Pharma Unit

Pharmacognosy Top 15 Questions with Answers

According To PCI New Syllabus ER -2020
1. Define pharmacognosy, discuss the history and scope of Pharmacognosy?
Ans. Pharmacognosy is the study of medicines or crude drugs produced from natural sources such as plants microbes and animals it includes analysis of their
biological chemical physical and biochemical properties
History of pharmacognosy
The Egyptians were aware of medicinal use of several plants and animals and about human anatomy. The Greek physician Hippocrates known as father of
medicine Greek pharmacist Galen described various methods of preparation containing active constituents of crude drugs. The history of pharmacognosy is
very old. Different countries like India, China, Nepal develop medicine from plants to cure certain diseases. Indian history of medicinal plants is dated back to
3500 BC the curative properties of plants have been mentioned in the suktas of Rigveda and Atharvaveda. Ayurveda has also described a good number of
plants with their therapeutic properties. The ancient well known treaties in ayurveda are the charaka Samhita and sushruta Samhita and written by charaka
and sushruta respectively.
Scope of Pharmacognosy :-

• Synthesis drugs and antibiotics : The demand of pharmaceutical production of plant origin has increased due to the world-wide use of synthesis
drugs and antibiotics
• Plant Drugs and remedies : Complex diseases like cancer AIDS are treated by plant drugs and remedies , which are safer than the Synthetic medicines
.
• Herbal medicines and preparations :-herbal medicines have become more popular in recent years because it is believed that this do not have any
toxin or side effects as compared to modern medicine
• Natural flavouring agents and natural perfumes :- Large number of aromatic plants which are extensively used as natural flavouring agents, natural
perfume spices and medicine.

2. Write pharmacological classification of crude drugs?

Ans. Pharmacological classification of through drugs involved the group of crude drugs according to their pharmacological action of their active constituent or
their therapeutic uses the drugs which include in pharmacological classification have similar pharmacological action
Pharmacological classification of crude drug
➢ Drug acting on gastrointestinal tract : Carminatives such as Dill & Mentha, emetics such as ipecacuanha, purgatives such as senna & castor oil
➢ Drug acting on respiratory system : Expectorants such as vasaka & liquorice, antitussive such as codeine, bronchodilators such as ephedra
➢ Drugs acting on cardiovascular system : cardiotonic such as digitalis and squill, anti-hypertensives such as rauwolfia
➢ Drugs acting on autonomic nervous system : Adrenergic such as ephedra, cholinergic such as physostigmine
➢ Drugs acting on central nervous system : CNS stimulants such as coffee Central analgesics such as opium
➢ Anti-cancer drugs : vinca, podophyllum
➢ Anti-rheumatics drugs : Aconite, guggul
➢ Anti-malarial drugs : Cinchona, artemisia
➢ Astringents : Myrobalan, Black catechu
➢ Antispasmodics : Papaverine, datura

3. Write about morphological classification of drugs?

Ans. The crude drugs are grouped according to the part of plant or animal represented into organised and unorganised drugs. The organised drugs are
divided into parts of plants like leaves, flowers, fruits seeds, wood barks and subterranean parts like root and rhizomes. The unorganised drugs are dried latex
gums etc. This system of classification is more convenient for practical study especially when the chemical nature of a drug is not clearly understood.
Morphological classification of drug
➢ Seeds : nux-vomica, castor and isabgol
➢ Leaves : senna, digitalis, vasaka
➢ Barks : Cinchona, kurchi, cinnamon
➢ Woods : Sandalwood, quassia, red sanders
➢ Roots : Rauwolfia, aconite, ipecacuanha
➢ Rhizomes : Turmeric, Ginger, podophyllum
➢ Flowers : clove, saffron
➢ Fruits : coriander, fennel,
➢ Entire drugs :- Ergot, ephedra, belladonna
➢ Dried latices : Opium, papain
➢ Resins : balsam of tolu, asafoetida, benzoin
➢ Dried juices : Aloes, Red gum
➢ Gums : Acacia, Tragacanth, guar gum
➢ Dried extracts : gelatine, catechu, agar

4. Define adulteration and give methods of adulteration with suitable examples?

Ans. The term Adulteration is defined as substituting original crude drugs partially or wholly with other similar-looking substance
Following are the various methods used for drug adulteration.
A. Substitution with manufactured materials
B. Substitution with Inferior material
C. Substitution with Exhausted material
D. Excessive adventitious matter
E. Adulteration with non-plant material
F. Substitution with cheap natural substance

A. Substitution with manufactured materials:- This is done with artificially manufactured material which resembles various drugs in form and appearance.
Example: - Paraffin wax has been coloured yellow to substitute beeswax.
B. Substitution with Inferior material:- Drugs are sometimes adulterated and substituted with standard commercial material. The common example of
substitution is adulteration of cloves by mother cloves. Saffron is adulterated with dried flowers of Carthamus tinctorius (Safflower).
C. Substitution with Exhausted material: Exhausted material the vegetable residues which remain after the original material has been used for drug
preparation. Example substitution of Alexandrian Senna with Arabian Senna, Used of exhausted Clove and ginger for adulteration.
D. Substitution with cheap natural substances. Sometimes drugs are adulterated with cheaper natural substances which have no relation to the genuine
article. Example: - Japan wax for beeswax and sterculia gum for Tragacanth.
E. Adulteration with non- plant material. Plant materials are sometime adulteration with worthless non-plant materials

5. Write about evaluation of crude drugs?

Ans. Evaluation of drugs means identification of its quality and purity. It also includes the detection of the nature of adulteration in the crude drugs. The
morphological character is sufficient in the need of detection but in case of powdered drugs the microscopic characters, while in case of liquid drug chemical
tests and one of the physical standards such as specific gravity, optical rotation solubility etc are also very important for the evaluation of drugs. The crude
drugs can be identified on the basis of their morphological, histological and chemical studies.
The different techniques involved in standardization of crude drugs are as follows.
1. Physical Evaluation:- Physical evaluation of drugs are to be determined wherever possible. They may help in evaluation, specifically with reference to
specific gravity, density, optical rotation, refractive index, melting point, viscosity and solubility in different solvents.
2. Chemical Evaluation:- chemical evaluation of crude drugs comprises different chemical tests and chemical assays. The isolation, purification and
identification of active constituents are chemical methods of evaluation. Quantitative chemical tests such as acid value, saponification value, etc. Whereas
qualitative chemical tests such as identification of carbohydrates, proteins, etc. This chemical test also helps in proper identification of varieties of crude
drugs.
3. Biological Evaluation:- The estimation of potency of crude drugs is done by means of its effect on the living organism like bacterial, fungal growth or animal
tissue or entire animal, it is called a bioassay. Bioassay is the measure of sample being tested capable of producing the biological effects as that of the
standard preparation.
4. Morphological Evaluation:- It is also called as organoleptic evaluation of crude drugs. It refers to evaluation of drugs by colour, odour, taste, size, shape and
special features like touch, texture and sound etc. The study of the form of crude drugs is morphology while description of the form is morphography. The
adulteration of seeds is identified by morphological techniques.
5. Microscopic Evaluation:- The microscopic evaluation also covers study of constituents by application of chemical tests to small quantities of drugs in
powdered form or to histological sections of the drug. This method allows more detailed examination of a drug and its can be used to identify organised
drugs by their known histological characters.

6. Write a note on alkaloids?

Ans . Alkaloids are derived from the word alkali like. Alkaloids are nitrogenous compounds which are basic in nature due to the presence of one or more
nitrogen atoms. They are defined as basic nitrogenous compounds of plant origin which are physiologically active.
Classification of alkaloids

• True alkaloids :- True alkaloids contain heterocyclic nitrogen atoms in the heterocyclic ring. The alkaloids are derived from amino acids. They are
basic in nature. For example, quinine, atropine and morphine
• Proto alkaloids :- These are also called amino alkaloids. This contains nitrogen but not in the heterocyclic ring. It is also considered as a biological
amine. It is also basic in nature. For example, ephedrine
• Pseudo alkaloids :- It contains heterocyclic nitrogen atom it is weak base for example caffeine
Occurrence and distribution of alkaloids :- alkaloids are found in plants and are especially common in certain families of flowering plants. They also occur in
seed bearing plants mainly in berries, bark, fruits, roots and leaves. Alkaloids are more present in dicots than monocots. Families rich in alkaloids are
Apocynaceae, Rubiaceae, Solanaceae, and papaveraceae.
Isolation method
1) Stas otto process :- Extraction is basically carried out by Stas-Otto process in which the moistened drug is treated with alkali to set free the base
existing in salt form and then the free base is separated with an organic solvent
2) Kippenbergeis process :- In this Process the powdered and sieved plant substance is first digested with solution of tannin in glycerol at a constant
temperature 40 degree Celsius for 48hrs. The resultant mixture is further heated to 50°C to complete coagulation of pretentious substance and
finally filtered

Identification test
1. Dragon droff’s test :- Alkaloids + dragendorff reagent = reddish brown ppt
2. Mayer’s test :- Alkaloids +Mayer’s reagent = cream ppt
3. Hager’s test :- Alkaloids + Hager’s reagent = reddish yellow ppt
4. Wagner’s test :- Alkaloids + Wagner’s reagent = yellow ppt

Therapeutic uses :-
1) It is used as antidepressant
2) It is used as local anaesthetic agent
3) It is used as antiseptic
4) It is used as antibacterial agents

7. Write a note on volatile oil?

Ans. Volatile oils are odorous volatile principles of plant and animal source, evaporate when exposed to air at ordinary temperature, they are also known as
essential oils.
Classification of volatile oils :-
a) Hydrocarbon volatile oil :- turpentine
b) Aldehyde volatile oil :- lemongrass and cinnamon
c) Alcohol volatile oil :- peppermint
d) Ketone volatile oil :- camphor and cumin
e) Phenol volatile oil :- clove
f) Oxide volatile oil :- cardamom

Occurrence and distribution :- majority of volatile oil are present in plants they are specially present in secretory tissues for example oil ducts of
umbelliferous fruits, oil cells or oil glands are present in sab epidermal tissue of lemon, and trichomes of several plants. In some cases, they do not pre-exist
in the plant, but it is formed by decomposition of glycosides for example, mustard oil
Isolation method :-
• Distillation method - the crude drug is distilled with water using Clevenger apparatus. For example, sandalwood, clove and cinnamon
• Expression method - the volatile oil is obtained by expressing the fruit. For example, citrus fruits
• Extraction method - the volatile oil is obtained by extracting the drug with volatile solvent such as ether and petroleum ether
• Maceration method - drug containing volatile oil is first heated with melted fat or fixed oil stirring continuously in a water bath and left
overnight the oil is separated from the fat with the help of alcohol. For example, oil obtained from flowers

Identification test

• To a thin section of drug add alcoholic solution of Sudan III, red colour globules indicate the presence of volatile oil
• To a thin section of drug add a drop of tincture alkenes, red colour indicates the presence of volatile oil

Therapeutic uses
1) It is used as antiseptic agent
2) It is used as antispasmodic agent
3) It is used as carminative
4) It is also used as flavouring agent
5) It is also used in perfume industries
6) It is also used in spices

8. Write a note on tannins?

Ans. Tannins are polyphenolic Tannins are present in the aerial parts, e.g., leaves, fruits, barks, or stem, generally occurs in immature fruits, but disappears
during the ripening process

Classification of Tannins :-
Tannins are classified into two types
A. Hydrolysable : these tannins are hydrolysed by acids or enzymes quickly and the product of hydrolysis is gallic acid and ellagic acid. On dry distillation gallic
acid and other compound get converted to pyrogallol they react with ferric chloride solution producing bluish black colour
E.g.- Gallo tannins
B. Condensed : these are true tannins which on acidic or enzyme treatment get decomposed into a red insoluble compound known as phlobaphenes. On dry
distillation they yield catechol tannins with ferric chloride solution they produce brownish green colour
E.g.- kino tannic acid,

Occurrence and distribution :-

Tannins are found commonly in the bark of trees, wood, leaves, buds, stems, fruits, seeds, roots, and plant galls. Tannins are distributed in species
throughout the plant kingdom. They are commonly found in both gymnosperms and angiosperms. Mole studied the distribution of tannin in 180 families of
dicotyledons and 44 families of monocotyledons.
Isolation Method :-
Both hydrolysable and condensed tannins are highly soluble in water and alcohol but insoluble in organic solvents such as solvent ether, chloroform, and
benzene. Tannin compounds can be easily extracted by water or alcohol. The general method for the extraction of tannic acid from various galls is either with
water-saturated ether, or with mixture of water, alcohol, and ether. In such cases, free acids such as Gallic and ellagic acid go along with ether, whereas true
tannin gets extracted in water. If the drug consists of chlorophyll or pigment, it may be removed by ether. After extraction, the aqueous and ethereal layers
are separately concentrated, dried, and subjected to further isolation and purification using various separation techniques of chromatography.
Identification test for tannins:-
1) Phenazone Test: To 5 ml of aqueous solution of tannin-containing drug, add 0.5 g of sodium acid phosphate. Warm the solution, cool, and filter. Add
2% phenazone solution to the filtrate. All tannins are precipitated as bulky, coloured precipitate.
2) Gelatine Test: To a 1% gelatine solution, add a little 10% sodium chloride. If a 1% solution of tannin is added to the gelatine solution, tannins cause
precipitation of gelatine from solution.
3) Test for Catechin: Catechin test is the modification of the well-known phloroglucinol test for lignin. Matchstick contain lignin. Dip a matchstick in the
dilute extract of the drug, dry, moisten it with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and warm it near a flame. Catechin in the presence of acid produces
phloroglucinol which stains the lignified wood pink or red.
4) Test for chlorogenic acid: A dilute solution of chlorogenic acid containing extract, if treated with aqueous ammonia and exposed to air, slowly turns
green indicating the presence of chlorogenic acid.
5) Vanillin-hydrochloric acid test: Drug shows pink or red colour with a mixture of vanillin: alcohol : dilute hcl in the ratio 1:10:10. The reaction
produces phloroglucinol which along with vanillin gives pink or red colour.

Therapeutic uses :-
a) It is used as antidote
b) It is used as antitumor agent
c) It is used as antidiarrheal agent
d) They also have antibacterial properties

9. Write a note on glycosides?

Ans. Glycosides can be defined as the compounds in which one or more sugars are combined with non-sugar molecules through glycosidic linkage

Classification of glycosides
Glycosides are classified into different types based on their chemical nature. They are
1. Anthracene glycoside - E.g. : senna , rhubarb
2. Sterol or cardiac glycoside - E.g. : digitalis and squill
3. Cyanogenic glycoside - E.g. : bitter almond
4. Saponin glycoside - E.g. : dioscorea
5. Isothiocyanate glycoside - E.g. : black mustard
6. Flavonol glycoside - E.g. : silymarin
7. Coumarin glycoside - E.g. : cantharides
8. Aldehyde glycoside - E.g. : vanilla
9. Phenol glycoside - E.g. : bearberry

Occurrence and distribution :-

Glycosides widely occur in root, bark, fruits, and to a small extent in leaves. Many glycosides occur in plants, often as flower and fruit pigments, for example,
anthocyanins.
Isolation method :- The drug containing glycosides is finely powdered extracted by a continuous hot percolation method. Using Soxhlet apparatus with
an alcohol as a solvent. During this process the various enzymes present in the drug get deactivated due to heating. The extract is than treated with lead
acetate to precipitate tannins and to remain non-glycosidal impurities The excess of lead acetate is precipitate as lead sulphide by passing the H2S (hydrogen
sulphide gas )through the solution The extracts filtered, and glycoside is obtained.
Identification of Glycosides :-
A. Borntrager’s test :- The drug is finely powdered and added to dilute H2SO4 Due to which the drug is hydrolysed and then it is filtered. The filtration
is cooled and shaken with organic solvent such as benzene or chloroform by which aglycone part enter into the organic solvent. The organic solvent
separated, and ammonia is added Ammoniacal layer turn pink to red colour
B. Killer killani test :- The powdered drug is boiled with 70% of alcohol for 2-3 mins and Filter. The filtrate is added to water and strong lead acetate
solution. The chloroform is added and shaken. The aglycon now entered into the chloroform. The chloroform layer is separated and evaporated. The
remaining part residue is then dissolved in glacial acetic acid containing 5%ferric chloride solution. Add hcl or H2SO4 , a reddish brown layer is formed

Therapeutic uses :-
1. Used in treating heart failure
2. Used in treating irregular heartbeats

10.Write a note on enzymes?

Ans. Enzymes are proteins that help speed up chemical reactions in living things. They act as catalysts, meaning they increase the rate at which a chemical
reaction occurs without being used up in the process. Enzymes are essential to many biological processes in the body, including digestion, metabolism, and
cellular respiration.
Examples are – Pancreatin, diastase

11. What are pharmaceutical aids give pharmacognosy of kaolin?

Ans. Pharmaceutical aids are the substance which have no or little pharmacological effect, but they are essentially used in the preparation of pharmaceutical
dosage form like tablets, capsule, injections, suspension and emulsion
Examples are kaolin, lanolin, beeswax, Acacia tragacanth, Agar
Pharmacognosy of kaolin
Synonyms :- China clay, porcelain
Source :- Kaolin is a naturally occurring mineral that is formed by the weathering of rocks containing aluminium silicates. Kaolin deposits are often found in
areas with high levels of rainfall and a warm, tropical climate. Over time, the weathering of the rocks in these areas breaks down the aluminium silicates and
leaves behind kaolin. The kaolin deposits are then mined from the earth and processed to remove impurities before being used in various industrial
applications.
Chemical Constituents :- kaolinite and halloysite. Kaolinite is a hydrated aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Al2Si2O5(OH)4, while halloysite is also a
hydrated aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Al2Si2O5(OH)4·2H2O. Kaolin may also contain small amounts of other minerals, such as quartz,
feldspar, and mica
Uses :-
a) Kaolin is used in some pharmaceutical products as an excipient
b) Kaolin is used in a range of personal care products, such as soaps, creams, and powders, as a thickening agent, absorbent, and skin protectant
c) Kaolin is also used in the production of ceramics

12.Write a note on sutures with examples?

Ans. Sutures are medical devices used to close wounds or surgical incisions by stitching or tying the edges of the tissue together. They come in various sizes,
shapes, and materials, depending on the specific use and location of the wound.
Classification:-
A. Absorbable sutures: These sutures are made of materials that break down in the body over time and are eventually absorbed by the body.
Examples of absorbable sutures include Catgut, Polyglycolic acid, Polylactic acid

B. Non-absorbable sutures: These sutures are made of materials that do not break down in the body and need to be removed manually. Examples of
non-absorbable sutures include Silk, Nylon, Stainless steel
Uses :-
a) Used to close wounds and incisions.
b) They are used in surgery, dental work, obstetrics and gynaecology, and veterinary medicine.
c) Sutures promote healing, prevent infection, and stop bleeding.

13.Write a note on antioxidants?

Ans. Antioxidants are compounds that inhibit oxidation. They help to protect the body's cells from damage caused by free radicals.
Classification:-
A. Vitamins: Vitamins such as Vitamin C, Vitamin E, and beta-carotene
B. Minerals: Minerals such as selenium, copper, and zinc
C. Phytochemicals: flavonoids, carotenoids, and resveratrol.
D. Synthetic antioxidants: propyl gallate, tertiary butylhydroquinone, butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene
Uses:-
1. Protecting against cancer
2. Protecting against heart disease
3. Boosting the immune system
4. Reducing inflammation

14.Discuss in detail about phytochemical investigation of drugs?

Ans. Phytochemical investigation of drugs is the scientific process of identifying and studying the active chemical components found in plants that have
medicinal properties. These chemicals are often referred to as phytochemicals, and they can be extracted from various parts of the plant such as the leaves,
stem, or roots.
Classification:-

15.Write the biological source family chemical constituents and therapeutic uses of the following drugs?
Ans. There are about 70 Drugs in Pharmacognosy Syllabus. Read all the drugs. In exam they will ask about any drugs

Very Imp Note :-

• Please Read All the chapters very carefully before Pharmaceutical chemistry Exam

• These questions are only for the reference purpose