Course Content:
I. Human Body Systems Responsible for the body’s function
Skeletal system
The skeletal system is composed of bones and cartilages. There are two parts of the skeleton;
axial and appendicular. The axial skeleton consists of the bones of the head and trunk.
The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones within the limbs, as well as supporting pectoral
and pelvic girdles.
There are 206 bones in an adult human body. The place at which two bones are fitted
together is called the joint or articulation. Joints are supported by cartilages and reinforced
with ligaments. Functions of the skeletal system are mechanical support, movement,
protection, blood cell production, calcium storage and endocrine regulation.
Elements of the skeletal system are adjusted to the function of the body part they support.
Thus, the anatomy of bones, joints and ligaments is studied topographically, as the
bones of the; head and neck, thorax, abdomen, upper and lower limbs.
Muscular system
The muscular system consists of all the body muscles. There are three muscle
types; smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscles. Smooth muscle is found within walls of blood
vessels and hollow organs such as the stomach or intestines. Cardiac muscle cells form
the heart muscle, also called the false. Skeletal muscles attach to the bones of the body.
Among these three, only skeletal muscles can be controlled consciously and enable us to
produce body movement, while the function of other two muscle types is regulated by
the autonomic nervous system and is absolutely unconscious.
Cardiovascular system
The cardiovascular system is comprised of the heart and the circulatory system of blood
vessels. The heart is composed of four chambers; two atria and two ventricles. Blood enters the
heart through the upper chambers of the left and right atria and exits via the left and right
ventricles. Heart valves prevent the backflow of blood.
The heart acts as a two-way pump. The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood
into the pulmonary circulation of the lungs, where the blood is reoxygenated again. While
the left side of the heart simultaneously pumps oxygenated blood into the systemic
circulation, distributing it to the peripheral tissues. The regular pumping, or heartbeat, is
controlled by the conduction system of the heart.
Respiratory system
The respiratory system consists of a series of organs; the nasal
cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs (alveoli). The nasal cavity and
pharynx are together called the upper respiratory system, while the remainder of the organs
comprise the lower respiratory system.
Respiratory system organs, with the exception of the alveoli, function to conduct air into
the lungs aided by the muscles of respiration (mainly the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles).
Once air is in the lungs it enters alveoli (the site of gas exchange) and interacts with blood
transported by the pulmonary circulation. Here carbon dioxide is removed from, and oxygen
returned to, the blood. Thus the major respiratory system function is to bring oxygen into the
body and expel carbon dioxide.
Nervous system
Nervous system controls how we interact with and respond to our environment, by controlling
the function of the organs in our other body systems. The nervous system organs are
the brain, spinal cord and sensory organs. These are connected by neurons, which act to
transmit neural signals around the body.
Morphologically and topographically, the nervous system is divided into the central (CNS) and
peripheral (PNS) nervous systems. Whilst functionally, the nervous system is considered as two
parts; the somatic (SNS) or voluntary nervous system, and the autonomic (ANS) or involuntary
nervous system.
Central nervous system
The central nervous system definition is that it receives information from the body’s environment
and generates instructions, thereby controlling all the activities of the human body. This two-way
information flow into, and out of, the CNS is conveyed by the peripheral nervous system.
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is placed within the neurocranium, and
is formed from the cerebrum, cerebellum and brainstem (pons and medulla oblongata). The
central parts of the CNS are occupied by spaces called ventricles filled with cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF). The spinal cord is placed within the vertebral column. The spinal canal extends through
the central part of the spinal cord. It is also filled with CSF and it communicates with the
ventricles of the brain.
The CNS is made of neurons and their processes (axons). Gray matter is made of neuron cell
bodies, it is found in the cerebral cortexand the central portion of the spinal cord. White matter is
made of axons, which combine and build neural pathways. The gray matter is where the
instructions generate, while the white matter is the path through which the instructions travel
toward the organs.
Digestive system
The digestive system function is to degrade food into smaller and smaller compounds, until they
can be absorbed into the body and used as energy. It consists of a series of gastrointestinal
tract organs and accessory digestive organs.
The digestive system organs spread from the mouth to the anal canal. So it’s actually a tube
consisting of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anal
canal. Accessory digestive organs assist with the mechanical and chemical food breakdown,
these are the tongue, salivary glands, pancreas, liver and gallbladder.
Urinary system
Kidney
Urinary system is a body drainage system comprised of the group of organs that produce and
excrete urine. It consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra.
Kidneys are paired bean-shaped organs placed retroperitoneally. The kidneys have a rich blood
supply provided by the renal artery. Nephrons within the kidneys filter the blood that passes
through their web of capillaries (glomerulus). The blood filtrate then passes through a series of
tubules and collecting ducts, eventually forming the final ultrafiltrate, urine. Urine passes into
the ureters, tubes of smooth muscle that convey urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder.
The bladder is a hollow muscular organ that collects and stores urine before disposal by
urination (micturition). Functions of the urinary system include; elimination of body waste,
regulation of blood volume and blood pressure, regulation of electrolyte levels and blood pH.
Endocrine system
The endocrine system is a collection of specialized organs (endocrine glands) scattered
throughout the body that act to produce hormones.
With regards to the endocrine system function; hormones produced by the endocrine system act
to regulate a wide variety of bodily functions, such as triiodothyronine which regulates
metabolism, or estrogen and progesterone which regulate the menstrual cycle. Endocrine
glands secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system to regulate the function of distant
target organs.
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is a network of lymphatic vessels that drains excess tissue fluid (lymph)
from the intercellular fluid compartment, filters it through lymph nodes, exposes it
to lymphocytes (white blood cells) of the immune system and returns the fluid to the circulatory
system. The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymphatic plexuses, lymphatic vessels, lymph
nodes and lymphoid organs. The lymphatic system function is to; convey and eliminate toxins
and waste from the body; recirculate proteins; and defend the body from microorganisms.
Reproductive system
The reproductive system, or genital system, is a system of internal and external sex organs
which work together to contribute towards the reproduction process. Unlike other systems of
organs, the genital system has significant differences among sexes.
II. Body Postures
Good posture is about more than standing up straight so you can look your best. It is an
important part of your long-term health. Making sure that you hold your body the right way,
whether you are moving or still, can prevent pain, injuries, and other health problems.
What is posture?
Posture is how you hold your body. There are two types:
Dynamic posture is how you hold yourself when you are moving, like when you are
walking, running, or bending over to pick up something.
Static posture is how you hold yourself when you are not moving, like when you are
sitting, standing, or sleeping.
It is important to make sure that you have good dynamic and static posture.
The key to good posture is the position of your spine. Your spine has three natural curves - at
your neck, mid back, and low back. Correct posture should maintain these curves, but not
increase them. Your head should be above your shoulders, and the top of your shoulder should
be over the hips.
How can posture affect my health?
Poor posture can be bad for your health. Slouching or slumping over can:
Misalign your musculoskeletal system
Wear away at your spine, making it more fragile and prone to injury
Cause neck, shoulder, and back pain
Decrease your flexibility
Affect how well your joints move
Affect your balance and increase your risk of falling
Make it harder to digest your food
Make it harder to breathe
How can I improve my posture in general?
Be mindful of your posture during everyday activities, like watching television, washing
dishes, or walking
Stay active. Any kind of exercise may help improve your posture, but certain types of
exercises can be especially helpful. They include yoga, tai chi, and other classes that
focuses on body awareness. It is also a good idea to do exercises that strengthen your
core (muscles around your back, abdomen, and pelvis).
Maintain a healthy weight. Extra weight can weaken your abdominal muscles, cause
problems for your pelvis and spine, and contribute to low back pain. All of these can hurt
your posture.
Wear comfortable, low-heeled shoes. High heels, for example, can throw off your
balance and force you to walk differently. This puts more stress on your muscles and
harms your posture.
Make sure work surfaces are at a comfortable height for you, whether you're sitting
in front of a computer, making dinner, or eating a meal.
How can I improve my posture when sitting?
Many Americans spend a lot of their time sitting - either at work, at school, or at home. It is
important to sit properly, and to take frequent breaks:
Switch sitting positions often
Take brief walks around your office or home
Gently stretch your muscles every so often to help relieve muscle tension
Don't cross your legs; keep your feet on the floor, with your ankles in front of your
knees
Make sure that your feet touch the floor, or if that's not possible, use a footrest
Relax your shoulders; they should not be rounded or pulled backwards
Keep your elbows in close to your body. They should be bent between 90 and 120
degrees.
Make sure that your back is fully supported. Use a back pillow or other back support
if your chair does not have a backrest that can support your lower back's curve.
Make sure that your thighs and hips are supported. You should have a well-padded
seat, and your thighs and hips should be parallel to the floor.
How can I improve my posture when standing?
Stand up straight and tall
Keep your shoulders back
Pull your stomach in
Put your weight mostly on the balls of your feet
Keep your head level
Let your arms hang down naturally at your sides
Keep your feet about shoulder-width apart
With practice, you can improve your posture; you will look and feel better.
III. Locomotor and Non Locomotor Movements
Fundamental Movements
A non-locomotor movement is a fundamental body movement that does not require moving in
any direction. These stability skills include movement of limbs and parts of the body or whole-
body parts. These movements done in a stationary position.A locomotor movement is another
fundamental body movement that requires travel through space or carry weight from one
location to another.
Below are the fundamental movements that you can apply for your daily activities.
A. Non-locomotor movements
1. Bracing the core-, this movement is very important to stabilize your spine and it’s a form of
exercise to gradually improve your core group muscles.
Mechanics
1. Perform a supine lying position
2. Put your one hand to your abdomen and the other one in your chest.
Mechanics
1. Perform a supine lying position
2. Put your one hand to your abdomen and the other one in your chest
3. Brace or contract your abdominal muscles slowly
4. Keepyour lower back in inward position.
5. Elevate your pelvic floor muscles
6. Maintain your pelvic floor and lower abdominal muscles contracted together
7. Maintain the contraction of your abdominal muscles and breath normally
8. Inhale and exhale for three to four seconds and repeat ten times.
2. Dead bug – is a simple exercise that strengthens and stabilizes the core muscles. It helps to
build a strong core to protect your spine.
Mechanics
1. Lying on your back
2. Knees bent at 90-degrees and feet are flat on the floor
3. Alongside your body, rest your arms.
4. Shoulders and your lower back to fall heavy to the floor.
5. Draw your shoulders down away from your ears. From a starting position, raise your
hands so that your elbows are above your shoulder while your fists are facing in towards
each other.
6. Lift your legs so your knees are directly over your hips.
7. On exhale, slowly lower your left leg and right arm until they are just above the floor.
8. On inhale, put them back to original position.
9. Repeat on the other side.
3. Rolling- refers to the exercise by turning your back over your stomach from the lower body.
Mechanics
1. Lie down with your back lying flat on the floor and your arms extended upward while
your legs are stretch downward.
2. Maintain such position as if you are paralyzed from the waist up.
3. To start rolling, put your left hand across and down your body and try to reach your
opposite pocket.
Note: Rolling on the right side of the body would mean reaching across with your left
arm. Rolling on the left would require reaching the right arm.
4. Continue to reach with your arm, head, and shoulders until you achieve lift and are
able to flip yourself onto your stomach without any assistance from the lower body.
4. Bird dog series- this aims to develop your core muscle using your body weight.
Mechanics
1. Place your knees under your hips and your hands under your shoulder touching the
ground just like a table position. The abdominals should be brace in this position.
2. Raise your right arm and left leg parallel to the ground. Lengthen your back of your
neck and tuck your chin.
3. Hold the position for a few seconds and back to starting position.
4. Raise your left arm and right leg parallel to the ground. Lengthen your back of your
neck and tuck your chin.
5. Hold this position for a few seconds and return to starting position. This is one round.
6. Do this 2 -3 Sets 10 -12 repetitions.
5. Press up –this is scapular protraction and retraction movements.
Mechanics
1. Place your hands shoulder-width apart with arms straight and so your shoulders,
elbows and wrists line up.
2. Your fingers should be slightly spread and pointing forward, with your hands forming
right angles with your forearms.
3. Initiate the move by bending your elbows to lower your chest towards the ground.
4. Your hips should stay in line with your shoulders for the entire set.
5. Keep your feet hip-width apart. Placing them farther apart makes it easier and
bringing them together makes it harder.
6. The closer you can get your chest to the floor the better because this makes the
working muscles move through a full range of motion.
6. Cobra Stretch- is one of the most important stretching for abdominal muscles especially if
you spend all day long at you desk. This type of movement helps you to toned your glutes
muscles and makes you muscles stronger especially at your spine muscles, and it provides the
lenghtening of anterior neck muscles, shoulder, chest and abdominals.
Mechanics
1. Assume a prone position while your hands palm down to the floor beneath on your
shoulder.
2. Lift your chest off the ground by straightening your arms.
3. Take a good look upward and and keep your abdominal muscles engaged.
7. Squat- also known as an air squat or the most common squat. It aims to develop your lower
body muscles such as gluteus muscles (buttocks), quadriceps (front of thigh), harmstring (back
of thigh), adductor (groin), and calves.
Mechanics
1. Start with your feet slightly wider than hip-width apart.
2. Keep your chest up, engage your abdominals, and shift your weight onto your heels
as you push your hips back into a sitting position.
3. Lower your hips until your thighs are parallel or almost parallel to the floor.
4. You should feel the squat in your thighs and glutes.
5. Pause with your knees over, but not beyond, your toes.
6. Exhale and push back up to the starting position.
8. Stationary lunge- exercise that helps you to strengthen your quads, glutes, and hamstring
muscles.
Mechanics:
1. Start with feet shoulder width apart. Put your right foot in front and must be flat on the
ground, and your left foot should be up on its toes. Both legs are in 90 degrees position.
2. Bend your knees and lunge, stopping when your right thigh is parallel to the ground.
3. Push up through your right foot to return to the starting position. Repeat for desired
number of reps, and then switch legs.
B. Locomotor Movements
1. Walk– series of steps to any direction
2. Run–move fast by using the feet, with one foot off the ground at any given time
3. Hop– spring on one foot and landing on the same foot.
4. Jump–spring on one or both feet and landing on both feet.
5. Leap– spring on one foot and landing on the other foot.
6. Lateral/Shuffle- step siderward& close with the trail foot, step & close... (same foot always
leads).
7. Skip– stepping from one foot to another with hop or bounce.
8. Slide–lead foot glides forward or forward while the other foot follows.
Summary
• Two types of basic movements: locomotor and non-locomotor.
• Fundamental movement skills are a specific set of skills that involve different body parts such
as feet, legs, trunk, head, arms and hands.
• Basic movements are the foundation of human movements, which help you to move efficiently
and effectively.
• Application of locomotor and non- locomotor in your daily activities
Source:
Human body systems. (2023, November 3). Kenhub.
https://www.kenhub.com/en/library/anatomy/human-body-systems
National Library of Medicine. (n.d.). Guide to Good Posture.
https://medlineplus.gov/guidetogoodposture.html
Camarador, R. A., Mantala, J. B., Camarador, L. D., Serrano III, J. A., Nero, J. M., & Trance, C.
P. B. (n.d.). Physical Activity Towards Health and Fitness 1: Movement Competency Training.
