Nama : Sri Ainun Lussy

Nim : 210307029

Duty : report

Introduction to the first Edition

In May 1991, I received a phone call from Simon Bell, former Language Reference Editor At
Routledge, who wanted to know if I had Any suggestions for a reference work on translation studies,
possibly a dictionary. Simon, Among many others, had begun to see translation studies as an exciting
new discipline, Perhaps the discipline of the 1990s. And indeed Translation studies has not only
fulfilled our Expectations but greatly exceeded them. We Need only think of one area in which
translation studies has flourished beyond anyone’s Expectations, namely the academicization of
Translator and interpreter training, to appreciate the phenomenal speed with which the Discipline as
a whole has established itself in the 1990s. The entry on Translator-training institutions by Caminade
and Pym (this volume) Documents the dramatic rise in the number of University-level institutions
which offer degrees In translation and/or interpreting: ‘From 49 in 1960 then 108 in 1980, the global
number had Risen to at least 250 in 1994’. New disciplines, disciplines ‘in the making’ As it were, are
particularly exciting for the rich Research potential they hold and the sheer intellectual energy they
are capable of generating. This intellectual energy can attract – as it has Done in the case of
translation studies – the Interest of scholars working within more traditional disciplines, because it
can revitalize a staid Framework with new challenges, new avenues Of enquiry, and new perspectives
on pursuing Such enquiry. Hence the current interest in Translation across a variety of disciplines,
from Linguistics to ethnography and from cultural Studies to psychology, to name only a few. The
vivacity and diversity that we find so Attractive in new disciplines are a consequence Of the fact that
their potential is as yet unrealized, Or is in the process of being realized. And this is Precisely why the
‘state of the art’ of an emerging discipline such as translation studies is notoriously difficult to
capture in a work of reference. All encyclopedias, this one included, are inevitably out of date before
they hit the press – such is the nature and speed of intellectual progress in any field of study. A
pioneering work of reference which sets out to chart a territory that has hitherto not been charted,
to capture the core concerns of a discipline in a state of lux, cannot hope to be totally
comprehensive. But it can and should aim to offer a balanced, non-partisan view of the discipline.
Translation studies is at a stage of its development when the plurality of approaches that inform it or
are capable of informing it can be overwhelming, and the temptation for many has been to promote
one approach with which they feel particularly comfortable and dismiss the rest. Throughout the
editing of this Encyclopedia, I have tried to keep an open mind on what constitutes a viable
perspective on the study of translation and what might legitimately be seen as a relevant area of
concern or method of research in translation studies. An encyclopedia of a scholarly subject has a
duty to open up rather than unduly restrict the scope of the discipline it sets out to describe. Thus, in
addition to traditional issues such as EQUIVALENCE, SHIFTS OF TRANSLATION and TRANSLATABILITY,
the reader will also find substantial entries which discuss less traditional but increasingly popular
issues, including translation as a metaphor for relations which exist between objects outside
language (METAPHOR OF TRANSLATION), the metaphorics of gender and sexuality in discussions of
translation (GENDER METAPHORICS IN TRANSLATION), the application of model theory to the study
of translation (MODELS OF TRANSLATION), the process by which books are chosen to be translated
and published in other languages (PUBLISHING STRATEGIES), and the use of computerized corpora in
Studying universals of translation (CORPORA IN TRANSLATION STUDIES). So much for Part I.

Part II of this EncyclopediaOffers a very brief overview of national histories Of translation and
interpreting in some thirty Linguistic and cultural communities. These Entries are inevitably restricted
in terms of space And can only offer a glimpse of what a full-scale History of each tradition might
have to offer. When the plan for the Encyclopedia was first Drawn in 1991, no significant initiatives
had Been announced in terms of a general history Of translation; nothing had then appeared on The
FIT History of Translation (Delisle and Woodsworth 1995) nor on the forthcoming de Gruyter
Encyclopedia, and I was not aware at That stage that these projects were being planned. The
rationale for including a historical section And for covering as many traditions as possible, Albeit very
briefly, was to stimulate interest in What I then felt was a seriously neglected area Of translation
studies. Inevitably for a relatively Short section of this type, not all traditions could Be represented,
and the divisions in terms of Linguistic and/or geographical communities are Inherently arbitrary to a
large extent. Irrespective Of possible methodological weaknesses and Unavoidable brevity of
treatment, a reading of These histories can lead to interesting insights on Such issues as the overall
profile of translators And interpreters during different historical Periods, the role of the translator
and/or interpreter as it has been conceived by different Communities, the range of incentives that
have Led to periods of intensive translation activity Across the ages, the amazing variety of activities
that have been subsumed at different times Under the general heading of ‘translation’, and The kinds
of contexts in which translators and Interpreters have sometimes had to operate. These ‘global’
insights would be difficult if not Impossible to draw from a small number of More detailed histories.
A brief outline of a Number of these global patterns may be useful Adaptation John Milton University
of São Paul Introduction The institutionalization of Translation and Interpreting Studies manifests
itself in many Ways: summer schools, new curricula, historical surveys, publishing houses, journals,
book Series, textbooks, terminologies and bibliographies. In addition to all these, the discipline Has
also yielded several encyclopedias and handbooks, and while this new Handbook of Translation
Studies (HTS) is not the first of its kind, we believe that the discipline is now Diversified enough and
strong enough to cope with several initiatives, each with its own Rationale and its particular focus.
Rather than fearing this diversity and this competition, A mature discipline is able to make the most
of these, as the recent history of Translation Studies has shown. Since 2008, when we were invited
by the publisher to be editors of this Handbook, We have searched for other perspectives and added
values compared to the existing Publications. We believe that HTS makes two major contributions to
the field. First, it is The first encyclopedia with this scope in Translation Studies to offer both a print
edition and An online version. The advantages of an online version are obvious: it is more flexible
and More accessible. The authors will regularly be asked to revise and update the entries. The
Software used to support the online HTS has proved to be valuable and reliable. It has been Used for
several years to support the online Handbook of Pragmatics, a similar product in A related linguistic
area. A second added value is the interconnection with the principles of selection and Organization
we have used in the online Translation Studies Bibliography (TSB). As editors Of TSB, we are
constantly developing and adapting topical and conceptual maps of the Discipline (see van Doorslaer
2009). The taxonomy of the TSB has been applied in part To the selection of terms for the HTS, not
rigidly, but pragmatically. The keyword system Underlying the selection and organization of the TSB
has served as a basis for the classification of the HTS entries.On the basis of that keyword list, we are
planning several volumes for the printed edition of the HTS. At least one volume will be published
each year. Over a period of several Years, we will have completed a whole set of volumes containing
a vast range of topics, Traditions and methods that constitute the interdisciplinary field of Translation
Studies. This first volume already contains a first selection of approximately 75 topical articles. The
HTS aims at disseminating knowledge about translation and interpreting studies. It is an academic
tool, but one that is also directed at a broader audience. It addresses the Needs of students (who
often prefer to surf the net, to skim and make do with short texts Rather than studying long
monographs), researchers and lecturers in Translation Studies And practitioners, as well as scholars
and experts from other related disciplines (linguistics, Sociology, history, psychology, etc.). This
project will also be of interest to anyone with a Professional or personal interest in the problems of
translation, interpreting, localization.

“Adaptation” is a term widely used in films, television, the theatre, music, dance and other Media.
Indeed, the terminology in the whole area of adaptation is extremely confusing. However, an
examination of the nuances of the myriad of terms is beyond the scope of this Article, but a number
of the terms used in the area, many of which are self-explanatory, May be mentioned: adaptation,
appropriation, recontextualization, tradaptation, spinoff, Reduction, simplification, condensation,
abridgement, special version, reworking, offshoot, Transformation, remediation, re-vision. A working
definition of “adaptation” comes from Julie Sanders: an adaptation will Usually contain omissions,
rewritings, maybe additions, but will still be recognized as the Work of the original author (Sanders
2006: 26 passim). This is very similar to the definition Of John Dryden of “paraphrase”, which he
made in his Preface to the Epistles of Ovid in 1680: “translation with latitude (…) where the author is
kept in view by the translator (but His words are not so strictly followed as the sense; and that too is
to be amplified, but not Altered” (Dryden 1956: 182). The original point of enunciation remains.
Sanders contrasts “adaptation” with “appropriation”: the original point of enunciation May have now
changed, and, although certain characteristics of the original may remain, The new text will be more
that of the adapter or rewriter. This is again similar to the definition of Dryden, this time that of
“imitation”: the translator (if now he has not lost that Name) assumes the liberty, not only to vary
from the words and the sense, but to forsake Them both as he sees occasion; and taking only some
general hints from the original, to Run division on the ground work, as he pleases” (Dryden 1956:
182). And perhaps here we Can tentatively place a possible boundary as to what may be considered
“translation”. A number of works in the area of Translation Studies have specifically examined
Adaptations. Among them are: Zatlin (2005), Lathey (2006), Milton and Torres (2003) And Upton
(2000). These works have in common the fact that they stress the inter-lingual Element of translating
from one language to another. The translations with which they deal May also be inter-semiotic,
adapting works from one code to another, for example, from “page to stage”, from a novel to a film
or a play. Among the types of adaptation we find in the field of translation is localization*. For
Example, the translation of the site of a cheap flight company may have to introduce information on
visas and cabin baggage restrictions into sites for certain countries.Literature translated for children
(see Children’s literature and translation*) will Frequently involve the adaptation of material which
may be considered unsuitable. For example, in adaptations for children Shakespeare’s plays will lose
their strong sexual references and bawdy language. Mores and morals may also change. Health and
Safety are Important factors today in Western societies. This can be seen in certain adaptations of
the Stories of Pippi Longstocking: “The French Pippi is not allowed to pick up a horse, only A pony”
(Birgit Stolt in Lathey 2006: 73); and in the 1965 German translation the section In which Pippi finds
some pistols in the attic, fires them in the air, then offers them to her Friends who also enjoy firing
them, is replaced by a moralistic Pippi putting them back in The chest and stating “Das ist nicht für
Kinder!” (Emer O’Sullivan in Lathey 2006: 98). This Was totally out of character, and in further
editions this modification was omitted. Theatre texts will continually be adapted for performance
(see Drama translation*). Of course, no two performances will be exactly the same. Alterations may
be introduced By director and/or actors; actors may fluff their lines; costumes and set may change;
the Relationship between actors and audience may change from night to night (Zatlin 2005). Sirkku
Aaltonen (in Milton & Torres 2003) writes on the way in which the translator may Provide an
intermediate text, which may then be adapted for each performance. Advertising is another key area
of adaptation, and the success of a product on the Way it is advertised. Good examples are the
(apparently apocryphal) story of the Vauxhall Corsa, originally a sales disaster when sold in Spain as
the Nova (no va = doesn’t go). Mitsubishi changed the name of the Pajero (Brazil, UK and elsewhere)
to the Montana in Argentina as no one would fancy driving a Mitsubishi Wanker!

Texts may have to be adapted for those with physical disabilities. For the hard-ofhearing the native
language of the country in which they are living is usually their Second language, the local sign
language being their first language. Thus their reading of The national language may often be slow.
Film subtitles may be adapted for the hard-ofhearing, and these subtitles* may also include closed
captions which provide information On any important sounds, which of course they will not hear
(Franco & Araújo 2003).The translation of songs may involve special linguistic elements. Translators
of operas Into Portuguese avoid stresses of the “ugly” nasalized sounds “-ão”, “-ãe”, etc. Thus
alternative words will be found, or the lyrics will be rephrased (Kaiser 1999). Translations of classic
works for mass markets may involve a number of changes. A Study made of the translation of classic
works into Portuguese by a Brazilian book club, The Clube do Livro (Milton 2001, 2002), showed the
following changes. Homogenization Of size and weight was necessary in order to cut printing and
postage costs, and all books Had to fit into a 160 page format. The authorial style was frequently lost:
poetic elements, Puns, and dialects were all discarded, and the result was a homogenous, “correct”
language. Offensive material was usually cut; this could be of a scatological, religious, political or
Sexual nature, depending on the period. Applied Translation Studies Rosa Rabadán University of León
Applied Translation Studies (ATS), the performative branch of Translation Studies (TS), Is concerned
with translation activities that address a particular goal and a specific (group Of) final user(s) and that
imply doing something with, for or about translation according To some standard of quality. ATS
designates fields which partly belong in TS and partly in Other disciplines such as translator
training/education (see Translation didactics*), translation tools* and translation criticism among
others. This article will concentrate on aspects Common to different ATS areas without focusing on
any in particular.

1. Background

In the widely accepted Holmes/Toury map of the discipline ATS are defined by opposition To the
“pure” branches, DTS* and Theory, in terms of purpose (knowledge vs. Performance) And of criterion
(description vs. Prescription).In Holmes’ proposal ATS was a branch “of use” (Holmes 1988: 77), a
necessary complement of the main, pure research branches with which it maintains a dialectical
rather than Unidirectional relationship: there is no applied consideration which is not informed by
Some theoretical model and dependent on some descriptive data, and the applied branch In its turn
supplies materials for the other two. Holmes, however, seems to assume that the Transition between
description and ATS is automatic as he does not offer any hint of ways To convert pure research
information into particular “how to” applications. Toury’s revision of the map (1995: 17–19)
maintained the disciplinary division but Labelled this branch “applied extensions” in an attempt to
convey the necessity of some Bridging device between TS findings, the other relevant discipline(s)
and the actual Applications. Toury named this device “bridging rules” and accounted for the passage
of descriptive TS information to applicable data. These rules would be necessarily different for the
different types of applied extension. For example, rules for, say, translator training would come From
“pure” TS findings and from a theory of teaching and learning. These rules, however, Are not bound
to be relevant for translation criticism or for the design of translation aids. Additional features of
Toury’s applied extensions are their interdisciplinary nature And their relevance for non-translational
fields. While a theory of learning or a linguistic Model can contribute to the creation of applications
for translator training, the set of rules obtained from the interplay between those and TS findings
may also be relevant for foreign Language teaching (FLT) and/or provide insights into linguistic
analysis, see Malmkjær (1998 and 2005), for example. In other words, Toury’s applied extensions
behave as an Interface drawing tools and materials partly from TS partly from other relevant
disciplines, And thereby contributing to other fields.

Introduction

Translation studies is the now established academic discipline related to the Study of the theory,
practice and phenomena of translation. This book brings Together and clearly summarizes the major
strands of translation studies, in order To help readers acquire an understanding of the discipline and
the necessary Background and tools to begin to carry out their own research. It also presents And
discusses theoretical frameworks into which professional translators and Trainee translators can
place their own practical experience.The first three editions of Introducing Translation Studies (2001,
2008 and 2012) presented a practical introduction to an already diverse field. This fourth Edition,
while maintaining the structure and much of the material, is fully revised And updated. New content
has been included throughout, ‘exploration boxes’ Have been inserted within the text to link to full-
text articles available on the Introducing Translation Studies companion website
(http://www.routledge.com/

Cw/munday) and other material has been located online. The website also contains New video
summaries of each chapter and revised PowerPoint presentations that May be customized by the
tutor. However, the general structure of the book remains the same. It sets out to Give a critical but
balanced survey of many of the most important trends and Contributions to translation studies in a
single volume, written in an accessible Style. The different contemporary models are applied to
illustrative texts in brief Case studies so that the reader can see them in operation. The new research
Contained in these case studies, together with the ‘discussion and research Points’ sections, is
designed to encourage further exploration and understanding Of translation issues. The book is
designed to serve as a coursebook for undergraduates And postgraduates in translation, translation
studies and translation theory, and As a solid theoretical introduction for students, researchers,
instructors and Professional translators. The aim is to enable the readers to develop their
understanding of the issues and associated technical language (metalanguage), and introduction To
begin to apply the models themselves. The reader is also encouraged to carry Out a closer
examination of specific issues and to pursue further reading in those Areas that are of greatest
interest. In this way, the book may provide a stimulating Introduction to a range of theoretical
approaches to translation that are relevant Both for those engaged in the academic study of
translation and for the professional linguist. Each of the chapters surveys a major area of the
discipline. Each is designed To be self-standing, so that readers with a specific focus can quickly find
the Descriptions that are of most interest to them. However, conceptual links between Chapters are
cross-referenced and the book has been structured so that it can Function as a coursebook. The
twelve chapters might be covered in one or two Weeks, depending on the length of the course, to fit
into a semesterized system. The discussion and research points additionally provide substantial initial
material for students to begin to develop their own research.

1. Introduction

A troubled relationship Modem linguistics began in the early twentieth century with the work ofthe
Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure. He focused on the notion oflanguage As a system at a given
moment in time (a synchronic approach) at a highly Abstract level that uncovered powerful principles
about the way in which Language in general is structured. The structuralist model he produced was
To prove immensely influential when, much later, it was taken up by anthropologists, literary critics
and philosophers as the one model that would Apparently explain what we had always wanted to
know about life , the universe and everything. Since linguistics is the study of language and has
produced such Powerful and productive theories about how language works, and since Translation is
a language activity, it would seem only common sense to Think that the first had something to say
about the second. Indeed in 1965 The British scholar John Catford opened his book A Linguistic
Theory of Translation with the words: “Clearly, then, any theory oftranslation must Draw upon a
theory of language – a general linguistic theory”. In exactly The same year, however, the famous
American theoretical linguist Noam Chomsky was rather more sceptical about the implications ofhis
own theory For translation, saying that his theory “does not, for example, imply that There must be
some reasonable procedure for translating between languages” (1965 :30). Although no expert in
translation, Chomsky nonetheless divined That there was something about the activity that put it
beyond reason. Perhaps He had read what the academic Ivor Richards (1953 :250) said about
Translation: “We have here indeed what may very probably be the most Complex type of event yet
produced in the evolution ofthe cosmos”. This uncertain relationship between linguistics and
translation theory Continued to be reflected in the literature. Eight years after Catford’s and
Chomsky’s pronouncements, the German theorist Jorn Albrecht (1973: I) Expressed regret and
astonishment that linguists had not studied translation; Yet the Soviet linguist Aleksandr Shveitser,
writing in the same year (although quoted here from the later German translation), made the
opposite Claim: many linguists had long since decided translation could indeed be an Object
oflinguistic study (1987: 13). He rejected the idea tha t linguistics can Explain only the lowest levels
oftranslation activity, saying this was based On too narrow a view of linguistics. He did , however,
refer brief1y to the Furore caused by the first major attempt by a Russian scholar to produce a
Translation and Language Linguistic description oftranslation (Fedorov 1953), which provoked lively
Polemic and liberal accusations of ‘deviation’ (see Cary 1957: 187). The intervening years have not
revolver the tension. Almost thirty years After the Catford-Chomsky declarations, the English
academic Roger Bell ( 1989:xv) claimed that translation theorists and linguists were still going Their
own separate ways. The French scholar Maurice Pergnier has pointed Out that even though
linguistics has developed in ways that make it much More relevant to the concerns oftranslation,
there are still those who would Like to liberate translation completely from its sway (1993 :9).
Indeed, his Compatriot Marianne Lederer is just one among many who dismisses linguistics from
translation studies: “I hope in this way to bring out the reasons Why translation must be dealt with
on a level other than the linguistic”

( 1994:87). Such a position is provocatively extreme. Linguistics quite clearly does Have something to
offer the study oftranslation, and in these pages we shall Be exploring what that is. At the same time,
however, we shall be pointing Out the limitations ofthe discipline, especiallyifpeople want to see
translation As an entirely linguistic activity or want to use linguistics as a recipe giving Ready-made
solutions to specific translation problems rather than as a Resource for extrapolating general
problem-solving techniques from specific Concrete problems. The relationship of linguistics to
translation can be twofold: one can Apply the findings of linguistics to the practice of translation, and
one can Have a linguistic theory of translation, as opposed, say, to a literary, economic or
psychological theory oftranslation. In the first approach, a subdivision oflinguistics such as
sociolinguistics might have something to say about the way in which language varies in Relation to
social status, age, gender and so on. It will enable us to recognize These variations and describe
them. And when we have to deal with sociolinguistic variation in a text to be translated, linguistics
can provide one input In deciding how to cope with the situation. In the second approach, rather
than applying linguistic theory to Elements within the text to be translated, one can apply it to the
entire concept oftranslation itself. Thus the theory ofdynamic equivalence put forward By the
American scholar Eugene Nida, which we consider below, can actually be seen as nothing less than a
sociolinguistics oftranslation, describing The way translators can adapt texts to the needs of a
different audience in The same way we all adjust our language to suit the people we are talking to.
Both ofthese approaches are found in writings on linguistics and translation, and we shall try to
signal them as we go along. For the remainder of This chapter we shall follow the first approach,
giving an overview of the Introduction Basic concepts and main divisions in structural linguistics to
see how important they are in translation, then coming back to them in greater deta il in Later
chapters. Langue/parole Saussure made it possible to see language as a set of structured systems
Rather than a ragbag of bits and pieces. Some parts of language, such as Grammar, have always been
thought of as systems, of course.But the structuralist linguistics that emerged from Saussure’s work
attempted to uncover The systematic and structured nature of other parts of language: the sound
System (phonetics and phonemics), the grammar system (syntax, which is Word order, and
morphology, which is word shape) and the meaning system (semantics). For linguistics to make
progress in describing these systems, Saussure Thought it necessary to distinguish between what he
called ‘langue’ and ‘parole’ (the terms are often used in their French form in other languages,
Because, ironically, it can be difficult to find translation equivalents). This Is the difference between
the abstract language system (langue or ‘ a language’), which Saussure saw as the object
oflinguistics, and actual uses of Language (parole or ‘speaking’), which were thought to be too
variable for Systematic, ‘scientific’ study because the factors involved were too numerous And too
random. An example might illustrate this: After a certain amount of alcoholic Intake you might say
I’ve got a shore headwhen you mean sore head. Now, Although linguistics can describe the
difference between sand sh in phonemic theory, in this particular case the difference has no linguistic
meaning; It is a matter of parole; it is a one-off event that has no function in the Language system. By
contrast, the difference between sore and shore in the Non-alcoholic I got a bit sore sitting on the
shore does have a function in the Language system: the sound opposition in this case serves to mark
out a Change in meaning, and it does so on a systematic basis (single/shingle, sin/ Shin etc.) These
differences are a matter of langue. This distinction between langue and parole, and the insistence
that linguistics should study only langue, led to tremendous progress in the Discipline. Yet the early
linguistic approaches to translation that tried to Follow the same line led to considerable
dissatisfaction. To many translators and translation theorists the findings seemed sterile, leaving out
many Things of interest to translation. The German scholar Dieter Stein (1980), For example, went so
far as to declare that the linguistics oflangue had little Or nothing to offer translation studies (which
is to forget that language

Translation and Language Structure can be a serious problem in translation). The langue-oriented
approach can certainly produce useful comparative descriptions of language systems, and, as the
Canadian translation Theorist Jean Delisle says, such things must be a part of every translator’s
Knowledge (1988:78). I can scarcely envisage being a translator if I don’t Have that basic command of
my languages. But these things by no means Exhaust the problems oftranslation. They belong to
what the German theorist Werner Koller (1979: 185) calls ‘foreign language competence ‘,Knowledge
that is basic to, but not the whole of, ‘translator competence’, Because simply knowing two
languages is not all that is needed to be a Translator, as these pages will make abundantly clear.