Life Sciences

What is Life Science?

Life science is the study of living organisms and different life processes. It helps in
understanding biological concepts at molecular and cellular levels. Life science is a vast
study field that covers everything- from the ocean‘s surface to the microorganisms in
your gut. It is also called Biological Science, as it involves the study of how living beings
dwell and how we may improve our lives. Life science is an umbrella term that includes
the different branches related to Life Science, which we will cover in this article.

What is the Importance of Life Sciences?

The study of life sciences empowers us to answer fundamental questions such as-
 Where did we come from?
 What are we made of?
 Is our existence a miracle, or is there some science behind it?
 How are we interlinked with the natural world?

Life sciences touch every area of our existence - from health care to the environment to
advancements in medicine. They provide an understanding of life, the cycle of existence,
and degeneration and illness. Life sciences help us comprehend how life is
interconnected with our world, which further aids researchers to integrate the latest
advancements in academic subjects with new, improved analytical tools from other fields
of science. The study of the Life Sciences also allows the development of innovative
medical devices, thereby directly improving human health.

Basic Branches Under Life Sciences

Here are some basic branches of life science examples and their definitions.
1. Anatomy: The study of structure, functions, and parts of the human body.
2. Biochemistry: The study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and
function, usually on the cellular level.
3. Biotechnology Life Sciences: The study of the manipulation of living matter,
including genetic modification and synthetic biology.
4. Botany: The study of plants.
5. Cell biology: The study of the cell and the molecular and chemical interactions
occurring within a living cell.
6. Ecology: The study of the interactions of living organisms and the non-living
elements of their environment.
7. Entomology: The study of insects.
8. Evolutionary Biology: The study of the origin and descent of species over time
9. Genetics: The study of genes and heredity.
10. Microbiology: The study of microorganisms and their interactions with other
organisms.
11. Molecular Biology: The study of biology and biological functions at the
molecular level.
12. Neuroscience: The study of the nervous system.
13. Physiology: The study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and
parts of living organisms.
14. Toxicology: The study of the effects of chemicals on living organisms.
15. Zoology: The study of animals, including classification, physiology, development,
and behaviour.

Lesser Known Facts About Life Sciences

1. The human body has around 38 trillion cells, which carry out different functions
essential for everyday living.
2. Bacteria are a crucial part of the ecosystem and aid processes such as the
production of gases like oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen and minerals like
nitrogen, sulphur, etc.
3. The human brain contains 100 billion neurons, forming more connections than
there are stars in the Milky Way galaxy.
4. The DNA of humans is 99.9% identical to that of other humans.
5. The diversity of life on Earth results from billions of years of evolution through
natural selection.
CONCEPT OF ZERO
The move from zero as merely a placeholder by the Mayans and Babylonians – a tool to
distinguish larger numbers from smaller ones to a digit of its own was established in India by a
man named Aryabhata in the 5th Century. A mathematician and astronomer, Aryabhata
contributed multiple mathematical concepts, crucial to maths as we know it today, including the
value of pi being 3.14 and the formula for a right-angled triangle. The prior absence of zero
created difficulty in carrying out simple calculations.
Following this in the 7th century a man known as Brahmagupta, developed the earliest known
methods for using zero within calculations, treating it as a number for the first time. The use of
zero was inscribed on the walls of the Chaturbhuj temple in Gwalior, India. Carved into a wall
the numbers 270 and 50 can be seen today and have been established as the second oldest
recorded zeros in history. The city of Gwalior was designed so that the gardens around the
temple were large enough so that each day the gardens would produce enough flowers to create
50 garlands for the employees of the temple. When the temple was built this was inscribed on the
walls and it is this 50 that can be seen, annotated almost as we would write it today.

What we now call zero in English, Brahmagupta named ―shunya‖ or ―sunya‖, the Sanskrit word
for emptiness or nothingness.

Aryabhata and Brahmagupta wrote their works in Sanskrit, an ancient and classical language of
India. Their use of numbers would have looked quite different to what we use in English now.
However, Sanskrit had a large influence in how the English numeric system is written and so
there are quite a lot of similarities.

Within Indian culture there is an idea of one having a ―nothing‖ or a void inside of yourself.
Long before the conception of zero as a digit, this philosophical concept was taught within
Hinduism and Buddhism and practised through meditation. The ancient Hindu symbol, the
―Bindi‖ or ―Bindu‖, a circle with a dot in the centre symbolised this and was what probably led
to the use of an oval as the symbol for the Sunya. It has been suggested that this cultural and
philosophical influence on the concept of zero is what allowed India to develop what previous
civilizations did not think of.

Brahmagupta was also the first to demonstrate that zero can be reached through calculation. He
wrote these rules in his book the ―Brahmasphutasiddhanta”. He was therefore able to make
another important leap – in the creation of negative numbers, which he initially called ―debts‖.
Brahmagupta placed small dots above numbers to indicate they were negative, unlike today
where a minus symbol is used. The use of negative numbers was shown in
―Brahmasphutasiddhanta”. Brahmagupta also demonstrated their use to produce the quadratic
formula. and demonstrated rules for calculations involving both negative numbers and zero.
CONCEPT OF PI
The number π (spelled out as "pi") is a mathematical constant that is the ratio of
a circle's circumference to its diameter, approximately equal to 3.14159. The number π appears
in many formulae across mathematics and physics. It is an irrational number, meaning that it

cannot be expressed exactly as a ratio of two integers, although fractions such as are
commonly used to approximate it. Consequently, its decimal representation never ends,
nor enters a permanently repeating pattern. It is a transcendental number, meaning that it cannot
be a solution of an equation involving only finite sums, products, powers, and integers. The
transcendence of π implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the
circle with a compass and straightedge. The decimal digits of π appear to be randomly
distributed,[a] but no proof of this conjecture has been found.

For thousands of years, mathematicians have attempted to extend their understanding of π,

sometimes by computing its value to a high degree of accuracy. Ancient civilizations, including
the Egyptians and Babylonians, required fairly accurate approximations of π for practical
computations. Around 250 BC, the Greek mathematician Archimedes created an algorithm to
approximate π with arbitrary accuracy. In the 5th century AD, Chinese
mathematicians approximated π to seven digits, while Indian mathematicians made a five-digit
approximation, both using geometrical techniques. The first computational formula for π, based
on infinite series, was discovered a millennium later.[1][2] The earliest known use of the Greek
letter π to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was by the Welsh
mathematician William Jones in 1706.[3]

The invention of calculus soon led to the calculation of hundreds of digits of π, enough for all
practical scientific computations. Nevertheless, in the 20th and 21st centuries, mathematicians
and computer scientists have pursued new approaches that, when combined with increasing
computational power, extended the decimal representation of π to many trillions of
digits.[4][5] These computations are motivated by the development of efficient algorithms to
calculate numeric series, as well as the human quest to break records.[6][7] The extensive
computations involved have also been used to test supercomputers as well as stress testing
consumer computer hardware.

Because its definition relates to the circle, π is found in many formulae

in trigonometry and geometry, especially those concerning circles, ellipses and spheres. It is also
found in formulae from other topics in science, such
as cosmology, fractals, thermodynamics, mechanics, and electromagnetism. It also appears in
areas having little to do with geometry, such as number theory and statistics, and in
modern mathematical analysis can be defined without any reference to geometry. The ubiquity
of π makes it one of the most widely known mathematical constants inside and outside of
science. Several books devoted to π have been published, and record-setting calculations of the
digits of π often result in news headlines.
NUMBER SYSTEM & ITS ARITHMETIC

A number system is a set of symbols used to represent values derived from a common base or
radix. In a number, the value of each digit can be determined using digit, position of the digit in
the number, and the base of the number system. The base is defined as the total number of digits
are available in the number system. This is known as positional number system.

Number System Base Digit Used

Binary 2 0, 1

Octal 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

Decimal 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Hexadecimal 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

Arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division are performed in
various radix bases. These arithmetic operations may also use r‘s complement and (r-1)‘s
complement representation.

These representation techniques hold basic laws for various arithmetic operations:

(i) Unique Existence Law: The sum and product of any two numbers exist uniquely. Where 0 is
the identity element for additions and 1 is the identity element for multiplication.

(ii) Associative Law: Addition and multiplication of binary numbers are associative.

(iii) Commutative Law: Addition and multiplication of binary numbers are commutative.

(iv) Distributive Law: Multiplication of binary numbers is distributive over two or more terms
in addition.

Now, arithmetic operations for various number systems are explained as following below.
Arithmetic Operations of Binary Numbers:

In the Binary System, there are only two symbols or possible digit values, i.e., 0 and 1.
Represented by any device that only 2 operating states or possible conditions. Generally, it is
expressed by subscript 2 or binary (B).

Binary arithmetic is essential part of various digital systems. You can add, subtract, multiply, and
divide binary numbers using various methods. These operations are much easier than decimal
number arithmetic operations because binary system has only two digits: 0 and 1.

Binary additions and subtractions are performed as same in decimal additions and subtractions.
When we perform binary additions, there will have two outputs: Sum (S) and Carry (C) . There
are four rules for binary addition. These are given as following below,

Borrow 1 is required from next higher order bit to subtract 1 from 0. So, result became 0.

Whenever at least one input is 0, then multiplication is always 0.

There are four part in any division: Dividend, Divisor, quotient, and remainder. These are given
as following rules for binary division,

Whenever divisor is 0, then result is always not defined.

Arithmetic Operations of Octal Numbers:

It has base of 8 digits ranging from 0 to 7 (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7). Generally, it is expressed by

subscript 8 or octal (o).

With the help of above table, we can perform additions of octal numbers.

Similarly, we can perform subtraction of octal numbers same as decimal number sutractions. But
you can only take borrow of a number 7, which is maximum digit allowed in octal number
systems.

In the multiplication of octal numbers, if the product is less than radix of octal (i.e, 8), then we
take it as the result, else divide it by radix of octal (i.e., 8) and take the remainder as the LSB
(least significant bit). The quotient is taken as carry in the next significant digit.
Similarly, division of octal numbers can be performed by following the rules of division of
decimal numbers but maximum allowed digit will be 7.

Arithmetic Operations of Hexadecimal Numbers:

It has base of 16 digits ranging from 0 to F (i.e., 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and A, B, C, D, E, F).

A, B, C, D, E, F are equivalent single digits of 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 respectively. Generally, it is
expressed by subscript 16 or Hexa (H) or (h).

With the help of above table, we can perform additions of hexadecimal numbers.

Subtraction of hexadecimal numbers can be performed by using complement methods or simple

as decimal sutractions. The rule of simple hexadecimal subtraction is the digit borrowed from the
immediate higher place is counted as 16.

In the multiplication of hexadecimal numbers, if the product is less than radix of hexadecimal
(i.e, 16), then we take it as the result, else divide it by radix of hexadecimal (i.e., 16) and take the
remainder as the LSB (least significant bit). The quotient is taken as carry in the next significant
digit. Using these rules, you can make a table for hexadecimal multiplications.

Similarly, division of hexadecimal numbers can be performed by following the rules of division
of decimal numbers but maximum allowed digit will be F(=15 in decimal).

Arithmetic Operations of Decimal Numbers:

Arithmetic operations of decimal numbers are very popular and much easier. These operations
are also performed as same in other number systems.
Vedic Mathematics
Vedic Mathematics is a book written by the Indian monk Bharati Krishna Tirtha, and first
published in 1965. It contains a list of mathematical techniques, which were falsely claimed to
have been retrieved from the Vedas and to contain advanced mathematical knowledge.

Krishna Tirtha failed to produce the sources, and scholars unanimously note it to be a mere
compendium of tricks for increasing the speed of elementary mathematical calculations sharing
no overlap with historical mathematical developments during the Vedic period. However, there
has been a proliferation of publications in this area and multiple attempts to integrate the subject
into mainstream education by right-wing Hindu nationalist governments.

The book contains metaphorical aphorisms in the form of sixteen sutras and thirteen sub-sutras,
which Krishna Tirtha states allude to significant mathematical tools.[3] The range of their asserted
applications spans from topic as diverse as statics and pneumatics to astronomy and financial
domains. Tirtha stated that no part of advanced mathematics lay beyond the realms of his book
and propounded that studying it for a couple of hours every day for a year equated to spending
about two decades in any standardized education system to become professionally trained in the
discipline of mathematics.

STS scholar S. G. Dani in 'Vedic Mathematics': Myth and Reality[3] states that the book is
primarily a compendium of tricks that can be applied in elementary, middle and high school
arithmetic and algebra, to gain faster results. The sutras and sub-sutras are abstract literary
expressions (for example, "as much less" or "one less than previous one") prone to creative
interpretations; Krishna Tirtha exploited this to the extent of manipulating the same shloka to
generate widely different mathematical equivalencies across a multitude of contexts.

Source and relation with The Vedas

According to Krishna Tirtha, the sutras and other accessory content were found after years of
solitary study of the Vedas—a set of sacred ancient Hindu scriptures—in a forest. They were
supposedly contained in the pariśiṣṭa—a supplementary text/appendix—of the Atharvaveda. He
does not provide any more bibliographic clarification on the sourcing. The book's editor,
Professor V. S. Agrawala argues that since the Vedas are defined as the traditional repositories of
all knowledge, any knowledge can be de facto assumed to be in the Vedas, irrespective of
whether it may be physically located in them; he even went to the extent of deeming Krishna
Tirtha's work as a pariśiṣṭa in itself.

However, numerous mathematicians and STS scholars (Dani, Kim Plofker, K.S. Shukla, Jan
Hogendijk et al) note that the Vedas do not contain any of those sutras and sub-sutras. When
challenged by Shukla, a mathematician and a historiographer of ancient Indian mathematics, to
locate the sutras in the Parishishta of a standard edition of the Atharvaveda, Krishna Tirtha stated
that they were not included in the standard editions but only in a hitherto-undiscovered version,
chanced upon by him; the foreword and introduction of the book also takes a similar
stand. Sanskrit scholars have also confirmed that the linguistic style did not correspond to the
time-spans but rather reflected contemporary Sanskrit.
Dani points out that the contents of the book have "practically nothing in common" with the
mathematics of the Vedic period or even with subsequent developments in Indian
mathematics.[3] Shukla reiterates the observations, on a per-chapter basis.[5] For example,
multiple techniques in the book involve the use of high-precision decimals. These were unknown
during the Vedic times and were introduced in India only in the sixteenth century;[4] works of
numerous ancient mathematicians such as Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Bhaskara were entirely
based on fractions.[3] Some of the sutras even run parallel to the General Leibniz
rule and Taylor's theorem (which, per Krishna Tirtha, were to be yet studied by the western
world during the time of his writing) but did ultimately boil down to the sub-elementary
operations of basic differentiation on polynomials. From a historiographic perspective, India had
no minimal knowledge about the conceptual notions of differentiation and integration.[3] Sutras
have been further leveraged that analytic geometry of conics occupied an important tier in Vedic
mathematics, which runs contrary to all available evidence.
HISTORY & CULTURE OF ASTRONOMY
Early cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits.[1] They related these objects (and
their movements) to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides. It is generally believed
that the first astronomers were priests, and that they understood celestial objects and events to be
manifestations of the divine, hence early astronomy's connection to what is now called astrology.
A 32,500-year-old carved ivory mammoth tusk could contain the oldest known star chart
(resembling the constellation Orion).[2] It has also been suggested that drawings on the wall of
the Lascaux caves in France dating from 33,000 to 10,000 years ago could be a graphical
representation of the Pleiades, the Summer Triangle, and the Northern Crown.[3][4] Ancient
structures with possibly astronomical alignments (such as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled
astronomical, religious, and social functions.

Calendars of the world have often been set by observations of the Sun and Moon (marking
the day, month and year), and were important to agricultural societies, in which the harvest
depended on planting at the correct time of year, and for which the nearly full moon was the only
lighting for night-time travel into city markets.[5]

The common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar. Although originally a lunar
calendar, it broke the traditional link of the month to the phases of the Moon and divided the year
into twelve almost-equal months, that mostly alternated between thirty and thirty-one
days. Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform in 46 BCE and introduced what is now called
the Julian calendar, based upon the 365 1⁄4 day year length originally proposed by the
4th century BCE Greek astronomer Callippus.

Astronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period of Indus Valley
Civilisation during 3rd millennium BCE, when it was used to create calendars.[22] As the Indus
Valley civilization did not leave behind written documents, the oldest extant Indian astronomical
text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dating from the Vedic period.[23] The Vedanga Jyotisha is attributed
to Lagadha and has an internal date of approximately 1350 BC, and describes rules for tracking
the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. It is available in two recensions,
one belonging to the Rig Veda, and the other to the Yajur Veda. According to the Vedanga
Jyotisha, in a yuga or "era", there are 5 solar years, 67 lunar sidereal cycles, 1,830 days, 1,835
sidereal days and 62 synodic months. During the 6th century, astronomy was influenced by the
Greek and Byzantine astronomical traditions.[22][24][25]

Aryabhata (476–550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499), propounded a computational

system based on a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and
the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately calculated many
astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses,
and the instantaneous motion of the Moon.[26][27][page needed] Early followers of Aryabhata's model
included Varāhamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara II.

Astronomy was advanced during the Shunga Empire and many star catalogues were produced
during this time. The Shunga period is known[according to whom?] as the "Golden age of astronomy in
India". It saw the development of calculations for the motions and places of various planets, their
rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses.
Indian astronomers by the 6th century believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared
periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the
astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed
the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these
figures were calculated or how accurate they were.[28]

Bhāskara II (1114–1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the
mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two
parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the
time taken for the Earth to orbit the Sun to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University
of Nalanda at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies.

Other important astronomers from India include Madhava of Sangamagrama, Nilakantha

Somayaji and Jyeshtadeva, who were members of the Kerala school of astronomy and
mathematics from the 14th century to the 16th century. Nilakantha Somayaji, in
his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed his own
computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to
the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's
system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly
taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most
astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his
planetary model.[29][30]

Cultural Astronomy

Cultural Astronomy, which combines the disciplines of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy,

seeks to understand the role of the night sky in various cultures and societies of the past
(archaeoastronomy) and present (ethnoastronomy). This interdisciplinary subject draws from the
fields of archaeology, anthropology, astronomy, physics, geology, sociology, and history.
Research in Australia deals primarily with Aboriginal Astronomy.

From Dreamtime stories, totemism, and initiation rites, to season cycles, timekeeping, and food
economics, the night sky played a vital role in many Aboriginal cultures and continues to do so
today. The colonization of Australia led to the decimation and destruction of much of this
knowledge. While examples of rock art, stone arrangements, ethnographies, and Dreamtime
stories give clues as to the sky‘s role in various Aboriginal cultures of the past, much has been
lost to the sands of time. Research in Aboriginal Astronomy focuses on understanding the role of
the night sky in Aboriginal cultures of both the past and present, with hopes of preservation for
the future.
SUN, MOON, EARTH AND ECLIPSE THEIR ROTATION &
PERIOD
1. SUN

Solar rotation varies with latitude. The Sun is not a solid body, but is composed of a
gaseous plasma. Different latitudes rotate at different periods. The source of this differential
rotation is an area of current research in solar astronomy.[1] The rate of surface rotation is
observed to be the fastest at the equator (latitude φ = 0°) and to decrease as latitude increases.
The solar rotation period is 24.47 days at the equator and almost 38 days at the poles. The
average rotation is 28 days.

Sidereal rotation

At the equator, the solar rotation period is 24.47 days. This is called the sidereal rotation period,
and should not be confused with the synodic rotation period of 26.24 days, which is the time for
a fixed feature on the Sun to rotate to the same apparent position as viewed from Earth (the
earth's orbital rotation is in the same direction as the sun's rotation). The synodic period is longer
because the Sun must rotate for a sidereal period plus an extra amount due to the orbital motion
of Earth around the Sun. Note that astrophysical literature does not typically use the equatorial
rotation period, but instead often uses the definition of a Carrington rotation: a synodic rotation
period of 27.2753 days or a sidereal period of 25.38 days. This chosen period roughly
corresponds to the prograde rotation at a latitude of 26° north or south, which is consistent with
the typical latitude of sunspots and corresponding periodic solar activity. When the Sun is
viewed from the "north" (above Earth's north pole), solar rotation is counterclockwise
(eastward). To a person standing on the North Pole, sunspots would appear to move from left to
right across the Sun's face.

In Stonyhurst heliographic coordinates, the left side of the Sun's face is called East, and the right
side of the Sun's face is called West. Therefore, sunspots are said to move across the Sun's face
from east to west.

Bartels' Rotation Number

Bartels' Rotation Number is a serial count that numbers the apparent rotations of the Sun as
viewed from Earth, and is used to track certain recurring or shifting patterns of solar activity. For
this purpose, each rotation has a length of exactly 27 days, close to the synodic Carrington
rotation rate. Julius Bartels arbitrarily assigned rotation one day one to 8 February 1832.
The serial number serves as a kind of calendar to mark the recurrence periods of solar
and geophysical parameters.

Carrington rotation
Duration: 50 seconds.0:50Five year video of Sun, one frame per Carrington period.

The Carrington rotation is a system for comparing locations on the Sun over a period of time,
allowing the following of sunspot groups or reappearance of eruptions at a later time.
Because solar rotation is variable with latitude, depth and time, any such system is necessarily
arbitrary and only makes comparison meaningful over moderate periods of time. Solar rotation is
taken to be 27.2753 days (see below) for the purpose of Carrington rotations. Each rotation of the
Sun under this scheme is given a unique number called the Carrington Rotation Number, starting
from November 9, 1853. (The Bartels Rotation Number[4] is a similar numbering scheme that
uses a period of exactly 27 days and starts from February 8, 1832.)

The heliographic longitude of a solar feature conventionally refers to its angular distance relative
to the central meridian crossed by the Sun-Earth radial line. The "Carrington longitude" of the
same feature refers to an arbitrary fixed reference point of an imagined rigid rotation, as defined
originally by Richard Christopher Carrington.

Carrington determined the solar rotation rate from low latitude sunspots in the 1850s and arrived
at 25.38 days for the sidereal rotation period. Sidereal rotation is measured relative to the stars,
but because the Earth is orbiting the Sun, we see this period as 27.2753 days.

It is possible to construct a diagram with the longitude of sunspots horizontally and time
vertically. The longitude is measured by the time of crossing the central meridian and based on
the Carrington rotations. In each rotation, plotted under the preceding ones, most sunspots or
other phenomena will reappear directly below the same phenomenon on the previous rotation.
There may be slight drifts left or right over longer periods of time.

The Bartels "musical diagram" or the Condegram spiral plot are other techniques for expressing
the approximate 27-day periodicity of various phenomena originating at the solar surface.
2.Moon
A natural satellite of the Earth is the moon, which we see almost every night. The moon follows a predictable
path around the earth. Even as the moon revolves around the earth, its orbit is held in place by the gravitational
attraction between the earth and the natural satellite.

When compared to the stars, our nearest celestial neighbor appears large. In fact, all of the stars and planets are
larger than the moon, but they are so far away that they appear insignificant.

Moon’s Surface:
 The surface of the Moon is barren and dusty.
 Various Craters of different shapes and sizes are also found on its surface.
 Various mountains are also found on the moon which are steep and high, some of which are as lofty as the
mountains on the earth.

Phases of the Moon:

The moon phases are the various appearances of the moon over the course of a month. The half of the moon
that faces the sun will be illuminated as it revolves around the planet Earth. Because of the sun‘s light, the
moon will be illuminated. The moon phases are the various shapes of the lit part of the moon that can be seen
from our planet, Earth. Furthermore, each of these phases occurs every 29.5 days.

There is a change in the shape of the moon every day.

New Moon
Only when the moon is not visible is a new moon present. However, this is due to the fact that we are looking
at the unlit half of the moon. When the moon is directly in the middle of the sun and the Earth, a new moon
phase begins. A solar eclipse can only happen when there is a new moon.

Crescent Moon Waxing

When the moon is similar to a crescent and the crescent grows in size from one day to the next, it is called a
waxing crescent moon. This phase, however, is usually only visible in the west.

Moon in the First Quarter

A half-moon is also known as the First Quarter moon. This moon phase is visible when only half of the
illuminated portion of the moon is visible. This occurs after the waxing crescent phase has passed. After a
week of the new moon, it arrives.
Gibbous Moon Waxing
When more than half of the moon‘s lit area is visible and the shape changes, it‘s called a waxing gibbous
moon. From one day to the next, the shape expands in size. Between the first quarter and full moon phases is
the waxing gibbous phase.

Moon in its last quarter

After the waning gibbous phase of the moon, the last quarter moon, also known as the half-moon, is visible
when half of the lit area of the moon is visible.

Crescent Moon Waning

When the moon resembles a crescent, it is called a waning crescent moon. The crescent here shrinks in size
from one day to the next.

Occurrence of Phases:
 Unlike the Sun and the other stars, the moon can‘t produce its own light.
 Moon is visible because the sunlight falling on it gets reflected towards us.
 Only that part of the Moon is visible on which the light of the Sun is reflected towards us.
 The illuminated part of the moon visible from the Earth increases per day after the new moon day.
 After the full moon day, the part of the moon that is sunlit and is visible decreases in size.
 The moon revolves around the earth. The moon and the earth revolve around the Sun.
 The moon completes its one revolution around the earth along with one rotation on its axis.
 The duration between a full moon to the next full moon is longer than 29 days. This is known as a month in
many calendar systems.

Phases of the Moon and our Festivals:

Our social life is also influenced by the phases of the Moon. It is also said that the moon‘s cycle
subconsciously leads to mood swings and menstrual activity in women. While that is debatable, we know for a
fact that the moon does pull our seas towards itself, which is why, on a full moon day, bigger waves are
observed. The moon, quite like its opposite – the Sun, has played an integral part in Indian astrology and
astronomy also. Most festivals in India are observed and celebrated as per the phases of the moon. For
example:

 The auspicious occasion of Diwali is on the new moon day.

 Budh Poornima and Guru Nanak Jayanti are some of the festivals that are celebrated on full moon day.
 Maha Shivratri is celebrated on the thirteenth night of the waning moon.
 Eidul-Fitr is observed on the day following the sighting of the crescent moon.
3. The Earth

 Earth is the largest of the terrestrial planets and is the third planet from the Sun.
 It is the fifth-largest planet in terms of size.
 With mountains, valleys, canyons, plains, etc., Earth has a substantial and active surface.
 Earth is unique in that it is an ocean world. 70% of the Earth's surface is covered in water.
 The atmosphere of the Earth is primarily nitrogen, but there is plenty of oxygen for us to breathe.
 Earth is the densest large body in the solar system.
 Chemical composition of Earth include Iron (34.6 percent), oxygen (29.5 percent), silicon (15.2
percent), magnesium (12.7 percent), nickel (2.4 percent), sulphur (1.9 percent), and titanium (0.05
percent).
 Direct observations and material analysis provide some of the information about the interior of
the Earth.

Position of the Earth with respect to the Sun

 Earth, as the third planet from the sun, has numerous characteristics that distinguish it from the
other planets and planetary bodies in the solar system.
 Along with Venus, Mercury, and Mars, it is one of four rocky planets, and it is the fifth-largest
planet after Neptune, Uranus, Saturn, and Jupiter.
 At 92,957,130 miles, Earth is located within the solar system's "habitable zone," making it
unique within the system.
 This zone is defined as the distance from the sun where solid and liquid water can be found.
 The atmosphere and water on Earth would evaporate if it were in Mercury's or Venus's location.
 It would be too cold to maintain liquid water or life if Earth were pushed out to the position of
Mars or further out near the gas giants.
 Goldilocks Zone: It is a zone with a specific distance range where temperatures are conducive to
the maintenance of liquid water. Within this zone, significant findings, such as the identification
of Earth-size planets like Kepler-186f, fuel scientists' aspirations to locate water and, ultimately,
the potential for life in the future.

Composition and Structure of the Earth

 Earth‘s composition and structure can be studied in two forms: Mechanical composition and
Chemical composition.

 The crust, which is made up of oceanic crust and continental crust, accounts for less than 1% of
the Earth's total mass.
 The heated mantle contains around 68 percent of the Earth's mass.
 Finally, the core is primarily made of iron metal. The core accounts for approximately 31% of
the Earth's mass.
 The lithosphere is made up of the crust as well as a section of the upper mantle that is brittle and
unyielding.
 The asthenosphere is a partially molten upper mantle substance that can flow and behave
plastically.
 Latest development: As per the study published in Down to Earth, there are developments in the
research related to the fifth layer of Earth. It is at the center of Earth, inside the Inner core. It
seems to have a different arrangement of Iron elements, than the Inner core. Further studies can
provide a deeper understanding.
Crust and Lithosphere

 The crust is the planet's outermost layer, a cooled and hardened section of the Earth that ranges in
depth from 5-70 km (3-44 miles).
 This layer accounts for only 1% of the total volume of the Earth, but it covers the entire surface
(continents and ocean floor).
 The oceanic crust, which lies beneath the ocean basins at a depth of 5-10 km (3-6 miles), is the
thinner part, while the continental crust is the thicker part.
 The oceanic crust is made up of dense material such as iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks
(like basalt), whereas the continental crust is made up of sodium potassium aluminum silicate
rocks (like granite).
 The lithosphere is an uneven layer with a maximum thickness of about 200 km (120 mi) formed
by the uppermost segment of the mantle (see below) and the crust.
 Many of the rocks that today make up the Earth's crust developed less than 100 million (1108)
years ago.
 The oldest known mineral grains, on the other hand, are 4.4 billion (4.4109) years old, showing
that the Earth has had a solid crust for at least that long.

Upper Mantle

 The mantle, which accounts for approximately 84% of the Earth's bulk, is largely solid yet
behaves as a highly viscous fluid over geological time.
 The upper mantle extends from a depth of 7 to 35 km (4.3 to 21.7 mi) to a depth of 410 km (250
mi), beginning at the "Mohorovicic Discontinuity" (called the "Moho" - the base of the crust).
 The lithosphere is formed of the uppermost mantle and the overlaying crust, which is generally
solid at the top but becomes visibly more malleable beneath.
 Movement in the mantle (i.e. convection) is expressed at the surface via tectonic plate motions.
 This process, which is driven by heat from deeper inside the Earth, is responsible for Continental
Drift, earthquakes, the creation of mountain chains, and a variety of other geological phenomena.
 The mantle is also chemically unique from the crust, as well as having various rock types and
seismic properties.
 This is owing, in part, to the fact that the crust is composed of solidified materials obtained from
the mantle, which is partially melted and viscous.
 Incompatible elements separate from the mantle, causing less dense material to float upward and
solidify at the surface.
 Temperatures in the upper mantle range from 500 to 900 °C (932 to 1,652 °F).
 There is also a transition zone between the upper and lower mantles, which extends in depth from
410-660 km (250-410 miles).

Lower Mantle

 The lower mantle has a depth of 660-2,891 km (410-1,796 miles).

 At the border with the core, temperatures in this part of the globe can reach over 4,000 °C (7,230
°F), well exceeding the melting points of mantle rocks.
 However, viscosity and melting are highly limited in comparison to the upper mantle due to the
massive pressure put on it. Apart from the fact that it appears to be seismically uniform, very little
is known about the lower mantle.
Outer Core

 The outer core, which has been shown to be liquid (through seismic studies), is 2300 km thick
and has a radius of 3,400 km.
 The density in this zone is thought to be substantially higher than that of the mantle or crust,
ranging between 9,900 and 12,200 kg/m3.
 The outer core is thought to be made up of 80% iron, nickel, and other lighter metals.
 Denser elements, like as lead and uranium, are either too rare to be relevant or bind to lighter
elements, remaining in the crust.
 The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, hence it is liquid despite having the same
composition as the inner core.
 The temperature of the outer core varies between 4,300 K (4,030 °C; 7,280 °F) in the outer
regions and 6,000 K (5,730 °C; 10,340 °F) near the inner core.
 Because of its high temperature, the outer core has a low viscosity fluid-state that experiences
turbulent convection and rotates faster than the rest of the globe.
 This causes eddy currents to form in the fluid core, resulting in a dynamo effect that is thought to
influence the Earth's magnetic field.
 The typical magnetic field strength in Earth's outer core is believed to be 25 Gauss (2.5 mT),
which is 50 times the strength recorded on Earth's surface.

Inner Core

 The inner core, like the outer core, is mostly made of iron and nickel and has a radius of 1,220
km.
 The density of the core ranges between 12,600 and 13,000 kg/m3, implying that there must be a
significant amount of heavy elements present, such as gold, platinum, palladium, silver, and
tungsten.
 The inner core's temperature is predicted to be around 5,700 K (5,400 °C; 9,800 °F).
 Iron and other heavy metals can only be solid at such high temperatures because their melting
temperatures increase considerably at the pressures present, which range from roughly 330 to 360
gigapascals.
 Because the inner core is not permanently attached to the Earth's solid mantle, it has long been
assumed that it rotates slightly faster or slower than the rest of the Earth.
 Scientists believe that the inner core spins at a rate one degree faster than the surface based on
changes in seismic waves as they went through the core over many decades.
 Recent geophysical estimations set the rate of rotation relative to the surface at 0.3 to 0.5 degrees
each year.

Properties of Earth
Properties of Earth
Physical Properties of Earth

 The core is composed of an outer core that is fluid and an inner core that is solid, including
one or more transition zones between them.
 Seismology is a primary source of information about the Earth's interior.
 A chemically distinct silicate solid crust forms the outer layer, which is underlain by a highly
viscous solid mantle.
 The Mohorovicic discontinuity separates the crust and the mantle.
 The crust's thickness ranges from about 6 kilometres beneath the oceans to 30–50 kilometres
beneath the continents.
 The lithosphere is made up of the crust and the cold, rigid top of the upper mantle, which is
divided into independently moving tectonic plates.
 A thin, low-viscosity layer called the asthenosphere lies below the lithosphere.
 An extremely low viscosity liquid outer core and a solid inner core are located under the mantle
 Earth is almost spherical in shape. The rotation of the Earth causes a slight flattening in the
poles and a bulging at the equator.
 The Earth is tilted at a 23.5-degree inclination from vertical, rotating at 1,000 miles per hour
on that axis once every 24 hours.

Properties of Earth that support life

Properties of Earth that Support Life

 Water availability: Life requires the availability of free water. Organic life is impossible to exist
without water. The Earth is the only planet in the solar system where free liquid water is known
to exist.
 Ozone layer:
o Stratospheric Ozone absorbs damaging cosmic radiation. Without the ozone layer,
dangerous mutations caused by cosmic radiation reach levels that could result in the
extinction of all living beings.
o Perhaps life would not have arisen on its own if the Ozone layer did not exist.
o But Tropospheric (ground level) Ozone can be fatal.

Temperature and energy

Temperature and Energy

 The amount of energy received, is determined by the planet's distance from the Sun and its
albedo.
 Albedo is the percentage of light that reaches the planet that is reflected rather than absorbed.
 The albedo is 0.0 in the case when all of the light is absorbed, and the albedo is 1.0 if all of the
light is reflected.
 Earth has an albedo of 0.37 because clouds and ocean regions reflect light.

Unique Properties of Earth

 Suitable temperature: The Earth's temperature is exactly suitable for life because of its location
in the solar system. It's neither too hot nor too cold.
 Presence of magnetosphere: The magnetic field protects the Earth from the solar wind, while
the atmosphere protects humans from solar radiation.
 Atmospheric composition: Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%) make up the atmosphere. For all
life forms, this is the ideal combination.
 Water: Despite the fact that the Earth is a "rocky" planet, its temperature permits water to exist in
all three states: solid, liquid, and gas at the same time. It forms 71% of Earth's surface.
 Process of Plate tectonics: It is the process by which the Earth's outer crust is divided up into
regions called tectonic plates.
o Carbon from dead plants and animals is recycled by the plates, which removes it from the
atmosphere and cools the planet.
4. ECLIPSE THEIR ROTATION & PERIOD
A temporary obstruction of an astronomical object or spacecraft by passing into the
shadow of another body or having another body move in front of it causes an eclipse,
which is an astronomical event.
Syzygy is an alignment of three heavenly bodies. Syzygy is derived from the ancient
Greek word syzygia, meaning to be yoked together or conjoined.
In addition to syzygy, the term eclipse is also used when a spacecraft is in a position
to see two celestial bodies aligned in this way.
A transit or an occultation (totally concealed) causes an eclipse (partially hidden).
From Earth, we can see two types of eclipses:

 solar eclipses- occultation of Sun

 lunar eclipses- occultations of the Moon
These occur when the Sun, Earth, and the Moon align in a straight or almost straight
configuration.

Solar eclipse
Solar eclipses occur when the Sun, the Moon, and Earth line up, either fully or
partially. Depending on how they align, eclipses provide a unique, exciting view of
either the Sun or the Moon.
A solar eclipse happens when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth, casting a
shadow on Earth that either fully or partially blocks the Sun‘s light in some areas.
This only happens occasionally, because the Moon doesn‘t orbit in the same plane as
the Sun and Earth do. The time when they are aligned is known as eclipse season,
which happens twice a year.
During the solar event, the Moon casts two shadows on Earth.

 The umbra: This shadow gets smaller as it reaches Earth. It is the dark center of
the Moon‘s shadow. People standing in the umbra will see a total eclipse.
 The penumbra: The penumbra gets larger as it reaches Earth. People standing
in the penumbra will see a partial eclipse.
Solar eclipses happen every 18 months somewhere on Earth. Unlike lunar, solar
occultations last only a few minutes.

Total Solar
A total solar eclipse happens when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth,
completely blocking the face of the Sun.
People located in the center of the Moon‘s shadow when it hits Earth will experience
a total occultation. The sky will darken as if it were dawn or dusk.
Weather permitting, people in the path of a total solar eclipse can see the Sun‘s
corona, the outer atmosphere, which is otherwise usually obscured by the bright face
of the Sun.
A total solar occultation is the only type of solar eclipse where viewers can
momentarily remove their eclipse glasses for a brief period when the Moon is
completely blocking the Sun.

Annular Solar
An annular solar eclipse happens when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth,
but when it is at or near its farthest point from Earth.
Because the Moon is farther away from Earth, it appears smaller than the Sun and
does not completely cover the Sun.
As a result, the Moon appears as a dark disk on top of a larger, bright disk, creating
what looks like a ring around the Moon.

Partial Solar
A partial solar eclipse happens when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth but
the Sun, Moon, and Earth are not perfectly lined up.
Only a part of the Sun will appear to be covered, giving it a crescent shape.
During a total or annular solar occultation, people outside the area covered by the
Moon‘s inner shadow see a partial solar eclipse.

Hybrid Solar Eclipse

Because Earth‘s surface is curved, sometimes an eclipse can shift between annular
and total as the Moon‘s shadow moves across the globe. This is called a hybrid solar
eclipse.

Lunar eclipse
When the Moon moves through the Earth‘s shadow, a lunar eclipse takes place. The
Moon does not have its light. It shines because its surface reflects the Sun‘s rays.
Earth‘s shadow can be divided into three parts:

 Umbra – the darker, central part.

 Penumbra – the outer part.
 Antumbra – the partly shaded area beyond the umbra.
Only during a full moon, when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the
Sun, does this occur.
An eclipse of the Moon can be seen from almost the entire hemisphere, unlike a solar
eclipse.
This makes viewing a lunar eclipse from a specific point far more common. A lunar
eclipse lasts longer, lasting many hours, with totality itself typically lasting between
30 minutes and over an hour on average.

Total Lunar
A total lunar eclipse occurs when Earth‘s umbra, the central, dark part of its shadow,
covers the Moon‘s surface.
But even during a total lunar eclipse, there are still some light reflections from the
Moon, hence is not fully dark. Sunlight that has been refracted by the Earth‘s
atmosphere enters the umbra and casts a dim light.
Sunlight is refracted toward the surface of the Earth as it travels through the
atmosphere, with some of the colors with shorter wavelengths scattered and filtered
out while the remainder, such as the hues orange and red, travels into the atmosphere.
The surface of the fully eclipsed Moon is illuminated in a reddish-orange glow as a
result of this light being refracted once more in its direction. For this reason,
depictions of such lunar phenomena dating back to the earliest eclipses sometimes use
the term ―Blood Moon.‖

Partial Lunar
When Earth‘s umbra obscures only part of the Moon‘s surface, we see a partial lunar
occultation. When that happens, a small part of the Moon‘s surface is covered by the
darkest, the central part of the Earth‘s shadow, called the umbra. The rest of the Moon
is covered by the outer part of the Earth‘s shadow called the penumbra.

Penumbral Lunar
A penumbral lunar occultation happens when the Moon travels through the faint
penumbral portion of Earth‘s shadow.
When this happens, the Earth blocks some of the Sun‘s light from directly reaching
the Moon‘s surface and covers all or part of the Moon with the outer part of its
shadow, also known as the penumbra. Since the penumbra is much fainter than the
dark core of the Earth‘s shadow, the umbra, a penumbral eclipse of the Moon is often
difficult to tell apart from a normal Full Moon.

Planet Transits
When a planet comes between Earth and the Sun, it is called a transit. Mercury
and Venus are the only two planets that can be seen transiting the Sun from Earth.
This is because they are the only planets in the solar system whose orbit is inside
Earth‘s orbit.
Historical records
Since ancient times, records of solar and lunar occultations have been preserved.
Historical records can be chronologically dated using eclipse dates.
There have been recordings of the event in a Syrian clay table in 1223 BCE, Ireland in
3340 BCE, Babylonian records of the 13th century BCE, and Greek and Chinese
records as well.
In the 5th century CE, solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained
by Aryabhata, in his treatise Aryabhatiya. Aryabhata stated that the Moon and planets
shine by reflected sunlight and explained eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and
falling on Earth. Aryabhata provides the accurate computation and the size of the
eclipsed part during an eclipse.
VEDIC COSMOLOGY & ITS CONCEPTS.

The Vedic Age was between 1500 BC and 600 BC. This is the major civilization that
occurred in ancient India after the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization by 1400
BC. The Vedas were composed in this period and this gives this age the name. The
Vedas are also the chief source of information about this era. The Vedic Age started
with the coming of the Aryans or Indo-Aryans. Since our knowledge of the early
Aryans is based on these Vedas, the culture of this period is referred to as the Vedic
Culture.
Veda
The word Veda means sacred spiritual knowledge. These Vedas were considered
infallible as they imparted the highest spiritual knowledge. Initially, the Vedas were
transmitted orally.
The word 'Veda' is derived from the Sanskrit word 'Vid' which means 'to know. The
Vedas are essentially a compilation of prayers and hymns, offered by different
families of poets and sagas to various gods. These four Vedas are also 'Samhitas' (a
collection), in the sense that they represent the oral tradition of the time.
Since the hymns were meant to be read, learnt and transmitted orally, they were not
written when they were better composed. Due to this reason, none of the Samhitas can
be dated with absolute certainty. Each Samhita represents a collection through a
period over a few centuries.
These were compiled in four Vedas:
 The Rig Veda: Book Of Mantras
 The Sama Veda: Book Of Chant
 The Yajur Veda: Book Of Ritual
 The Atharva Veda: Book Of Spell
Vedic Texts
The only extant Vedic materials are the texts known as the Vedas, which were
composed and handed down orally over about 10 centuries, from about the 15th to the
5th century BCE. The Vedic corpus is composed of archaic Sanskrit. The most
important texts are also the oldest ones. They are the four collections (Samhitas) that
are called the Veda, or Vedas.
The Rigveda, or „Veda of Verses‟, the earliest of those, is composed of about 1000
hymns addressed to various deities and mostly arranged to serve the needs of the
priestly families who were the custodians of that sacred literature.
The Samaveda, or „Veda of Chants‟, is made up of a selection of verses—drawn
almost wholly from the Rigveda—that are provided with musical notation and are
intended as an aid to the performance of sacred songs.
The Yajurveda, or „Veda of Sacrificial Formulas‟, contains prose formulas applicable
to various rites, along with verses intended for a similar purpose.
The Atharvaveda, or „Veda of Spells‟, is a later compilation that includes incantations
and magic spells.
To each Veda is attached a body of prose writings of later date called Brahmanas
(c.800–600 BCE), which explain the ceremonial applications of the texts and the
origin and importance of the sacrificial rites for which the Vedas were composed.
Further appendices, the Aranyakas (c.600 BCE) and the Upanishads (c.700–500
BCE), respectively expound the symbolism of the more difficult rites and speculate on
the nature of the universe and humanity‘s relation to it.
When Vedic religion gradually evolved into Hinduism between the 6th and
2nd centuries BCE, the texts, taken collectively, became the most sacred literature of
Hinduism. They are known as Shruti (“What Is Heard”), the divinely revealed section
of Hindu literature—in contrast to the later strata of religious literature known as
Smriti (“What Is Remembered”), which are traditional texts attributed to human
authors. But in modern Hinduism, the Shruti, except for the Upanishads and a few
hymns of the Rigveda, little is now known, while some of the Smriti texts remain
extremely influential.
Migration of the Aryans
A few centuries after the decline of the Harappan civilisation, a new culture flourished
in the same region and gradually spread across the Ganga-Yamuna plains. This
culture came to be known as the Aryan culture. The Aryans were semi-nomadic
pastoral people.
The Vedic Age started with the Aryan occupation of the Indo-Gangetic Plains. The
word Arya means ‗Noble‘. They spoke Sanskrit, an Indo-European language. They
led a rural, semi-nomadic life as compared to the Indus Valley people who were
urbanised. It is believed that they entered India through the Khyber Pass.
There were significant differences between the Aryan culture and the culture that
preceded it. The Aryans settled on the banks of rivers Indus (Sindhu) and Saraswati.
They composed many hymns in honour of the gods and goddesses they worshipped.
Early Vedic Period (1500 BC - 1000 BC)
Rig Vedic Period (1500 BC – 1000 BC).
Initially, the Aryans lived in the land known as ―Sapta Sindhu‖ (Land of the Seven
Rivers). These seven rivers were: Sindhu (Indus), Vipash (Beas), Vitasta (Jhelum),
Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Shutudri (Satluj) and Saraswati.
The Political structure included a monarchical form of government with a king known
as Rajan. In the patriarchal families, Jana was the largest social unit in Rig Vedic
times. The hierarchical division of the social grouping was done as kula (family) –
grama – visu – Jana. The Tribal assemblies were called Sabhas and Samitis. Examples
of tribal kingdoms: Bharatas, Matsyas, Yadus and Purus.
Women in society enjoyed respectable positions. They were allowed to take part in
Sabhas and Samitis. There were women poets too (Apala, Lopamudra, Viswavara and
Ghosa). Cattle, especially cows, were an important commodity. In the early Vedic
society monogamy was practised but polygamy was observed among royalty and
noble families. Child marriage was prohibited and social distinctions existed but were
not rigid and hereditary.
The economy of the early Vedic period included pastoral and cattle-rearing people
who practised agriculture and had horse chariots. Rivers were used for transport.
Initially, trade was conducted through the barter system but later on, coins called
‗nishka‘ were in use.
People worshipped natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain, thunder, etc. by
personifying them into deities. Indra (thunder) was the most important deity. Other
deities were Prithvi (earth), Agni (fire), Varuna (rain) and Vayu (wind). Female
deities were Ushas and Aditi. There were no temples and no idol worship.
Changes in the later Vedic phase
Later Vedic Period or Painted Grey Ware Phase (1000 BC – 600 BC)
In the later Vedic period, the Aryans moved eastwards and occupied western and
eastern UP (Kosala) and Bihar.
The Kingdoms like Mahajanapadas were formed by amalgamating smaller kingdoms.
To enhance the position, the King's power increased and various sacrifices were
performed by him. The Sacrifices were Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Vajapeya
(chariot race) and Ashwamedha (horse sacrifice).
With the evolving period, the Varna system of social distinction also became more
distinct. It became less based on occupation and more hereditary. The four divisions
of society in decreasing social ranking were: Brahmanas (priests), Kshatriyas (rulers),
Vaishyas (agriculturists, traders and artisans), and Shudras (servers of the upper three
classes).
The position of women in society diminished as they were not permitted to attend
sabhas and samitis. Many social changes emerged such as gotras were
institutionalised, child marriages became common, new sub-castes based on
occupation created.
Agriculture was the chief occupation in the later Vedic period with industrial work
like metalwork, pottery and carpentry as the secondary occupations. There was
foreign trade with far off regions like Babylon and Sumeria.
Individuals worshipped Prajapati (creator) and Vishnu (preserver) as the prime gods
whereas Indra and Agni lost their significance. The importance of prayers diminished
and rituals and sacrifices became more elaborate. The priestly class became very
powerful and they dictated the rules of the rites and rituals. Due to this orthodoxy,
Buddhism and Jainism emerged towards the end of this period.
Vedic Religion
Vedic religion, also called Vedism, is the religion of the ancient Indo-European
speaking peoples who entered India about 1500 BCE from the region of present-day
Iran. It takes its name from the collections of sacred texts known as the Vedas.
Vedism is the oldest stratum of religious activity in India for which there exist written
materials. It was one of the major traditions that shaped Hinduism. Knowledge of
Vedic religion is derived from surviving texts and also from certain rites that continue
to be observed within the framework of modern Hinduism.
The earliest Vedic religious beliefs included some held in common with other Indo-
European speaking peoples, particularly with the early Iranians. Though it is
impossible to say when Vedism eventually gave way to classical Hinduism, a
decrease in literary activity among the Vedic schools from the 5th century BCE
onward can be observed, and at that time a more Hindu character began to appear.
Vedic Rituals
The ancient Vedic worshippers offered sacrifices to gods in the hope that they in
return would grant abundant numbers of cattle, good fortune, good health, long life,
and male progeny, among other material benefits. To ensure the efficacy of their
prayers, the people came to believe that their offerings could be made more acceptable
to the gods if accompanied by songs of praise and other invocations of the gods‘
might and power. Thus originated the rites described in the Vedas. Every sacrifice
was performed on behalf of an individual, i.e., the patron or yajamana (―sacrificer‖),
who bore the expenses.
The rites of Vedic sacrifice were relatively simple in the early period when the
Rigveda was composed. They required neither temples nor images. The ceremonies
took place in an open space that was consecrated afresh for every important occasion.
The altar (Vedi) was a quadrangle marked out by hollowing or slightly raising the
ground. The agnyadheya (“installation of the fire”) was a necessary preliminary to all
the large public rituals and was preceded by the patron‘s fast.
The sacrifices themselves were of two major types—domestic (grihya) and public
(srauta, or vaitanika).
The domestic rites were observed by the householder himself or with the help of a
single priest and were performed over the domestic hearth fire. Some occurred daily
or monthly, and others accompanied a particular event, such as the samskaras -
sacraments marking each stage of an upper-caste Indian‘s life, from conception to
death.
The grand rites performed in public, by contrast, lasted several days or months and
could usually be undertaken only by wealthy men or kings. They required the services
of many priests and were usually performed at three fire-altars. The most
characteristic of the public ceremonies was the soma sacrifice, which ensured the
prosperity and well-being of both human beings and gods. In that basic ritual, a
sacrificer was first consecrated, after which juice was pressed three times from
the soma plant, part being offered to the fire and part consumed by the priests. Each of
the three occasions was preceded and followed by recitations and chants. Edibles such
as meat, butter, milk, and barley cake could also be offered to a sacred fire.
Animal sacrifice—the killing of a goat—existed either independently or as an integral
part of the sacrifice of soma. The celebrated Ashvamedha, ―horse sacrifice,‖ was an
elaborate variant of the soma sacrifice.
Human sacrifice (purushamedha) is described and alluded to as a former practice but
probably was merely symbolic. The sacrifice of the mythical giant Purusha, from
whose dismembered limbs sprang up the four major social classes (varnas), probably
served as a model for the conjectured human sacrifices. Other ceremonies marked
fixed dates of the lunar calendar, such as the full or new moon or the change of
seasons.
Conclusion
When people today learn about India's ancient Vedas they discover a tradition perhaps
5000 years old, guided by illumined seers living in harmony with nature, chanting
arcane mantras, and performing mysterious fire rituals. This image of the Vedic world
appears fascinating but is also difficult to understand, suggesting perhaps a mystical
fantasy more than any deeper reality.
It is India as a culture and civilization of knowledge, both scientific and spiritual, both
inner and outer, culminating in the supreme science of consciousness. Such a Vedic
knowledge-based civilization is more than information technology, though it can work
with it and possibly transform it. Vedic knowledge is post-industrial and post-modern,
one could say, though it comes to us from the dawn of history, its vision is beyond
time and space.
Vedic knowledge represents not only the past but also the future of India. It helped
shape the characteristic features of India's vast and enduring Dharmic civilization
through the centuries, as the Vedas first of all were formulated to teach Dharma.
India's traditional philosophies, arts and sciences have strong Vedic connections. The
Vedas were one of the main inspirations for India's Independence Movement,
particularly through Dayananda Sarasvati, Lokmanya Tilak and Sri Aurobindo, and
India's great gurus today continue to honour them.
The Vedas are not mere religious books and do not propose any articles of faith. They
direct us to discover the Divine within us, for which they provide the guidance and the
practises for each one of us to apply.