Precalculus
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P r e f a c e
Students of the colleges of the natural sciences and engineering are required to take
calculus courses during their first year before they begin their majors. The contents of
calculus courses are composed on the assumption that freshmen possess a moderate
understanding of high school mathematics. A small number of students, however, seem to
have an incomplete knowledge of high school mathematics. These students may
encounter serious difficulties in following calculus courses. As a result, they could
experience a stressful introduction to university. To help these students, universities offer
an extra review course of high school mathematics. This book, titled “Precalculus”, is
designed for this review course, and is written so concisely that three hours of lecture per
week in one semester can cover the materials completely.
The first chapter is titled “Function”. In this chapter the basic concept of the function,
from which many other mathematical concepts are defined, is explained. Without
understanding functions, we cannot fully grasp the intricacies of mathematics well. The
second chapter is devoted for Trigonometric Functions. They are periodic functions
which are widely used in studying periodic phenomena in nature. In this section various
formulas for trigonometric functions are given and some basic applications are also
discussed. Vectors are introduced in the third chapter. Vectors are used to describe the
magnitude and direction of an object simultaneously. They are frequently used in
studying physical quantities such as forces, velocities and accelerations. Complex
numbers and matrices are introduced in the forth chapter. Complex numbers are the
largest number system containing real numbers and matrices are rectangular arrays of real
or complex numbers. In this chapter algebraic operations such as addition, subtraction
and multiplication for complex numbers and matrices are defined and their basic
properties are explained.
Chapter 5 and 6 form the core of this book, in which differentiation and integration are
introduced for polynomial functions, trigonometric functions and simple types of rational
and irrational functions. In these two chapters basic methods of calculating the
differentiation and integration for various functions are explained and some applications
are discussed. The basic relation between these two concepts, called the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, is also examined. All material in this book will be discussed further
in the university calculus courses at a deeper level.
This book is in fact an updated version of the book written by J. Kim, K. Kim and Y.
Lee in Korean, which was published in Cheong Moon Gak Publishing Company under
the title of Elementary Mathematics in 2012. In this revised and translated edition, the
authors added a chapter for complex numbers and matrices, and improved some parts in
contents and exercises.
Finally, the authors would like to thank Scott Schafer and Cheongil Namgung for
checking the manuscript carefully. It is the authors’ intention that students utilize this
book to build strong self-confidence in mathematics and eventually this book becomes
great help to study their majors.
C o n t e n t s
CHAPTER 1 Function
1.1 Definition of a Function 11
Polynomial Functions, Rational Functions and Irrational Functions 13
Graphs of Functions 14
1.2 Basic Properties of Functions 19
1.3 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions 27
Exponential Functions 27
Graphs of Exponential Functions 28
Logarithmic Functions 31
CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
2.1 Angles and Trigonometric Ratios 41
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 45
Graph of Sine Function 50
Graph of Cosine Function 51
Graph of Tangent Function 52
2.3 Properties of Trigonometric Functions 60
2.4 Triangles and Trigonometric Functions 71
CHAPTER 3 Vectors
3.1 The Concept of Vectors and Basic Operations 81
3.2 The Position Vectors 87
Plane Vectors 87
Space Vectors 88
3.3 The Inner Product and the Vector Product 91
Direction of the vector product 94
Length of the vector product 96
CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
4.1 Complex Plane and Operations of Complex Numbers 101
4.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number and De Moivre’s Theorem 107
4.3 Matrices 113
CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
5.1 Limits 123
5.2 Limits of Indeterminate Forms 128
5.3 Continuity 132
5.4 Derivatives 137
5.5 Methods of Differentiation 143
Differentiation of a Composite Function 143
Differentiation of an Implicit Function 145
Differentiation of an Inverse Function 147
Differentiation of Parametric Equations 147
5.6 Derivatives of Transcendental Functions 149
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 149
Derivatives of the Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 151
5.7 Applications of Derivatives 154
The Mean Value Theorem and L’Hôspital’s Rule 154
Maxima, Minima and Graphing 157
CHAPTER 6 Integration
6.1 Indefinite Integrals 167
6.2 Definite Integrals 172
6.3 Substitution Rule 177
6.4 Integration by Parts 181
6.5 Integrations of Rational Functions and Irrational Functions 184
Integration of Rational Functions 184
Integration of Irrational Functions 187
6.6 Applications of Definite Integrals 189
Area 189
Volume 192
Answers to Exercises 197
Index 211
CHAPTER 1
Function
For two sets and , a relation associating an element of to an element of is called a
function. The concept of a function was introduced by the German mathematician G. L.
Dirichlet (1805∼1859). When a real number is determined by a real number under a certain
rule, he called this relation a function. This concept developed to be more precise by German
mathematicians R. Dedekind(1831∼1916) and G. Cantor(1845∼1918).
1.1 Definition of a Function
In this section we define functions and study some basic notations and terminologies.
Definition 1.1.1－Function
For nonempty sets and , a function from to is a relation that each element of
corresponds to an element of . In this case, is called a domain and is called
a codomain.
A function from a set to a set is usually written by → or . When
an element of corresponds to an element of , is called the image or the value of
under the function and is denoted by
or ↦
In this case, is called an independent variable and is called a dependent variable. The
set of all values of is called the range of and is denoted by , i.e.,
∈ ∈
When is a subset of , the set of all values of corresponding to all elements of is
called the image of and is denoted by , i.e.,
∈ ∈
For a subset of , the inverse image of is defined by
∈ ∈
Especially, when is a one point set, we simply write instead of
. Here we note that is not an element of but a subset of . If is not
an empty set, then cannot be an empty set. However, even though is not an empty
set, may be an empty set.
Example 1.1.1 For two sets and , find the ranges
1.1 Definition of a Function 11
of functions → defined as follows.
(1) (2)
Solution (1) {0, 1, 4} (2) {－1, 0, 3}
Example 1.1.2 Suppose that the domain of is the set of all real numbers and is defined
by . Find (1).
Solution Since (1) is the set of all satisfying 1, (1) .
We introduce a constant function and the identity function, which are simple but
important.
Definition 1.1.2－Constant and Identity Functions
(1) When the range of a function → consists of only one element, is
called a constant function.
(2) If → is a function whose domain and codomain are the same set and
sends each to itself, i.e., for all ∈ , then is called the identity
function on and is denoted by .
Next, we introduce some notations for subsets of the set of all real numbers. First of all,
we denote by the set of all real numbers, by the set of all rational numbers, by the
set of all integers and by the set of all natural numbers. Various types of intervals are
defined as follows.
∈ ≤ ≤ , ∞ ∈
∈ ≤ , ∞ ∈ ≤
∈ ≤ , ∞ ∈
∈ , ∞ ∈ ≥
We call and a closed interval and an open interval, respectively. We denote
the coordinate plane by , i.e., ∈ .
Remark In this book functions are usually defined between subsets of the real numbers . If there
12 CHAPTER 1 Function
is no specific statement, the codomain of a function is always and the domain of is
the set of all real number such that is meaningful. From now on, we are not going
to define domain and codomain precisely. We just give a corresponding rule like
.
Polynomial Functions, Rational Functions and Irrational Functions
A polynomial function is a function of the form ‒ ‒ ⋯
for real numbers ‒ ⋯ ∈ such as . A
polynomial function is sometimes called simply a polynomial and the real numbers
‒ ⋯ are called the coefficients of . If ≠ , is called the degree of
.
A rational function is a fraction whose numerator and denominator are polynomials
such as , in which case the domain is {2}. A rational function is
sometimes called a fractional function.
An irrational function is a function such that is expressed by radicals of
such as or
.
Example 1.1.3 Find the domains and ranges of the following functions.
(1) (2) (3)
Solution (1) Domain: , Range: ∞ (2) Domain: , Range:
(3) Domain: ∞ , Range: ∞
Example 1.1.4 For
, find
and
.
Solution If we solve
, we have ± . Hence . Since
there is no real number satisfying , .
Two functions and are said to be the same functions if they have the same domain
and for all ∈ . In this case, we write . For example, if and
1.1 Definition of a Function 13
are functions defined on the same domain , they are the same
functions. However, if the domains of and are not mentioned, then
they are different functions since the domain of is and the domain of is －{0}.
Two functions having different domains are always regarded as different functions.
Example 1.1.5 For two functions and , determine whether
they are the same functions or not.
Solution We note that the domain of is and the domain of is . Even
though and have the same values for ∈ , they are different functions
since they have different domains.
Graphs of Functions
Roughly, a function is a relation between two variables and . The French
mathematician R. Descartes(1596∼1650) was the first person who expressed this
relation by a graph. From this great idea, Descartes could change algebraic problems into
geometric problems and because of this work he has been called the founder of the
analytic geometry.
Definition 1.1.3－Graph of a Function
For a function → with a subset of , the graph of is the set
∈ , which is a subset of .
For example, the graph of is the set
∈ or ∈
and this set is a parabola in 2 as is quite well known. To express a graph of a function on
2 is said to sketch a graph on 2.
14 CHAPTER 1 Function
Example 1.1.6 Sketch the graphs of the following functions.
(1)
(2) (3)
Solution
[Figure 1.1] [Figure 1.2] [Figure 1.3]
In the graph of (2) in Example 1.1.6, the graph of goes to ± ∞ as approaches 0,
and it goes to as approaches ± ∞ . In this case, the -axis is called the vertical
asymptote of , and the -axis is called the horizontal asymptote of .
Example 1.1.7 For the graph of a function given below in [Figure 1.4], sketch the
graph of the function .
[Figure 1.4]
Solution Note that is expressed by
≥
Hence, for ≥ the graph of is the same as the graph of and for
the graph of is the reflection of the graph of for with
respect to the -axis ([Figure 1.5]).
1.1 Definition of a Function 15
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[Figure 1.5]
For a function and two real numbers ∈ , the graph of
can be obtained by shifting the graph of by along the -axis and along the
-axis. Hence, if we know the graphs of some basic functions, we can sketch graphs of
various functions by shifting along the -axis and the -axis.
Example 1.1.8 Sketch the graphs of the following functions and find their domains and
horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
(1) (2) (3)
Solution (1) The graph of is obtained by shifting the graph of by 1 along the
-axis and 2 along the -axis ([Figure 1.6]). The domain is ∞∪ ∞ and 1
is the vertical asymptote and 2 is the horizontal asymptote.
[Figure 1.6] [Figure 1.7] [Figure 1.8]
(2) Since , the graph of is obtained by shifting the graph of
16 CHAPTER 1 Function
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by along the -axis ([Figure 1.7]). The domain is ∞ ∪ ∞ and
1 is the vertical asymptote and the -axis is the horizontal asymptote.
(3) The graph of is obtained by shifting the graph of
by 4 along the -axis
([Figure 1.8]). The domain is ∞ . There is no vertical nor horizontal asymptote.
We have introduced graphs of functions. On the other hand, some equations, like
, are not functions but we can sketch the trajectories on 2. These are called
graphs of equations. The graph of an equation is the set
∈ .
Example 1.1.9 Sketch the graph of the equation .
Solution Note that the graph of this equation passes through the origin (0, 0). Since
for , there is no ( , ) satisfying this equation for , which shows that
the graph of this equation appears only in the 1st and 4th quadrants. If ( , ) with
satisfies the equation, then ( , ) also satisfies the equation and hence the graph of the
equation is symmetric with respect to the -axis. We sketch the graph of the equation in
the 1st quadrant and then reflect this graph with respect to the -axis. Then we can obtain
the graph of this equation ([Figure 1.9]).
[Figure 1.9]
1.1 Definition of a Function 17
Exercise 1.1
1. For a set , find the ranges of the following functions
→ .
(1) (2) (3)
2. Find the domains of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
3. Find the domains and ranges of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3)
4. For a non-empty proper subset of , we define a function → by
∈
∉
Find the range of and .
5. Sketch the graphs of the following rational functions.
(1) (2)
6. Sketch the graphs of the following irrational functions.
(1)
(2)
(3)
7. Find the domain and range of
and sketch the graph of this
function.
8. Suppose that the graph of passes through two points (1, 2) and
(－1, 1). Find and .
18 CHAPTER 1 Function
9. If the graph of is obtained by shifting the graph of
by along the -axis and along the -axis, find and .
10. Suppose that the graph of
is obtained by shifting the graph of
by along the -axis and along the -axis. Find and .
11. Sketch the graph of the equation .
1.2 Basic Properties of Functions
In this section we introduce basic operations of functions and investigate some properties.
Let and be functions with domains and , respectively, where and are subsets
of . We define the addition, substraction, product and quotient of and as follows.
Definition 1.2.1－Addition, Substraction, Product and Quotient of and
(1) , Domain ∩
(2) , Domain ∩
(3) ⋅ ⋅ , Domain ⋅ ∩
(4) ,
Domain ∩
Besides these operations, we can obtain a new function by composing two functions.
More precisely, if we are given two functions → and → , we can obtain a
new function from to by assigning to each ∈ .
Definition 1.2.2－Composite of Two Functions
For two functions → and → , we define a new function ∘ →
by assigning to each ∈ and we call ∘ the composite of and , i.e.,
∘ .
1.2 Basic Properties of Functions 19
When we define a composite of two functions whose domains and ranges are not
specified precisely, we should note that the domain of ∘ may not be same as the
domain of . For example, if and , is defined at but
is not defined at . The domain of ∘ is
Domain ( ∘ ) { ∈ Domain( )｜ ∈ Domain( )}
Example 1.2.1 For two functions and
, find ∘ and ∘ and
their domains.
Solution ∘
and its domain is the set of all real numbers.
∘
and its domain is ∞ .
Example 1.2.2 For two functions and , find ∘ and ∘ .
Solution ∘ .
∘ .
Example 1.2.3 For , find , where ∘ ∘⋯∘ .
Solution
Since ∘
, we have ∘ .
Definition 1.2.3 Injection, Surjection and Bijection
Let → be a function
(1) If ≠ for all ∈ with ≠ , is called an injective function
or simply an injection. Equivalently, if implies , then is
an injective function.
(2) If , is called a surjective function or simply a surjection. In other
words, if is a surjective function, then for any ∈ there exists ∈ such that
.
20 CHAPTER 1 Function
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(3) If is both an injective function and a surjective function, is called a bijective
function or simply a bijection.
Remark If is an injective function, then for any ∈ , is either an empty set or has only
one element. If is a surjective function, then for any ∈ , is a non-empty set.
Example 1.2.4 Show that is a bijective function.
Solution If ≠ , then ≠ , which shows that is an
injective function. Since the range of is the set of all real numbers, is also a
surjective function. Hence, is a bijective function.
Example 1.2.5 When → defined by ( ) is a bijective
function, find the constants and .
Solution Since is a bijection and , we have and 5, which yields
1 and 5. Hence, 4 and 1.
Remark The following concepts are quite well known in basic set theory. Let and be two
non-empty sets.
(1) If there exists an injective function → , then the number of elements of is
less than or equal to that of elements of . The reason is that for each ∈ ,
is either an empty set or a set consisting of one element.
(2) If there exists a surjective function → , then the number of elements of is
bigger than or equal to that of elements of . The reason is that for each ∈ ,
is a non-empty set.
(3) If there exists a bijective function → , then the number of elements of is
equal to that of elements of . It is true even though and are infinite sets. For
example, if is the set of all natural numbers and is the set of all integers,
there exists a bijection → defined by
→
Hence, we can say that the number of elements of is equal to the number of
elements of .
Increasing or decreasing functions are typical examples of injective functions.
1.2 Basic Properties of Functions 21
Definition 1.2.4－Increasing and Decreasing Functions
For ⊂ , we consider a function → .
(1) If ≤ for all ∈ with , then is called a monotonically
increasing function. Furthermore, if , then is called a strictly
increasing function or simply an increasing function.
(2) If ≥ for all ∈ with , then is called a monotonically
decreasing function. Furthermore, if , then is called a strictly
decreasing function or simply a decreasing function.
Remark It is easy to show that both a strictly increasing function and a strictly decreasing function
are injective functions.
Definition 1.2.5－Inverse Function
For a function → , is called an invertible function if there exists a function
→ satisfying ∘ and ∘ . In this case, is called the inverse
function of or simply the inverse of and is denoted by , i.e., . is also
the inverse function of , i.e., .
When we want to check whether a function → is an invertible function or not, the
best way is to find the inverse function of . Generally, however, to find the inverse
function is not so simple. The following theorem gives a method how to determine
whether a function is invertible or not.
Theorem 1.2.6
For a function → , has an inverse function if and only if is a bijective
function.
Proof If → is a bijective function, for any ∈ there exists only one ∈ such
that , which enables us to define a new function → with the domain and
the range by . Then this function is just the inverse of . Conversely, we suppose
that the inverse function → of → exists. Then we have
22 CHAPTER 1 Function
and . If ≠ , then ≠ . This shows
that ≠ and hence is an injective function. Since for any
∈ and ∈ , we have and hence is a surjective function. Since is
both an injection and a surjection, is a bijection.
The following shows a relation between an invertible function and its inverse function
:
⇔
[Figure 1.10]
For a bijective function , we can find the inverse function in the
following way. First of all, we exchange and to get . And then, we express
this function in the form , which is the inverse function of , i.e.,
. The domain of is equal to the range of and the range of is
equal to the domain of .
Remark When a function → has an inverse function → with , the value
of the function at is ∈ and the inverse image of under the function
is ⊂ . In other words, the value of the function at is an element of and the
inverse image of under the function is a subset of . Hence, whenever we encounter
a symbol in a sentence, we should be able to distinguish whether means
the value of at or the inverse image of under the function .
Example 1.2.6 Find the inverse function of
defined on ∞ . What is
the domain of ?
Solution From
we obtain . If we exchange and , we have
, which is equal to . Hence, . Since the
1.2 Basic Properties of Functions 23
domain of is equal to the range of , the domain of is ∞ .
When is an invertible function and is a point on the graph of ,
lies on the graph of . Conversely, for any point on the graph of
, lies on the graph of . This fact shows that the graphs of
and are symmetric with respect to the line . [Figure 1.11]
below explains this phenomenon.
[Figure 1.11]
Definition 1.2.7－Even and Odd Functions
Let → be a function, where is a symmetric subset of , i.e., ∈ if and
only ∈ .
(1) is called an even function if for any ∈ .
(2) is called an odd function if for any ∈ .
Let → be a function on a symmetric domain ⊂ . If is an even function, then
and lie on the graph of , which shows that the
graph of is symmetric with respect to the -axis. Similarly, if is an odd function, then
and lie on the graph of , which shows that
the graph of is symmetric with respect to the origin. Moreover, every function can be
written as
,
24 CHAPTER 1 Function
where is an even function and is an odd function.
Hence if a domain is symmetric, then every function can be expressed as a sum of an even
function and an odd function.
Example 1.2.7 Show that is an odd function.
Solution Note that the domain of is the symmetric set . Since
, is an odd function.
Exercise 1.2
1. For and
, find the composite function ∘
and its domain.
2. When and , find the conditions for and to
satisfy ∘ ∘ .
3. For , suppose that → is defined by
≤≤
Find .
4. Find the inverse functions of the following functions.
(1) ( ≥ ) (2)
(3)
5. For
, compute ∘ ∘ ∘ .
6. Let be an invertible function. When two functions and
satisfy ∘ ∘ , compute .
1.2 Basic Properties of Functions 25
7. When an invertible function has its inverse function ,
find .
8. Let be an invertible function with the inverse . When the
graphs of and meet at two distinct points, find the
equation of the line passing through these two points.
9. When the graph of is given in [Figure 1.12], sketch the graphs of the
following functions.
(1) (2) (3)
[Figure 1.12]
10. For
, sketch the graph of .
11. Prove the following statements.
(1) There exists a bijective function between arbitrary two open intervals
and .
(2) is an increasing function on .
(3) There exists a bijective function between and an arbitrary open interval
.
12. Suppose that is an even function and is an odd function. Determine whether
the following functions are even or odd.
⋅ ∘
Justify your answers.
26 CHAPTER 1 Function
1.3 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions
A function defined on a subset of which is neither a polynomial nor a rational
function nor an irrational function is called a transcendental function. Typical examples
of the transcendental functions are exponential functions, logarithmic functions and
trigonometric functions. In this section we introduce exponential and logarithmic
functions. Trigonometric functions will be discussed in the next chapter.
Exponential Functions
We fix a positive real number and define an exponential function → as
follows.
(1) When is a positive integer , then is the product of ’s, i.e., ․ ⋯ .
(2) When , is defined to be 1, i.e., .
(3) When is a negative integer with ∈ , is defined to be .
(4) When is a rational number with ∈ , is the positive real number whose
-th power is equal to , i.e.,
⋯⋯ .
(5) When with ∈ and ∈ ,
is defined to be and is denoted
by .
Remark In the above statements, (1), (2) and (3) can be defined even though is a negative real
number. For example, . In (4), if is odd,
it is meaningful even though is a negative real number. For example, .
Using the above statements (1)∼(5), we can define the exponential function
→ . Now we need to extend the domain of from to . There are two ways
to define for any real number ∈ . One of them is to use integration, which will be
discussed in the university calculus course and is omitted here. The other is to use the
1.3 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions 27
limit, which is explained briefly here with a simple example. Let us consider . We note
that 3.14, 3.141, 3.1415, … is a sequence of rational numbers converging to . Then,
3.14 3.141 3.1415
is defined to be the limit of 3 ,3 ,3 , …. Of course, this definition requires a more
rigourous logical process, which will not be discussed here since it goes beyond the level
of this book. Instead, we just assume that the exponential function is defined in this way.
In an exponential function , is called a base. If , then , which is a
constant function. Hence, when we consider an exponential function, we usually assume
that is a positive real number different from 1.
Theorem 1.3.1－Properties of Exponential Function
For two positive real numbers and two real numbers , the following equalities
hold.
(1) ⋅ (2)
(3)
(4) ⋅
Example 1.3.1 Simplify the following expressions.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Solution (1) (2) (3)
Example 1.3.2 When , simplify the following expressions.
()
(2)
×
(1) ×
(1) ×( )
Solution
( )
(2) ×
Graphs of Exponential Functions
Let us sketch the graph of . First of all, it is obvious that for any ∈ .
28 CHAPTER 1 Function
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As increases, increases. As decreases, decreases and eventually converges to 0
(see the table). The graph of is as in [Figure 1.13].
⋯ ⋯
⋯ ⋯
[Figure 1.13]
Generally the graph of is similar to the graph of . For the
exponential function is a strictly increasing function and hence it is an injective
function. If we take ∞ as a codomain, then is a bijective function
from to ∞ .
Next, we consider the graph of when . First of all, let us consider the
graph of . Since the graph of is symmetric to that of with
respect to the -axis, the graph of is symmetric to that of with
respect to the -axis. Hence, the graph of
is as in the [Figure 1.14].
[Figure 1.14]
1.3 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions 29
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As in the case of , the general exponential function is a
strictly decreasing function and hence is an injective function. Similarly, is a
bijective function from to ∞ as in the case of .
Theorem 1.3.2－Graph of Exponential Function
An exponential function satisfies the following properties.
(1) The domain is the set of all real numbers and the range is ∞ .
(2) The -intercept is 1 and the -axis is a horizontal asymptote.
(3) For , is a strictly increasing function, and for , is a
strictly decreasing function. In each case, is a bijective function from to
∞ .
Example 1.3.3 Sketch the graph of .
Solution If we shift the graph of by －1 along the -axis, then we obtain the graph
of . And then, if we reflect the graph of about the -axis, we obtain the
graph of .
[Figure 1.15]
Example 1.3.4 Solve the following equation and inequality.
(1)
(2)
≤
30 CHAPTER 1 Function
Solution (1) Putting , the given equation is reduced to
. Since , we have and hence .
(2) The given inequality can be written as ≤ . Since is a strictly
increasing function, we have ≤ , which yields ≥ and hence
≥ .
Example 1.3.5 Find the maximum and minimum values of ․ on .
Solution Since is a strictly increasing function, ․ is also strictly
increasing. Hence, the minimum value is attained at , which is .
Similarly, the maximum value is attained at , which is .
Logarithmic Functions
Since the exponential function (0 < < 1 or > 1) is a bijective function from
to ∞ , has an inverse function ∞ → . This inverse function is
called the logarithmic function and is denoted by , where is called the
base as in the case of the exponential function.
Definition 1.3.3－Logarithmic Function
⇔ ≠
Example 1.3.6 Find the domains of the following functions. Give your answers in the form
of intervals.
(1) (2)
Solution (1) Since , the domain is ∞ .
(2) Since , the domain is ∞ ∪ ∞ .
Example 1.3.7 Find the inverse functions of the following functions.
(1) (2)
1.3 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions 31
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Solution (1) If we exchange and , we get , which is simplified into
. Using Definition 1.3.3, we get with the domain
∞ . This is the inverse function of .
(2) If we exchange and , we get , which is rewritten by
. By Definition 1.3.3, we get and hence the inverse
function is .
Generally, for an invertible function and its inverse function , it is true that
and , which yields the following equalities for 0 < < 1
or > 1.
(1) (2)
If we put and in the above equality (1), we get
(1) (2)
Since the graph of and the graph of are symmetric with respect to the
line , the graph of is as in [Figure 1.16] and [Figure 1.17].
[Figure 1.16] [Figure 1.17]
We summarize the above argument as follows.
32 CHAPTER 1 Function
Theorem 1.3.4－Graph of Logarithmic Function
For , ≠ , the logarithmic function satisfies the following properties.
(1) ∞ → is a bijective function.
(2) For , is a strictly increasing function, and for , is a
strictly decreasing function.
Example 1.3.8 Arrange the following numbers in increasing order.
(1) (2)
Solution (1) Since the base
is bigger than 1, is a strictly increasing function,
which leads to
(2) Since the base is less than 1, is a strictly decreasing function, which leads to
Example 1.3.9 Sketch the graph of .
Solution We begin with the graph of . Note that the graph of is
symmetric with respect to the -axis ([Figure 1.18]). If we reflect this graph with respect
to the -axis, we get the graph of ([Figure 1.19]). If we shift this graph by
1 along the -axis and 1 along the -axis, we get the graph of ,
which is given in [Figure 1.20]).
[Figure 1.18] [Figure 1.19] [Figure 1.20]
1.3 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions 33
The logarithmic functions satisfy the following properties.
Theorem 1.3.5－Properties of Logarithmic Function
Let > 0, ≠ and > 0, > 0 and be a real number.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
Proof (1) Putting and , we get and . Hence
⋅ , which shows that and .
(4) Putting , we get . Hence,
(3) is a special case of (4), and (2) is followed by (1) and (3).
Example 1.3.10 Solve the following inequality and equation.
(1)
(2)
Solution (1) Since the base is less than 1, we get , which yields
. Since and , we get . Hence the common part is
.
(2) Since , we get
Since is an injection, we get . If we solve this equality, we
get .
34 CHAPTER 1 Function
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Theorem 1.3.6－Change of Base Formula
Let > 0, ≠ and > 0, ≠ and > 0.
Proof Setting , we get and
Thus and .
Example 1.3.11 Which number is larger, or ?
Solution By Theorem 1.3.6, we get
Since is a strictly increasing function, we get
.
Example 1.3.12 When , and , compute the minimum value of
.
Solution Since , and are bigger than 1, all of , and are positive real
numbers. If we use the relation between the arithmetic mean and geometric mean, we get
≥
Theorem 1.3.6 shows that , which leads to
≥
Note that if , we get . Hence the minimum value is .
Definition 1.3.7－Common Logarithm
The logarithmic function whose base is 10 is called the common logarithm and is
denoted simply by rather than .
1.3 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions 35
Example 1.3.13 When is a positive integer and is a -digit integer, determine the
number of the digits of .
Solution Since ≤ , we have ≤ . Thus ≤ ,
and ≤ . Hence, is a -digit integer.
Exercise 1.3
1. When , find a positive integer satisfying
.
2. Simplify the following expressions.
(1)
(2)
(3)
3. Arrange the following numbers in increasing order.
(1)
(2)
4. Find the domains of the following functions.
(1)
(2)
5. Find the domains of the following functions.
(1) (2)
6. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
7. Solve the following equations.
(1) ⋅ (2) ⋅
(3) (4)
(5) (6) ( )
36 CHAPTER 1 Function
8. Solve the following inequalities.
(1) ≤
(2) ≤
(3) ≥ (4) ≥
9. Find the minimum and maximum values of the following functions.
(1) ( ≤ ≤ ) (2) ( ≤ ≤ )
10. Solve the following systems of equations.
(1)
(2)
11. Find the range of such that the equation has two
distinct real roots.
12. Let , and ( ≠ ) be the lengths of three edges of a triangle with ,
≠ and ≠ Suppose that
⋅
Determine the shape of this triangle.
13. When and , show that ≥ .
1.3 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic Functions 37
CHAPTER 2
Trigonometric
Functions
Trigonometric ratios were developed from the study of triangles which dated back to ancient
times due to daily life’s necessities such as surveying land. Indeed, Hipparchus, a Greek
astronomer around the 1st century BC, made a table for lengths of arcs subtending central
angles to survey land. Later those trigonometric ratios were generalized to become
trigonometric functions. F. Viéte(1540∼1603, France) discovered various formulas for
trigonometric functions and J. Fourier(1768∼1830, France) developed the theory of
trigonometric functions to solve many scientific problems including vibration of chords and heat
conduction by using the periodic properties of trigonometric functions. Nowadays, the theory
of trigonometric functions plays central roles, not only in science and engineering, but also in
economic situations such as various financing problems like fluctuations in stock markets.
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2.1 Angles and Trigonometric Ratios
On a plane we denote the origin by and draw a half line called the initial side.
For a point on the plane, we rotate the initial side about the origin until reaches
the half line , called the terminal side. We call the amount of rotation from to
the rotational angle or simply the angle between and and denote it by ∠
([Figure 2.1]). If is rotated in the counterclockwise direction, the angle is defined to
be positive and if is rotated in the clockwise direction, the angle is defined to be
negative. We use the degree or the radian for the unit of measurement for angles.
[Figure 2.1]
Definition 2.1.1－Degree
The measure of the angle obtained by one complete revolution in the counterclockwise
direction from the initial side is defined to be 360 degree and is written by 360°.
The angle of measure 1 degree, written by 1°, is of the above angle.
On the other hand, in a circle the length of an arc is proportional to the size of a central
angle. This property gives another way of expressing an angle. More precisely, the
method of representing the size of an angle by using the length of an arc is explained in
Definition 2.1.2 below, which is called the radian measure. In many computations the
radian measure is more convenient to use than the degree measure, and hence in this book
the radian measure is used in most cases.
2.1 Angles and Trigonometric Ratios 41
Definition 2.1.2－Radian
When the length of an arc in a circle is equal to the radius, the
measure of the central angle is defined to be 1 radian and is
denoted by 1 rad or simply by 1. When the measure of an
angle is represented by the radian measure, we often omit the
unit of measurement rad. [Figure 2.2]
We note that the measure of the angle obtained by one complete revolution in the
counterclockwise direction from the initial side is 360° in degree measure and 2 rad
in radian measure, which shows that 360° is equal to 2 rad. This leads to the following
result.
Theorem 2.1.3－Relation between Radian and Degree
°
°
Example 2.1.1 Relations between radian and degree
[Table 2.1]
° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 360°
Theorem 2.1.4－The Length of an Arc and the Area of a Circular Sector
On a circle of radius , we consider a circular sector of the central angle
( ≤ ) and denote by and the length of an arc and the area of the circular
sector, respectively. Then
(1) (2)
Proof We note that the length of an arc is proportional to the measure of a central angle
and the proportional expression is , which yields . Since the area of the
42 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
circular sector satisfies the proportional expression , is given by
×
Example 2.1.2 For a circular sector with a central angle lying on a circle of radius 2,
compute the length of the arc and the area of the circular sector.
Solution ×
× ×
Definition 2.1.5－Trigonometric Ratios
On a right triangle with ∠ , the following six
ratios do not depend on the magnitude of a right triangle
but depend only on the angle ∠ . These ratios are
called the sine, cosine, tangent, secant, cosecant and
cotangent of ∠ and altogether these six ratios are called
[Figure 2.3]
the trigonometric ratios. The definition is given as follows.
, ,
, ,
Example 2.1.3－Trigonometric Ratios for , ,
2.1 Angles and Trigonometric Ratios 43
Example 2.1.4 A person whose height from the ground to his eyes is 1.6 is standing 100
away from a building. When he looks at the top of the building, the angle is as shown in
[Figure 2.4]. Estimate the height of the building.
Solution Let us denote by the height of the building and put − 1.6
[Figure 2.4]
Since , ⋅ . Hence, the height of the building is
≈
Exercise 2.1
1. Express the following angles in radians.
(1) 20° (2) 40° (3) 200° (4) 315°
2. Express the following angles in degrees.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
3. Consider a circular sector whose radius is 5 and central angle is .
(1) Compute the length of the arc.
(2) Compute the area of the sector.
44 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
4. Consider a circular sector whose radius is 3 and central angle is 40°.
(1) Compute the length of the arc.
(2) Compute the area of the circular sector.
5. In a circular sector whose radius is 2 and central angle is 45°, compute the area
of the region between the arc and the chord.
6. Consider a right triangle with one angle . If the length of the hypotenuse is
10, use trigonometric ratios to compute the lengths of the other two edges.
7. Consider a square whose diagonal is of length 10. Use trigonometric ratios to
compute the length of an edge.
8. Find the lengths of all diagonals of the cube whose edge is of length 1.
9. When a person on a ship observed the top of a mountain, the angle between the
surface of the sea and the top of the mountain was . When he observed the top
of the mountain after he moved 1 toward the mountain, the angle was .
Estimate the height of the mountain. (Here we ignore the heights of the person
and the ship.)
2.2 Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are generalizations of trigonometric ratios. Before we define
trigonometric functions, we begin with explaining general angles. We consider an angle
∠ with the initial side . Even if we add angles of a complete one turn, two turns,
three turns, etc, to the angle ∠ , all of these angles have the same terminal side .
The concept of general angles distinguishes angles having the same terminal side but a
different number of turns.
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 45
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Definition 2.2.1－General Angles
Let ∠ (rad). As shown in [Figure 2.5], an angle
for an integer ∈ is called the general
angle between and .
[Figure 2.5]
As shown in [Figure 2.6], we consider in the coordinate plane. This point is
obtained by rotating a point on the -axis about the origin by an
angle . The following values of six ratios do not depend on the length of the line
segment
but depend only on the angle and hence they can be regarded as functions
of , which are called sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant and cotangent of . These
are called trigonometric functions. When is an acute angle, i.e., , the
trigonometric functions are equal to the trigonometric ratios.
Definition 2.2.2－Trigonometric Functions
For a point , put
and ∠ . The trigonometric
functions are defined as follows.
The angle should be excluded from the domains of
trigonometric functions if they are not defined. [Figure 2.6]
The following result is an easy consequence of the definition of trigonometric
functions.
46 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
Theorem 2.2.3
Proof Note that , which gives the first equality. The other
equalities can be checked similarly, which we omit.
Theorem 2.2.4－Periodic Properties of Trigonometric Functions
For any integer ∈ , the following equalities hold.
(1) (2)
(3)
Proof Since and have the same terminal sides, the statements (1) and (2) hold.
If is the point determined by the angle , then ′ is the point
determined by the angle . Then, Definition 2.2.2 shows that
.
Example 2.2.1 Find the exact values.
(1) (2)
Solution
(1)
(2)
The following results are very basic relations which are used frequently.
Theorem 2.2.5－Relations Involving Squares
(1) (2) (3)
Proof We can prove (1) by using in Definition 2.2.2. Namely,
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 47
The identities (2) and (3) are obtained by dividing the equation (1) by or .
Remark As we see in the above proof, the identity is equivalent to the
Pythagorean Theorem.
Example 2.2.2 When , evaluate and .
Solution From , . Since
, we have . Finally,
⋅ ⋅
Next, we discuss the signs of the values of trigonometric functions. Since the radius
is always positive, the signs of the values of trigonometric functions are determined by the
signs of and of the point . More precisely, since , the sign of
is equal to the sign of . Similarly, since , the sign of is equal to the sign
of . The table below shows the signs of the values of trigonometric functions for angles
belonging to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th quadrants, respectively.
48 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
Example 2.2.3 When and , evaluate .
Solution From , we have ±
. Since and
are negative, the angle belongs to the 2nd quadrant and thus is positive.
Hence,
Theorem 2.2.6－Symmetric Properties (Odd and Even Functions)
The sine and tangent functions are odd functions, and the cosine function is an even
function, i.e.,
(1) (2) (3)
Proof We denote by and ′ ′ ′ the intersection points of the unit circle
and the terminal sides representing the angles and , respectively. Then
and ′ are symmetric about the -axis. So we have ′ and ′ . Hence,
′
′
′
′
Example 2.2.4 Compute .
Solution Since the trigonometric functions are periodic and the sine function is odd, we
have
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 49
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Example 2.2.5 When , express in terms of .
Solution
Next, we discuss the graphs of trigonometric functions. We denote by an
arbitrary point on the unit circle with center the origin , and denote by the angle
represented by the terminal side measured from the -axis, as shown in [Figure 2.7]
below.
[Figure 2.7]
Graph of Sine Function
We note that is the -coordinate of , which is , i.e., . We place on
the -axis and on the -axis. If we examine how changes as changes, we
can sketch the graph of as shown in [Figure 2.8] below.
The domain of is the set of all real numbers and the range is
≤ ≤ .
50 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
[Figure 2.8]
Graph of Cosine Function
If we rotate the plane containing the unit circle by as in [Figure 2.9], is the
height of .
[Figure 2.9]
We place and on the -axis and -axis, respectively, and observe how
changes as changes. Then we can sketch the graph of as shown in [Figure
2.10] below.
[Figure 2.10]
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 51
The domain of is the set of all real numbers and the range is
≤ ≤ just like the sine function.
If we shift the graph of cosine function by along the -axis, we get the graph of sine
function, i.e., . Since the cosine function is an even function, we also
get . Furthermore, . We
summarize these relations as follows.
Theorem 2.2.7－Relation between sine and cosine
(1)
(2)
Graph of Tangent Function
As shown in [Figure 2.11], we denote by the intersection of the straight line
that extends the terminal side representing the angle and the tangent line to the unit
circle at . Then,
[Figure 2.11]
Placing and on the -axis and -axis, respectively, and observing the change of
according to the change of , we can sketch the graph of as in [Figure
52 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
2.12] below. The domain of is ∈ ≠ ∈ and the range is
the set of all real numbers.
[Figure 2.12]
The graphs of other trigonometric functions can be sketched by using the relations
, ,
[Figure 2.13]
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 53
[Figure 2.14]
[Figure 2.15]
In the graph of each trigonometric function, the same shapes appear repeatedly and
regularly, which is called the periodic property of a trigonometric function. The minimal
length of the interval that the same shape appears in is called the fundamental period of
the trigonometric function. We can easily see that any integer multiple of a fundamental
period also becomes a period. For example, the fundamental periods of sine and cosine
functions are and the fundamental period of tangent function is . Furthermore, ,
, , ⋯ are the periods of sine and cosine functions and , , , ⋯ are the periods
of tangent function. Due to their periodic properties, trigonometric functions have played
very important roles in describing various periodic phenomena in the natural sciences.
We note that the fundamental periods of and are , which is half of , the
fundamental periods of and . Similarly, the fundamental periods of
54 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
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and are , which is double the fundamental periods of and .
Generally, for , the fundamental periods of and are , and the
reciprocal of the fundamental period is call the frequency.
[Figure 2.16]
On the other hand, the maximum and minimum values of and
are +1 and －1, respectively. Similarly, for a positive real number
, the maximum and minimum values of and
are and , respectively. In this case, is called the amplitude of . If is a
negative real number, the amplitude is .
Theorem 2.2.8－Amplitude, Fundamental Period and Frequency
For and with ≠ , the amplitude, fundamental
period and frequency are , and , respectively.
Example 2.2.6 Find the amplitudes, fundamental periods and frequencies of the following
functions.
(1) (2) (3)
Solution(1) Amplitude , fundamental period , frequency
(2) Amplitude , fundamental period , frequency
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 55
(3) Since ,
is the shift of by along the -axis, which implies that the amplitude,
fundamental period and frequency of are equal to those of
. Hence, amplitude , fundamental period and frequency
Finally, we discuss the inverse functions of trigonometric functions. Since
trigonometric functions are periodic, they are not injective functions. Hence
trigonometric functions are not invertible. However, by restricting their domains and
ranges properly, we can make them bijective functions. For example, if we restrict the
domain and range to and , then is a bijective function.
Similarly, is a bijective function if we restrict the domain and range to
and . For the tangent function, if we restrict the domain to , then
is a bijective function with the range . Then we can define the inverse
functions of sine, cosine and tangent functions. Similarly, we are able to define the
inverse functions of secant, cosecant and cotangent functions by restricting the domains
and ranges properly, but we are going to discuss only the inverse functions of sine, cosine
and tangent functions which are also called arcsine, arccosine and arctangent functions.
We begin with the definition of the inverse sine function.
Definition 2.2.9－Inverse Sine Function or Arcsine Function
⇔
≤ ≤ ≤ ≤
[Figure 2.17]
Remark The notation “ ” means the inverse function of , which is different from
.
56 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
The following result is obtained easily from the definition.
Theorem 2.2.10－Relation between sin and sin－1
(1) For ≤ ≤ ,
(2) For ≤ ≤ ,
The inverse cosine function (or the arccosine function) is defined in a similar way.
Definition 2.2.11－Inverse Cosine Function or Arccosine Function
⇔
( ≤ ≤ , ≤ ≤ )
[Figure 2.18]
－1
Theorem 2.2.12－Relation between cos and cos
(1) For ≤ ≤ ,
(2) For ≤ ≤ ,
Finally, we study the inverse function of tangent function. The tangent function
is a strictly increasing function in and the range for this interval is
the set of all real numbers. The inverse tangent function or the arctangent function is
defined as follows.
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 57
Definition 2.2.13－Inverse Tangent Function or Arctangent Function
⇔
∞ ∞
[Figure 2.19]
－1
Theorem 2.2.14－Relation between tan and tan
(1) For all ∈ ,
(2) For ,
Example 2.2.7 Find the exact values.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Solution (1) Note that and the angle satisfying in
is , which leads to .
(2) By Theorem 2.2.12, .
(3) If we denote by the angle such that in , then
belongs to the 1st quadrant, i.e., , which yields . Hence,
.
58 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
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Exercise 2.2
1. Find the exact values.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
2. When and , evaluate .
3. For the following trigonometric functions, find the domains, ranges, fundamental
periods and symmetric properties (even or odd functions).
(1) (2) (3)
4. For the following trigonometric functions, find the amplitudes and fundamental
periods, and sketch the graphs.
(1)
(2)
5. Prove statements (2) and (3) in Theorem 2.2.5.
6. Prove the following identities.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5)
7. Show that the terminal sides representing the angles and are symmetric
with respect to and use this fact to prove Theorem 2.2.7.
8. Find ( ) so that has only one root.
9.
Suppose that a function satisfies for ∈ . Show
that .
2.2 Trigonometric Functions 59
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10. Find the following values.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5) (6)
11. Determine the domains and ranges such that , and
have their inverse functions. Find the following values.
(1)
(2)
(3)
12. Find the following values.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
2.3 Properties of Trigonometric Functions
In this section we discuss various formulas for trigonometric functions. We begin with
the addition and subtraction formulas.
Theorem 2.3.1－Addition and Subtraction Formulas
± ±
± ∓
±
±
∓
Proof Without loss of generality, we may assume that . As shown in
[Figure 2.20], we denote by the intersection of the unit circle with center the
origin and the -axis, by , , and the intersections of the
unit circle and the terminal sides representing the angles , and ,
60 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
respectively. Since the triangles and are congruent, the line segments
and
have the same lengths, which yields
Squaring both sides of the above equality and using the fact
,
we have
On the other hand, we have
Hence
[Figure 2.20]
The other formulas can be proven by using properties given in Section 2.2 as follows.
2.3 Properties of Trigonometric Functions 61
Example 2.3.1 Prove the following identities.
(1) (2)
Solution (1)
(2)
⋅
Example 2.3.2 Evaluate and .
Solution
62 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
Most formulas about trigonometric functions can be shown by using Theorem 2.3.1.
For example, the following Theorems 2.3.2 and 2.3.3 can be proven by using similar
methods as Example 2.3.1, whose proofs are left as exercises.
Theorem 2.3.2－Trigonometric Functions with ±
Theorem 2.3.3－Trigonometric Functions with ±
Example 2.3.3 When , express in terms of .
Solution Using Theorem 2.3.3, we have
Hence
Theorem 2.3.4－Double-Angle Formulas
(1)
(2)
(3)
2.3 Properties of Trigonometric Functions 63
Proof Using the addition formulas, we have
Example 2.3.4 When , evaluate .
Solution ⋅ ⋅
⋅
⋅
Theorem 2.3.5－Triple-Angle Formulas
(1) (2)
Proof We leave the proof of (1) as an exercise.
(2)
Theorem 2.3.6－Half-Angle Formulas
(1) (2) (3)
64 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
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Proof Since , we have . Since
, we have . Replacing by , we obtain the first two
equalities. These two identities yield
Example 2.3.5 When , evaluate .
Solution From , we have . Solving this
equality, we get . Hence .
Theorem 2.3.7－Sums of Sine and Cosine
(1)
,
(2)
,
Proof (1) We note that
Since
and
as shown in [Figure 2.21], we have
[Figure 2.21]
A similar method can be applied to prove (2), which is left as an exercise.
2.3 Properties of Trigonometric Functions 65
Example 2.3.6 Find the maximum and minimum values of
.
Solution Using Theorem 2.3.7, we have
Hence the maximum value is 2 and the minimum value is －2.
The following identities are the formulas for the products of trigonometric functions,
which play important roles in integration.
Theorem 2.3.8－Product-to-Sum Formulas
Proof We note that
(2.1)
(2.2)
If we divide (2.1)＋(2.2) by 2, we get
If we divide (2.1)－(2.2) by 2, we get
Similarly, we can check the other two formulas by using and .
Example 2.3.7 Evaluate .
Solution Using Theorem 2.3.8, we have
66 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
From Theorem 2.3.8, we obtain the following identities called the sum-to-product
formulas.
Theorem 2.3.9－Sum-to-Product Formulas
Proof We use the product-to-sum formulas to prove the above identities.
We next give some examples of trigonometric equations whose unknowns are angles.
2.3 Properties of Trigonometric Functions 67
Example 2.3.8 Solve the equation , ( ≤ ).
Solution Since or , the solution is or .
Example 2.3.9 Solve the equation , ( ≤ ).
Solution Since , we have
If we solve this equation, we get . If , then .
If , then . Hence or .
Example 2.3.10 Solve the equation , ( ≤ ).
Solution Since , we get
,
which yields . Hence .
Exercise 2.3
1. Prove Theorem 2.3.2, 2.3.3, 2.3.5(1) and 2.3.7(2).
2.
Simplify .
3. When a function → satisfies for any ∈ , show
that .
4. Show that if .
5. When , evaluate .
68 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
6. When , evaluate , ( ≤ ≤ ).
7. Express as a polynomial of degree 5 in . Similarly, express
as a polynomial of degree 5 in .
8. Use the product-to-sum formulas to express the following functions as a sum or
difference of two sine or cosine functions.
(1) (2) (3)
9. Use the sum-to-product formulas to express the following functions as a
product of sine or cosine functions.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
10. Prove the following identities.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
(7) (8)
11. When and , evaluate .
12. When and , evaluate .
13. When , show that
.
14. Consider a circle of radius 1 such that the line segment is a diameter
([Figure 2.22]). Let be a point on this circle. We draw a perpendicular line
from to and denote the intersection by . Find the maximum value of
2.3 Properties of Trigonometric Functions 69
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and the length of the line segment
when
attains the maximum value.
[Figure 2.22]
15. When for a triangle , find ∠ .
16. Solve the following trigonometric equations.
(1) (2)
(3)
(4) ≤
(5) ≤ (6)
17. Find the maximum values and fundamental periods of the following
trigonometric functions.
(1)
(2)
(3)
18. Show that . Use this identity to evaluate the
following expressions.
(1)
(2)
70 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
2.4 Triangles and Trigonometric Functions
A triangle is fully determined if one of the following three conditions is given: (1)
lengths of three edges, (2) lengths of two edges and an angle between them, (3) length of
one edge and two angles at its end points. Under these circumstances we can find the
lengths of the other edges and angles, which we call solving a triangle. In this section we
usually denote a triangle by . The three vertices of a triangle are denoted by ,
and and the angles at these points are denoted by ∠ , ∠ and ∠ , or simply by ,
and . The lengths of edges opposite to vertices , and are denoted by , and
. Once a triangle is determined, then we can find the area of this triangle and the radii of
the inscribed and circumscribed circles as well.
Theorem 2.4.1－Area of Triangle
If a triangle has two edges of lengths , and an angle between them, then the area
is given by
Proof If the length of a base edge is , then the height is .
Hence .
Example 2.4.1 When a triangle has
,
and ∠ , compute
the area.
Solution By Theorem 2.4.1, the area is
⋅⋅⋅
2.4 Triangles and Trigonometric Functions 71
Theorem 2.4.2－Law of Sines
Let be the radius of the circumscribed circle of
a triangle ([Figure 2.23]). Then,
[Figure 2.23]
Proof We show the theorem only for . The same method can be applied to angles and
. Let be the center of the circumscribed circle.
(1) The case ∠ : We denote by the intersection of the edge and the line
perpendicular to
from , and consider the triangle . Then the length of
is half of the length of
. Since the angle at the center is twice the angle at the
circumference, we have ∠ ∠ ∠ .
Hence
∠ ,
which shows that
[Figure 2.24]
(2) The case ∠ : Note that and .
Hence .
[Figure 2.25]
72 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
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(3) The case ∠ : We denote by the intersection of the edge
and the line
perpendicular to
from , and consider the triangle . Since the angle at the
center is twice the angle at the circumference, we have ∠ ∠ . Hence
∠ ∠ ∠ ∠ ,
which shows that
∠
Therefore, .
[Figure 2.26]
Example 2.4.2 Suppose that ∠ ∠ and . Solve and find the
radius of the circumscribed circle.
Solution Since the sum of interior angles of a triangle is , ∠ . Using Theorem
2.4.2, we have
⋅
Since (Example 2.3.2 in Section 2.3), we have
, ⋅
2.4 Triangles and Trigonometric Functions 73
Theorem 2.4.3－First Law of Cosines
The following identities hold for a triangle .
Proof We show only the first identity. We draw a perpendicular line from the vertex to
the straight line
and denote the intersection by .
(1) The case ∠ and ∠
.
[Figure 2.27]
(2) The case ∠ : Since and ,
.
[Figure 2.28]
(3) The case ∠ : Since ,
74 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
[Figure 2.29]
(4) The case ∠ and ∠ ≥ : The proof is similar to (2) and (3).
Theorem 2.4.4－Second Law of Cosines
The following identities hold for a triangle .
Proof If we multiply the three identities of the first law of cosines by , and ,
respectively, we get
(2.3)
(2.4)
(2.5)
If we compute (2.3)－(2.4)－(2.5), we get
Hence
The other two equalities can be checked in the same way.
Example 2.4.3 When a triangle has edges of lengths 4, 5 and 7, compute the area.
Solution If we denote by the angle between the edges of lengths 4 and 5, the above
theorem tells that
⋅⋅
2.4 Triangles and Trigonometric Functions 75
Since , we have and hence . Theorem 2.4.1 shows that
⋅⋅⋅
Theorem 2.4.5－Heron’s Formula
Let , and be the lengths of edges of a triangle. The area of this triangle is
given by
, where
Proof We denote by , and the angles opposite to edges of lengths , and . Using
Theorem 2.4.1 and 2.3.4,
Using Theorem 2.3.6 and the second law of cosine , we get the
following equality.
Similarly, we get
Combining these two equalities, we have
76 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
Example 2.4.4 Use Heron’s formula to find the area of the triangle given in Example
2.4.3.
Solution Since , the area
⋅⋅⋅
.
Theorem 2.4.6－Radius of Inscribed Circle
Let , and be the lengths of three edges of a triangle of area . Then the radius
of the inscribed circle is given by
Proof As shown in [Figure 2.30], we denote the three vertices by , and and the
center of the inscribed circle by . We decompose the triangle by ,
and . Then
Hence
[Figure 2.30]
Example 2.4.5 Find the radius of the inscribed circle of the triangle given in Example 2.4.3.
Solution Since the area of the triangle is
, the above theorem shows that
⋅
2.4 Triangles and Trigonometric Functions 77
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Exercise 2.4
1. Consider a parallelogram whose area is 10 as shown in [Figure 2.31].
When and , find ∠ .
[Figure 2.31]
2. Let be the radius of the circumscribed circle of a triangle . Show that
the area of is given by .
3. When a triangle has
and ∠ , find
.
4. On a triangle , show that
5. When a triangle satisfies
, find
.
6. As shown in [Figure 2.32], we consider a rectangle
with and . Let be the
point on such that
. When
∠ , compute .
[Figure 2.32]
7. When a triangle has three edges of lengths 3, 12 and 13, find the radii of the
inscribed and circumscribed circles.
78 CHAPTER 2 Trigonometric Functions
CHAPTER 3
Vectors
To measure physical quantities like velocities or forces, we need to describe the magnitudes
and directions of objects together, which leads to the concept of vectors. Naturally, vectors
are very useful in describing various physical phenomena such as trajectories of moving
objects. This concept was first introduced in the 16th century to study the movements of
celestial bodies and was expanded to the modern concept by many mathematicians and
physicists including W. Hamilton(1805∼1865, England), H. Grassmann(1831∼1879, Germany),
and J. C. Maxwell(1831∼1879, England). In particular, W. Hamilton introduced coordinates on
vectors and H. Grassmann defined the inner products and cross products of vectors.
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3.1 The Concept of Vectors and Basic Operations
Many mathematical or physical objects are completely determined by their magnitudes
alone. For example, the length of a line segment, area of a figure, mass of material, and
time are measured in this manner. To describe the measurements of these objects, we
need only numbers with proper units. However, there are also many physical quantities
which require more than “one number” to give an accurate description such as
movements of bodies, velocities or forces, etc. For instance, when we describe the
movement of a body, we need to write simultaneously the direction in which it moves and
how far it moves. Similarly, when we describe the velocity of a body, we need to write
both the direction in which it moves and how fast it moves. These two examples imply
that to describe some physical quantities we need a new method to express magnitude and
direction at the same time. The natural way to do this is to use a directed line segment (a
line segment having a direction), which is expressed by an arrow. The direction of the
arrow shows the direction that a body moves in and the length of the arrow indicates the
distance that a body moves. This shows that a directed line segment (or an arrow) can
represent the magnitude and direction simultaneously. This directed line segment or an
arrow is called a vector.
Definition 3.1.1－Vector
A vector is a mathematical concept which represents the magnitude and direction
simultaneously and is denoted by a directed line segment or an arrow.
As shown in [Figure 3.1], a vector is usually expressed by
, which means the
directed line segment (or an arrow) from an initial point to a terminal point . We
sometimes denote a vector by or a bold-faced letter . A vector whose initial point
equals the terminal point is called the zero vector and is denoted by . The direction of the
zero vector is not defined. The length of the line segment connecting and , denoted by
, is called the magnitude or the length of the vector . A vector whose
magnitude is 1 is called a unit vector. We should note that two vectors, wherever they are
3.1 The Concept of Vectors and Basic Operations 81
located, are the same if their directions and lengths are the same. For example, two vectors
given in [Figure 3.2] are the same vectors.
[Figure 3.1] [Figure 3.2]
Remark Strictly speaking, a directed line segment is a slightly different from a vector. Two
directed line segments are different if their initial points are different. However, two
vectors are defined to be the same only if their directions and lengths are the same,
wherever they start. To avoid this ambiguity, we are going to use only one terminology,
“vector”.
We define the addition and substraction of two vectors and the multiplication of a
vector by a constant as follows.
Definition 3.1.2－Multiplication of a Vector by a Constant
For a real number ∈ and a vector , we define as follows.
(1) If , is the vector whose direction is equal to that of and length is times
.
(2) If , is the vector whose direction is opposite to that of and length is
times .
(3) If , .
The above definition leads to the following result, whose proof is omitted.
Theorem 3.1.3
For a vector
and a real number , the following equalities hold.
(1)
(2)
82 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
Statement (2) in the above theorem shows that for ≠ ,
Hence is a unit vector whose direction equals that of . The vector is called
the directional vector of .
Example 3.1.1 For points and in the coordinate plane, find the
directional vector of
.
Solution Since
, the directional vector of is
, where
Definition 3.1.4－Sum of Two Vectors
As shown in [Figure 3.3], for
and
, the sum is defined as
follows.
[Figure 3.3]
The sum of two vectors satisfies the law of parallelogram (or composition of two
vectors), which means that if we move the initial point of to and find a point ′ such
that
′
, then the quadrangle ′ is a parallelogram and the sum of two
vectors becomes the diagonal of this parallelogram.
Example 3.1.2 For three points , and on the coordinate plane,
consider two vectors
and . When , find the coordinate of .
Solution As shown in [Figure 3.4], the coordinate of is .
3.1 The Concept of Vectors and Basic Operations 83
[Figure 3.4]
Theorem 3.1.5－Properties of sum of vectors
For three vectors , and , the following equalities hold.
(1) (2)
Proof As shown in [Figure 3.3], we note that
′ , which shows that
′
′
We leave the proof of (2) as an exercise.
We usually denote simply by . As shown in [Figure 3.5], we have
′
′
′
′
′
[Figure 3.5]
84 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
Example 3.1.3 For three points , and on the coordinate plane,
consider two vectors
and
. When
, find the coordinate of .
Solution We denote the coordinate of by . Since the quadrangle is a
parallelogram, the middle point of the diagonal line is the same as the middle point
of as shown in [Figure 3.6]. Hence, , which shows that
and . The coordinate of is .
[Figure 3.6]
Example 3.1.4 As shown in [Figure 3.7], we consider two vectors
and
.
If is the point on the line segment such that
, show that
.
Solution
[Figure 3.7]
3.1 The Concept of Vectors and Basic Operations 85
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Exercise 3.1
1. On the parallelogram given in [Figure 3.8] below, find the same
vectors.
[Figure 3.8]
2. When vectors , and are given as arrows below, draw the following vectors.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
3. In the following regular hexagon given in [Figure 3.9], express the following
vectors in terms of and .
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
[Figure 3.9]
4. Find the magnitude of the vector
whose initial point is and
terminal point is .
86 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
5. For , and , find the coordinate of the point
such that
is the directional vector of
.
6. When , , and are vertices of a triangle, show that
is the
zero vector.
7. Prove statement (2) in Theorem 3.1.5.
3.2 The Position Vectors
Plane Vectors
If we fix the initial point of a vector at the origin on the coordinate plane, a vector
is determined by the position or the coordinate of . Conversely, for any point on
the plane, we can consider a vector
. This means that the vector
is identified with
the point on the coordinated plane and is called the position vector of . If we
denote the coordinate of by , we usually denote the position vector by
, the same notation as the coordinate of . Here and are called the
-component and -component of , respectively.
Remark In some other books, the position vector is denoted by or rather than
to distinguish it from the coordinate of . But in this book we are going to use the
same symbol for both the coordinate and position vector of when there is no
ambiguity. In cases that ambiguity may occur, we will write a “point ” or a
“vector ” to distinguish a vector from a point more clearly.
Example 3.2.1 Find the position vector
which is equal to
, where and
are two points in the coordinate plane.
SolutionIf we move the initial point of
to the origin , the terminal point
of
is moved to . Hence,
.
3.2 The Position Vectors 87
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The position vector of the origin in the coordinate plane is the zero vector and is
denoted by (0, 0). The following result shows how to express the multiplication of a
vector by a constant, sum of two vectors and the length of a vector by using position
vectors.
Theorem 3.2.1－Properties of Position Vectors 1
For vectors and a real number ∈ , the following
equalities hold.
(1) (2) (3)
Example 3.2.2 For two vectors and , find the following vectors.
(1) (2) (3) the directional vector of
Solution (1)
(2)
(3)
The position vectors and are denoted by and , respectively, and they
are called the standard unit vectors. In other words, is the unit vector whose direction is
the positive -axis and is the unit vector whose direction is the positive -axis. By
Theorem 3.2.1, the position vector of the point is expressed by , i.e.,
Example 3.2.3 For vectors and , find .
Solution
Space Vectors
Using the same method, we extend position vectors in plane to those in space. If we are
given a point in a space, we consider the vector
whose initial point is the origin
88 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
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and terminal point is . In this case, we call the position vector of . If the
coordinate of is , we denote the position vector
by , the
same notation as the coordinate of . In this case, we call , and the -component,
-component and -component of , respectively. The position vector corresponding to
is the zero vector . The following result is the space version of Theorem 3.2.1.
Theorem 3.2.2－Properties of Position Vectors 2
For vectors and a real number ∈ , the following
equalities hold.
(1) (2)
(3)
Example 3.2.4 For vectors and , find the following vectors.
(1) (2)
(3) the directional vector of
Solution (1)
(2)
(3)
Example 3.2.5 For three vectors and , find and
such that .
Solution Using Theorem 3.2.2 to express componentwise, we get
. Hence .
Solving these equations, we have and .
In coordinate space, the unit vectors whose directions are the -axis, -axis and -axis are
denoted by , and and are called the standard unit vectors, as was the case for plane
vectors. The position vector
of the point is expressed by
.
3.2 The Position Vectors 89
Example 3.2.6 For , find the length .
Solution Since ,
.
Exercise 3.2
1. Find the position vectors which are equal to
.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
2. For vectors and , express and in terms of the standard unit
vectors.
(1) (2)
3. For vectors and , find .
(1) Plane vectors ,
(2) Space vectors
4. Suppose that a position vector of length 4 is located on the 1st quadrant and
the angle between and the positive -axis is . Find the - and -component
of the vector .
5. Let and .
(1) Draw the vectors and in the coordinate plane.
(2) Find and such that .
6. Let and . When two position vectors and
corresponding to points and in the coordinate plane satisfy the following
relations, find the coordinates of and .
90 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
3.3 The Inner Product and the Vector Product
In this section we study the products of vectors. There are two ways to define products
of two vectors: One is the inner product and the other is the vector product. The inner
product of two vectors results in a scalar which is a real number, and hence the inner
product is also called the scalar product. But the vector product of two vectors results in
a new vector. The vector product is available only for space vectors but the inner product
is defined for both plane vectors and space vectors.
Definition 3.3.1－Inner Product
For two vectors and , the inner product ⋅ is defined as follows.
(1) For plane vectors and ,
⋅
(2) For space vectors and ,
⋅
Example 3.3.1 For , and , find ⋅ and
⋅ .
Solution ⋅ × × ×
⋅ × × ×
The following properties of the inner product can be checked easily, whose proofs are
left as exercises.
Theorem 3.3.2－Properties of Inner Product
For vectors and a real number ∈ , the following equalities hold.
(1) ⋅ (2) ⋅ ⋅
(3) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (4) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
3.3 The Inner Product and the Vector Product 91
Two plane vectors having the same initial points make two angles. If one of them is ,
then the other is . The angle between two vectors is defined as the smaller of the
two previously mentioned angles. In other words, the angle between two vectors
satisfies ≤ ≤ . For space vectors, we note that two space vectors lie on a same plane
and the angle between them means the angle between two vectors on this plane. If the
angle between two vectors is 0 or , these two vectors are said to be parallel. If ,
they are said to be perpendicular. The following result shows the relation between the
inner product of two vectors and the angle between them, which holds for both plane
vectors and space vectors.
Theorem 3.3.3－Relation between Inner Product and Angle
If and are two nonzero vectors and is the angle between them, the inner product
of and satisfies
⋅
Proof We put
and
and prove the theorem when and are not
parallel. When two vectors are parallel, the proof is easier, and we leave this case to the
readers. Theorem 3.3.2 shows that
⋅
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
⋅
As shown in [Figure 3.10], we put
, and . Then the second law of
cosines (Theorem 2.4.4) shows that
From these two equalities of
, we obtain ⋅ .
92 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
[Figure 3.10]
Theorem 3.3.3 shows that the angle between two nonzero vectors and satisfies
⋅
. In particular, and are perpendicular if and only if ⋅ .
Example 3.3.2 Find the angle between the following two vectors.
(1) , (2) ,
Solution (1) Since ⋅ × × , and .
(2) Since ⋅ × × × and
× , we have
․
. Hence .
Example 3.3.3 Find the unit vector which is perpendicular to both and
Solution If we put , then
⋅
⋅
Thus, and . In other words, the vector is perpendicular
to both and . Since the length of is 1, we have , which shows that
± . Hence,
±
∓ ±
3.3 The Inner Product and the Vector Product 93
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Next, we discuss the vector product.
Definition 3.3.4－Vector Product
For two space vectors and , the vector product ×
is defined by
×
To memorize the above definition more easily, we usually write × in the following
way. We define
,
which is the determinant of the matrix . Then, we write the vector product × by
×
Example 3.3.4 Compute the vector products of the following pairs of vectors.
(1)
(2)
Solution
(1) ×
(2) × ×
Direction of the vector product ×
The following theorem gives an important information for the direction of the vector
product of two vectors.
94 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
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Theorem 3.3.5－Direction of Vector Product
For two nonzero vectors and , the vector product × is perpendicular to both
and .
Proof If the inner product of × and is equal to 0, then × is perpendicular to .
× ⋅ ⋅ ×
By the same method, one can show that × is perpendicular to .
The above theorem shows that the direction of × is perpendicular to the plane
determined by and . We note that there are two directions which are perpendicular to
this plane. To determine which one is the right direction of × , we consider an easy
example × , which is by the previous example, i.e., × . As shown in [Figure
3.11], the direction of × is the direction where a right-handed screw proceeds when we
rotate to along the angle (of less than ) between and , which is the direction of .
Generally, the direction of × follows the law of a right-handed screw: The direction
of × is the direction where a right-handed screw proceeds when we rotate to along
the angle (of less than ) between and . Hence, the direction of × is opposite to the
direction of × . Since they have the same lengths (see Theorem 3.3.6 below), we have
× × .
[Figure 3.11]
Example 3.3.5 Find unit vectors which are perpendicular to the plane passing through
and .
3.3 The Inner Product and the Vector Product 95
Solution Since ± × is perpendicular to the plane determined by these three
points, it is enough to find the directional vector of
×
. Since
×
× ,
the directional vector of
×
is given by
×
×
Hence, the desired unit vector is or .
Length of the vector product ×
The following result gives a way of finding the length × of the vector product
× . Since this result can be checked by a simple computation, the proof is left as an
exercise.
Theorem 3.3.6－Relation between Vector Product and Inner Product
× ⋅
Combining the above theorem with Theorem 3.3.3, we get
× ⋅
which leads to the following result.
Theorem 3.3.7－Length of Vector Product
For two nonzero vectors and , let be the angle between them ≤ ≤ . Then
the following equality holds.
×
The above theorem has the following geometric interpretation. As shown in [Figure
96 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
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3.12], let
and
in the parallelogram . Then in this parallelogram,
the length of the base is and the height is and hence the area is
×
[Figure 3.12]
This fact means that the length × is exactly the area of the parallelogram determined by
the vectors and . In particular, the area of the triangle is given by
×
×
Example 3.3.6 Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are ,
and .
Since
Solution and
, the vector product
×
is given by
×
Hence, the area of the triangle is
Exercise 3.3
1. Prove statements (1)∼(4) in Theorem 3.3.2.
3.3 The Inner Product and the Vector Product 97
2. Compute the inner products of the following pairs of vectors.
(1)
(2)
(3) ,
(4) , , the angle between and is
3. Prove the following equalities.
(1) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ (2) ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
4. Determine whether the following pairs of vectors are parallel or perpendicular
or none of them.
(1) (2)
5. Solve the triangle whose vertices are , and .
6. Find the vector products × .
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
7. Find the vectors which are perpendicular to both and and have given
lengths.
(1) , , length
(2) , , length
8. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are and
.
9. Prove Theorem 3.3.6.
10. Let be the line passing through the points and in space. We choose a
point which is not on the line . Show that the distance from the point to
the line is given by
×
98 CHAPTER 3 Vectors
CHAPTER 4
Complex Numbers
and Matrices
If we solve a quadratic equation formally by using the quadratic formula, the
solution should be ±
, where
is some number whose square is . However,
there is no real number whose square is negative. Hence, this example shows that to solve
quadratic equations completely, we need a new class of numbers whose squares are negative
numbers like
. We call these numbers pure imaginary numbers and define as the number
whose square is , i.e., . Using the number ,
is written by
and ±
is written by ±
. Generally, when and are real numbers, a number of the type is
called a complex number and the set of all complex numbers is denoted by , i.e.,
∈. The set is closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
(except for dividing by 0), and hence is a larger number system containing . In fact, it turns
out that is the largest number system. In this chapter we discuss the basic operations and
properties of complex numbers. On the other hand, a rectangular array of real or complex
numbers is called a matrix. The theory of matrices is closely related to solving systems of linear
equations, linear transformations and vectors and is applied to various parts of mathematics. In
the last section of this chapter we briefly discuss the basic properties of × real matrices
including addition, multiplication and determinant of matrices. Complex numbers and the
theory of matrices play very important roles not only in mathematics but also in physics,
engineering and many other related fields.
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4.1 Complex Plane and Operations of Complex Numbers
We begin with the definition of pure imaginary numbers and complex numbers.
Definition 4.1.1－Complex Numbers
We denote by the number whose square is , i.e., . For any real number
∈ , is the number whose square is . A number of the form
is called a pure imaginary number. For any real numbers ∈ , a number of the
form is called a complex number and the set of all complex numbers is denoted
by , i.e., ∈ .
In a complex number , and are called the real and imaginary parts of ,
respectively. A pure imaginary number is a complex number whose real part is zero and
a real number is a complex number whose imaginary part is zero. The number satisfies
the following properties, which can be seen easily from the definition of .
Theorem 4.1.2－Properties of
The imaginary number satisfies the following properties.
, , ,
Using these properties, we define addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of
complex numbers as follows.
Definition 4.1.3－Operations of Complex Numbers
Let , , and be real numbers. Addition, subtraction and multiplication of complex
numbers are defined as follows.
(1)
(2)
4.1 Complex Plane and Operations of Complex Numbers 101
(3)
When ≠ , i.e., ≠ or ≠ , division into is defined as follows.
(4)
(5)
Remark For a complex number we get
Here is called the conjugate complex number or simply the conjugate of and
is called the absolute value or the modulus of .
Example 4.1.1 Express the following complex numbers in the form .
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
Solution (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
As shown in [Figure 4.1] below, we can express a complex number in the -plane in
such a way that a real number is located on the -axis and a pure imaginary number is
located on the -axis. This plane is called the complex plane. Then is expressed in
this plane like the position vector with ([Figure 4.1]). Hence, all complex
numbers can be expressed in the complex plane by arrows starting from the origin.
Moreover, if we express the sum on this complex
plane, we can see easily that the law of the parallelogram holds just like the sum of two
102 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
position vectors ([Figure 4.2]).
[Figure 4.1] [Figure 4.2]
Example 4.1.2 Express the following complex numbers in the complex plane by arrows
starting from the origin.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
Solution
[Figure 4.3]
Definition 4.1.4－Conjugate
For a complex number , is called the conjugate complex number or
simply the conjugate of and is denoted by
, i.e.,
.
It is easy to see from the above definition that the conjugate of a real number is
itself and the conjugate of is . Hence, a complex number satisfies
if and only
4.1 Complex Plane and Operations of Complex Numbers 103
if is a real number. Similarly, satisfies if and only if is a pure imaginary
number. As shown in [Figure 4.4], if we draw and in the complex plane,
they are symmetric with respect to the -axis.
[Figure 4.4]
The conjugation of complex numbers satisfies the following properties.
Theorem 4.1.5－Properties of Conjugation
Let and be two complex numbers. The following equalities hold.
(1)
(2)
(3) For ≠ ,
Proof We are going to prove (3) and leave (1) and (2) as exercises. We put
and . Then, by (5) in Definition 4.1.3, we have
, which shows that
On the other hand,
and
. Hence, we get
,
which completes the proof of (3).
104 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
Example 4.1.3 Express the following complex numbers in the form .
(1)
(2)
(3)
Solution (1)
(2)
(3)
Definition 4.1.6－Absolute Value of a Complex number
For a complex number ,
is called the absolute value or the modulus of
and is denoted by . In other words, putting ,
From the above definition, it is easy to see that for any complex number ∈ the
absolute values of and are the same and the absolute value of is 0 if and only if
. If we express a complex number in the complex plane by an arrow, the
absolute value is the length of the arrow.
Example 4.1.4 Compute .
Solution
The absolute values of complex numbers satisfy the following properties.
Theorem 4.1.7－Properties of Absolute Value
Let and be two complex numbers. Then we have the following properties.
(1) ≤ (2)
(3) For ≠
4.1 Complex Plane and Operations of Complex Numbers 105
Proof We are going to prove only (3) and leave the proofs of (1) and (2) as exercises.
Putting and , we have .
Hence,
Example 4.1.5 Find the absolute values of the following complex numbers.
(1) (2) (3)
Solution (1)
(2)
(3)
Exercise 4.1
1. Express the following complex numbers in the form .
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
2. Draw the following complex numbers in the complex plane by arrows.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
3. Express the following complex numbers in the form .
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
106 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
4. Compute the following absolute values.
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
5. Prove statements (1) and (2) in Theorem 4.1.5.
6. Prove statements (1) and (2) in Theorem 4.1.7.
7. For two complex numbers and , show that ≤ .
4.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number and De Moivre’s
Theorem
We note that for ≠ ,
Since
, we can find an angle such that
and . Hence, we have the following result.
Theorem 4.2.1－Polar Form of a Complex Number
Let be a nonzero complex number. The polar form of is
,
where
, and .
4.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number and De Moivre’s Theorem 107
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When we draw on the complex plane by an arrow, is the angle from the positive
-axis to the arrow representing in the counterclockwise direction as shown in
[Figure 4.5]. This angle is called an argument of . We note that the argument is not
unique. If is an argument of , then for any integer ∈ , is also an
argument of since and are periodic functions with the period .
[Figure 4.5]
Example 4.2.1 Express in polar form.
Solution Since
, we get
Since and , the argument is . Hence,
Example 4.2.2 Express in polar form.
Solution Since
and the angle between the positive -axis and
is , we get
108 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
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Example 4.2.3 Express
in polar form.
Solution Since
, we get
.
Since cos and sin , the argument is (or ). Hence
The following result is called De Moivre’s Theorem, which is very useful in solving
some equations.
Theorem 4.2.2－De Moivre’s Theorem
For any positive integer ∈ , the following equality holds.
Proof We use mathematical induction. For , the equality obviously holds. We
assume that the equality holds for . Then
․
․
,
which shows that the above equality holds for . This completes the proof.
Remark De Moivre’s Theorem holds for any negative integer, hence for every integer. The proof
is as follows. For a positive integer ∈ , consider
･
Thus
4.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number and De Moivre’s Theorem 109
De Moivre’s Theorem is applied to solve equations of the type in the
following way. We first express in the polar form, i.e.,
. Putting , the given equation is rewritten by
,
which yields that and ∈ . Hence, we get
, , ⋯
Finally, the solution to is given by
,
≤ ≤
Example 4.2.4 Solve the equation
.
Solution Expressing
in the polar form, we have
Putting , the given equation is rewritten by
,
which gives
, ,
Hence, the solution is
,
Example 4.2.5 Solve the equation .
Solution Expressing in polar form, we have
110 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
Putting , the given equation is rewritten by
,
which gives
, ,
Hence, the solution is
,
For any positive integer with ≥ , a solution to is called an -th root of
unity. Since the equation has solutions, the number of -th roots of unity is .
If we solve , the solutions are
, ⋯
If we put
,
then the other solutions are expressed by ⋯ , where . From ,
we have
‒ ‒
⋯
Since ≠ , satisfies
, ‒ ‒
⋯
Example 4.2.6 (1) When , compute .
(2) When , compute .
Solution (1) Since , is a rd root of unity.
Hence . Since ≠ , we have and
. We note that
4.2 Polar Form of a Complex Number and De Moivre’s Theorem 111
․ , ․
Thus
(2) Since , is also a rd root of unity. As in (1),
we have . Hence,
Exercise 4.2
1. Express the following complex numbers in polar forms.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
(5) (6)
(7)
2. Express the following polar forms in the form .
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
3. Solve the following equations.
(1) (2) (3)
(4) (5)
(6)
(7)
4. When , compute .
112 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
5. When , compute .
4.3 Matrices
⋯
⋯
An array of real or complex numbers of the form is called an
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
⋯
× matrix or simply a matrix, which consists of rows and columns. The theory of
matrices has played a central role in mathematics, physics, engineering, and especially in
computer science. A branch of mathematics which deals with matrices is Linear Algebra.
In this section, as an introduction to Linear Algebra, we discuss basic facts only about 2×2
matrices. Every property is generalized to the theory of × matrices.
Definition 4.3.1－Addition and Multiplication
Let , be two × matrices and ∈ . We define the addition
and multiplication of matrices as follows.
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
Example 4.3.1 Let and . Compute the following matrices.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Solution
(1)
(2)
4.3 Matrices 113
(3)
(4)
Remark The commutative law holds for the addition of two matrices but not for multiplication, as
we see in the above examples (3) and (4). In other words, for two 2×2 matrices and ,
, but may not be equal to .
Definition 4.3.2－Zero Matrix and Identity Matrix
(1) The matrix is called the zero matrix and is denoted by , i.e., .
(2) The matrix
is called the identity matrix and is denoted by , i.e.,
.
The following result is easy to check and we leave the proofs as exercises.
Theorem 4.3.3－Properties of Addition and Multiplication
Let , and be × matrices. Then
(1)
(2)
Definition 4.3.4－Determinant
The determinant of a × matrix is defined by
Example 4.3.2 When and
, compute the determinants of the
following matrices.
(1) (2)
114 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
Solution
(1)
× ×
(2)
× ×
The determinant of a matrix satisfies the following property.
Theorem 4.3.5－Property of Determinant
For two × matrices and , the following equality holds.
Proof We denote and by and . Then .
det
Corollary 4.3.6
For any positive integer ∈ and a × matrix , .
Example 4.3.3 When and are matrices given in Example 4.3.2, compute the
determinant of .
Solution
×
4.3 Matrices 115
Definition 4.3.7－Inverse Matrix
Let be a × matrix. If there exists a × matrix such that , then
is called an invertible matrix and is called the inverse matrix of and is denoted
by , i.e., . In this case, is also the inverse matrix of .
Note that det and that is invertible since ․ . The following theorem shows
the relation between the invertibility and determinant of a matrix.
Theorem 4.3.8－Determinant and Inverse Matrix
Let . Then, det ≠ if and only if is an invertible matrix. In this case,
the inverse matrix is given by
Proof If is invertible, then exists and . Hence,
, which shows that det ≠ . Conversely, suppose that det ≠ .
Putting
, a direct computation shows that . Hence
is invertible with .
The above theorem with Theorem 4.3.5 leads to the following result.
Corollary 4.3.9
Let and be invertible matrices. Then is an invertible matrix with
.
Example 4.3.4 Determine whether the following matrices are invertible or not. If
invertible, find the inverse matrices.
(1) (2) (3)
116 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
Solution (1) Since ≠ , it is invertible and the inverse matrix is
, it is not invertible.
(2) Since
(3) Since
≠ , it is invertible and the
inverse matrix is
Definition 4.3.10－Characteristic Polynomial
For a × matrix , the polynomial defined by
is called the characteristic polynomial of .
The following result is known as the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
Theorem 4.3.11－Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Let and be the characteristic polynomial of . Then
Proof We prove the theorem by direct computation.
4.3 Matrices 117
Example 4.3.5 Let and . Compute the following matrices.
(1) (2)
Solution We use the characteristic polynomials of and .
(1) Since , , which shows that . Hence,
(2) Since . Setting ,
. If we divide into , we get
. Hence,
Exercise 4.3
1. Let and . Compute the following matrices.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
2. Let
and . Compute the determinants of the
following matrices.
(1) (2) (3)
(4) (5)
3. For
,
and
, determine whether the
following matrices are invertible or not. If invertible, find the inverse matrices.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
118 CHAPTER 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
4. Let
and
. Use the characteristic polynomials to find
the following matrices.
(1) (2) (3) (4)
5. Prove Theorem 4.3.3.
4.3 Matrices 119
CHAPTER 5
Differentiation
5.1 Limits
In this section, we study the limit of the values of as approaches a given point
. Note that in the real line, there are two ways for to approach , from the left side and
from the right side of .
Definition 5.1.1－Limit
Let be a function and ∈ .
(1) Suppose that the values of get arbitrarily close to as approaches from
the right side of . Then is said to be the right-hand limit of at , and
is denoted by
lim
→
(2) Suppose that the values of get arbitrarily close to as approaches from
the left side of . Then is said to be the left-hand limit of at , and is
denoted by
lim
→
(3) is said to be the limit of at if the left-hand limit and the right-hand
limit of at are equal to the same value , i.e., . In this case, we
denote
lim
→
Example 5.1.1 Determine whether the limit of exists at , where
Solution Since lim and lim , lim does not exist.
→ → →
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5.1 Limits 123
[Figure 5.1]
Example 5.1.2 Find lim if it exists, where .
→
Solution Since lim lim , lim .
→ → →
[Figure 5.2]
≠
Example 5.1.3 Let
. Find lim if it exists.
→
Solution Since lim lim , lim .
→ → →
124 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
[Figure 5.3]
Example 5.1.4 Let . Find
lim if it exists.
→
Solution Since lim lim , lim .
→ → →
[Figure 5.4]
Example 5.1.5 Find lim for
if it exists.
→
Solution As approaches 0 from the left side, the values of go to ∞ , i.e.,
lim ∞ . As approaches 0 from the right side, the values of go to ∞ ,
→
i.e., lim ∞ . Hence neither the left-hand limit nor the right-hand limit exists. So
→
the limit does not exist.
5.1 Limits 125
[Figure 5.5]
In Example 5.1.5, as goes to ∞ or ∞ , the values of approach 0. In this case,
we denote lim and lim .
→∞ → ∞
Remark As one can see from the above examples, the limit of at has nothing to do with
the value .
Theorem 5.1.2－Properties of Limits
Suppose that lim and lim . Then the following properties hold.
→ →
(1) lim ± ± ( is an arbitrary real number).
→
(2) lim .
→
(3) If ≠ , then lim .
→
(4) If ≤ for every around , then ≤ .
Obviously lim if is a constant function . It is also clear that
→
lim if . Therefore, from the above properties of limits, we see that
→
lim if is a polynomial function. By using (3), we can compute the
→
limits of rational functions as well.
126 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
Example 5.1.6 Find the limit of the polynomial function at .
Solution lim ⋅ ⋅
→
Example 5.1.7 Find the limit of the rational function
at .
Solution lim
→ ⋅
Remark In the computation of the limit of a rational function, we cannot apply Theorem 5.1.2 (3)
if the denominator is 0. If this happens, as we see in the next examples, other methods
must be used.
Example 5.1.8 Find the limit of
at .
Solution lim lim lim
→ →
→
Example 5.1.9 Find the limit of
at if it exists.
Solution Since lim lim ∞ and lim
→
→
→
lim
∞ , the limit does not exist at .
→
Exercise 5.1
1. Determine whether the limits of the following functions exist at the given
points. Find the limits if they exist.
(1) , (2) ,
(3) , (4) ,
(5)
, (6) ,
5.1 Limits 127
(7) , (8) ,
2. Find the limits.
(1) lim (2) lim
→ →∞
(3) lim (4) lim
→
→
(5) lim (6) lim
→ →
(7) lim (8) lim
→ →
3. Find the limits.
(1) lim (2) lim
→ →
(3) lim
(4) lim
→ → ∞
(5) lim (6) lim
→ →
4. Find lim when lim .
→ →
5.2 Limits of Indeterminate Forms
Sometimes we are asked to compute lim where lim lim as in
→ → →
Example 5.1.8 of Section 5.1, which is called the indeterminate form of type . There
∞
are several other types of indeterminate forms such as , ∞ and ∞ . In this section,
∞
we study how to find the limits of these indeterminate forms.
128 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
Example 5.2.1 Find lim
.
→∞
∞
Solution In this case, the limit is an indeterminate form of type . To find the limit, we
∞
divide both the numerator and the denominator by to get
lim
lim
→∞ →∞
∞
Remark If the limit of a rational function is an indeterminate form of type as in the above
∞
example, it is enough to look at the terms of the highest degree in the numerator and
denominator.
Example 5.2.2 Find the limits.
(1) lim (2) lim
→∞ →∞
Solution (1) lim
lim
lim .
→∞ →∞ →∞
(2) lim lim lim ∞ .
→∞ →∞
→∞
Example 5.2.3 Find the limits.
(1) lim (2) lim
→ →∞
Solution (1) lim lim
→ →
lim
→
lim
→
(2) lim
lim
→∞ →∞
lim
→∞
5.2 Limits of Indeterminate Forms 129
Example 5.2.4 Show that lim
.
→
Solution First, we consider the case when . By comparing the areas of the triangle
, the circular sector and the triangle [Figure 5.6], we obtain
. From this we get . Hence
. Since lim , we deduce lim . For , we use the
→
→
substitution to have
lim
lim lim
→ → →
Therefore, lim
→
[Figure 5.6]
The limit lim is an indeterminate form of type ∞ . It is known that this limit
→
exists and its value is an irrational number about ⋯ . We define the value by .
Definition 5.2.1－The Number
lim
→
130 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
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The logarithmic function with the base is called the natural logarithm,
and is denoted by . Note that is the inverse function of .
[Figure 5.7]
Example 5.2.5 Find
lim .
→ ∞
Solution Under the substitution , note that → as →∞ . Hence
lim
→ ∞
lim
→
Exercise 5.2
1. Find the limits.
(1) lim
(2) lim
→ ∞ →∞
(3) lim
(4) lim
→∞ →
(5) lim
(6) lim
→ →
(7) lim (8) lim
→ →
5.2 Limits of Indeterminate Forms 131
2. Find the limits.
(1) lim (2) lim
→∞ →
(3) lim (4) lim
→ →
3. Find the limits.
(1) lim
→∞ (2) lim
→
(3) lim (4) lim
→ →
(5) lim (6) lim
→ →∞
5.3 Continuity
Intuitively, we say is continuous at when the graph of is
connected at . In this section, we study the definition and some properties of
continuous functions.
Definition 5.3.1－Continuity at
A function is continuous at if satisfies the following conditions.
(1) Both lim and exist (2) lim
→ →
Example 5.3.1 Determine whether the following functions are continuous at .
≠
(1) (2)
Solution (1) is not continuous at since lim does not exist.
→
(2) is not continuous at since lim and .
→
132 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
Definition 5.3.2－Continuity on
Let be a subset of . We say a function is continuous on if is
continuous at every point in . When is an interval such as or , the
continuity at the end point(s) is determined by the one-sided limits, the left-hand limit
or the right-hand limit. When , for instance, is continuous on if it is
continuous on the open interval , and satisfies lim and
→
lim .
→
Example 5.3.2 Define in a way that extends to be continuous on .
Solution Note that is continuous on except at . Since lim , we
→
define by . Then is continuous at as well.
Example 5.3.3 Let , where denotes the largest integer not
exceeding . Find the points at which is discontinuous, and sketch the graph of
.
Solution Note that if ≤ for an integer . Then
on the interval , and hence is discontinuous at each integer . The graph
is given in [Figure 5.8].
[Figure 5.8]
5.3 Continuity 133
Theorem 5.3.3－Properties of Continuous Functions
(1) If both and are continuous at , then the following functions are
continuous at : ± , , (if ≠ ).
(2) If is continuous at , and is continuous at , then the
composite function ∘ is continuous at .
Obviously, the identity function and constant functions are continuous on . Theorem
5.3.3 implies that every polynomial function is continuous on , and rational functions
are also continuous except at the points where the denominator vanishes. Besides these
functions, irrational functions, trigonometric functions, exponential and logarithmic
functions are all continuous at the points they are defined.
Example 5.3.4 Show that
is continuous on .
Put and . Then both and are
Solution
continuous on . Since
, is also continuous
on by Theorem 5.3.3 (2).
Theorem 5.3.4－The Max-Min Theorem
If is continuous on the closed interval , then takes on both a
maximum value and a minimum value in .
The requirements that the interval be closed and that be continuous are key
ingredients in Theorem 5.3.4. Without them, the conclusion of the theorem may not be
true. For example, even if is continuous on , neither the maximum value
nor the minimum value exists. However, it does not mean that a maximum value or a
minimum value can never exist if any one of the two conditions is not satisfied. For
134 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
instance, even though the function defined by and for ≠ is
not continuous on , it has the maximum value 1 and the minimum value 0.
Example 5.3.5 Find the maximum value and the minimum value of in the
interval . Find the values at which attains the maximum value and the
minimum value.
Solution Since is continuous, it takes on both the maximum value and the
minimum value in . Since is an increasing function, is the
minimum value, and is the maximum value.
Example 5.3.6 Find the maximum value and the minimum value of
∈
in the interval if they exist. Find the values (if any) at which takes on the
maximum value and the minimum value.
Solution is the minimum value. But does not attain a maximum
value.
Theorem 5.3.5－The Intermediate Value Theorem
Suppose that is continuous on a closed interval . Let and be the
maximum value and the minimum value of in , respectively. Then for any
with ≤ ≤ , there exists ∈ such that .
[Figure 5.9]
5.3 Continuity 135
As an application, Theorem 5.3.5 provides a method to test whether a continuous
function on has a root: Suppose that a continuous function on
satisfies ⋅ , which means that one of or is negative and the other
is positive. Then the Intermediate Value Theorem with guarantees the existence of
∈ satisfying .
Example 5.3.7 Show that the equation has a root in .
Solution Put . Then is continuous on . Since
and , there exists ∈ satisfying .
Example 5.3.8 Show that the equation has a root in .
Solution Put . Then is continuous on . Since
and , there exists ∈ satisfying .
Exercise 5.3
1. Investigate the continuity of the following functions at .
(1) (2)
2. Find the intervals on which the following functions are continuous.
(1) (2)
3. Find the maximum values and/or the minimum values of the following
functions in the given intervals if they exist.
(1) , (2) ,
(3) , ∞ ∞ (4) ,
136 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation Telegram: @FRstudy
4. Use the Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the following equations have
solutions in the given intervals.
(1) , (2) ,
(3) , (4) ,
5. Determine the constants and so that the following functions are continuous
on .
≤
(1)
≤
(2) ≤≤
6. Give a counter example to each of the following statement.
(1) If for every , then lim lim .
→ →
(2) If lim , then lim .
→ →
7. Suppose that is continuous on [0, 1], and satisfies ≤ ≤ for every
∈ [0, 1]. Show that for some in [0, 1].
5.4 Derivatives
For a function , suppose that varies from to . We denote the
increment of by , and that of by . That is, and
. The ratio is called the average rate of
change of from to . This ratio equals the slope of the straight line passing
through the points and .
5.4 Derivatives 137
[Figure 5.10]
Example 5.4.1 Find the average rate of change of from to .
Solution
Definition 5.4.1－Derivative
For a function , suppose that lim exists at . We denote the
→
limit by ′ and call ′ the derivative (the rate of change, or the instantaneous
rate of change) of at .
We say is differentiable at when ′ exists. Geometrically, ′ is the
slope of the tangent line to at the point .
[Figure 5.11]
In Definition 5.4.1, by putting , we can express ′ as
138 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
′ lim lim lim
→ → →
Example 5.4.2 For , find ′ , the derivative of at .
Solution ′ lim lim lim
→ → →
Example 5.4.3 Find the equation of the tangent line to at the point .
Solution Since ′ lim lim , the slope of the tangent line is 4.
→ →
Then the equation of the tangent line passing through is given by .
Hence, .
Example 5.4.4 Is the function differentiable at ?
Solution The average rate of change of from to is . Since
lim
and lim , lim does not exist. Hence is not differentiable
→
→ →
at .
Theorem 5.4.2－Differentiability implies Continuity
If a function is differentiable at , then it is continuous at .
Proof Our task is to show that lim .
→
lim lim
→ →
′ ⋅
Hence, is continuous at .
5.4 Derivatives 139
Remark The converse of the above theorem is not true. The function , for instance, is
continuous at but is not differentiable at .
For each at which is differentiable, we can associate the value ′ , which
leads to a new function called the derivative of .
Definition 5.4.3－Derivative as a Function
For a differentiable function , the function ′ lim is
→
called the derivative of . ′ is also denoted by ′ or . The process of
calculating a derivative is called differentiation.
Example 5.4.5 Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
Solution (1) ′ lim
→
(2) ′ lim lim
→ →
(3) ′ lim lim
→ →
lim
→
(4) ′ lim lim
→ →
lim
→
Once we obtain the derivative ′ of , the value ′ at can be easily
computed. For example, the derivative of is ′ and hence ′ .
It is the same result that we obtained in Example 5.4.2.
140 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
Theorem 5.4.4－Algebraic Formulas of Derivatives
Suppose that both and are differentiable. Then
(1) ± ′ ′ ± ′ ( is an arbitrary real number)
(2) ′ ′ ′
′
(3)
′ ′
(if ≠ )
Proof We check only (2). The others are left as exercises.
′ lim
→
lim
→
lim
→
′ ′
‑
Example 5.4.6 Show that the derivative of is ′ for each integer .
Solution When , and the derivative is ′ by Example 5.4.5 (1).
When , and its derivative is ′ by Example 5.4.5 (2). From the
formula (2) of Theorem 5.4.4, the derivative of is ′ . In general, for
a natural number , we can check that the derivative of is ′ ‑ by
mathematical induction. Finally, for ( ), the derivative of can
be computed by using the formula (3) of Theorem 5.4.4 :
′ ‑
′
‑ ‑ ‑
Therefore, for any integer , ′ ‑ .
Example 5.4.6 and the formula (1) of Theorem 5.4.4 show that the derivative of a
polynomial function ⋯ is ′ ‑ ‑ ‑
⋯ .
5.4 Derivatives 141
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Example 5.4.7 Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1) (2) (3)
Solution (1) Since , we obtain ′ .
(2) By Example 5.4.6, we have ′ ′ .
(3) By Theorem 5.4.4 (3),
′ ′
′
⋅
Just as we defined the derivative ′ of , we can define the derivative of ′ .
For example, the derivative of is ′ , and the derivative of
′ is . In this way, we obtain the second derivative of , which is denoted
by ″ or . This process can be repeated again and again to obtain higher
order derivatives.
Exercise 5.4
1. Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11) (12)
142 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
2. Suppose that and are differentiable in and that and
′ . Find the derivatives at of the following functions.
(1) (2)
3. Determine , and if satisfies ′ , and
′ .
4. Suppose that the graph of passes through － and
－ . Determine , , and if ′ and ′ .
5. Determine all the tangent lines to passing through .
6. Prove (1) and (3) of Theorem 5.4.4.
5.5 Methods of Differentiation
In the previous section, we studied the concept of the derivative and basic methods of
differentiation. In this section we discuss some advanced techniques of differentiation.
These techniques will be applied to find the derivatives of various functions such as a
composite function, an implicit function and an inverse function.
Differentiation of a Composite Function
Suppose that both and are differentiable functions. Since is a
function of and is a function of , we can consider as a function of .
[Figure 5.12]
5.5 Methods of Differentiation 143
Then we can compute the derivative of the composite function by using the
next theorem.
Theorem 5.5.1－Differentiation of a Composite Function (Chain Rule)
If both and are differentiable, then so is , and
⋅ , i.e., ′ ′ ⋅′ .
Proof Put and ∗ . Then ∗ → as → . For convenience,
assume that ∗ ≠ . Then
lim
→
lim ⋅
→
lim
∗
→
∗
∗
⋅ lim
→
′ ⋅′ ⋅
Example 5.5.1 Find if .
Solution We take and . Since , we have
′ ′
Example 5.5.2 Find if .
Solution We take and
. Since , we have
′
′
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144 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
Differentiation of an Implicit Function
When a function is given in the form such as
or ,
is called an explicit function of . On the other hand, when a relation between and is
given in the form such as or , is called an
implicit function of . We want to compute the derivative when is given implicitly.
Example 5.5.3 Find the derivative of at .
Solution Put to get . Differentiating both sides with respect to
, we have ′ , which is ′ . Hence ′ ′ .
Therefore,
′
Remark We can solve the equation for to find an explicit function. That is, if we
solve the equation for , we obtain ±
. Among these two, we
must take
since the graph passes through the point . Then we
compute the derivative of
at to get the same result.
Example 5.5.4 Find the equation of the tangent line to at .
Solution We differentiate both sides with respect to to get ′ ′ ,
which yields ′ . Then the slope of the tangent line at is
⋅
. Therefore, the equation of the tangent line is
, that is, .
Theorem 5.5.2
For a rational number , the derivative of is ′ .
5.5 Methods of Differentiation 145
Proof Put , where are integers with ≠ . From , we get
. By differentiating both sides with respect to , we obtain ′ .
Hence
′
Remark In general, the derivative of is ′ for any real number .
Example 5.5.5 Find the derivative of .
′
′
′
Solution
Remark For the function , the derivative at does not exist. Since lim ′ ∞ ,
→
the graph of has a vertical tangent line at .
[Figure 5.13]
Example 5.5.6 Find the derivative of
.
′
′
Solution
′
146 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
Differentiation of an Inverse Function
We examine the derivative of the inverse function of . Since is the inverse function
of , we have . Differentiating both sides, we get ′ ⋅′ and
hence ′ . If we put , we obtain ′ . In general, if
′ ′
we put , then and ′ . We summarize this fact as follows.
′
Theorem 5.5.3－Differentiation of Inverse Function
Example 5.5.7 Find ′ when .
Solution Put . Since , we have
′
′
Differentiation of Parametric Equations
Finally, we study the differentiation of a function given in parameter , say
and . From the Chain Rule, we have ⋅ . Therefore we obtain the
following theorem.
Theorem 5.5.4－Differentiation of Parametric Equations
′
If and , then .
′
Example 5.5.8 Find of the following parametric equations.
(1) (2)
5.5 Methods of Differentiation 147
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Solution (1)
(2)
Exercise 5.5
1. Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
2. Find the equations of the tangent lines to the following curves at the given
points.
(1) ,
(2)
,
(3) , (4) ,
(5) , (6) ,
3. Let be the inverse function of a differentiable function . Find ′ if
and ′ .
4. Find the equations of the tangent lines to the following parameterized curves at
the given points.
(1) ,
(2)
,
148 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
5.6 Derivatives of Transcendental Functions
In this section, we study derivatives of transcendental functions such as trigonometric
functions, exponential and logarithmic functions.
Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
We begin with the computation of lim . By using Example 5.2.4, we have
→
lim
lim
→ →
lim lim
→ →
→
lim ⋅ ⋅
⋅⋅
From this fact, we can derive various formulas for derivatives of the trigonometric
functions.
Theorem 5.6.1－Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 1
(1) ⇒ ′ (2) ⇒ ′
(3) ⇒ ′
Proof (1) By the above computation, we have
′ lim
→
lim
→
→
lim
⋅ ⋅
5.6 Derivatives of Transcendental Functions 149
(2) Since , the Chain Rule (Theorem 5.5.1) gives
′
′
(3) Since , Theorem 5.4.4 (3) gives
′ ′
′
Example 5.6.1 Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1) (2) (3)
Solution (1) ′ ′ ′
(2) ′ ′ ′ ′ ′
(3) ′ ⋅ ′
⋅
⋅
By applying Theorem 5.4.4 (3) to , , and , we get the following results,
whose proofs are left as exercises.
Theorem 5.6.2－Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 2
(1) ⇒ ′ (2) ⇒ ′
(3) ⇒ ′
Example 5.6.2 Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1) (2)
Solution (1) ′ ′ ′ ′
150 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
(2) ′ ′
Derivatives of the Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
We recall that is the logarithmic function with base , and that it is the inverse
function of , where lim . We study the derivatives of , ,
→
and . For this purpose, we need to compute the following limit.
Example 5.6.3 Show that lim .
→
Solution Under the substitution , note that → as → . Hence
{ }
lim lim lim
→ → →
Theorem 5.6.3－Derivatives of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions
(1) ⇒ ′ (2) ⇒ ′
(3) ⇒ ′ (4) ⇒ ′
Proof (1) By the above example,
′ lim lim
→ →
lim
→
(2) Since ,
′ ⋅
5.6 Derivatives of Transcendental Functions 151
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(3) Taking the logarithm on both sides of , we get . By using the implicit
′
differentiation, we obtain . Hence ′ .
(4) Since ,
′ ⋅ ′ ⋅
Example 5.6.4 Find the derivative of .
Solution ′ ′ ′
Example 5.6.5 Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1) (2)
′
Solution (1) ′
(2) Since
, we have ′
Example 5.6.6 Find the derivative of .
Solution Since , we have
′
Example 5.6.7 Find the derivative of .
Solution By taking the natural logarithm on both sides of , we get .
We differentiate both sides with respect to to obtain
′
′⋅ ⋅ ′
Hence ′ .
In the above example, can be written as . More generally, for
152 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
, is expressed as . To compute the derivatives of
functions of this type, we take to get . Then we compute the
derivative as in the solution of Example 5.6.7. Of course, we can also compute the
derivative directly by using the Chain Rule. For example, since , we have
′
Exercise 5.6
1. Prove Theorem 5.6.2.
2. Show that .
3. Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
(7) (8)
4. Find of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
(7) (8)
5. Find the equations of the straight lines satisfying the given conditions.
(1) Tangent line to passing through (0, 1).
(2) Tangent line to with the slope 2.
(3) Tangent line to at (3, 0).
6. Evaluate ′ , where is the inverse function of .
5.6 Derivatives of Transcendental Functions 153
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5.7 Applications of Derivatives
In this section, we study applications of derivatives.
The Mean Value Theorem and L’Hôspital’s Rule
Theorem 5.7.1－Rolle’s Theorem
Suppose that is continuous on and differentiable on . If
, then there exists ∈ satisfying ′ .
Proof If is a constant function, the result is obviously true. Assume that is not
a constant function. By the Max-Min Theorem (Theorem 5.3.4), takes on a
minimum value and a maximum value in . Since is not a constant
function, or is attained in the open interval . Without loss of generality, we
may assume that is attained at in the open interval . Since is the
minimum, ≥ for every ∈ . Hence
lim
≤ , lim ≥
→ →
Since is differentiable at , these two limits must coincide. Therefore, ′
as desired.
Theorem 5.7.2－The Mean Value Theorem
Suppose that is continuous on the closed interval and differentiable on
the open interval . Then there exists ∈ satisfying
′
Proof Let be the straight line passing through the two points and .
Note that the slope of is , i.e., ′ . Put
. Then is continuous on , and differentiable on . Since
154 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
and , there exists ∈ such that
′ by Rolle’s Theorem. Since ′ ′ ′ ′ ,
we have ′ ′ .
[Figure 5.14]
Example 5.7.1 For , find ∈ satisfying the Mean Value Theorem.
Solution We must find satisfying ′ . Since , we
have .
Remark The requirement that the interval on which is continuous be closed is essential. For
instance, the function is not continuous at . The average rate of change of
this function in is . However, there does not exist ∈
satisfying ′ since ′ for .
[Figure 5.15]
The condition of differentiability of on is also necessary. For example, the
5.7 Applications of Derivatives 155
function in has the average rate of change .
But there is no ∈ satisfying ′ . This happens because is not
differentiable at .
[Figure 5.16]
The Mean Value Theorem is generalized as follows.
Theorem 5.7.3－Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem
Suppose that and are continuous on and differentiable on
with ′ ≠ for . Then ≠ and there exists in
satisfying
′
′
In particular, if , the above theorem is reduced to the Mean Value Theorem.
Proof By the Mean Value Theorem, there exists in such that
′
Since ′ ≠ , we have ≠ . Putting
, and applying Rolle’s Theorem to , we obtain the result.
As a simple application of the differentiation to computation of the limit of a function,
we consider the following case. Let and be differentiable functions in an open
interval containing with and ′ ≠ . Then,
156 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
lim lim lim
→ → →
lim
→ ′
′
lim
→
The following theorem is a generalization of the above observation. The proof can be
given by using Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem but it will be omitted because it goes
beyond the level of this book.
Theorem 5.7.4－L’Hôspital’s Rule
Let and be differentiable in an open interval containing . Suppose
′
that lim lim or lim ± ∞ lim ± ∞ . If lim
→ → → → → ′
exists or is ± ∞ , then
′
lim
lim
′
→ →
Remark L’Hôspital Rule also holds when ± ∞ .
Example 5.7.2 Evaluate the following limits.
(1) lim (2) lim (3) lim
→ → →∞
Solution (1) lim
lim lim
→ → →
(2) lim lim lim
lim
→
→ →
→
(3) lim lim ∞
→∞ →∞
5.7 Applications of Derivatives 157
Maxima, Minima and Graphing
By using the derivatives, we can determine intervals where a function increases or
decreases. Using this information we can sketch the graph of a function.
Definition 5.7.5－Local Maximum and Local Minimum
We say that a function has a local maximum value at if ≥
for all in some open interval containing . Similarly, we say that a function
has a local minimum value at if ≤ for all in some open
interval containing .
To distinguish from the local maximum (minimum) value, the maximum
(minimum) value is often referred to as the absolute maximum (absolute minimum)
value.
Suppose that the graph of is given as in [Figure 5.17]
[Figure 5.17]
This function has a local maximum value at , and a local minimum value
at . As we see from the graph, the function is increasing on ∞ ,
decreasing on , and increasing on ∞ . Note that attains a local
maximum value at , and a local minimum value at . Generally, a local
maximum value is attained at the point where the function changes from increasing to
decreasing. Similarly, a local minimum value is attained at the point where the function
158 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
changes from decreasing to increasing. On the other hand, if is differentiable on the
interval , then there exists ∈ satisfying ′ by the
Mean Value Theorem. Hence is increasing (decreasing) on an interval if and only
if ′ for all ∈ ( ′ for all ∈ , respectively). In summary, we have
the following result.
Theorem 5.7.6－Increase and Decrease of a Function
Suppose that a function is differentiable on an interval .
(1) If ′ in , then is increasing on .
(2) If ′ in , then is decreasing on .
(3) If takes on a local maximum value or a local minimum value at , then
′ .
As an example, we consider . Since ′ , ′ in ∞ and ′ in
∞ . Thus is decreasing on ∞ and increasing on ∞ . Therefore
attains a local minimum value 0 at since the function changes from
decreasing to increasing at . There is no local maximum value of .
Example 5.7.3 Find the local maximum value and/or the local minimum value of
.
Solution Since ′ , ′ in ∞ and ∞ ,
while ′ in . Hence the function has a local maximum value at
, and a local minimum value at .
Remark The converse of Theorem 5.7.6 (3) is not true. For instance, satisfies
′ , but has no local maximum value nor local minimum value. It may
happen that attains local maximum or local minimum values at points where
is not differentiable. For example, has a local minimum at , at which
is not differentiable.
For a function , we say is a critical point of if either ′ or
is not differentiable at . Therefore, local maxima and local minima are attained at
5.7 Applications of Derivatives 159
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among the critical points. Hence the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of
a continuous function on are attained either at the critical points or at the end points
and .
Example 5.7.4 Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of
in .
Solution Since ′ , the critical points are ± . The values of at the
critical points ± and at the end points are
, , ,
Hence the absolute maximum value is , and the absolute minimum value is .
Consider any two points and on the graph of . If every
line segment connecting arbitrary chosen two points and lies above
the graph of ([Figure 5.18]), then the graph of is called concave
upward. If the line segments lie below the graph of , then the graph of
is called concave downward.
[Figure 5.18]
Suppose that is differentiable twice. If is concave upward, then the
slopes of the tangent lines increase as we move to the right along the curve. Hence, ′
is an increasing function, or alternatively, ″ . On the other hand, if is
160 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
concave downward, then ″ . A point on the graph of a differentiable function
where the concavity changes is called an inflection point.
Theorem 5.7.7－Concavity and Inflection Point
Suppose that is differentiable twice on an interval .
(1) If ″ , then the graph of is concave upward.
(2) If ″ , then the graph of is concave downward.
(3) If is an inflection point, then ″ .
Example 5.7.5 Find the inflection points of the following functions.
(1) (2)
Solution (1) Since ″ , the graph is concave downward for and upward for
. Hence is the only inflection point.
′
(2) Note that ′′
.
If , then ″ , and hence the graph is concave upward.
If , then ″ , and hence the graph is concave downward.
If , then ″ , and hence the graph is concave upward.
Note that the function is not defined at . Hence is the only inflection point.
When the graph of approaches a certain line (or curve) as → ∞ or
→ ∞ , the line (or curve) is called an asymptotic line (or curve) of .
Sometimes it is called simply an asymptote of .
Example 5.7.6 Sketch the graph of .
Solution Note that ′ . Hence ′ at and is
increasing on ∞ , decreasing on ∪ , and increasing on ∞
5.7 Applications of Derivatives 161
again. Thus takes on a local maximum value at , and a
local minimum value at . Note that ″ . Thus the graph is
concave downward for and upward for . Also note that the function is not
[Figure 5.19]
defined at , and lim ∞ and lim ∞ . Hence is a vertical
→ →
asymptote. Finally, since ,
lim . Thus
→ ± ∞
is an asymptotic line of . Putting the above information altogether, we
can sketch the graph as in [Figure 5.19]
It is not easy to determine the asymptotes of an arbitrary function. For a rational
function , however, we can find the asymptotes as in Example 5.7.6. First,
divide into to obtain polynomials and satisfying
, where the degree of is less than that of . Then
lim lim since . Hence
→ ± ∞ → ± ∞
is an asymptote of . If and do not have a common factor
and , then is a vertical asymptote of .
162 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
Exercise 5.7
1. Show that if is differentiable and ′ for all , then is a
constant function.
2. Evaluate the following limits.
(1) lim
(2) lim
→ →
(3) lim (4) lim
→ →
(5) lim
(6) lim
→ →∞
(7) lim (8) lim
→ →∞
→
(9) lim
(10) lim
→∞
3. Find the local maxima and/or minima of the following functions.
(1) (2)
(3) (4)
4. Determine and if takes on a local maximum (or
minimum) value at and if the graph of has an inflection point at
.
5. Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values of the following
functions in the given intervals.
(1) ,
(2) ,
(3) ,
(4)
,
6. Find the inflection points of the following functions.
(1) (2)
5.7 Applications of Derivatives 163
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7. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.
(1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)
164 CHAPTER 5 Differentiation
CHAPTER 6
Integration
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6.1 Indefinite Integrals
For a function , is called an antiderivative of if ′ . For
example, and are antiderivatives of 1. If both and are
antiderivatives of , then ′ 0, which implies that
for some constant (Exercise 1 of Section 5.7). Hence if is an antiderivative of
, then every other antiderivative of is of the form .
Definition 6.1.1－Indefinite Integral
Suppose that ′ . Then the set of all antiderivatives of is called the
indefinite integral of with respect to , and is denoted by , i.e.,
( a constant). In this case, the function is called the
integrand, and the constant of integration.
Example 6.1.1 Simplify the following expressions for the function .
(1)
(2)
Solution (1) Since ′ , is an antiderivative of . Thus
′
(2) Since , we have
. Hence
Remark The concepts of the derivative and the antiderivative are converse to each other. As in
Example 6.1.1, we have
, and .
Example 6.1.2 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
6.1 Indefinite Integrals 167
′
Solution
(1) Since ,
′
(2) Since
,
(3) Since ′ ,
Theorem 6.1.2－Linearity of Indefinite Integral
If the functions and have antiderivatives, then the following equality holds
for every constant .
Proof If ′ and ′ , then ′ .
Hence
Example 6.1.3 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1) (2)
Solution
(1)
(2)
Now we study various formulas for indefinite integrals. The proofs are omitted since
they can be verified immediately by differentiating the right hand sides.
168 CHAPTER 6 Integration
Theorem 6.1.3－Indefinite Integral of
For any real number , the indefinite integral of is given as follows.
(1) If ≠ , then
(2) If , then
Example 6.1.4 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Solution (1)
(2)
(3)
Theorem 6.1.4－Indefinite Integral of Exponential Functions
(1)
(2)
≠
Example 6.1.5 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Solution (1)
(2)
(3)
6.1 Indefinite Integrals 169
Theorem 6.1.5－Indefinite Integral of Trigonometric Functions 1
(1) (2)
(3)
(4)
(5) (6)
Example 6.1.6 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Solution (1)
(2)
(3)
Using the derivative of a logarithmic function and the Chain Rule, we have
′
′
Hence
′
For example,
Theorem 6.1.6－Indefinite Integral of Trigonometric Functions 2
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
170 CHAPTER 6 Integration
Proof The proofs of (1) and (2) are straightforward. We prove only (3) and (4).
(3)
′
(4)
′
Example 6.1.7 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1) (2)
Solution (1)
(2)
Remark We can obtain Theorem 6.1.5 (5), (6) and 6.1.6 (1), (2) by using the substitution rule,
which will be discussed in Section 6.3.
Exercise 6.1
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
6.1 Indefinite Integrals 171
(11) (12)
2. Find satisfying the given conditions.
(1) ′ ,
(2) ′
(3) ′
3. Suppose that the graph of passes through the origin (0, 0), and that the
slope of the tangent line at is . Find .
6.2 Definite Integrals
Let us find the area of the region between the graph of a nonnegative continuous
function and the -axis from to .
[Figure 6.1]
We partition the interval into subintervals of the same length by
choosing ⋯ . The vertical lines through the points
172 CHAPTER 6 Integration
divide the region into vertical strips. We approximate the area of the -th strip by a
rectangle with height and width . Then the area of the th rectangle is
, and their sum is given by . This area
may not give a
good approximation for if the number of rectangles is small. But it is known that this
approximation gets arbitrarily close to as approaches infinity. In other words,
lim lim
→∞
. This limit is called the definite integral of from
→∞
to , and is denoted by . We call and the limits of the integration.
Remark The existence of the limit is guaranteed when is continuous. One can also use
instead of
to get the same result lim lim .
→ ∞ →∞
Now we define without the assumption that ≥ . Put
and .
Definition 6.2.1－Definite Integral
Suppose that is continuous on .
lim
→∞
lim
→∞
The following theorem is an immediate consequence of the definition of definite
integral.
6.2 Definite Integrals 173
Theorem 6.2.2－Properties of Definite Integral
Suppose that is continuous.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Example 6.2.1 Evaluate the following definite integrals.
(1)
(2)
Solution (1) Since and , we have
lim
→ ∞
lim
→∞
lim
→ ∞
(2) A similar computation with yields
lim lim
→ ∞ →∞
lim
→ ∞
lim
→∞
As we see from Example 6.2.1, computing definite integrals by using the definition is
somewhat complicated. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus which relates definite
integrals with derivatives, however, gives an easy way to compute definite integrals. We
omit the proof of the following theorem.
174 CHAPTER 6 Integration
Theorem 6.2.3－The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Suppose that is continuous on .
(1) The function is differentiable and
.
(2) If is an antiderivative of , then
Example 6.2.2 Find the derivatives of the following functions.
(1)
(2)
Solution (1) If we put , then by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus we
have ′ .
(2) Since , ′
.
Example 6.2.3 Evaluate the following definite integrals.
(1)
(2)
Solution (1) Since
, we have
(2) Since , we have
Recall that for any constant , is an antiderivative of if
and are antiderivatives of and , respectively. Hence, we have the
following result.
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6.2 Definite Integrals 175
Theorem 6.2.4－Linearity of Definite Integral
For continuous functions and , we have
Example 6.2.4 Evaluate the following definite integrals.
(1) (2)
Solution (1)
(2)
Example 6.2.5 Evaluate
Solution
Exercise 6.2
1. Evaluate the following by using the definition of definite integral.
(1)
(2)
176 CHAPTER 6 Integration
2. Express the following limits in the form of definite integrals and evaluate them.
(1) lim
→∞
⋯
(2) lim
→∞
⋯
3. Compute the derivatives of the following functions.
(1)
(2)
(3)
4. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3) (4)
5. Suppose that a continuous function satisfies . Determine
and the constant .
6. Suppose that a continuous function satisfies .
Determine .
6.3 Substitution Rule
Suppose that is an antiderivative of and . Then the Chain Rule
gives
′ ′
Hence is not only an antiderivative of as a function of but also an
antiderivative of ′ as a function of . Thus we get the following result.
6.3 Substitution Rule 177
Theorem 6.3.1－Substitution Rule for Indefinte Integral
To evaluate the integral ′ when and ′ are continuous functions,
we substitute and ′ to obtain
′
Example 6.3.1 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
Solution (1) Under the substitution , we have . Hence
(2) Under the substitution , we have . Hence
(3) If we put , then . Hence
Example 6.3.2 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
Solution (1) Put . Then , or . So
178 CHAPTER 6 Integration
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(2) Under the same substitution, we have
Example 6.3.3 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
Solution (1) Substitute , and . Then
(2) Substitute
, and . Then , and so
The substitution rule can also be applied to definite integrals. In this case, we should be
careful that we have to change the limits of integration.
Theorem 6.3.2－Substitution Rule for Definite Integral
′
Example 6.3.4 Evaluate .
Solution Under the substitution , we have . Note that
when and that when . Hence
6.3 Substitution Rule 179
Example 6.3.5 Evaluate
.
Solution If we put
, then , and so . Note
that when and that when . Since , we have
Exercise 6.3
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals by using the indicated substitutions.
(1)
, (2)
,
2. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11) (12)
(13) (14)
180 CHAPTER 6 Integration
3. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5) (6)
4. Let be a continuous function and . Prove the following statements.
(1) If is an even function, then
.
(2) If is an odd function, then
.
6.4 Integration by Parts
For two differentiable functions and , the derivative of is given by
′ ′ ′
Thus we get ′ ′ ′ , which gives the following result.
Theorem 6.4.1－Integration by Parts for Indefinite Integral
′ ′
Example 6.4.1 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1) (2)
(3)
6.4 Integration by Parts 181
Solution (1) If we put and ′ , then ′ and
. Hence
(2) If we put and ′ , then ′ and . Hence
(3) If we put and ′ , then ′ and . Hence
Example 6.4.2 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1) (2)
Solution (1) Put and ′ to obtain ′ and . Hence
(2) We regard as the product of and ′ . Since ′ and
, we have
․
In the previous examples, the method of integration by parts works well. But it often
happens that we should apply the method of integration by parts more than once as in the
next example.
182 CHAPTER 6 Integration
Example 6.4.3 Evaluate
.
Solution If we put and ′ , then ′ and .
Hence
The second integral is just like the first one, except that it has instead of . To
evaluate it, we apply the method of integration by parts to
again to obtain
Hence
Therefore,
We can apply the method of integration by parts to the definite integrals.
Theorem 6.4.2－Integration by Parts for Definite Integral
′ ′
Example 6.4.4 Evaluate .
Solution If we put and ′ , then ′ and . Hence
⋅
6.4 Integration by Parts 183
Exercise 6.4
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11) (12)
2. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
3. Compute the following integrals as indicated.
(1) Evaluate by using the substitution rule.
(2) Evaluate by using the method of integration by parts.
(3) By using the method of integration by parts, show that for any integer ≥ ,
6.5 Integrations of Rational Functions and Irrational Functions
Integration of Rational Functions
To integrate rational functions of the form , we first divide into to
184 CHAPTER 6 Integration
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obtain the quotient and the remainder . Then ,
where the degree of is less than that of . Hence we have
Since is a polynomial, it is easy to integrate. Therefore, the problem is reduced to
the integration of .
Example 6.5.1 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
Solution (1)
(2)
In the above example, the integration of is easy, but in general, more complicated
computations may be involved. In this book, we only consider the case when splits
into a product of polynomials of degree 1. We investigate the integration in the following
three cases.
(I) The equation has no repeated roots: For example, if the degree of is 2,
then is of the form with ≠ . In this case, we
decompose into and find the constants
and . The fractions and are called the partial fractions.
Example 6.5.2 Evaluate
.
Solution Put . Then after clearing
6.5 Integrations of Rational Functions and Irrational Functions 185
the denominators, we have . Thus and ,
from which we obtain and . Hence
(II) The equation has only one repeated root: For example, if the degree of
is , then is of the form . In this case, we decompose
into and find the constants and .
Example 6.5.3 Evaluate
.
Solution From , we have
. Then and . Hence , and
(III) (General case) The equation has several roots with repetitions allowed:
Even in this general case, can be expressed as a sum of partial fractions in a
similar way.
Example 6.5.4 Evaluate
.
Solution Put , and multiply both
sides by . Then a direct computation shows that , , and
186 CHAPTER 6 Integration
. Hence
Integration of Irrational Functions
There are several typical methods to integrate irrational functions, most of which are
using substitutions. Here we discuss some simple cases that transform the integrands to
rational functions under suitable substitutions.
Example 6.5.5 Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
Solution (1) If we put
, then . So and .
Hence
(2) If we put
, then . So and .
Hence
6.5 Integrations of Rational Functions and Irrational Functions 187
Example 6.5.6 Evaluate
.
We put to get and
. Since , we also have
Solution
. Hence
Since , we have
Exercise 6.5
1. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
2. Evaluate the following indefinite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
188 CHAPTER 6 Integration
3. Evaluate the following definite integrals.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
4. Evaluate in the following way.
(1) Use the substitution to show that
(2) Evaluate the integral (1) to show that
(Compare the result with Theorem 6.1.6)
6.6 Applications of Definite Integrals
Area
Suppose that is a nonnegative continuous function on . As was explained in
Section 6.2, the area of the region surrounded by the -axis, , and the
curve is given by
Similarly, if in the interval , then the area equals
6.6 Applications of Definite Integrals 189
More generally, suppose that two functions and are continuous on with
≥ . The area of the region between the curves and from
to is given by
If , then
Theorem 6.6.1－Area of Region
The area of the region between the curves and from to
is given by
[Figure 6.2]
Example 6.6.1 Find the area of the region between and the -axis from
to .
Solution Note that ≤ for ≤ ≤ , and ≥ for ≤ ≤ . Hence the
area is
190 CHAPTER 6 Integration
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[Figure 6.3]
Example 6.6.2 Find the area of the region enclosed by and in the
interval ≤ ≤ .
Solution To find the intersections of the curves, we solve . Since
, and . Thus the area is
[Figure 6.4]
6.6 Applications of Definite Integrals 191
Volume
Let us consider a solid in [Figure 6.5]. This solid lies between planes perpendicular to
the -axis at and . At each point in the interval , let be the area
of the cross section of the solid by a plane perpendicular to the -axis at . Then the
volume of the solid is given by
[Figure 6.5]
Example 6.6.3 Find the volume of a cone of height whose base is an ellipse of area .
Solution We place the cone with its altitude along the -axis and its vertex at the origin
as in [Figure 6.6].
[Figure 6.6]
Then the area of the cross section of the cone by the plane perpendicular to the
-axis at the point satisfies
192 CHAPTER 6 Integration
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,
which gives . Therefore,
Solids of revolution are solids whose shapes are generated by revolving plane regions
about some axes. Suppose that we have a region between the graph of a continuous
function and the -axis in the interval ≤ ≤ , and that the solid is
generated by revolving the region about the -axis. Then the cross section at of the
solid perpendicular to the -axis is a disk of radius with area .
Hence the volume equals
[Figure 6.7]
Theorem 6.6.2－Volume of a Solid of Revolution 1
The volume of the solid generated by revolving about the -axis the region between
the graph of the continuous function and the -axis from to is
6.6 Applications of Definite Integrals 193
Example 6.6.4 Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving ≤ ≤
about the -axis.
Solution
[Figure 6.8]
Example 6.6.5 Find the volume of the solid obtained by revolving about the -axis the
region enclosed by the graph of
, the -axis and the -axis.
Solution
[Figure 6.9]
194 CHAPTER 6 Integration
Theorem 6.6.3－Volume of a Solid of Revolution 2
Let and be continuous on with
≥ ≥ . Suppose that a solid is
generated by revolving the region bounded by
the curves and from
to about the -axis. Then the volume of
the solid is given by
[Figure 6.10]
Example 6.6.6 The region bounded by the curves and
from
to is revolved about the -axis to generate a solid. Find the volume of the solid.
Solution First, we find the -coordinates of the points where the curves and
meet. From the equation
, we get
. Thus
, from which we obtain . Hence
[Figure 6.11]
6.6 Applications of Definite Integrals 195
Exercise 6.6
1. Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the given curves and lines.
(1) -axis, ≤ ≤
(2)
(3)
(4)
2. Find the volumes of the solids generated by revolving about the -axis the
regions bounded by the given curves and lines.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
≥
(6) ≤ ≤
(7) ≤ ≤
(8) ≤ ≤
(9)
(10)
196 CHAPTER 6 Integration
Answers to Exercises
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Chapter 1 Function
Exercise 1.1
1. (1) (2) (3)
2. (1) (2) (3) ± (4)
3. (1) Domain : , Range : ∞
(2) Domain : , Range :
(3) Domain : , Range :
4. Range : ,
7. Domain : ∞ , Range : ∞
8.
9.
10.
Exercise 1.2
1.
, Domain :
2. , : arbitrary real number
3.
4. (1)
(2) ≤
(3)
5.
6.
Answers to Exercises 197
7.
8.
12. (1) odd function : ⋅ (2) even functions : ∘
Exercise 1.3
1.
2. (1) (2) (3)
3. (1)
(2)
4. (1) (2)
5. (1) (2)
7. (1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)
8. (1) ≤ (2) ≤
(3) ∪ ∞
(4) ∞ ∪ ∪ ∞
9. (1) Maximum at , Minimum at
(2) Maximum at , Minimum at
10. (1)
(2)
11.
12. a right triangle with hypotenuse
Chapter 2 Trigonometric Functions
Exercise 2.1
1. (1) (2) (3) (4)
2. (1) ° (2) ° (3) ° (4) °
3. (1) (2)
198 Answers to Exercises
Telegram: @FRstudy
4. (1) (2)
5.
6.
7. 8.
9. km
Exercise 2.2
1. (1) (2) (3)
(4)
(5) (6)
2.
3. We denote by and the set of all real numbers and all integers, respectively.
(1) Domain : ≠ ∈ , Range : ≥ ≤ ,
fundamental period : , symmetric with respect to the origin
(2) Domain : ≠ ∈ , Range : ≥ ≤ ,
fundamental period : , symmetric with respect to the -axis
(3) Domain : ≠ ∈ , Range : , fundamental period : ,
symmetric with respect to the origin
4. (1) (2)
8.
10. (1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)
11. (1)
(2) ∪
(3) ∪
12. (1) (2) (3) (4)
Answers to Exercises 199
Exercise 2.3
2. 5.
6. for , , and for ,
7.
8. (1) (2) (3)
9. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
11.
12.
,
14. Maximum
15.
16. (1)
(2) ±
(3)
(4) (5) (6)
17. (1) (2)
(3)
18. (1) (2)
Exercise 2.4
1. 3.
5. 6.
7.
200 Answers to Exercises
Chapter 3 Vectors
Exercise 3.1
1.
3. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
4.
5.
Exercise 3.2
1. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
2. (1) ,
(2) ,
3. (1)
(2)
4.
5. (2)
6.
Exercise 3.3
2. (1) (2) (3) (4)
4. (1) neither perpendicular nor parallel (2) perpendicular
5. ∠ ∠ ∠
6. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
7. (1) ± (2) ±
8.
Answers to Exercises 201
Chapter 4 Complex Numbers and Matrices
Exercise 4.1
1. (1) (2) (3) (4)
3. (1) (2) (3) (4)
4. (1)
(2)
(3) (4)
Exercise 4.2
1. (1)
(2)
or
(3) (5)
(4)
(6) (7)
2. (1)
(2) (3)
(4)
(5) (6)
3. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
202 Answers to Exercises
Telegram: @FRstudy
,
(5) ,
,
(6)
(7)
4.
5.
Exercise 4.3
1. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
2. (1) (2) (3)
(4) (5)
3. (1) invertible,
(2) not invertible
(3) invertible,
(4) not invertible
4. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Answers to Exercises 203
Chapter 5 Differentiation
Exercise 5.1
1. (1) (2) It does not exist. (3)
(4) (5) (6)
(7) (8) It does not exist.
2. (1) (2) ∞ (3)
(4) (5) (6)
(7) (8) It does not exist.
3. (1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)
4.
Exercise 5.2
1. (1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)
(7) (8)
2. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
3. (1) (2)
(3) (4) It does not exist or ∞
(5) (6)
Exercise 5.3
1. (1) discontinuous (2) continuous
2. (1) ∞ ∪ ∪ ∞
(2) ∞ ∪ ∪ ∞
204 Answers to Exercises
3. (1) maximum value is 1 at , minimum value is at
(2) no maximum value, minimum value is in ≤
(3) maximum value is 1 at , no minimum value
(4) maximum value is 1 at , minimum value is at
5. (1) (2)
6. (1) A counterexample : , (constant function),
≠
(2) A counterexample : , ,
≠
Exercise 5.4
1. (1) ′ (2) ′
(3) ′ (4) ′
(5) ′ (6) ′
(7) ′ (8) ′
(9) ′ (10) ′
(11) ′ (12) ′
2. (1) (2)
3.
4.
5.
Exercise 5.5
1. (1) ′ (2) ′
Answers to Exercises 205
(3) ′ (4) ′
(5) ′ (6) ′
(7) ′ (8) ′
2. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5) (6)
3.
4. (1) (2)
Exercise 5.6
3. (1) ′ (2) ′
(3) ′
(4) ′
(5) ′
(6) ′
(7) ′
(8) ′ ⋅
4. (1) ′ ⋅ (2) ′ ⋅ (3) ′ ⋅
(4) ′ (5) ′ (6) ′
(7) ′ ⋅
(8) ′
5. (1) (2) (3)
6.
206 Answers to Exercises
Exercise 5.7
2. (1) (2) (3)
(4) (5) (6)
(7) (8) ∞ (9)
(10) ∞
3. (1) local min value : , local max value :
(2) local min value :
(3) local min value :
(4) local max value :
4.
5. (1) absolute min value : , absolute max value :
(2) absolute min value : , absolute max value :
(3) absolute min value :
, absolute max value :
(4) absolute min value : ,
absolute max value :
6. (1) (2)
Chapter 6 Integration
Exercise 6.1
1. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
(5)
(6)
(7) (8)
Answers to Exercises 207
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(9) (10)
(11) (12)
2. (1) (2)
(3)
3.
Exercise 6.2
1. (1) (2)
2. (1) lim
→∞
lim
→∞
(2) lim
→∞
lim
→∞
3. (1) (2) (3)
4. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
5.
6.
Exercise 6.3
1. (1)
(2)
2. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
208 Answers to Exercises
(5)
(6)
(8)
(7)
(9) (10)
(11) (12)
(13) (14)
3. (1) (2)
(3)
(4) (5) (6)
Exercise 6.4
1. (1)
(2)
(3) (4)
(5)
(6)
(7) (8)
(9) (10)
(11) (12)
2. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
3. (1)
(2)
Answers to Exercises 209
Exercise 6.5
1. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
2. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
3. (1) (2) (3)
(4) (5)
(6)
Exercise 6.6
1. (1) (2)
(3) (4)
2. (1)
(2)
(3)
(4) (5) (6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
210 Answers to Exercises
Index
A C
Absolute maximum 158 Cauchy’s Mean Value Theorem 156
Absolute minimum 158 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem 117
Absolute value 102, 105 Central angle 41
Addition formula of trigonometric functions 60 Chain Rule 144
Addition of matrices 113 Change of base formula 35
Addition of functions 19 Characteristic polynomial 117
Amplitude 55 Closed interval 12
Angle 41 Codomain 11
Antiderivative 167 Coefficient of a polynomial 13
Arccosine function 57 Common logarithm 35
Arcsine function 56 Complex number 101
Arctangent function 58 Complex plane 102
Area of a circular sector 42 Components of a vector 87, 89
Argument 108 Composite of two functions 19
Asymptote 15, 161 Concave downward 160
Asymptotic line (or curve) 161 Concave upward 160
Average rate of change 137 Conjugate 102, 103
Constant function 12
B Constant of integration 167
Continuous function 132, 133
Base 28, 31
Coordinate plane 12
Bijection 21
Cosecant 43, 46
Bijective function 21
Cosine 43, 46
Cotangent 43, 46
Index 211
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Critical point 160 G
General angle 46
D
General exponential function 30
De Moivre’s Theorem 109 Graph of a function 14
Decreasing function 22 Graph of an equation 17
Definite integral 173 Graph of cosine function 51
Degree 41 Graph of sine function 50
Degree of a polynomial 13 Graph of tangent function 52
Dependent variable 11
Derivative 138 H
Derivative of a logarithmic function 151
Half-Angle formulas 64
Derivative of an exponential function 151
Heron’s formula 76
Derivatives of trigonometric functions 149
Higher order derivatives 142
Determinant 114
Horizontal asymptote 15
Differentiable 138
Differentiation 140
I
Differentiation of an implicit function 145
Differentiation of an inverse function 147 Identity function 12
Differentiation of parametric equations 147 Identity matrix 114
Directional vector 83 Image of a function 11
Domain 11 Imaginary part of a complex number 101
Double-Angle formulas 63 Implicit function 145
Increasing function 22
E
Indefinite integral 167
Independent variable 11
Even function 24
Indeterminate form 128
Explicit function 145
Inflection point 160
Exponential function 27, 28
Initial side 41
Injection 20
F
Injective function 20
First law of cosines 74 Inner product 91
Frequency 55 Instantaneous rate of change 138
Function 11 Integrand 167
Fundamental period 54 Integration by parts 181, 183
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 175 Integration of irrational functions 187
212 Index
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Integration of rational functions 184 Monotonically increasing 22
Intermediate Value Theorem 135 Multiplication of a vector by a constant 82
Interval 12 Multiplication of matrices 113
Inverse cosine function 57
Inverse function 22 N
Inverse image 11
Natural logarithm 131
Inverse matrix 116
-th root of unity 111
Inverse sine function 56
Inverse tangent function 58
O
Invertible function 22
Invertible matrix 116 Odd function 24
Irrational function 13 Open interval 12
L P
L’Hôspital’s Rule 157 Parallel 92
Law of a right-handed screw 95 Partial fractions 185
Law of parallelogram 83 Perpendicular 92
Law of sines 72 Polar form 107
Left-hand limit 123 Polynomial function 13
Length of a vector 81 Position vector in plane 87
Length of an arc 42 Position vector in space 88
Limit 123 Product of functions 19
Limits of integration 173 Product-to-Sum formulas 66
Local maximum 158 Pure imaginary number 101
Local minimum 158 Pythagorean Theorem 48
Logarithmic function 31, 32
Q
M Quotient of two functions 19
Magnitude of a vector 81
Matrix 113 R
Max-Min Theorem 134 Radian 42
Mean Value Theorem 154 Range 11
Modulus 102, 105 Rate of change 138
Monotonically decreasing 22 Rational function 13
Index 213
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Real part of a complex number 101 T
Right-hand limit 123
Tangent 43
Rolle’s Theorem 154
Terminal side 41
Rotational angle 41
Transcendental function 27
Trigonometric functions 46
S
Trigonometric ratio 43
Same function 13 Triple-Angle formulas 64
Secant 43, 46
Second derivative 142 U
Second law of cosines 75
Unit vector 81
Signs of trigonometric functions 48
Sine 43, 46
V
Sketch a graph 14
Solid of revolution 193 Value of a function 11
Standard unit vectors 88, 89 Vector 81
Strictly decreasing 22 Vector product 94
Strictly increasing 22 Vertical asymptote 15
Substitution Rule 178, 179 Volume of a solid 192
Substraction formula of trigonometric functions
60 Z
Substraction of functions 19 Zero matrix 114
Sum of vectors 83 Zero vector 81
Sums of sine and cosine 65
Sum-to-Product formulas 67
Surjection 20
Surjective function 20
Symmetric subset 24
214 Index
PRECALCULUS
September 26 2016 first printed ┃ 31 2016 first published
Author Jaemoon Kim ․ Kitae Kim ․ Yoonweon Lee ․ Youngjin Lee
Publisher Inha University Press 100 Inharo Namgu Inchon
TEL +82－32－860－8301 ┃ FAX +82－32－862－0080
Press registration May 23 1979 Namgu 13
Printer Taewon printed ┃ TEL +82－32－467－4544∼5
* All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced.
ISBN 978－89－7407－985－7 (93410)
Not for sale.
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