PHI-1300: INTRODUCTION TO CRITICAL REASONING

Module 1—Introduction to Critical Reasoning

OVERVIEW

In Module 1 you are given the opportunity to explore what critical reasoning is and what it means to think
for yourself. This module sets the foundation for everything that follows.

INTRODUCTION

Do you agree that many of the problems we face in our lives result from a lack of clarity in our thinking
about what is real, true, and essential? In our fast-paced, overstimulated, I-want-it-quickly society, our
response to an issue is often based on preconceived ideas.

What is most important in this course is that you learn how to think for yourself, as opposed to replicating
preconceived ideas. Issues rarely yield single, clear, right or wrong answers; they usually yield only less-
or more-convincing arguments. One of the main benefits of critical thinking is that it allows you to reach
independent conclusions about the world and about yourself.

This course is adapted from the University of South Africa's Critical Reasoning course, licensed under a
Creative Commons by Attribution 3.0 license.

TOPICS

Module 1 covers the following topics:

● Critical reasoning
● Thinking for yourself
● Informed thinking
● Critical self-reflection

OBJECTIVES

After successfully completing Module 1, you should be able to:

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MO1.1 Define critical reasoning.

MO1.2 Demonstrate techniques on how to think for yourself (independent thinking).

MO1.3 Reflect critically on your own assumptions.

MO1.4 Apply reasoning to arguments.

STUDY MATERIALS

Readings
● Module 1 Lecture
● Glossary

Web Resources
● Baker, A. R. (n.d.). Thinking critically and creatively. In Priester, T. C. (Ed.), Foundations of
Academic Success: Words of Widsom. Milne Library. CC-BY-4.0.

LECTURE

What Is Critical Reasoning?

Critical reasoning involves the ability to actively and skillfully conceptualize, analyze, question, and
evaluate ideas and beliefs. Critical reasoning is the opposite of dogma. Dogma is unquestioned
information—information that is embraced without the intervention of active thought or criticism. To reason
critically is to question the ideas and beliefs of others and oneself and to challenge dogma and authority.

When we start to question the ideas and beliefs we live by, we start to think for ourselves. To think for
ourselves involves a critical attitude of reflecting upon how we think and act. To think critically is to
question the world and thus to engage critically with the possibilities and alternatives which the world
offers.

Please note that the terms “critical reasoning,” “critical thinking,” and “clear thinking” are used
interchangeably in this discussion. In other words, critical reasoning implies critical thinking or clear
thinking.

Critical reasoning involves three important components of reasoning. These components are as follows:

● Critical reasoning is thinking for yourself.

● Critical reasoning is informed reasoning.

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● Critical reasoning is critical self-reflection.

Critical reasoning is about arguments: their construction, analysis, and evaluation. It is therefore important
to understand what we mean by the term “argument.” The term “argument” can be used in three different
senses:

1. A quarrel or fight between two or more people

2. A group of statements intended to establish the truth or acceptability of a claim
3. An exchange between two or more people who disagree with each other, in which each person
gives reasons to support his or her position

To bring out the different senses of the term “argument,” consider the sentence:
The philosophy lecturer had an argument.

If we use sense (1) above, the sentence might continue as follows:

The philosophy lecturer had an argument with a sociology lecturer in the local bar and was taken
to hospital.

If we use sense (2) above, the sentence might continue as follows:

The philosophy lecturer had an argument which, he claimed, established the truth of the
proposition “God exists.”

If we use sense (3) above, the sentence might continue as follows:

The philosophy lecturer had an argument with his colleagues after they disputed his claim that
God exists.

When we talk about an argument in critical reasoning, we do not use it in sense (1). That is, we do not
mean a quarrel between two persons. In critical reasoning, the term “argument” is used in senses (2) and
(3) only.

The following are some warm-up exercises to set your thought processes in motion before you embark on
the journey to become a serious critical thinker. (Each question is a simplified version of a real critical
reasoning question.) Read the following statements and then answer the questions about them:

1. The best movie showing right now is Raiders of the Lost Ark by Steven Spielberg. It has been in
the number one position for three weeks.
a. How can we weaken this argument?
b. How can we strengthen this argument?

Feedback
a. We could show that a popular movie is not necessarily a good movie. In other words, just
because it is popular doesn’t mean it is good.
b. We could show that a popular movie is always a good movie. In other words, there is a
direct relationship between popularity and quality.

2. All dogs have hair. Therefore, pets have hair.

a. If so, what is the hidden assumption (implicit factor taken for granted)?

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Feedback
a. The hidden assumption is that all pets are dogs.

3. The president is of the opinion that all citizens should have the opportunity to go to college.
However, he did not go to college.
a. How can we weaken this argument?
b. How can we strengthen this argument?

Feedback
a. We could say that the president’s personal background is not related to his suggestion.
b. We could say that the president’s personal background is related to his suggestion.

4. Two hours ago Brian had a splitting headache, so he took two headache tablets. Brian still has a
headache. Therefore, headache tablets are useless.
a. How can we weaken this argument?
b. How can we strengthen this argument?

Feedback
a. We could say that Brian’s results will not necessarily be the same as the results of other
people.
b. We could say that Brian’s results will be the same as the results of other people.

Becoming a Critical Thinker

Critical reasoning or critical thinking is a basic skill that all humans are born with, but which can be
sharpened with practice. The better your ability to think critically, the better you will be at making good
decisions in your life. The skills involved in critical reasoning will assist you in every area of life and study,
whether it is deciding which lifestyle choices to make or which job to take. Keep in mind that the
foundation for this course is already embedded in you.

Part 1:
For this activity use your journal and write down what the difference in meaning is between the following
statements. It is important to write your opinion down; often we think we have an opinion, but once we
have to write it down, we discover that it might be flawed.

STATEMENT STATEMENT

Everybody is innocent until proven guilty. → Nobody is guilty until proven not to be innocent.

Anything you say may be used against you → Everything you say may be used against you in
in a court of law. a court of law.

If you are not religious, you are bad. → If you are religious, you are good.

If you do not vote, you may not complain → People who do not vote have no say.
about the outcome.

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As the economy is on a downslide, we need → We need to save money when the economy is
to save money. on a downslide.

Part 2:
Which of the following skills were required to figure out the meaning of the statements in Part 1?
Note whether you AGREE or DISAGREE.

1. You need to be able to determine how the parts of an argument relate to each other.
2. You need to have good language skills (understand the language properly).
3. You need the ability to locate and assess the strengths and weaknesses of the argument.
4. The entire process of argumentation must be viewed within a certain context.

Feedback
You need all the above-mentioned skills to figure out the meaning of the statements in Part 1.

Thinking for Yourself

If you think for yourself, you question the world and offer alternative viewpoints about the way the world is
perceived by other people. Thinking for yourself does not mean “think selfishly for yourself.” It means
“think independently.”

Thinking in an Informed Way

As you might gather from your review of the Critical and Creative Thinking web resource for this module,
informed reasoning is based on claims that can be substantiated. In other words, your opinion is based on
fact and not on personal opinion. In today’s world where we become ever more involved in using
technology as a resource for information, it is crucial that we have the ability to think in an informed way in
order to be able to decipher the barrage of information available to us. The ability to form and articulate
opinions is extremely important in all facets of life. However, simply having an opinion about a given topic
is not enough. In this age of information, if we want to effectively share our opinions with others, we must
be educated about the topics we are discussing.

Whether writing a letter to the editor about a local issue, trying to convince your boss that you’ve
developed a great business strategy, or convincing your parents that you should have a specific privilege,
presenting an informed, educated opinion is much more effective than sharing one based on emotion or
personal experience alone.

Critical Self-Reflection
Critical self-reflection entails the ability to reflect critically on your own assumptions and to critically
evaluate our own prejudicial attitudes and biases. Critical self-reflection relates to self-knowledge and
self-awareness. Furthermore, the enterprise of critical self-reflection is liberating in that it allows us to
think for ourselves instead of being indoctrinated and manipulated by stereotypical beliefs.

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ACTIVITIES

Module 1 has four activities.

Introductions Forum
In the Introductions Forum, start a discussion topic titled "Introductions/[Your Name]." In your posting,
please address any of the following topics or anything about yourself that you would like to share with the
class so that we can get to know you better:

● Your reasons for taking this course

● Your interest in critical thinking
● Your background in general
● Your experience with online learning
● Your expectations from this course

Note: The Introductions Forum is not graded but required.

Discussion Forum 1
As a starting point for developing your competence at critical self-reflection, it would be useful to express
your views on an issue. Select a controversial topic and post a short essay on your feelings surrounding
the topic (200 to 300 words). Ask yourself why you hold this particular view. Supplement your opinions
with published articles and editorials that support your opinion.

Keep a record of your response, because you will revisit it when you do Written Assignment 5 in Module
3.

Some examples of controversial topics:

● Performance enhancement drugs

● Single parenting
● GMOs (genetically modified organisms)
● Animal testing

Discussion Forum 2
Becoming a Critical Thinker
The following is an experiment in psychology. Read the experiment carefully and then, answer the

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questions that follow.

In the 1970s, Stanley Milgram set up an experiment at Yale University in which participants were asked to
administer electric shocks to others. The participants were led to believe that those who were being
shocked were taking part in a scientific study to determine the relationship between memory and
punishment. The participants had control over how severe the shocks would be, from slight shock to
severe shock, and when instructed to do so they were to deliver the appropriate voltage. The participants
(the “teachers”) were told that they were to administer the learning test to the “learners” in the other room.
When the “learner” responded correctly, the “teacher” would continue with the next item. When the
“learner” made a mistake, the “teacher” was instructed to give an electric shock. They participants were
instructed to start at the lowest shock level (15 volts) and increase the level each time the “learner” made
a mistake; going up to 30 volts, 50 volts, 150 volts, and so on.

The participants could not see the people who were being shocked, although when the shocks were
severe they could hear that their “victims” were suffering greatly. The “teacher” was a naïve subject who
came to the psychology laboratory to participate in the experiment. The “learner,” or “victim,” was an actor
who actually received no electric shock at all. Milgram designed the experiment to establish how far a
person will proceed in a concrete situation in which he or she is instructed to inflict increasing pain on
others just because a legitimate authority asked them to so. The point of the experiment was to find out at
what point the subject would refuse to obey the instructions of the experimenter.

The results showed that more than half the participants were prepared to, and actually gave, the most
severe shocks and nearly 90 percent increased the voltage when they were asked to, in spite of clearly
hearing that their “victims” were in pain.

Milgram (1974:5–6) observes the following with regard to his experiment:

“Many subjects will obey the experimenter no matter how vehement the pleading of the person
being shocked, no matter how painful the shocks seem to be, and no matter how much the victim
pleads to be let out...It is the extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the
command of an authority that constitutes the chief finding of the study…ordinary people, simply
doing their jobs, and without any particular hostility on their part, can become agents in a terrible
destructive process. Moreover, even when the destructive effects of their work become patently
clear, and they are asked to carry out actions incompatible with fundamental standards of
morality, relatively few people have the resources needed to resist authority.”

1. What do you think this experiment illustrates?

2. What lessons have you learned from the experiment? Do you think that those
participants who increased the voltage when they were asked to, despite the fact
that their “victims” were obviously in pain, thought critically about their decisions?

Written Assignment 1
Thinking in an Informed Way—Part 1

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Select a topic that is of interest to you. The topic should inspire at least two points of view. For example,
“Prostitution should be legalized.”

1. Learn as much as you can about your topic through research.

2. Utilize a wide variety of resources and make sure that you read information that expresses a
number of different points of view relating to your topic.

3. Ask pertinent questions as you learn about the topic and look for the answers in your research.

4. Assess the content. Are statements and arguments supported with facts, specific examples, and
clearly defined reasons?

5. Form your opinion based on the facts you have learned. Combine those facts with your own
emotions and personal experiences. Be able to utilize these facts as your key arguments when
you try to convince others to see your point of view.

Thinking in an Informed Way—Part 2

Ask yourself the following questions: When you first selected your topic for the project, did you have a
preconceived opinion about the subject? If so, how was your opinion altered by doing research and
looking for facts about the subject?

1. Do you believe your opinion would have been different if it had not been based on facts? If so,
why and how?

2. Based on your experience with researching, do you think most people base their opinions about
important issues on facts or do they use emotions, personal experience, preconceived ideas, and
media to shape their ideas?

3. In the future, do you think you will be more inclined to support your opinions with facts? Why?

4. In future conversations with people of differing opinions, do you think you will press them to
substantiate their opinions with facts and clearly defined reasons as a means of convincing you to
change your thoughts? Why?

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