teaching

methods.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Analysis:

In your own opinion what is the best teaching methods? Why?

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

Abstraction:

The work of Lev Vygotsky (1934) has become the foundation of much
research and theory in cognitive development over the past several decades,
particularly of what has become known as Social Development Theory.

Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the

development of cognition (Vygotsky, 1978), as he believed strongly that
community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning."

Educational Implications of Socio-Cultural and other contextual

Theories

Omrad ( 2015) listed down some educational implications of

Vygotsky’s theory and other contextual perspectives:

a. Learners can think more effectively when they acquire the basic
cognitive tools of various activities and academic disciplines. The
implication of this perspective lies in the importance of developing first
among learners, the basic thinking tools that will enable them to solve
problems or answer questions that they will eventually meet.
b. Children learn and remember more when they talk about their
experiences. Children almost always talk about their experiences as
soon as they begin to speak.
c. Children should have opportunities to engage in activities that closely
resemble those that they will later encounter in the adult world. These
activities are called authentic activities, and teachers are encouraged
to make use of authentic activity and instructional materials.
d. Children often acquire better strategies when they collaborate or work
with adults complex tasks. Working with adults on complex tasks.
Working with adults will enable them to learn developmentally
advanced strategy.
e. Challenging tasks, especially when sufficiently scaffolded tend to
hasten cognitive development. This means that the teacher should
provide as many support and aids.
f. Technology-based software and applications can effectively scaffold
many challenging tasks, and occasionally offer good alternatives to
real-world activities and problems.
g. Children’s abilities should be assessed under a variety of work
conditions. Assessment gives the teacher a good understanding of the
developmental levels of the children; and know under what conditions
they are most likely to accomplish or not to accomplish tasks.
h. Group learning activities can help children internalize cognitive
strategies.
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Peer Interactive Instructional Strategies

Peer Instruction, a structured teaching practice that requires

students to examine their own and their classmates’ reactions to and
analysis of the content, is a simple yet effective way to engage
students.
Peer interactive strategies enable the learners or students to do the
following and therefore benefit from these in many ways:

a. They can clarify and organize their ideas and justify their ideas.
b. They tend to elaborate on what they learned.
c. They are exposed to others’ views, widening their knowledge and
perspective.
d. They may discover flaws or inconsistencies in their thinking and do
self-correction.
e. They can gain more complex and sophisticated thinking and
reasoning skills.
f. They can also practice their argumentation skills-skills which
experts use to advance knowledge.
g. They can acquire a more sophisticated view of the nature of
knowledge and learning.

Important features of peer-interactive strategies

1. Class Discussion
Class discussion could be used in a variety of courses and
disciplines. The members usually engage in discussion where
sometimes there may not really be a correct answer as an
interpreting classic works in literature.

Guidelines to promote effective discussions:

a. Class discussion should focus on the topics that lend themselves to
multiple perspectives, explanations, or approaches.
b. Make sure that students have prior knowledge about the topic for
discussion.
c. See to it that the classroom has an atmosphere conducive to open
debate and constructive evaluation of ideas.
d. Class discussion should be structured in some ways.
e. At the end of the discussion, some closure should be provided.

2. Reciprocal Teaching

This involves teacher and students taking turns to lead the

discussion and asks questions. For the first minutes, the teacher
leads the discussion, and asks questions in the process.

3. Cooperative Learning

72
Students work together in small groups to achieve a common
goal.
Features of cooperative learning (Ormrod, 2015, and Woolfolk,
2013).

a. Students work in small teacher-assigned groups

b. Groups have one or more common goals toward which to achieve
c. Students have clear guidance on how to behave
d. Group members must depend on one another for their success
e. A structure is provided to encourage productive learning
behaviours
f. The teacher serves primarily as resource person and monitor
g. Students are accountable for his achievement
h. Students are rewarded for group success
i. At the completion of an activity, each group evaluates its
effectiveness.
4. Peer Tutoring
Peer tutoring is a flexible, peer-mediated strategy that involves
students serving as academic tutors and tutees. Typically, a higher
performing student is paired with a lower performing student to review
critical academic or behavioral concepts.
5. Communities of Learner
This means that teacher and students have shared goals,
respect and support of one’s efforts, and that each one makes an
important contribution to classroom learning (Hom & Battistich, 1995, in
Ormrod, 2015).
Characteristics of a classroom that is community of learners.
a. All students are active participants in classroom activities
b. The primary goal is to acquire a body of knowledge of a specific topic.
c. Students draw from many resources
d. Discussion and collaboration among students occur regularly
e. Variations in students’ interests and rates of learning are expected
f. Everyone is a potential resource for others
g. Teacher provides some guidance and directions for classroom activities,
students may also contribute
h. Mechanisms for sharing what was learned are in place
i. Constructive questioning and critiquing
j. The process of learning is emphasized, sometimes more than the product.

Application:

Identify which of the following situations or practices reflects implications

derived from socio-cultural dimensions of learning.

a. In Ms. Cruz’s class, the students are given an assignment to work on at

home.

73
b. In Mr. Fernandez’s class, the four groups of students solve together a
problem.
c. Ms Santos tells her students to read the selection silently.
d. In Ms. Estrella’s class, the students work independently on their
science experiment.
e. Mr. Bonifacio has asked three students to help Albert solve a problem.
f. Mrs Almera joined a group of students in a group discussion.
g. The teacher asked the brightest student to teach another student.
h. The teacher and the students take turns in leading the group
discussion of a topic.
i. The teacher encouraged the students to ask questions about the
contents of the presentation.
j. Ms. Silverio came up with a topic which the whole class can research
on, so they can build knowledge about it.

Assessment:

A. Define the following terms:

1. Reciprocal teaching

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

2. Cooperative Learning

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

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__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

B. Name and describe three features common to peer interactive

learning strategies.

__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________

Module III: Individual Differences in Learning

Module Overview: This chapter focuses on individual differences in learning,

having as its section instructional learning outcome, design learning activities
to address the diverse needs of learners.
Individual differences stand for “those differences which in their totality,
distinguish one individual from another or it is often said that no two
individuals are exact duplicates; they differ from each other in some way or
the other.

Module/Lessons Outcomes:

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. Concepts of Individual Differences in Learning

2. Different Styles of Learning

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3. Characteristics of Children with Special Needs

4. Designing and Assessing Activities for Diverse Learners

Lesson 8 – Concepts of Individual Differences in Learning

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Analyze concepts of individual differences in learning according to

different theories of intelligence: structural and process
2. Identify the different factors that bring about diversity in the classroom
3. Come up with teaching strategies that consider student diversity
4. Discuss theories about intelligence

Activity:
1. Ask 10 members of your class.
2. Each of you will provide information about your

Name:
Age:
Gender:
Nationality:
Province:
Language/dialects spoken:
Hobbies/interest:
Favorite subjects:
Subject you are best in:
Subject you find difficult:
Ambition:

Analysis:

1. In what ways are you and your classmates similar? _______________

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

2. In what ways are you and your classmates different? ______________

________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

3. How does a girl differ from a boy in behavior? _________________________

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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

4. In what ways does an American differ from that in the city? ______________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

5. How does life in the province differ from a Filipino? _____________________

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

6. Are you glad you have similarities? Differences? Explain your answer.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

7. How can the teacher utilize these similarities and differences in teaching you?
______________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

Abstraction:

Diversity is a natural part of life. The

learning environment is the best
example where diversity is manifested
between and among learners. Each
learner has his or her learning style,
intelligence, potential, skills, talents,
learning preferences, as well as
cognitive abilities, which are the effects
of both experience and heredity.
Theories on multiple intelligences,
learning styles and differentiated
instructions are all to be considered
when planning the delivery of lessons.
Teachers assist and support their learners in identifying their most
effective learning style, dominant intelligence, skills, and potentials and

77
help them identify the ways and means on how they can use them to
maximize learning.
Current trends in teaching encourage teachers to apply concept on
multicultural teaching, differentiated instruction (DI), and the Universal
Design for Learning (UDL). All these principles support the premise that
teachers should be creative, innovative, and supportive of the individual
differences of their learners. These trends in teaching offer various ideas,
options, and ways by which diversity can best be used for meaningful
teaching and learning.

Factors that Bring about Student Diversity

In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who arer in

some ways different from them. This diversity also comes from other factors
like the following:

1. Socioeconomics status – The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of

the middle income or lower income group.
2. Thinking/learning style- Some of you learn better by seeing
something; others by just listening; and still others by manipulating
something.
3. Exceptionalities- in class there maybe one who has difficulty in
spoken language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc.

How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity.

2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible
members of society.
4. Student diversity can promote harmony.

Some Tips on Student Diversity

1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.

2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’
multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that
transcend group differences.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in
learning styles.
6. Vary examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide
multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse
backgrounds.
7. Adapt to students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing
them personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning
what they will learn and how they will learn it
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.

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9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse
backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different learning
styles, different cultural background, etc.

Intelligence and Individual Differences

People to a group called human beings. Each person has his own
unique characteristics, different from others. They have their own
individuality contributing to variations or differences within and among
individuals. These are called individual differences.
Intelligence is a significant source of variation among individuals.
Individual differences provide the rationale why we study behavior, and
why the study of learning is challenging and interesting. As would be
teachers, this means that individual differences in learning could be better
understood by the study of intelligence.

Concepts About Intelligence

Understanding the nature of intelligence is a complex endeavor. The

study of intelligence has been done by various researches and
psychologist for a long time now, dating as far back as Plato. Nature of
intelligence involved any or more of the following themes: (Woolfolk, 2013,
p.119).

a. the capacity to learn

b. the total knowledge a person has acquired
c. ability to adapt the new situations and environment in general

The following are the components of what many experts and Theorist
understand intelligence to be (Ormrod, 2015).

a. It is adaptive.
b. It is related to learning ability.
c. It involves use of prior knowledge to understand and analyze new
situations effectively.
d. It involves the complex interaction and coordination of many different
mental processes.
e. It may be seen in different arenas-for example, on academic tasks or in
social situations.
f. It is “Culture-specific”.

Sternberg (1986) contends that there are two general classifications of

the definition of intelligence- the operational and the “real” definition.
Operational definition defines what intelligence is through the measure or the
test that was used. There are tools or tests that attempt to measure this
characteristic. Real intelligence looks into the “true” nature of the
characteristics being defined. Some defined intelligence as a general
characteristic, while others define the term in specific and situational terms.

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Different experts and authors try to define and concretize the concept
of intelligence (“Theories of Intelligence,” n. d.) According to them, intelligence
is the combination of the ability to:

a. Learn
b. Recognize problems
c. Solve problems

Theories About Intelligence

The definition of intelligence draws from the different theories of

intelligence. To digress, a theory is a tentative statement that tries to
explain a phenomenon, which in this case, is the nature of intelligence.
Additionally, data or evidence are needed to lend credence or proof to the
veracity of that theory. Thus, one should expect a lot of research and
data-gathering processes, to build up evidence in support of that theory.
Gathering evidence to prove or disprove a theory therefore is the rationale
for research studies and other scientific efforts.
A study of the different theories of intelligence will help you better
understand its nature. While the debate on the nature of intelligence is still
ongoing, it would help to know the different theories that attempt to explain
the nature of intelligence (Pal, Pal, & Tourani , 2004).

Faculty Theory

It is the oldest theory regarding the nature of intelligence. It espouses

that the mind is made up of different faculties, like reasoning, memory,
discrimination, imagination, and the likes. These faculties are independent
of each other, and can be developed by training. However, many
psychologist have maintained that independent faculties in the brain do not
exist.

One-factor or Uni-factor Theory

This theory asserts that all abilities are reduced to a single capacity of
general intelligence or “common sense.” It assumes that the different
abilities are correlated and that they share many things in common. It
does recognize differences among people. It does not recognize that an
individual possesses different abilities of different levels.

Charles Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory

This theory asserts that intellectual abilities comprise two factors-one

general ability or g factor; and the specific abilities; also known as the s
factor. The g factor is a universal inborn ability, while the s factor is
acquired from the environment.

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Edward Thorndike’s Multi-factor Theory

This theory asserts that there is no such thing as general ability. It says
that each mental ability requires an aggregate of different sets of abilities.
Following are the attributes of intelligence:
a. Level- It is the level of difficulty of the task that can be solved.
b. Range- Refers to a number of tasks at any given degree of level of
difficulty.
c. Area- The total number of situations at each level to which the
individual is able to respond.
d. Speed- The rapidity at which the individual responds to the situation or
Stimulus.

Louis L. Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities/Group Factor Theory

This theory asserts that intelligent activities are not an expression of

many highly specific factors are espoused by Thorndike nor is it the
expression of a general factor that certain pervades all mental abilities as
asserted by spearman. Thurstone’s theory claims that certain mental
operations have in common a “primary factor” that gives them functional unity
and that differentiates them from other mental operations. The seven primary
factors are:
1. Number Factor
2. Verbal Factor
3. Space Factor
4. Memory factor
5. Word Fluency Factor
6. Reasoning Factor
7. Perception

Joy Paul Guilford’s Model of the Structure of Intellect

a. Content- content has five categories namely visual, auditory, symbolic,

semantic, and behavioral.
b. Mental Operations has six categories namely cognition, memory
(retention and memory recording), divergent production, convergent
production, and evaluation.
c. Products resulting from operations- the six categories are units,
classes, relations, systems, transformations and implications.

Philip E. Vernon’s Hierarchical Theory

This theory tries to bridge the gap between Spearman’s and
Thurstone’s theories which view intelligence as occurring on the extremes.
Venon contends that intelligence can be described as comprising abilities at
varying levels of generality, as follows:

a. The highest level: “g” (general intelligence) factor with the largest
source of variance between individuals (Spearman)
b. The next level: major group factors like verbal-numerical-educational
ability

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c. The next level: the major group factors are deduced from major
group factors
d. The bottom level: “s” (specific) factor of Spearman

Catell-Horn Fluid and crystallized Intelligence Theory

The fluid asserts that intelligence is a basic capacity due to inherited

genes and the crystallized theory is the capacity resulting from experiences,
learning and environment.

Hunt(1995, IN Theories of Intelligence, n.d.) contends that human

intellectual competence is divided into three dimensions which he derived
from the works of Catell in 1971 and Horn. They are:

a. Fluid Intelligence. It is the mental efficiency and reasoning ability

associated with brain development.
c. Crystallized Intelligence. Ability to bring previously acquired often
culturally-defined problem solving methods to bear on the current
problem.

Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg considers intelligence as a mental activity directed towards

purposive adaptation to selection, shaping of real world environment relevant
to one’s life He asserts that intelligent behavior is an interplay of three
factors, namely:

a. environmental context in which the behavior occurs

b. the way in which previous experiences are brought to bear on a
particular class
c. cognitive processes required by the task

Other researchers have identified different components of intelligence,

Sternberg focused only on the three domains, namely : (Theories of
Intelligence,” n.d.. ORmrod, 2015)

1. Practical Intelligence. Ability to do well in formal and informal

educational settings, adapting to and shaping one’s environment;
street smarts
2. Experiential Intelligence. Ability to deal with novel situations,
ability to think in novel ways, ability to effectively automate ways of
dealing with novel situations so these are easily handled in the
future.
3. Componential Intelligence. Ability to process information
effectively. Metacognitive, executive, performance, and knowledge
acquisition components that help steer thought process.

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Sternberg believes that intelligence can be improved with study and
practice. Some of his work focuses on “street smarts” versus ‘school smarts”.
He believes people are good and talented in one of these areas, but not on
the other. This has to do with the idea that the type of learning acquired out of
school in different from that acquired in school. Hence, teachers who are
skillful is using project-based approach to teaching and learning, can help
students design projects consistent with their learning abilities and interests.

David Perkin’s Analysis of Research Studies on the Measurement of IQ

and Programs for Developing Better IQ

Perkins (1995, in Theories of Intelligence,” n.d.) strongly supports

Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. He came up with the assertion that
intelligence has three major components.
1. Neural Intelligence. This is attributed to the efficiency and precision of
one’s neurological system.
2. Experiential Intelligence. Refers to one’s accumulated knowledge
and experience in different areas.
3. Reflective Intelligence. Refers to one’s broad-based strategies for
learning, for attacking problems, and for approaching intellectually-
challenging tasks.

Jeans Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development

This theory asserts that the developing child builds intellectual

structures or schemas, mental maps of networked concepts for understanding
and responding to physical experiences in the environment. A child’s cognitive
structures grow in sophistication as he grows older and as he gains
experience with his environment.

Piaget may be best known for his stages of cognitive development.

Piaget discovered that children think and reason differently at different periods
in their lives. He believed that everyone passed through an invariant
sequence of four qualitatively distinct stages. Invariant means that a person
cannot skip stages or reorder them. Although every normal child passes
through the stages in exactly the same order, there is some variability in the
ages at which children attain each stage.

Stages of intellectual development:

1. Sensorimotor Stage Learn through reflexes, senses, and movement-

( 0-2 years) actions on the environment. Begins to imitate
others and remember events; shift to symbolic
thinking. Comes to understand that objects do
not cease to exist when they are out of sight-
object permanence. Moves from reflexive actions
to intentional activity.
2. Preoperational Stage Begins about the time the child starts talking, to

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(2-7 years) about seven years old. Develop language and
begins to use symbols to represent objects. Has
difficulty with past and future-thinks in the
present.
3. Concrete Operational Begins about first grade, to early adolescence,
(7-11 years) around 11 years old. Can think logically about
concrete (hands-on) problems. Understands
conversation and organizes things into
categories and in series. Can reverse thinking to
mentally “undo” actions. Understands the past,
present and future.
4. Formal Operational Can think hypothetically and deductively.
( 12 years and up) Thinking becomes more specific. Solve abstract
problems logically. Can consider multiple
perspectives and develops concerns about
social issues, personal identity, and justice.

Application

Discuss briefly.

1. When and how should students be assessed to determine if they have

special needs?

________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

2. Taking a situation where your students have been tested for

intelligence ( using a valid intelligence test) you realize that your
student’s intelligence level are so varied, meaning, some have “high”
and some have “low” intelligence levels, what methodological
approaches in teaching will you apply to address all the intelligence
needs of your students?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

3. Take an example where a science teacher would like to introduce the

topic about simple machines. (e.g. lever, pulley, wedge, etc.). the
teacher groups the students by fives and thinks that the best way to do
this is through project-based learning. If you were the science teacher,
how will you proceed, bearing in mind, Sternberg’s and Perkin’s
theories of intelligence?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Assessment:

This part helps you to know if after going through the chapter, you are
able to analyze concepts of individual differences according to the different
theories of intelligence.

1. What behavioral indicators or abilities will you look for, if you want to
understand the concept of intelligence more fully? On the basis of the
definitions of intelligence, cite two of its indicators.
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___________________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________________

2. Cite the similarities as well as the differences in ideas or propositions

among the theories of intelligence. Is there a semblance of many
theories measuring the same characteristics? Different characteristics?
___________________________________________________________
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Lesson/Subject Matter or Concepts to be learned:

Lesson 9– Howard Gardner’s Multiple intelligences Theory
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Explain the concept of Multiple Intelligences

2. Discuss each component of Multiple Intelligences; and
3. Suggest activities that will cater to the need of Multiple varied
Intelligences of the learners.

Activity:

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[Link] Borromeo, a fresh BEEd graduate, was hired to teach in a
private school. He observes that his Grade 2 class is composed of
different kinds of learners. He noticed that some learn best once graphics
and visuals are presented to them; some are musically inclined learners;
many learners prefer to move and do actions as they learn the lesson.
What will you advise to Mr. Borromeo to satisfy the needs and
characteristics of his learners? Give at least two concrete examples for
this situation.

___________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Analysis:
Cite the importance of giving different activities to the learners?
______________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________

Abstraction:

Multiple Intelligences

Educators understand and know that learners come to school with different,
varied, and unique intellectual and information processing abilities because learners
have different biological, cultural, and personal backgrounds (Ayesha & Krurshid,
2013). Learners respond to different motivation in a very special way due to their
mental capabilities that help them to process knowledge and skills using their way of
operating information.
Gardner (1999) presented the concept of MI based on the skills and abilities
of the learners. The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) as first described by Howard
Gardner in Frames of Mind (1989). Gardner defines intelligence as “an ability or set
of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued
in one or more cultures”. Gardner believes that different intelligences may be

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independent abilities- a person can be low in one domain area but high in another. All
of us possess the intelligences but in varying degrees of strength.
His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of
intelligences. To facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use strategies that
match these kinds of intelligences.

The Nine Multiple Intelligences

Gardner identified eight criteria to be identified as intelligence:

a. Potential isolation by brain damage
b. The existence of idiots, savants, prodigies, and other exceptional individuals;
c. A distinctive developmental history
d. Evolutionary history and evolutionary plausibility;
e. Support from experimental psychological tasks;
f. Support from psychometric findings; and
g. Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system

From these eight criteria, Gardner described the nine intelligences as stated below:

1. Verbal –linguistic Learning through the spoken and written word.

(Word Smart)
2. Logical-mathematical Learning through reasoning and problem solving.
(number smart)
3. Visual-Spatial The ability to “see” things in one’s mind in planning to create
(picture smart) a product or solve problem.
4. Musical-Rhythmic This includes not only the auditory learning but also the
( music smart) identification of patterns through all the senses.
5. Bodily-kinesthetic Learning through interaction with one’s environment. It
(body smart) promotes understanding through concrete experience.
6. Intrapersonal Learning through feelings, values and attitudes.
(self-smart)
7. Interpersonal Learning through interaction with others. This intelligence
(people smart) promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with
others.
8. Naturalistic Learning through classification, categories and hierarchies.
(nature smart)
9. Existential Learning by seeing the “big picture”. This intelligence seeks
(life smart) connections to real world understanding and application of
new learning.
Gardner mentioned two important advantages of MI in education (Yalmanci &
Gozum, 2013). First, the MI theory gives the opportunity to plan education program to
make the students desire for certain area ( becoming a musician, a statistician, an
engineer). Second, it enables teachers to reach more students who are trying to
learn different disciplines and theories. Learning would be realized much easily on
the condition that students are trained by using these intelligence fields.

Application:

1. How do multiple intelligences provide holistic learning for learners?

_____________________________________________________________
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______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_

2. Using this curriculum wheel, suggest activities that will best implement
the Multiple Intelligences in the given topic.

Visual Spatial

Bodily-Kinesthetic
Interpersonal Division

Verbal-
Linguistic

Assessment:

Explain the concept of MI and its importance in the education of the

learners through a graphic organizer. Discuss the challenges that teachers
might encounter in the implementation of MI in their daily teaching.

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Lesson/Subject Matter or Concepts to be learned:
Lesson 10– Different Styles of Learning
At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Identify the different styles of learning

2. Explain the big ideas concerning learning styles
3. Discuss the differences and similarities among the different learning
style preferences; and
4. Design learning activities that will cater to the needs of a diverse
classroom

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Activity:

What type of learner are you? Answer the following honestly.

1. If I have to learn how to do something, I learn best when I:

V. Watch someone show me how.
A. Hear someone tell me how.
K. Try to do it myself.

2. When I read, I often find that I:

V. Visualize what I am reading in my mind’s eye.
A. Read out loud or hear the words inside my head.
K. Fidget and try to “feel: the content.

3. When asked to give directions, I:

V. See the actual places in my minds as I sat them or I prefer to draw them.
A. Have no difficulty in giving them verbally.
K. Have no point or move my body as I give them.

4. If I am unsure how to spell a word, I:

V. Write it in order to determine if it looks right.
A. Spell it out loud in order to determine if it sounds right.
K. Write it in order to determine if it feels right.

5. When I write, I:
V. Am concerned how neat and well-spaced my letters and words appear
A. Often say the letters and words to myself
K. Push hard on my pen or pencil and can feel the flow of the words or
letters as I form them.

6. If I had to remember a list of items, I would remember it best if I;

V. Wrote them down.
A. Said them over and over to myself.
K. Moved around and used my fingers to name each item.

7. I prefer teachers who:

V. Use the board or overhead projector while they lecture.
A. Talk with a lot of expression.
K. Use hands-on activities

8. When trying to concentrate, I have a difficult time when:

V. There is a lot of clutter or movement in the room.
A. There is a lot of noise in the room.
a. I have to sit still for any length of time.

9. When solving a problem, I:

V. Write or draw diagrams to see it.
A. Talk myself through it.
K. Use my entire body or move objects to help me think.

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10. When given written instructions on how to build something, I:
V. Read them silently and try to visualize how the parts will fit together.
A. Read them out loud and talk to myself as I put the parts together.
K. Try to put the parts together first and read later.

V- Visual
A- Auditory
K- Kinesthetic

Analysis:

Share your answers with your group:

1. What do your scores tell you about your learning styles?

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______________________________________________________________
2. Do you agree with your scores?
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3. Is it possible for one to score equally on the three styles? Explain.

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Abstraction:

Ignacio Estrada’s statement that, “If learners cannot learn the way we teach
them, maybe we should teach them the way they learn,” is a clear reminder for
teachers to always consider in their daily teaching the unique style of learner.
Considering the different characteristics of the learners as visual, auditory, and
kinesthetic, teachers are challenged to provide activities and materials that will
correspond to their learning preferences, especially if the learners are eclectic ( a
learner whose learning preference is a mixture of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic). in
1984, a known educational psychologist, David Kolb, described learning styles as the
process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience.
Jones and Blankenship (2017) view learning styles as the preferential way in which
the students absorb, process, comprehend and retain information. Each learner has
their way of processing information and this situation motivates the teachers to plan

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and prepare lesson plan that will satisfy the unique learning styles of the learners.
The importance of knowing the concept of the learning styles could influence
teachers’ understanding of students’ individual differences (Li et al., 2016). When
teachers are critically aware of learning styles, they are likely to be very careful when
designing a lesson plan, during their teaching, and when assessing individual student
(Pajares, 1992).

Learning Style and Meaning

a. Keefe and Monk (1986) view learning style as the characteristic, cognitive,
affective and psychological behaviors that serve as relatively stable indicators of
how learners perceive , interact with and respond to the learning environment
( Creating an Enhanced Learning,” 2001).

b. Dun and Dunn ( 2001, p 1) define learning style as the way in which the learners
begins to concentrate, process, and retain new and difficult information
( Creating an Enhanced Learning,” 2001).

c. Schmeck defines learning style as a predisposition on the part of some learners

to adopt a particular learning strategy regardless of the specific demands of the
learning task, ( Creating an Enhanced Learning,” 2001).

d. Learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student absorbs,
processes, comprehends, and retains information.

e. Learning style refers to the unique or particular way a person approaches

learning and studying.

The Fluid Nature of Learning Styles (Overview of Learning Styles,” 2018)

a. Each person prefers different learning styles and techniques.

b. Learning styles group common ways that people learn.
c. Everyone has a mix of learning style.
d. One way use different styles in different circumstances.
e. There is no right mix of learning styles, nor is there a fixed learning styles.
f. There is no “best” learning style, nor is there a “bad” learning style.

Learning style is best defines as an approach to studying, understanding and

eventually, learning a material. The study of learning styles reveals that individuals
perceive and process information in very different ways.

1. Concrete vs Abstract Perceivers. Concrete perceivers absorb information

through direct experience by doing, acting, sensing, and feeling. On the other
hand, abstract perceivers process information though analysis, observation,
and thinking.

2. Active vs Reflective Processors. Active processors make sense of an

experience by immediately using the new information; while reflective
processors make sense of the new information by reflecting on it and by
thinking about it.

Impact of Learning Style on Education

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1. Educators must not only focus on the traditional skills of analysis, reasoning,
and problem –solving. But they should also allow opportunity for intuition,
feeling, sensing, and imagination when the students are confronted with
instructional materials.
2. Teaching methods should be such they “connect” to the identified learning
styles, using various combinations of experience, reflection,
conceptualization, and experimentation.
3. Teachers should develop and possess a god feel and knowledge of the
learning styles of their students so that they could better guide them on the
best or most effective ways of responding to and dealing with learning
materials.

CATEGORIES OR TYPES OF LEARNING STYLE

VARK Model of Learning

The acronym “VARK” is used to

describe four modalities of student learning
that were described in a 1992 study by
Neil D. Fleming and Coleen E. Mills. These
different learning styles—visual, auditory,
reading/writing and kinesthetic—were
identified after thousands of hours of
classroom observation. The authors also
created an accompanying questionnaire
for educators to give to students to help
them identify and understand their own
learning preferences.

Visual Learners

Students who best internalize and synthesize information when it is

presented to them in a graphic depiction of meaningful symbols are described
as visual learners. They may respond to arrows, charts, diagrams and other
visualizations of information hierarchy, but not necessarily to photographs or
videos.

Because visual learners tend to be holistic learners who process

information best when it is presented to them as a robust whole rather than
piecemeal, they tend to see positive educational outcomes when they are
presented with summarizing charts and diagrams rather than sequential slides
of information.

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Auditory Learners

Auditory (or aural) learners are most successful when they are given
the opportunity to hear information presented to them vocally. Because
students with this learning style may sometimes opt not to take notes during
class in order to maintain their unbroken auditory attention, educators can
erroneously conclude that they are less engaged than their classmates.
However, these students may simply have decided that note-taking is a
distraction and that their unbroken attention is a more valuable way for them
to learn.4

Auditory learning is a two-way street: Students who fall into this

modality often find success in group activities where they are asked to discuss
course materials vocally with their classmates, and they may benefit from
reading their written work aloud to themselves to help them think it through. 2

Reading/Writing Learners

Students who work best in the reading/writing modality demonstrate a

strong learning preference for the written word. This includes both written
information presented in class in the form of handouts and PowerPoint slide
presentations as well as the opportunity to synthesize course content in the
completion of written assignments. This modality also lends itself to
conducting research online, as many information-rich sources on the internet
are relatively text-heavy.

Reading/writing-oriented students should be encouraged to take

copious notes during classroom lectures to help them both process
information and have an easier time recalling it later.

Kinesthetic Learners

Kinesthetic learners are hands-on, participatory learners who need to

take a physically active role in the learning process in order to achieve their
best educational outcomes. They are sometimes referred to as “tactile
learners,” but this can be a bit of a misnomer; rather than simply utilizing
touch, kinesthetic learners tend to engage all of their senses equally in the
process of learning.

Because of their active nature, kinesthetic learners often have the most
difficult time succeeding in conventional classroom settings. Some educators
have found success encouraging kinesthetic learners to utilize flashcards for
subjects like math and English to make rote memorization into an interactive
experience. These students also often thrive in scientific subjects with lab
components, as the skills-based, instructional training that occurs in these
settings engages them in productive ways.

Seven Learning Styles

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1. Visual (Spatial)
Preference for using pictures, images, diagrams,
colors, mind maps to understand material, to organize
information and communicate with others. There is ease of
visualizing objects, plans and outcomes in one’s mind.
Visual learners often pursue careers such as
architecture, engineering, project management, or design.

2. Aural (Auditory-Musical)
Preference for using sound, rhythm, music,
recording, clever rhymes to learn new information.

Aural learners often pursue careers such as

musician, recording engineer, speech pathologist,
or language teacher.

3. Verbal (Linguistic)
Preference for using words, both in speech and in writing to assist in
their learning. They make the most of word-based techniques, scripting and
reading content aloud.

Techniques used by verbal learners involve mnemonics, scripting, role

playing and anything that involves both speaking and writing. Verbal learners
often pursue public speaking, writing, administration, journalism or politics.

4. Physical (Kinesthetic)
Preference for using hands, body and sense
of touch, to learn about the world.

Kinesthetic learners are often interested in

careers such as emergency services, safety
representative, physical education, or entertainment
(such as acting or dance).

5. Logical (Mathematical)
Preference to use logic, reasoning and systems to understand concepts.

Logical learners could pursue careers in

fields such as scientific
research, accountancy, bookkeeping or
computer programming.

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6. Social (Interpersonal)
Preference to learn in group, and as much
as possible, with other people. These learners
tends to communicate well with other people,
verbally or non-verbally. They like to stay around
after class, and talk to people.

Social learners may pursue counseling,

teaching, training and coaching, sales, politics,
and human resources among others.

7. Solitary (Intrapersonal)

Preference to work alone and use self-study

and analysis. These learners tend to be
private, introspective and independent. Thus
the ability to concentrate well on particular
[Link] and researchers often have a
strong solitary learning style.
However, having a good solitary grounding
is evident for many top performers in a range
of fields. Being able to learn introspectively
works well with some of the more dominant
learning style discussed above.

Kolb’s basic Learning Styles

Kolb's experiential learning style theory is typically represented by a

four-stage learning cycle in which the learner 'touches all the bases':
Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of
four stages: of (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of
and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract
concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used
to test a hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

Concrete
Experience
(doing/having an
experience

Active Experimentation
(Planning/trying out what Reflective
you have learned Observation
( reviewing/ reflecting
on the experience

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Abstract Conceptualization
(concluding/ learning from the
experience)

Kolb’s experiential Learning cycle.

1. Concrete Experience – putting learned material in practice .
2. Reflective Observation of the New Experience –analyzing
objectively the outcome
3. Abstract Conceptualization and generalization-reflection gives
rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept (the
person has learned from their experience).
4. Active Experimentation - the learner applies their idea(s) to the
world around them to see what happens.
The process is cyclic and depends on the person’s needs and goals.
When one does not find something relevant to his needs he will not be able to
learn completely. Thus learning style becomes individualized through constant
trying out and experimenting on certain methods and approaches by the
learner to suit his needs and goals.
Here are brief descriptions of the four Kolb learning styles:

Diverger
These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are
sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information
and use imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete
situations from several different viewpoints.
Kolb called this style 'diverging' because these people perform better in
situations that require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People
with a diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather
information.
They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend
to be strong in the arts. People with the diverging style prefer to work in
groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.

Assimilator
The assimilating learning preference involves a concise, logical approach.
Ideas and concepts are more important than people.

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These people require good clear explanation rather than a practical
opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and
organizing it in a clear, logical format.
People with an assimilating learning style are less focused on people and
more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are
more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical
value.
This learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science
careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings,
lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.
Converger
People with a converging learning style can solve problems and will use their
learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and
are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.
People with a converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for
ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding
solutions to questions and problems.
People with a converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks
and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A converging learning style
enables specialist and technology abilities.
People with a converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate,
and to work with practical applications.

Accommodator
The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on,' and relies on intuition rather
than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a
practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and
experiences, and to carrying out plans.
They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. People
with an accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for
information than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent
within the general population.
Educational Implications
Both Kolb's (1984) learning stages and cycle could be used by
teachers to critically evaluate the learning provision typically available to
students, and to develop more appropriate learning opportunities.
Educators should ensure that activities are designed and carried out in
ways that offer each learner the chance to engage in the manner that suits
them best.

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Also, individuals can be helped to learn more effectively by the
identification of their lesser preferred learning styles and the strengthening of
these through the application of the experiential learning cycle.
Ideally, activities and material should be developed in ways that draw
on abilities from each stage of the experiential learning cycle and take the
students through the whole process in sequence.

Honey and Mumford Learning Styles

Honey and Mumford learning styles were
developed by Peter Honey and Alan
Mumford in 1986. Their work is inspired
from and built upon Kolb’s learning styles
model (Leaver, 2005). however, they
produced their own Learning Styles
Questionnaire (LSQ) because it was found
that Kolb’s LSI had low validity with
managers.
Therefore instead of asking people directly how they learn, as Kolb’s LSI
does, Honey and Mumford gave a questionnaire that probes general
behavioural tendencies. The rationale behind this is that most people have
never consciously considered how they really learn. And to be an effective
learner, individuals must know about their learning styles or preferences and
find ways to learn using those methods.
To help with finding the correct learning style or preference, Honey and
Mumford have developed a questionnaire built on a continuum as the figure
shows below. Knowing your learning style helps individuals to make smarter
decisions in adjusting the learning opportunities and your preference of best
learning, increases the range and variety of experiences which are potential
learning opportunities, improves learning skills and awareness (Zwanenberg,
2016).
Learning styles:
The four learning styles are (Mobbs, 2010):
Activists: Activists are those individuals who learn by doing. Activists need to
get their hands filthy. They have a receptive way to deal with learning,
including themselves completely and without inclination in new encounters.
The learning activities can be brainstorming, problem solving, group
discussion, puzzles, competitions, role-play etc

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Theorists: These learners get a kick out of the chance to comprehend the
hypothesis behind the activities. They require models, ideas and truths with a
specific end goal to participate in the learning procedure. Like to break down
and integrate, drawing new data into a methodical and consistent ‘hypothesis’.
Their choice of learning activities includes models, statistics, stories, quotes,
background information, applying concepts theoretically etc.
Pragmatists: These individuals have the capacity to perceive how to put the
learning into practice in their present reality. Conceptual ideas and recreations
are of constrained utility unless they can see an approach to put the concepts
practically in their lives. Experimenting with new ideas, speculations and
methods to check whether they work is their mode of action. They learn better
through taking time to think about how to apply learning in reality, case
studies, problem solving and discussion.
Reflectors: These individuals learn by watching and contemplating what
happened. They may abstain from jumping in and prefer to watch from the
sidelines. They want to remain back and see encounters from various
alternate points of view, gathering information and using the opportunity to
work towards a suitable conclusion. They like paired discussions, self-analysis
questionnaires, personality questionnaires, time out, observing activities,
feedback from others. coaching, interviews etc.
Another survey by Peter Honey did not reveal any particular ‘e-learning
styles’, although as a result of his research he speculated that ‘Activists’
(those with an open-minded approach to learning and wish to involve
themselves fully in the experience) would want the pace to be faster and the
chunks of time to be shorter than ‘reflectors’ (those that prefer to stand back
and view experiences from an number of different perspectives first).
He also suggests that Activists might find it more difficult to motivate
themselves and find time to complete the tasks than ‘Theorists’ (who like to
analyze and synthesize, drawing new information into a systematic and logical
theory) and ‘Pragmatists’ (experimenters, who try out new ideas and
techniques to see if they will work) who are likely to be more disciplined and
better at planning it into their schedules. Time management skills are
particularly important for effective on-line study.

He also suggests that Activists might find it more difficult to motivate

themselves and find time to complete the tasks than ‘Theorists’ (who like to
analyze and synthesize, drawing new information into a systematic and logical

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theory) and ‘Pragmatists’ (experimenters, who try out new ideas and
techniques to see if they will work) who are likely to be more disciplined and
better at planning it into their schedules. Time management skills are
particularly important for effective on-line study.

Li-Fang Zhang and Sternberg (n.d., in Woolfolk, 2013) organized previous

work on learning style into three traditions or groups:

a. Cognitive-centered styles. They assess the ways people process

information as for example a reflective or an impulsive way of
responding to the information (Kaaga, 1976).
b. Personality-centered styles. They assess more stable personality
traits as either being extroverted or introverted or relying on thinking
versus feeling (Myers and McCaulley, 1988)
c. Activity-centered styles. They assess a combination of cognition and
personality traits that affect how people approach activities, and as
such, this may be more interest to teacher.

One theme in the activity-centered approaches is the differences between

surface and deep approaches to learning. Students who take on the surface
approach focus more on memorizing materials, not understanding them.
They are more motivated by grades, rewards, and other external incentives.
On the other hand, those who are into deep approaches to learning. They
tend to learn for the sake of learning and are not much concerned with grades
and rewards.

Application:

A. Assumes that these activity are what the students to accomplish a task.
Identify the learning style of each student response , buy putting a
check on the corresponding learning style.

V A R K
1. Mario uses his maps to rely to the question on the
location of Baguio City with Manila as reference
point.
2. Melanie prefers to read aloud a literary piece to
have a feel of its rhythm.
3. Joey looks up in the dictionary the terms and
contained in the word problem which he cannot
understand, before he starts to solve world problem.

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4. Before doing the science experiment, Peter goes
around the shelves in the laboratory, picks up the
lab instruments and examines each of them with his
hands.
[Link] teacher asked the students to memorize “My
Last Farewell” by Dr. Jose Rizal, after which they
were to deliver this poem in class. Ellen, first
listened to a voice recording of the poem, five times
before starting to memorize it.
6.A teacher asked his students to write an essay
entitled, ”My Contribution to World Peace”. Before
writing the essay, Marie first read new clippings
related to world peace.
7.A teacher gave an assignment for the students to
trace the flow of blood from the heart to the other
parts of the body, after which relates it to blood
pressure readings. Manny gets a model of a heart
and studies it first before tracing the blood flow of
the body.

B. 1. Identify three learning styles (from the seven classifications in this

lesson). Name and discuss two class activities that illustrate or indicate
that particular learning style.
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

[Link] is actual experience of students in the learning situation

necessary to achieve the objective of improved learning?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

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Assessment:

Following the learning styles proposed by different authors or learning

style experts. To name some, Vark, 7 learning Styles, Kolb’s Learning
Styles, honey and Mumford, and Sternberg. Do you see similarities or
differences among any of these? If yes, in what ways are they similar? In
what ways are they different?

________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Lesson/Subject Matter or Concepts to be learned:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

1. Compare the characteristics of children with special needs

2. Discuss the characteristic of children:

a. with cognitive and academic difficulties

b. With ADHD
c. With Speech and communication disorders
d. With autism
e. With Developmental delays
f. With visual impairments and hearing loss
g. With severe and multiple disabilities
h. Gifted child
Lesson 11– Children with Special Needs

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Activity:

1. Identify elementary grade pupils in your community with special

needs. Be sure that these children underwent proper medical
assistance. List down their behaviors you think are remarkably
different from the rest of the children. This serves as a test of how
keen you are in detecting differences in behavior.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

2. Cross validate the behaviors you observed with the observation of

their parents.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

3. Discuss with the parents on how they handle their child with special
needs.

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
Analysis:

As a future teacher, why is it important to know the background of our

pupils?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

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Abstraction:

Children with Special Needs

The term special needs is a catch-all phrase which can refer to a vast array
of diagnoses and/or disabilities.

Children with special needs may have been born with a syndrome, terminal
illness, profound cognitive impairment, or serious psychiatric problems. Other
children may have special needs that involve struggling with learning disabilities,
food allergies, developmental delays, or panic attacks.
The designation “children with special needs” is for children who may have
challenges which are more severe than the typical child, and could possibly last a
lifetime. These children will need extra support, and additional services. They will
have distinct goals, and will need added guidance and help meeting academic, social,
emotional, and sometimes medical milestones. Persons with special needs may
need lifetime guidance and support while dealing with everyday issues such as
housing, employment, social involvement, and finances.

Who Are The Children With Special Needs?

They’re children who have a disability or a combination of disabilities that

makes learning or other activities difficult. Special-needs children include those who
have: Mental Retardation, which causes them to develop more slowly than other
children. Speech and Language Impairment, such as a problem expressing
themselves or understanding others. Physical Disability, such as vision problem,
cerebral palsy, or other conditions. Learning Disabilities, which distort messages
from their senses. Emotional Disabilities, such as antisocial or other behavioral
problems.

Due to advancements in expertise and technology, it is now much easier than

before, to assess and identify who the children with special needs, are. Especially if
these children with special needs are mainstreamed in regular classrooms, a basic
knowledge of the nature of special needs. These would be very helpful, especially to
teachers who do not have special education as a field of specialization.

The Nature of Special Needs

In one or perhaps, even in many occasions, you may have noticed children
who acted, behaved or talked in a manner that is distinctly different from the way
other children do.
These actions or behaviors that you have observed may be remarkable enough to
make you think that they are indeed different from the other children you usually
encounter: They are children (or students) with special needs. These children have
special challenges, that a "normal" individual (or student) would not face. The special

106
needs of these children fall along a continuum such that some children can stay in
regular classrooms, but some require special care and intervention at home or in
school. This is explained by variations in the severity of their needs. Dealing with and
teaching children with special needs is a challenge for teachers. This means that
teachers have to be extra flexible and creative in coming up with teaching
techniques that will enhance the academic, and personal development of students
who are quite different in many ways from the majority of the student population.
A teacher, however, will find difficulty in developing creativity and flexibility in
dealing with and teaching children with special needs, unless he/she possesses at
least the basic academic orientation and knowledge covering special needs, special
children, and special education. It is important for teachers, school officials,
caregivers, and other school personnel to know the characteristics of the special
children. It is equally important not to stereotype children with special needs.
Following are the general and specific categories of students with special
needs, as found by different researchers and which have been summarized (Ormrod,
2003 and Nielsen 2002):
1. Those with specific cognitive or academic difficulties
2. Those with social or behavioral problems
3. Those with general delays in cognitive and social functioning
4. Those with physical or sensory challenges
5. Those with advanced cognitive development

LEARNING POINT: SPECI FIC COGNITIVE OR ACADEMIC DIFFICULTIES AND

INDICATIVE BEHAVIORS

Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are difficulties in the cognitive processes (eg. perception,

language, memory) but are not attributed or caused by other disabilities like mental
retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders etc. and the like.

Characteristics of Children with Cognitive and Academic Difficulties

a. Perceptual difficulty. Difficulty in understanding or remembering information

through any of the sense modalities or sense organs. For example, there is a
difficulty in distinguishing differences between similar sounds in speech or
remembering the correct order of the letters in a word (difficulty in memory for a
visual sequence).

107
b. Memory difficulty. Less capacity for remembering information received either
short or long-term.

c. Metacognitive difficulty. Difficulty in using effective learning strategies, monitoring

the progress of their learning goals and other ways of directing their own learning

d. Difficulty in processing oral language. Difficulty in understanding spoken language

and
remembering what has been told or spoken.

e. Reading difficulty. Trouble in recognizing printed words or comprehending what

was read. An extreme form of reading difficulty is dyslexia.

f. Written language difficulty. Problems in handwriting spelling, or expressing oneself

coherently in paper. An extreme form of this difficulty is dysgraphia.

g. Mathematical difficulty. Trouble thinking about or remembering information

involving numbers. It is associated with a poor sense of time or direction as well as
difficulty learning basic number facts. An extreme form of this difficulty is dyscalculia.

h. Difficulty with social perception. Difficulty interpreting social cues and signals from
other people. It is a difficulty perceiving or interpreting other people's feelings or
reactions and may result to inappropriate responses in social situations.

Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

With ADHD, there is difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention, and in many
cases characterized by hyperactive and impulsive behaviors. It is possible that this
difficulty has biological and genetic bases.

Common Characteristics of Children with ADHD

a. Often inattentive: Difficulty focusing and maintaining attention and following

directions, often make careless mistakes; have a very short attention span and
cannot focus; easily fail in tasks requiring sustained mental effort and are distracted
by highly- appealing alternatives.

b. Hyperactive: Seem to have extra and high levels of energy, and move around
much of the time; have difficulty working or playing quietly.

c. Impulsive: Often display inappropriate behaviors; blurt out answers or interrupt

others without being asked; begin doing something without waiting for instructions;
have trouble waiting their turn; engage in risky or destructive behaviors without
thinking of consequences.

d. Difficulty in cognitive processing

e. Lagging behind in academic achievement
f. Exceptional imagination and creativity

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g. Classroom behavior problems (disruptiveness, noncompliance with rules)
h. Difficulty interpreting and reasoning about social situations
I. Greater emotional reactivity (excitability, hostility) in interacting with peers
J. Few friendships; in some cases, rejected by peers
k. Poor memory
l. Disorganized
m. Restlessness, incessant talking and incessant activity

Speech and Communication Disorders

These are impairments in spoken language or communication (e.g. stuttering,
mispronunciation) and comprehension. The difficulties are articulation problems,
Stuttering, abnormal syntactic patterns, and difficulty understanding the speech of
others,
all of which are likely to interfere with academic performance.

Characteristics of Children with Speech and Communication Disorders

a. Usually, these children have difficulties in reading and writing
b. Are self-conscious
C. Are embarrassed when talking
d. Are reluctant to speak

In dealing with these children, teachers should encourage regular oral

communication because they need practice. Since these children have this difficulty,
the teacher should and allow them to speak out their thoughts and finish their
sentences, even if it takes long for them to do so. Other children should be trained
not to tease or ridicule them.

LEARNING POINT: SOCIAL AND BEHAVIORAL PROBLEMS AND BEHAVIORAL

INDICATORS

Emotional or Behavioral Disorders

These are emotional states that are present and which persist for a long time and
which affect learning and academic performance and social behavior.
A symptom of this disorder can be seen in external behaviors that have direct or
indirect effect on other people, like defiance, aggression, lying, stealing,
disobedience, or lack of self-control or impulsiveness. On the other hand,
internalized behaviors affect the person himself, and subsequently develops anxiety,
depression, eating disorders, social withdrawal, or suicidal tendencies.

The following behaviors may indicate a social or behavioral disorder among students.
a. Difficulty in interacting with others in socially acceptable manner
b. Difficulty in establishing satisfactory interpersonal relationships
c. Poor self-concept
d. Frequently absent from school
e. Deteriorating academic performance with increasing age
f. Unable to learn but cannot be explained by IQ sensory or health factors
g. Showing inappropriate types or behavior or feelings even under normal

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circumstances
h. Developing physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems

Autism
According to experts, it is a condition that is caused by a brain abnormality. This is
a disability marked by impairment in social interaction. Individuals with autism
prefer to be alone and form weak emotional attachments, if at all, In some cases,
they exhibit savant syndrome, where they have extraordinary ability in one function
(like exceptional musical ability) which is in contrast to their other mental functions.
Autism falls on a continuum from the least severe to the most severe symptoms.
Children with autism have not developed the basic social skills. Their social cognition
is impaired, thus they are not able to interpret social situations accurately. Thus, the
tendency to behave inappropriately. However, they have strong attachments to
inanimate objects. Physically, they have abnormal movements like awkward way of
walking, repetitive gestures like wringing of the hands. They also exhibit echolalia
which is repeating a part of what has been said. In many cases too, their language
skills are wanting. On the other hand, they have strong, visual-spatial thinking skills.

Characteristics of Children with Autism

a. They engage in obsessively repetitive movement activities like rocking back and
forth;
wringing of the hands and other stereotyped movements.
b. They can be self-abusive, as for example, banging their heads, slapping or biting
themselves.
c. They have unusual responses to sensory inputs as for example exaggerated
response to
sound.
d. They are withdrawn and do not communicate at all.
e. They exhibit periodic emotional outbursts.
f. May exhibit abnormal responses to objects.

LEARNING POINT: DELAYS IN COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL FUNCTIONING

AND BEHAVIORAL INDICATORS

Mental Retardation
Condition of significantly below average general intelligence as well as deficits in
social
and practical intelligence and adaptive behavior. This is often caused by genetic
conditions.
For example, most children with Down syndrome have delayed cognitive
development. Or
in non-inherited cases, malnutrition of the mother during pregnancy, or oxygen
deprivation
during birth. Or in some cases, environmental factors like parental neglect or
extremely

110
impoverished and unstimulating home environments could also be a cause. It is not
necessarily a life-long disability especially it caused by environmental factors.

Common Characteristics of Students with Developmental Delays

a. They have a desire to belong and fit in at school.
b. They have less general knowledge about the world.
c. They have poor reading and language skills.

LEARNING POINT: PHYSICAL AND SENSORY CHALLENGESAND BEHAVIORAL

INDICATORS

Physical and Health Impairments

These are general physical and medical conditions (usually long-term) that interfere
with school performance. Students in this category have limited energy and strength,
mental alertness or little muscle control. Examples of specific conditions under this
category include traumatic brain injury, spinal cord injury, cerebral palsy, muscular
dystrophy, epilepsy, cystic fibrosis, asthma, heart problems, arthritis, cancer or
leukemia

Common Characteristics or Indicators of Physical and Sensory Challenges

a. Learning ability similar to that of nondisabled students.
b. Fewer opportunities to experience and interact with outside world in
educationally important
ways as for example fewer opportunities to ride in a bus or public transport, or
visit
museums, thus making knowledge more limited.
c. Low stamina and tendency to tire easily.
d. Possible low esteem, insecurity, embarrassment due to their physical limitations.

Visual Impairments
Malfunction of the eyes or optic nerve that prevent normal vision even with
corrective
lenses. Some are totally blind; others have tunnel vision, some with limited
sensitivity to
light. The causes of visual impairments may be any congenital abnormalities in either
eye
or in the visual pathway to the brain.
Common Characteristics of Children with Visual Impairments
a. Normal functioning of the other senses (hearing, smelling etc).
b. General learning ability similar to that of nondisabled children.
c. Fewer opportunities to experience and interact with the outside world (less
exposure to visual
materials), thus more limited vocabulary and general knowledge about the world.
d. Reduced capability to imitate others.
e. Inability to observe body language and other nonverbal cues of people, leading
misperceptions of intended meanings.

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f .Occasional confusion particularly in chaotic situations like playground, canteen
etc.
g. A general feeling or uncertainty and anxiety because of no visual knowledge
events in the
classroom.
h. Less knowledge about the conventions of written language.

Hearing Loss
Malfunction of the ear or associated nerves that interfere with the perception of
sounds. They have insufficient sensation to understand spoken language even with
hearing aid.

Common Characteristics
a. Delayed language development especially if the impairment was present at birth
b. Less oral language than hearing classmates
c. Some ability to read lips
d. Proficiency in sign language
e. Less developed reading skills
f. Less general knowledge about the world than their peers
g. More limited social skills due to reduced ability to communication, leading to
social
isolation

Severe and Multiple Disabilities

Having two or more of the disabilities described earlier and most probably require
highly specialized services.

Common Characteristics of Children with Severe and Multiple Disabilities

a. They have varying degrees of intellectual functioning
b. Limited awareness of surrounding stimuli and events
c. Limited communication skills often consisting of gestures, facial expressions, but
can be facilitated by technology
d. Significant delays in motor development
e. Mild or sensory impairments
t. Extensive medical needs

LEARNING POINT: CHILDREN WITH ADVANCED COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

AND BEHAVIORAL INDICATORS

Giftedness
Unusually high ability or aptitude in any or more of the following areas.
Intellectual
ability, aptitude in a specific academic field, creativity, visual or performing arts, or
leadership.

Characteristics of Gifted Children

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a. More advanced vocabulary, language and reading skills than the rest of their
classmates.
b. Able to learn more quickly, easily and independently than their peers
c. More advanced and effective cognitive processing and metacognitive skills.
d. Greater flexibility in ideas and approaches to tasks.
e. Able to do formal operational tasks.
f. They have high standards regarding their performance.
g. They are highly motivated to achieve challenging tasks.
h. Positive self-concept especially academic endeavors.
i. Above average social development and emotional adjustment.

It is expected that there are students with special needs even in regular
classrooms . This becomes a challenge to the patience, resourcefulness, and
creativity of the teacher in developing appropriate methodologies and instructional
materials needed to realize the potential of these students. It is a challenge because
the approach at present is to mainstream children with special needs in the regular
classroom. At certain times, they may be pulled out for special training and
experience if the regular classroom environment and methods are not able to
address that special need.

The teacher can look at differentiated teaching techniques and instructional

materials in dealing with children with special needs. These children have to be
taught differently. They have to be extended a lot of accommodation. All the more
this should be so, since the classroom is now a big mix of regular students and those
with special needs. In this instance, variations among students in behavior and other
characteristics are big. If conditions warrant, the teacher should look into acquiring
more technical knowledge on how to deal with children with special needs.

Application:

Observe one child in your community for a period of one week. See to it that
you have permission and proper documents from the parents and duly signed by the
physician that the child is considered as Special Child. If none look for a child that
possesses different behavior among his/ her group. Write a journal of your
observation regarding his/her behaviors.

Journal Writing

_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
Assessment:

Name: ____________________________ Date: ___________________

A. Following are behaviors exhibited by children with special needs. Identify what
might be the disability or special need associated with the behaviors.
1. Bursts into tears, without any reason
2. Runs around the room and picks on classmates even if teacher is talking
3. Looks sullen all the time and keeps to himself
4. Always picks up a fight with classmates, approximately five times a day.
5. Cannot distinguish letter p from d.
6. Does not have eye contact with classmates who want to play with him.
7. Does not pronounce the correct words when reading.

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8. Can solve math problems much ahead than all the other members of the class
9. Little muscle control when engaging in physical activity
10. Cannot produce accurately words of the teacher

B. Write down three significant characteristics or behavioral indicators of these

children with special needs.

Type of Special Need Characteristics (3)

a. Children with cognitive/academic

difficulties

b. Children with delays in cognitive

functioning

c. Children with advanced cognitive

development

d. Children with physical and sensory

challenges

e. Children with social and behavioral

problems

C. What should be your frame of mind in terms of teaching methodologies, if you

have students diagnosed as having special needs?

1. Social and behavioral disability

_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

2. Giftedness

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_________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

3. ADHD
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________

Module 12

Diversity in Designing and Assessing Learning Activities

Module Overview

In earlier chapters, you have learned the ways in which individuals differ
from each other. In a group or in a class, the variations of the individuals therein, on
specific characteristics may be anywhere from very small to very big. However,
differences or diversity among individuals all the more become distinct if some of
them have special needs.
You have learned too, about the general classifications of special needs. And
that managing or handling these needs will vary from one special need to the other. It
will also depend on the extent of severity of that need. As future teachers, you will
surely be confronted with situations resulting from diversity of characteristics of
your students. It is therefore a challenge to you as a teacher, first, to study and identify
the characteristics of your students, and, second, to apply the "best and "most

116
appropriate ways and strategies of teaching them, whether they are students with or
without special needs. In the previous chapter you have learned about children with
special needs, the nature of these special needs, their characteristics and unique
behaviors. In the future, some of your students might have special needs. This chapter
will 'teach" you and give suggestions or principles that will guide you, on how to deal
with children with special needs, as well as how to design the classroom environment
such that their learning will be at an optimum, despite limitations. It is hoped that you
will be able to deduce implications on effective dealings with these children through
these suggestions and principles. Please take note of what you are expected to learn or
do after you go through this chapter.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Draw the implications of diversity in designing and assessing learning activities.

Abstraction:

FRAMEWORK/RATIONALE OF LEARNER CENTERED TEACHING

There are many methodologies, approaches and techniques that aim to maximize
the potential and improve academic performance of students. The challenge for the
teacher is selecting and applying the most effective method of teaching learners with
diverse characteristics.
One can draw from Gardner’s theory of multi-intelligences and other theories that
espouse on the multiplicity of intelligence, as basis for selecting the "best” teaching
methods and approaches. This means therefore that the teacher should be keen on
identifying behavioral indicators of talent, ability, or interest along a certain field, and
once identified, focus on developing those talents using appropriate methodologies.
One can also draw from a knowledge of different learning styles of students as bases
for determining the “best” method of teaching. It is thus important for a teacher to
adopt a framework which will guide him in identifying what is best for his students,
as well as in ensuring that the diversity of students needs are met and addressed.
Learner-centered teaching is claimed to be at the core of an effective
classroom. In learner-centered teaching, the thrust of planning, teaching and
assessment in built around the needs and abilities of students. A significant idea of
this framework is that learning becomes more meaningful when topics are related to
the students lives, experiences, needs and interests; and when students are actively
engaged in creating understanding, and connecting to knowledge. Students have a
higher motivation to learn if they know and feel they have a stake and control over
their learning. Instead of the teacher acting as the sole giver of information as it used
to be, he shares control of the classroom, and allows the students to be active, to
explore, experiment, and discover on their own. Students do not simply memorize
data, but are allowed to work on the information alone, or with peers. The diverse
ideas and perspectives are necessary inputs to actions and decisions to be made. The
focus of these classrooms is choices or options, rather than uniformity. Essentially,
learners are considered as co-creators in the learning process, as individuals with
ideas and issues that deserve attention and consideration.

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Following are the benefits of implementing methodologies aligned with the
important aspects of learner-centered teaching:
1. Helps in designing effective instruction for every member of the classroom,
irrespective of diverse learning needs. The teacher must first think of the students,
followed by content. This is to assure students needs are being taken cared of.
2. Learner-centered teaching has been proven effective in teaching students the
materials they need to know. It was also found to increase student motivation, as
well as learning and performance.
3. Learner-centered teaching makes the students feel good about themselves.
Because students discoveries, personal experiences and other inputs relevant and
meaningful to themselves are included as materials in the teaching-learning process,
their self-confidence is further developed.
For students to be active in the learning process, the teacher cannot simply give
lectures and let the students take the passive role of assimilating information.
Teachers should design activities that allow students to take initiative, and discover
meaningful information. Teachers must know their students on an individual basis so
that they can better respond to and address their individual abilities, needs, and
interests. Emphasis should be on how students learn, rather than what there is to
teach.
Following are approaches that promote a learner-centered environment. These
approaches let the students' needs and interests determine the kind of material to be
learned. In addition, these approaches let the students themselves determine how they
will learn the material.

a. Cooperative Learning. Allows the students to work off on each other's abilities
and knowledge. Emphasis is on the students rather than on the teacher.

b. Active Learning. Hinges on student's active participation in the learning process,

for learning to be effective.

c. Authentic Learning. Ensures that lessons are directly applicable to the students'
lives needs and desires. Make use of local or community resources as lesson content.
d. Cognitive Apprenticeship. Puts students in control of the direction of their
learning. They are guided by a coach or a tutor who will help them meet their own
goals.

CREATING APPROPRIATE CLASSROOM ENVIRONMENTS FOR

CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

Diversity in needs and abilities among students is expectedly much bigger if there
are students with special needs. This is the picture or the composition of classrooms in
the future-classroom with a mix of students with and without special needs. A teacher
may the technical training and know-how on how to deal with children with special
needs. Be as it may, there are general guidelines or principles on how to make the
classroom environment conducive to learning for these students, as well as
methodologies of teaching or interventions appropriate for the kind of special needs
they have.

For Children with Learning Disabilities

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Children with learning disabilities have difficulty sustaining their attention, and that
they easily get distracted with different stimuli. As such, the teacher should exert
effort to make the classroom simply arranged, uncluttered, and quiet. The classroom
should not be too bright nor too dark. It would do well to avoid or minimize the
presence of competing stimuli.
The use of varied modalities to present information at one time or at different times,
is also recommended to address different learning styles. The use of various
modalities will ensure students greater chances of learning a material. For example,
using visual, tactile, and auditory modalities in teaching how to read words, will
facilitate the learning of those words, in a more meaningful manner.
Analyzing students errors in a written or oral assessment, is helpful in
determining their difficulties in processing. Rather, than looking at answers, simply as
wrong, teacher should look closely at errors for clues on the student's processing
difficulties. By analyzing student’s errors, the teacher will be able to determine, the
manner in which the students approach a problem, or what steps were taken by the
students to arrive at the solution of the problem.
For these students, it is important to provide them study aids, to lead and
guide them to pay attention to the important materials in the lesson. Study aids
translate abstract ideas and concepts to something more concrete, that is more
understandable and meaningful to those unable to do
abstract reasoning.

For Children with Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A common attribute of individuals with ADHD is the inability to focus, to
pay attention, and to keep still and keep quiet. Generally, these students lag behind
their classmates in academic performance, because of their lack of focus and attention
on their classroom activities.
It is important for the teacher to modify work schedules and work
environments. The
more difficult and challenging tasks should be done in the morning. Usually these
students are already tired in the afternoon, and when fatigue sets in, they can hardly
sustain their attention. Their chairs and desks should be positioned away from
distraction and noise, as
for example, near the door or passageway. These students often need help, thus they
should be seated near the teacher's table.
The teacher should also teach these students strategies for paying attention,
like telling them to keep an eye on the teacher when explaining or giving directions.
Removing distracting stimuli in the room that may compete for their attention may
also be done.
These students are hyperactive. Especially in elementary school, teacher
should intersperse quiet academic work, with opportunities for physical exercise and
activity.
Assign these students tasks that require physical activity, like closing the
windows, or helping the teacher tidy up the classroom after class hours. These
physical activities provide outlets for excess energy.
Because of their lack of focus, these students do not achieve more task as they
should. They need to be helped in organizing and using their time effectively. The
teacher should teach the children to come up with schedules of daily routine, and “to
do” lists for them to become more organized and carry out more tasks.

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Teach, encourage, and always remind pupils of appropriate classroom
behavior. It is important to create a structured environment with clear expectation of
appropriate behavior. These pupils should also be reminded or the consequences of
inappropriate behavior. The corresponding reward for appropriate behavior and the
punishment/penalty for inappropriate behavior should be applied. This will help them
clarity and differentiate appropriate from inappropriate behavior.

For Children with Speech and Communication Disorders

Speech and communication disorders are impairments in the spoken language
(e.g. stuttering, mispronunciation) and comprehension. This interferes with academic
performance. Because these children are self-conscious, feel embarrassed, or are
reluctant to speak, regular oral communication should be practiced to develop their
self-confidence.
Since these children have difficulty with the spoken language, they should be
encouraged to express themselves. Patiently, allow them to speak out their thoughts,
and finish their sentences. The teacher should also teach the other children to be polite
to their classmates with speech problems.
For those students with specific academic and cognitive difficulties, the
school should provide them opportunities for success in academic tasks. Providing
individual instruction as well as guides on how to do specific tasks is necessary for
the children to build or increase their self-confidence. It is important, too, that
expectations be communicated clearly to the students. These expectations will serve
as a guide toward achieving certain tasks.
Consider also reading skills of the students when giving them instructional
materials. Other ways of presenting material should be determined. For example,
content should be translated into simpler and easier language for those at the lower
grade levels. Those with cognitive difficulties should be given opportunities for
success, the reason being that having had experienced failures in previous tasks, they
are not as much confident and motivated to achieve. Added to this, the teacher should
set smaller and achievable objectives, which when achieve, gives the pupils feeling of
success and more motivation.

For Children with Emotional or Behavioral Problems

It would do well for the teachers to enhance their student's achievement and
improve their social relationships. Foremost, is for teachers to show interest in the
well-being and welfare of these students. Showing concern, lending a helping hand or
an ear, if they are angry, depressed or worried would be an opportunity for them to
share their feelings, worries or problems. Teachers should also be keen on identifying
the interests of these students because they tend to get more involved in classroom
activities that are along their line of interests. More importantly, these students should
be provided with a sense or feeling that they can exercise some control in their lives.
Thus, the need to minimize or avoid situations of power struggle.
Given the emotional condition of these children, the teacher should be keen
and alert on looking for signs of neglect or abuse at home, like physical injuries,
bruises, untreated medical needs and the likes. The teacher should be alert for warning
signs that the student may be contemplating something serious like suicide or self-
harm. Some of these signs are withdrawal, sudden change in mood, or disregard for
personal appearance. For technical expertise on how to better address a serious

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situation like this, the teacher may consult or refer the problem to the guidance
counselor or psychologist who can give professional advice on what steps to take.

For Children with Autism

Children with autism are characterized as having impaired social skills. They
cannot interpret social clues, thus the tendency to behave inappropriately. However,
they have strong, visual-spatial skills. Thus, if possible, room arrangement should
only be changed once in a while, as they feel secured and comfortable in predictable
environments. Frequently changing the physical environment makes them
uncomfortable or even stressed. Regularity of schedules should also be observed. In
teaching certain concepts, the use of visuals, like pictures, objects, photographs is
highly recommended.

For Children with Social and Behavioral Disorders

Children with social and behavioral disorders usually lack interpersonal social
skills. They have difficulty interpreting social clues, As such, they should be taught
interpersonal skills. Techniques like group work, cooperative learning partnering with
peers and adults for academic tasks are suggested to improve their interpersonal and
social skills.
It is also important to communicate to these students, expectations of
behavior which should be done in simple and precise language. Expectations should
be on making them understand the difference between appropriate and inappropriate
behavior. For example, they should be taught when to talk, or walk around the room.
Reasonable limits on classroom behavior should be in place. It should also be made
clear to them the consequences of inappropriate behavior, and this should be followed
through.

For Children with Mental Retardation

Those with mental retardation require pacing instruction slowly. In assigning
tasks, teacher should give students more time to think about it. This will allow them to
experience success. Teacher should explain tasks concretely, specifically and
completely. In explaining too, start with easy material, progressing to more difficult
ones. Think also about including vocational and general life skills in the curriculum as
some of these children can join the work force as soon as they get out of school.

For Children with Physical and Sensory Impairment

Those with physical and sensory impairments like those with physical and
health problems, experience limitations in learning. Thus, the teacher should have a
better appreciation of these limitations and if possible, know how these students feel.
It is also required from the teacher to know what to do in emergency situations.
For those with visual impairments, they should first be oriented with the
layout of the class room. They should know where the important objects and parts are
located, and what sounds like that of the bell mean. There is need to use other
modalities for learning like giving them objects which they can touch and feel. With
their limitations, the teacher should be patient with them, and should be allowed extra
time for learning and performance.
For those with hearing impairment or hearing loss, auditory presentations
should be supplemented with visual materials. Occasionally, check comprehension
and understanding by asking them to repeat what was said. Make it a point to address

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deficiencies in reading and language skills. Others in the classroom should be taught
different modes of communicating to those with hearing impairment.
Students with severe and multiple abilities may require highly specialized
services or teaching. Basically, the teacher should have a mindset that all students can
and should participate in class activities to the full extent possible. Pair students with
and without disability in same activity but with different objectives for each. Identify
and teach those behaviors and skills most important for a student's general welfare
and successful integration in the regular classroom.
Recommendations for students with physical and sensory challenges are along
providing access to the same opportunities as that of other students. It is important to
bear in mind that teachers should treat all students same way as the others. Avoid
developing overdependence by providing assistance only when students really need
help. At this time, the use of technology like computers, programs and applications, to
facilitate student learning, and performance is highly recommended for them.

For the Intellectually Gifted Students

Gifted students or those with unusually high ability or aptitude serve as
challenge in teaching The teacher should be able to keep in pace with the giftedness
of these students. Given their high abilities, they should be provided with
individualized tasks and assignments which they can independently work on. The
teacher should form study groups with similar interests and abilities and teach
complex cognitive skills within the context of specific subject areas. Seek outside
resources for a different view of the learning material on hand. Goal-setting should be
made a regular activity for these students and this should be encouraged.
It is expected that there are intellectually gifted students even in regular
classrooms. This becomes a challenge to the patience, resourcefulness and creativity
of the teacher in developing appropriate methodologies and instructional materials
needed to realize the potential of these students. It is a challenge because at present,
children with special needs are mainstreamed in the regular classroom. They may be
pulled out for special training and experience if the regular classroom environment
and teaching methods are not able to address that special need. All the more, the
teacher should expect a much wider diversity of student characteristics in the
classroom, which calls for the application of methodologies in line with the
framework of learner-centered teaching.
The teacher can look at differentiated techniques and instructional materials in
teaching students, whether they are with or without special needs. Especially those
with special needs, they have to be taught differently. They have to be extended much
more accommodation. All the more this should be so, if the class is a mix of students
with and without special needs. If conditions warrant, the teacher should consider
acquiring more technical knowledge about pedagogies on how to deal with students
with special needs, and how to maximize the potential of students with diverse
characteristics.

Application:

Name: ___________________________________ Date: _________________

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1. Consider a situation where you are a teacher in basic education, and you have one
student who has ADHD. Let us assume, that he cannot keep still in his seat, bullies his
seatmate, and runs around the room at any time. For two class sessions, you plan on
having a group work. How will you deal with this student with ADHD and make sure
he participates in the group activity?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

2. In your class, you have two students who are poorly performing. They cannot read,
much less comprehend what they read. In what ways will you be able to improve their
reading comprehension?

___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

Assessment”

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: ____________

A. Answer the following:

[Link] are the main and important ideas behind learner-centered teaching?
What is the ultimate objective or learner-centered teaching?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

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2. Give your evaluation of learner-centered teaching. Is it the best approach to
dealing with diversity of students’ needs, whether or not they have special needs?
____ Yes; ____ No. If your answer is yes, give your reasons. If no, give your
reasons.

_____________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

B. Draw line/s connecting the classroom activity/environment and the special need
addressed. (There might be more than one special need addressed by one classroom
activity.)

Classroom Activity/Environment Special Need Addressed

1. Group activity in science Physical and Sensory Disabilities
2. Use of visuals and auditory recordings ADHD
3. Providing Study guides that accompany Cognitively Advanced/ Giftedness
assignment
4. Requiring students to submit "to do" list Social and Behavioral Disabilities
everyday
5. Role playing about good manners Cognitive/Academic Difficulties
6. Giving assignments requiring independent Autism
work
7. Recognizing contributions and good work Emotional and Behavioral
Difficulties

Chapter 13

Problems in Motivation

Introduction
In the previous chapter you have been oriented on the basic concepts about
motivation,
including factors relating to motivation. This chapter aims to familiarize you with the
problems in motivation. It identifies and explains the causes and sources of problems
relating to it. It discusses different levels of motivation and what could explain the
level of motivation. Techniques and applications are also presented on how to
enhance and sustain students level of motivation to learn.

For future teachers like you, it is important that you are able to pinpoint behavioral
indicators of students motivational levels. This chapter teaches you certain processes

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on how to do systematic observations of behaviors to determine your students’
motivation levels.

The learning outcome written below, sets the expectation on the skill you are
supposed
to develop and the knowledge you are to gain after going through this chapter.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze problems in motivation

Abstraction

LEARNING POINT: NATURE OF PROBLEMS IN MOTIVATION

As explained and defined in the previous chapter, motivation is an internal state

which drives one to act, move or engage in a task, and persist in achieving a certain
goal. Motivation includes the amount and kind of effort or energy one puts in
engaging in a task, as well as the kind of satisfaction and meaning one derives out of
the engagement.

Since motivation is an internal state, it is difficult to determine, what is going on in

one’s mind or in ones feelings. Hence, one, has to rely on observations of outward
behavioral manifestations. For example, a teacher can observe the facial expression of
students, when doing an experiment. Or how fast or slow the students respond to an
assigned task. These behaviors indicate the level of motivation of the students in
pursuing a task.

The teacher should consider it important for his students to be highly motivated to
learn. Motivation facilitates meaningful student learning. It is expected that in a class,
the students have differing levels of motivation. Some are highly motivated to learn
while others are not. The latter case presents more of a concern to the teacher. lf
students are poorly motivated to learn, there might exist some problems that explain
why this is so. Woolfolk (2013, p. 431) suggests problems in the five areas of
motivation, namely: a)choices, b) getting started, c) intensity, d) persistence, and e)
thoughts and feelings. The situations also show different motivational challenges, and
teachers should be able to know what these challenges are, so they can determine how
to motivate these students to learn.

Following are examples that explain and illustrate different levels of motivation
among students to engage in an activity.
Let us assume that the English teacher has just finished giving instructions to his
Grade 10 students to write a 300-word news item. Take note of the behavioral
reactions of the students to the task.

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a. Robert just stares into space and hardly starts writing. He keeps saying, "It is
difficult! This is always his reaction every time there is a class activity. He tries to
catch up with his classmates, but still lags behind. (getting started)

b. Anna checks with the teacher every paragraph that she writes. She wants to make
sure, there are no errors in her output. She has earlier been praised by the teacher for
good outputs. She does not want to get a grade lower than go. However, if it is not
required, or if there is no test, she is not interested to engage in any class activity.
(intensity) c. Bobby is interested in writing fiction or non-fiction articles. He also
spends much time reading essays and news articles coming from good source
materials. But his overall grade is 83 because he never turns in his assignments and
his outputs. He is satisfied with the grade of 80. He does not study hard for tests.
(persistence) d. Amy came to class but without the news clippings the teacher earlier
asked them to bring to class. So she asks her classmates to share with her-their
materials. Then she pretends to be writing the news article, but does other things the
moment the teacher turns her back. She asks her classmates to help her with writing.
She is afraid to try on her own, because if she fails, she knows her classmates will
think she is "dumb'. (thoughts and feelings) e. Maridel performs very well in most
subjects. However, she does not feel confident and comfortable in the area of
communication and languages. Her grades in these Subjects are comparatively much
lower than the other subjects. For this task, she thinks she will not be able to come up
with a well-written news article. Her parents are well-known journalists and her
parents expect her to follow in their footsteps, but prospects for this future are not
bright. (choices)

As shown by the different examples, Robert has difficulty starting to do the task.
His difficulty may be due to reasons like, lack of ability for the written language, or
he may not be confident in doing this task. Thus, Robert may not be able to complete
the task of writing the news article.
In the case of Anna, she had always been praised by the teacher for good work. Her
behavior of always going to consult the teacher during the writing activity to know if
she is on the right track or not, may indicate to the teacher, that she has a high level of
motivation to finish the task. It seems though that Anna's behavior, which indicates
high motivation level, is explained more by the praises she has earlier received. But
when it comes to other class activities, she is not interested to do them, unless there is
a test that follows. Anna’s high motivation level indicated by her behavior is
explained by "other reasons, rather than the objective of improving her ability to
write.
Bobby operates within a context conducive to develop further and maximize his
writing skills. First, he has the interest and the ability to write, and second, good
resource materials are available to him. But despite these, he is satisfied with the
grade of 80, and he does not study his lessons. This observation may give the teacher
the idea that Bobby has low motivation level to perform better. Lack of persistence
may explain why Bobby does not show more effort to perform better, even if he has
the resources to do so. Perhaps, he has never been rewarded or praised for good work
at home or in school. Or he hasn't had the opportunity to think of his immediate goals.

In the case of Amy, she pretends to be actively engaged in writing the news article
by his alone, the teacher may think that she has a high level of motivation to finish the
[Link], she did not prepare the materials assigned as needed to write the

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article. Nor was she serious in writing even when the teacher is not looking at her
shoulder. She asked help from classmates, and actually, was afraid to do things on her
own, because she is afraid her classmates would call her dumb. There are other
circumstances that indicate Amy in fact does not have the motivation to finish writing
the news article. Her pretensions in writing the article appear to be a defense
mechanism or a front, for her not to be labeled as dumb.

Maridel performs very well in all her subjects except in language and
communication. She appears not to be highly motivated in doing tasks in language
and communication, like writing a news item, because at the outset she already thinks
she cannot come up with a well-written news item. The reason for the thinking that
she cannot do as well in news writing, may be due to pressure, since her parents are
well-known journalists. Perhaps, too, she may have an accurate concept of her
abilities, where she is aware that she performs comparatively more poorly in language
and communication area.
Thus far, specific situations bear on the level of motivation individuals (or students)
have.

LEARNING POINT: IDENTIFYING AND UNDERSTANDING

MOTIVATION
PROBLEMS

As seen in the previous examples, identifying motivation problems requires the

teacher to be keen in observing students' behavior. At the same time, he should also
be able to anticipate or make good guesses on what could be happening in the minds
or feelings of the students, that may explain their actions or behavior. That way, the
teacher is able to help remedy motivational problems coming from unobservable
thoughts and feelings, such as levels of self-confidence, expectations of success,
interest in academic work, feelings of autonomy, alienation, achievement, anxiety,
and fear of failure. Even if motivational problems are evident from overt behavior,
remedies require accurate diagnosis to identify the exact problem. In such a case, the
teacher may need the help of people or other school staff like guidance counselor, or
psychologist who have the necessary expertise to deal with this problem.

Since motivation is an internal state, and is manifested only in outward behavior,

following are some steps the teachers can take to identity and understand better the
Students' problems in motivation.

a. Do careful and systematic observations of student behavior. Teachers should

observe all students in different subject areas, in a variety of contexts, and in a variety
of tasks. For example, a student works hard in pursuing a task when working in
groups; but not as much as when he works by himself alone. Or a Student works hard
on an assigned project when specific instructions on how to do it are given; but not as
much as when no specific instructions are given. These differences will not be
identified if observation is done only in one context.

b. Observe students' emotional expressions and behaviors. Take a look at the

amount of enthusiasm students approach a task. Do they smile or get excited when
doing the task? Do they look depressed or bored or anxious while being engaged in
the task? Do they show pride in what they have accomplished? Do they show

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embarrassment or humiliation if something goes wrong with the task? Emotions are
important indicators and can reveal many things about a student's level of motivation.

c. Supplement observations with other strategies. Sometimes, observations of

behavior may not accurately determine what could be the problem with the amount of
motivation the students have. For example, a student may seem to be listening intently
to what the teacher is presenting, but in fact is planning what movie to watch after
class. Or a student who
pretends to be taking down notes, but instead is writing a letter to a friend.
Discussions with
older students individually or in groups can reveal amount of motivation,
especially if they are encouraged to be open and honest. As a result of these
discussions, the teacher might find out that his high-performing students in fact do not
like school work, but strive to get high grades because of pressure from parents. Or
the low-performing students whom the teacher may think as not being interested at all
to learn, may reveal experiencing feelings of failure or disappointment if they are
unable to finish the task.

d. Some students may not feel comfortable when they are interviewed face-to-
face by teachers, or if they are asked what their problems are. Hence,
questionnaires may be developed and administered to the students, on which they will
write their responses, helpful in identifying motivational problems.

It is easier for teachers to recognize the motivational problems of the low

achievers. In the same manner, motivation problems of high-achieving students who
are not realizing their full potential, often go unrecognized too. This is because of a
prevailing assumption of teachers that those who do well in school do not have
motivation problems. Thus, teachers always rate high achievers, as having high
motivation. It is easy to overlook high-achieving students who are not performing to
their capacity. As long as students consistently finish their work and are not
disruptive, they are usually not considered as having motivation problems. As the
specific examples have shown, the teacher should bear in mind, that both high and
low performing students can have problems in motivation.

Application:

Name: _______________________________________ Date: _____________

Assume you are a teacher and you would like your students to engage in
project based lessons and activities, because you believe in the benefits of cooperative
and experiential learning. Suggest some techniques to sustain the students level of
motivation to finish the project.

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Assessment:

Name: ________________________________________ Date: _________________

1. Explain the systematic processes to determine and identify problems in students’

motivation.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

2. In determining problems in motivation, what factors should you consider if you

want to get a good idea of problems in students’ motivation.

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

___________________________________________________________________

Module 15

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors in Learning

Section Intended Learning Outcome (SILO)

Design learning activities to facilitate the cognitive and metacognitive process

in learning.

Module Overview:

This chapter and the succeeding ones are all about topics on cognition and
metacognition. The Chapter titles below will give you an idea of what to expect at the
end of this section with the ultimate purpose of developing among students, the skill

130
to design learning activities that will facilitate the cognition and metacognition
process in learning.

Following are the topics covered in this section:

 Comparison of Cognitive and Metacognitive Theories in Learning

 Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors in Learning
 Indicators of Cognitive and Metacognitive Theories in the K to 12 Curriculum
Guide

CHAPTER 14

COMPARISON OF COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS

IN LEARNING

Introduction

In the study of learning, one cannot do away with cognition as being associated with
intellectual capacity. Basically, it is given, that intellectual capacity explain as a big
part learning to occur.

This Chapter seeks to present the different concepts related to cognition and
metacognition. It also tries to draw the line between these two concepts, and clarifies
what delineates these two from each other.

More importantly, for future teachers, this chapter presents suggestions regarding
teaching techniques that facilitate the effective use of cognitive and metacognitive
skills among our students. At the end of this Chapter, you are expected to carry out
the task specific below.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Compare and contrast the perspectives and concepts related to cognition and
metacognition.

ENGAGE

LEARNING POINT: CONCEPTS AND PERSPECTIVES ABOUT

COGNITION
AND METACOGNITION

One of the more important goals of the teaching-learning process is to develop

successful and self-regulated learners-learners who take charge and are in control of
their learning.
What are the characteristics of successful learners?

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a. Can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge with support and
guidance.
b. Can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways.
c. Can create a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex
learning goals.

A look at the characteristics of successful learners imply that they possess the
necessary cognitive skills to achieve their goals. It would be good to know the ways
by which such skills could be developed among students.

Initially, we have to examine and understand the concepts related to cognition and
metacognition. Basically, both of these are thinking processes. Thinking has to do
with comprehension or understanding, memory, perceiving and such other skills. Both
have also to do with understanding, learning, or remembering. The distinction
between the two concepts, lies in how knowledge is used to further one's own
learning.

Cognition refers to all the mental processes and abilities in which people use or
engage on a daily basis. Examples of such mental processes are memory learning
problem-solving, evaluation, reasoning and decision-making. Cognition helps to
generate new knowledge through these mental processes, and also helps to use the
knowledge that people have in their daily life.

On the other hand, metacognition is defined as thinking about thinking. It allows an

individual to complete a task through planning, monitoring, evaluating, an
comprehending. Cognitive processes allow normal functioning of individuals, but
metacognition takes it to a higher level, making a person more aware of his cognitive
processes .To Illustrate, a person may be able to solve a mathematical word problem
using his cognitive processes. But metacognition allows him to double check his
output by monitoring and evaluating his answer. Metacognition exercises active
control over cognitive processes engaged in learning, also known as self-regulation.
This is why metacognition helps successful learning.

Metacognition refers both to the knowledge people have about their own cognitive
processes and the intentional use of certain cognitive processes to facilitate learning
and memory (Ormrod, 2015). Other terms associated with or used interchangeably
with metacognition are self-regulation and executive control.

The knowledge people have about their own cognitive processes is referred to as
metacognitive knowledge; while the use of cognitive process to facilitate learning
and memory is referred to as metacognitive regulation. Metacognition refers to
higher-order thinking which involves active control over the cognitive processes
engaged in learning. Metacognition does not stop at acquiring knowledge, but more
importantly using this knowledge to develop higher-order and more complex thinking
skills necessary for effective learning and living.

Actually, there is a thin line between cognition and metacognition. Both of them
involve cognition and skills but conceptually distinct in one major way. According to
Weinstein and Meyer, cognitive learning strategy is a plan for orchestrating cognitive
resources such as attention, and long term memory to help teach and achieve a

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learning goal. There are several characteristics of cognitive learning strategies, such
as being goal directed, deliberate, but situation specific. Metacognitive strategies
appear to share most of these characteristics but they involve more universal
applications through focus upon planning for implementation, monitoring and
evaluation.

Metacognition is the awareness of the self as the knower. It is a higher-order

knowledge about your own thinking as well as the ability to use this knowledge to
manage one’s cognitive processes, such as comprehension and problem-solving
(Bruning et al., 2011; and Woolfolk, 2013)

Types of Knowledge Used in the Metacognition Process

a. Declarative Knowledge. Knowledge about the self as learner, factors that

influence the person’s learning and memory and the skills, strategies, and resources
needed to perform a task. In other words, knowing what to do.

b. Procedural Knowledge. It is knowing how to use strategies in different occasions

or conditions

c. Self-regulating Knowledge. Knowing the conditions as to when to apply the

procedures and strategies to ensure completion of the task.

d. Metacognitive Knowledge. Refers to general knowledge about how human beings

learn and process information as well as individual knowledge of one's own learning
processes. For example, a student may know that he will be more productive if he
studies in his room with piped-in music than when he studies in the library
Knowledge of the task includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the
type of processing skills required of the individual. Hence, the individual may know
that he is able read a novel faster and with understanding, than he would, a physics
book. Knowledge about strategies include knowledge about cognitive and
metacognitive strategies and when and where it is appropriate to use such strategies.
Metacognitive strategies are sequential processes one uses to control cognitive
strategies and to ensure the cognitive goal has been met (Livingston, 1997).

Metacognitive and cognitive strategies may overlap such that in one strategy it
could be regarded as either cognitive or metacognitive strategy depending on the
purpose of using that strategy. For example, one may use a self-questioning strategy
while reading simply as a means of obtaining knowledge (cognitive) or as a way of
monitoring what was read (metacognitive), Knowledge may be considered
metacognitive as it is actively used in a strategic manner to ensure that the goal is met
(Livingston, 1997) To illustrate, a student may use knowledge in planning how to
approach a math exam. In the process, he knows he has difficulty in word problems,
last. Simply possessing knowledge about one's cognitive strengths and weaknesses
and the nature of the task without actively utilizing the information to oversee
learning is not metacognitive.

Woolfolk (2013) contends that there are three essential skills in metacognition:
planning, monitoring and evaluating. Planning involves deciding how much time to
give a task, which strategies to use, how to start, order of processes to follow, which

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resources to gather, what to skim, and what to give intense attention to. Monitoring is
following up one’s actions, like "How am I doing?" Evaluating, involves making
judgments about the processes and outcomes of thinking and learning as, "Do I need
to change strategies?

To summarize, metacognition is about using ones cognitive processes and skills

toward developing more complex skills, and eventually lead one to develop well self-
regulation and have control over one’s learning.

FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION

Metacognitive knowledge and skills improve with growth and development. As

children grow and develop, their metacognitive knowledge and skills improve in the
following ways (Ormrod, 2015).
a. Children become more aware of the limitations of their memories. As they grow
older, the realize that their memories are not perfect.
b. Children become better able to identify the things they know and do not know. As
people grow and develop, they are able to a certain point assess themselves in terms
of what they know, and what they do not know.
c. As they grow older, children become more knowledgeable about effective
learning strategies.

The development of metacognitive skills goes with age, experience and guidance. It
means that younger children may not be as skilled thinkers as the older ones. For
teachers, therefore, this has implications for starting the development of
metacognitive skills early, and seeing to it that applying the strategies for developing
metacognition is sustained across subjects and grade levels.

Theorists organize the skills of metacognition into two components:

a. Knowledge of cognition with three components: Knowledge of the factors that
influence
one's own performance; knowing different strategies to use for learning; and
knowing what strategy to use for a specific learning situation.
b. Regulation of cognition, involves setting goals and planning, monitoring and
controlling
learning, and evaluating one's own regulation (assessing results and strategies
used)

Strategies to Develop Students' Metacognitive Skills

Metacognitive strategies facilitate learning Teachers and trainers can apply the
following suggested strategies to develop metacognitive learning skills of their
students
a. Ask questions. During formal courses, ask questions that allow learners to reflect
on their own learning processes and strategies. In collaborative learning ask them to
reflect the role they play when engaged in problem-solving as a group or team.
b. Foster self-reflection. Emphasize the importance of personal reflection during and
after learning experiences. Encourage learners to critically analyze their own
assumptions and how may have this influenced their learning.

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c. Encourage self-questioning. Foster independent learning generate their own
questions and answer them to enhance comprehension. The questions can be related
to their personal goals.
d. Teach strategies directly. Teach explicitly or implicitly appropriate
metacognitive strategies as part of the lesson, or as part of a training course.
e. Promote autonomous learning. When learners have some domain knowledge
encourage participation in challenging learning experiences. They will then be forced
to construct their own metacognitive strategies.
f. Provide access to mentors. Students learn best by interacting with peers who are
more slightly advanced. Allow the experience where novices can observe the
proficient use of a skill and then gain access to the metacognitive strategies of their
"mentors”. This can also be done in the classroom.
g. Solve problems with a team or group. Cooperative problem solving can
enhance metacognitive strategies by discussing possible approaches with team
members and learning from each other.
h. Think aloud. Teach learners how to think aloud and report their thoughts while
performing a difficult task. A knowledgeable partner or the teacher can then point out
errors in thinking or the individual can use this approach for increased self-awareness
during learning.
i. Self-explanation. Self-explanation in writing or speaking can help learners
improve their comprehension of a difficult subject.
j. Provide opportunities for making errors. Providing this opportunity to learners
simulates reflections on the causes of their errors.

Strategies that Develop Self-Regulation

The important strategies regarding the development of metacognition toward self-
regulation is further emphasized. All of these activities are cognitive in nature.
1. Teach students that the ability to learn is not a fixed quantity. The students should
be taught that ability to learn is a trait that is developed over time and that it is not a
fixed trait.
2. Teach students how to set goals and plan to meet them.
3. Give students the opportunity for self-monitoring and adapting.

Paris and Winograd (1990; in Ee, 2009) claim that as students develop
competencies for self-appraisal and self-management, they become metacognitively
alert. They also become more conscious of their own thinking state, the demands of
the task, and their own strategies for influencing their learning.

According to Ee (2009) teachers can develop their students awareness of thinking

using the following strategies:
1. Sharpening the students' alertness and observational skills.
 After a lesson, encourage learners to reflect and indicate what they have
learned
from the lesson.
 During question time, encourage students to elaborate on their answers.
 Always encourage further elaboration of their answers to assess maturity of
their answers.
2. Provide explicit and clear instructions and modeling.

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 Explain with concrete examples, illustrations or model the skills and allow for
practice or role play of the situation. Example: how to show honesty in
different situations.

3. Encourage peer evaluation. During question time, encourage evaluation on the

given responses by peers.

4. Providing questions for enhancing reflection. Apply Socratic questioning. These

are questions asked of students to give the following kinds of responses: Clear, (Can
you elaborate further?); Precise (Can you give me more details?); Accurate (How
can we verify or test that?); Relevant (How does that relate to the problem?); Deep
(Which factors make this a difficult problem?); Broad (Do we need to have another
point of view?); Logical (How is iconsistent with what you explained earlier?)

Use also De Bono's Thinking Hats in processing students' responses or actions on

tasks
(Adapted from: [Link]).
 Yellow Hat: good points e.g What are all the good points about?
 Black Hat: bad points e.g. What could have gone wrong?
 White Hat: information. e.g. what, when, who, why, how questions
 Red Hat: feelings. What do you feel about the result of this activity?
 Blue Hat: thinking about thinking. What did you learn from the story?
 Green Hat: creativity. What else could have been done?

In asking the questions and processing students responses, the teacher can use the
above classification of questions and responses.

Application:

Name: _______________________________________________ Date:___________

[Link] the best practices that develop metacognition among students.

a. Ask "why" questions always.

b. Refrain from giving feedback for wrong answers.
c. Require answers that allow students to reflect on their answers.
d. In clarifying a concept, you accept any kind of explanation.
e. In doing a class activity, tackle and go directly to the main part of the lesson.
f. Ask students to always elaborate on their answers.
g. In a group activity, encourage members to talk to each other.
h. Don’t allow errors to be committed by the student.

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i. Make effort to correct mistakes and explain in a clear manner.

2. For each item, give your reason/s why you think that practice is a good one. If you
think it is not a good one, how should that practice be done?

____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________

Assessment

Name: _______________________________________ Date: __________________

1. What makes cognition different from metacognition? Explain. What are the
similarities of these two cognitive skills?
_____________________________________________________________________
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2. Identify and explain the three essential components of metacognition.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

3. Of what importance is the use of metacognition skills in the classroom?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Elaborate on why metacognition is a level higher than cognition?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Chapter 15

Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors in Learning

Introduction

In the previous chapter, you learned the concepts related to cognition and
metacognition and the differences between these two abilities. You have also learned
strategies and methodologies in teaching that will help students develop their
metacognitive abilities to become self-regulated learners.

In this chapter, you will learn about other factors of learning which you should
be able to relate with the concepts that you have learned previously. This chapter also
gives you ideas on the ground in terms of a variety of techniques and methodologies
that develop students cognitive and metacognitive faculties.

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The learning expected of you after going through this chapter is mentioned in
the ILO
below.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Analyze research findings to explain cognitive and metacognitive factors in
Learning.

Abstraction:

LEARNING POINT: FACTORS IN LEARNING RELATED TO

DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION AND METACOGNITION

1. Intelligence
Sternbergs "triarchic" theory of intelligence asserts that the "metacomponents in his
theory are the executive processes that control other cognitive components as well as
receive feedback from these components. The other two components are practical and
experiential intelligence. These executive processes involve planning, evaluating and
monitoring problem-solving activities. Sternberg further asserts that the ability to
appropriately allocate cognitive resources such as deciding how and when a given
task should be accomplished is basic to intelligence.

2. Age
This is associated with stages of cognitive development. Jean Piaget's stage of
cognitive development asserts that cognitive abilities for abstract thinking are higher
during the formal operations period. In a foreign language study determining the
relationship between cognitive and metacognitive strategies, age and level education,
Khezrlou (2012) found that a moderate and positive but significant correlation was
observed between metacognitive strategies and adult learners' score in the test of
English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL).

3. Level of Education
In the study conducted by Khezrlou (2012), there were differences in types of
strategies according to level of education. The university students employed more
strategies in their reading of passages than the senior high school students.

4. Use of Cognitive Strategies for Instruction

There are specific strategies which when used will improve cognition and
metacognition. Those with greater metacognitive abilities tend to be more successful
in their cognitive endeavors. However, individuals can learn how to better regulate
their cognitive activities. Cognitive strategy instruction is an instructional approach
that emphasizes the development of thinking skills and processes as a means to
enhance learning. CSI assumes that there are identifiable cognitive strategies
previously believed to be utilized by the best and the brightest students, and which
can be taught to students. Using these strategies is associated with successful learning.
Other factors are study and practice, guidance or cognitive apprenticeship and
experience.

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Suggested Strategies to Help Students Process Information

1. Provide organized instruction. Make structure and relations of the maternal

evident to learners thru concept maps or other graphic representations. This is
especially important when introducing a new topic or subject matter.

2. Use single coherent representations. Allows the learner to focus attention rather
than split attention between two stimuli, as for example the written material and the
corresponding diagram.

3. Link new material with what is already known. Use mental scaffolding
techniques for the new material.

4. Carefully analyze the attention demands of instruction. Count the numbers of

elements in instructional messages. Make sure the learner will not attend to too many
different elements at the same time.

5. Recognize the limits of attention. Help learners focus their attention through the
techniques such as identifying the most important points to be learned in advance of
studying new material. Also, separating the essential from the non-essentials.

6. Recognize the limitations of short-term memory. Apply the concept or chunking.

For example, do not present 25 separate items. Make them five groups or 5.

7. Match encoding strategies with the material to the learned. Do not encourage
use of mnemonics unless it is very necessary to memorize the material.

8. Provide opportunities for both verbal and imaginal encoding.

9. Arrange a variety of practice opportunities. The goal is to help the learner

generalize the concept, principle or skill to be learned so that it could be applied
outside of the
original context of which it was taught.

10. Eliminate redundancy. Redundant information between text and diagram has
been shown to decrease learning

11. Help learners become "self-regulated. Assist students in selecting and using
strategies such
as summarizing and questioning

LEARNING POINT: IMPLICATIONS OF COGNITIVE THEORIES ON

TEACHING
AND LEARNING

It is important for teachers to develop to the highest possible limit the cognitive and
abilities of students. This could be best achieved by applying classroom techniques
toward this objective.

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Basic Characteristics of a Classroom Instruction Based on Cognitive Theories

a. Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process (learner
control).

b. Metacognitive training (self-planning, monitoring and revising techniques)

c. Use of hierarchical analyses to identity and illustrate prerequisite relationships

(cognitive task analysis procedures)

d. Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate

optimal processing (outlining, summaries, advanced organizers)

e. Creation of learning environments that allow an encourage students to make

connections with previously learned materials.

Teaching Methods Based on Principles of Cognitive Learning Theory

1. Cognitive Apprenticeship. A method of helping students grasp concepts and

procedures under the guidance of teacher or expert. Following are the phases of
instruction.
a. Modeling. The teacher does the task or explains the process.

b. Coaching. The students do the same task and teacher observes the students, give
feedback on how to do it.

c. Articulation. Students are asked to think out loud about how they performed the
task and offers reasons for the strategies. Teachers can give feedback and determines
if there are misconception.

d. Reflection. Students retrospectively think of their performance in completing the

task.
e. Exploration. Teacher urges the students to identify the problem, formulate
hypothesis and seek needed information to solve it.

2. Reciprocal Teaching. An instructional activity in the form of dialogue or exchange

between teachers and students about certain parts of the lesson. The purpose is to
derive meaning out of that part of the lesson to facilitate understanding and learning.
Four strategies to the dialogue, include, summarizing, question-generating,
clarifying and predicting

3. Anchored Instruction. Involves the use of anchors while doing instruction, like
stories, cases or situations. It is essentially problem-based.

4. Inquiry Learning. Resembles the scientific inquiry method. Helps the students
develop their higher order thinking skills by engaging them in investigating an issue
or formulating hypothesis to find solutions to a problem.

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5. Discovery Learning. An approach where students interact with their environment,
manipulate things, explore, do experiments for them to discover principles and
important relationships.

6. Problem-based Learning. A real-life problem, or an ill-structured question is

presented to the students, having many possible solutions, and they are asked to find
or come up with the most appropriate or best solution.

Application:

Name: ______________________________________________ Date: ____________

Using your internet connection, look for a research study about cognitive and
metacognitive abilities. Write the findings of the study and discuss.

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
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Assessment:

Name: ____________________________________________ Date: __________

Answer the following questions.

1. What are the assertions of Sternberg's theory of cognitive development regarding

metacognition? Expound or explain further the assertions.

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

2. Piaget's theory of intellectual development contends that cognitive skills grow and
develop with age. Therefore it is expected that concrete thinking characterizes early

stages of development; while abstract thinking is associated with later stage of

development.
What is the implication of this theory to the development of cognitive skills of
students?

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

3. In a study by Khezrlou, he found that university students employed more strategies

in reading than secondary school students. From this finding, what do you draw to be
the factor/s related to cognitive and metacognitive ability?

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________________________

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____________________________________________________________________

Module 16

Indicators of Cognitive and Metacognitive Theories in the K to 12 Curriculum

Guide

Introduction

This chapter is a “test” to determine what you have learned about cognition and
metacognition.
It examines the expected learning outcomes of the enhanced basic education program,
a significant component or which is the K to 12 Curriculum. The rationale of the
program anchors on the ultimate development of empowered individuals who are
responsible and who live productive lives. Given the goal of the K to 12 curriculum, it
is expected that the curriculum focuses on the development of cognitive and
metacognitive skills. Let us find out the extent to which development of these

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cognitive skills occupy importance in the K to 12 curriculum. This chapter likewise
selects sample courses for you to examine their objectives.

Intended Learning Outcome (ILO)

Identify indicators of cognitive and metacognitive skills developed in the K to 12

curriculum.

Abstraction:

LEARNING POINT: WHAT THE K TO 12 CURRICULUM IS ALL ABOUT

The centerpiece of the legislation "The Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013
otherwise known as RA 10533 is the K to 12 Curriculum. It must be noted that the K
to 12 Curriculum is one of the many components, yet a very important one, of the
total package of this education reform. It must be borne in mind, too, that the other
components like administrators’ orientation, faculty or teacher-training physical
facilities and instructional materials, all serve as support mechanisms for the
implementation of the K to 12 curriculum.

The K to 12 Curriculum provides for basic education of 13 years: Kindergarten (1

year), Elementary (Grades 1-6), Junior High School (Grades 7-10), and Senior High
School (Grades
11-12).

The Department of Education prescribed a curriculum template to serve as a guide

to all teachers teaching in the public and private schools in the country. The template
defines the Spiral progression of the different courses' content, content standard,
performance standard, learning competencies as well as the codes starting from the
kindergarten level up to Grade 12. Teachers are encouraged to implement this in the
context of their given situations considering availability of any of the resources,
materials or support systems.

The K to 12 basic education program aims to develop empowered individuals who

learned, through a program that is rooted on sound education principles, geared
towards excellence, the foundations for learning throughout life, the competence to
engage in work and be productive, the ability to co-exist in fruitful harmony, with
local and global communities, the capability to engage in critical autonomous
thinking, and the capacity to transform others and oneself. Its vision is grounded on
human development, the complete development of the individual. Every graduate
holds an understanding of the world around and a zest for lifelong learning. It seeks to
address every child's basic learning needs including learning to learn, the acquisition
of basic numeracy, literacy and scientific and technical knowledge as applied to daily
life. The graduate also has the courage, drive and the relevant skills to engage in
work, and have a productive life. Every graduate will be able to embark in the modern
world prepared to meet challenges. Every graduate is inculcated with respect of
human rights and values, notably, makadiyos, makatao, makabansa, and
makakalikasan. This makes every graduate empowered to effect positive change in his
life and that of others by pursuing higher studies or entrepreneurial endeavor.

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The goals of the K to 12 curriculum, in fact requires the development of higher
thinking skills and effective social skills so as to realize the goals to fruition.

LEARNING POINT: COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE SKILLS IN

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

This learning material looks into the K to 12 Curriculum to determine if there are
indications that skills of cognition and metacognition are developed and considered in
the teaching-learning process. While the test of cognitive and metacognitive
development is seen in the processes and outcomes, another test is to analyze the
expected learning competencies to be developed. The set of learning competencies
serve as guide for the teacher as to what directions to take in teaching particularly, on
methodologies that help achieve such competencies.
To analyze the K to 12 Curriculum, the expected learning competencies will be
looked into, and where such competencies can be classified as cognitive or
metacognitive in nature. As previously discussed, cognition refers to skills required
for daily living like comprehension, memory, perceiving, and similar skills.
Metacognition refers to knowledge that people have about their cognitive processes,
and the deliberate use of these cognitive processes to improve learning.

Example No. 1: Grade 11-12

Core Subject Title: Oral Communication in Context

Reference: K to 12 Senior High School Core Curriculum-Oral Communication in

Context,
December 2013

Content: Nature and Elements of Communication

1. Definition
2. The Process of Communication
3. Communication Models
4. Five Elements of Communication
*Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
5. Effective Communication Skills
6. Intercultural Communication

6 hours (1 week, 2 days)

Learning Competencies Cognitive Skills Metacognitive Skills

The learner...
1. Defines communication. X
2. Explains the nature and process of X
communication.
3. Differentiates the various models of X
communication.
4. Distinguishes the unique feature(s) of X
one

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communication process from the other.
5. Explains why there is a breakdown of X
Communication.
6. Uses various strategies in order to avoid X
communication breakdown.
7. Demonstrate sensitivity to the socio- X
cultural
dimension of communication situation
with focus on:
a. culture
b. gender
c. age
d. social status
e. religion

The above example of expected learning competencies for this 6 hour lesson in the
Oral Communication in Context” for Grade 11/12, presents a list of seven expected
learning competencies; five of which are classified as cognitive skills, while two are
metacognitive in nature. If one examines the expected competencies to be developed,
there is an increasing complexity of skills and competencies from the start of the
lesson up to its conclusion. The trend is to start developing cognitive skills and from
there, progresses to higher-level skills, or metacognitive skills.

Example No. 2: Grade 11-12

Course Subject Title: Physical Science

Reference: K to 12 Senior High School Core Curriculum-Physical Science, December

2013
Content: How the Elements Found in the Universe were Formed
Learning Competencies Cognitive Skills Metacognitive Skills
The learner... X
1. Give evidence for and explain the
formation of the light
elements in the Big Bang Theory (3
hours).
X
2. Give evidence for and describe the
formation of heavier
elements during star formation and

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evolution.
X
3. Write the nuclear fusion reactions
that take place in star, which lead to
the formation of new elements.
4. Describe how elements that are X
heavier than iron are
formed.

All the above-stated expected learning competencies are identified as

metacognitive skills because doing these will require the use of basic cognition skills
like identifying, understanding, recalling and similar skills.

Application:

Name: _________________________________________ Date : ______________

Place yourself in the shoes of a teacher in any subject. Identify the processes
that need to be undertaken in the building up of competencies from cognition to
metacognition along writing course objectives or in delivering a certain lesson.
Support these with accompanying activities.

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Assessment:

Name: __________________________________________ Date : ______________

Answer the following:

1. Distinguish cognitive learning competencies from metacognitive learning

competencies.

_____________________________________________________________________
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2. Describe and explain further the principle of building up competencies in teaching.

____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
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