JAIGOPAL GARODIA VIVEKANANDA
VIDYALAYA
AVADI, CHENNAI-600 054
PHYSICS INVESTIGATORY REPORT
STUDENT’S PROFILE
NAME : R.K. HARRISH RAM
CLASS : XII - A
ROLL NO : 12110
SUBJECT : PHYSICS
TOPIC : To investigate the factors affecting the
internal resistance and electromotive force (EMF) of a cell,
and creatively visualize the findings
SUBMITTED TO : Tr. KOKILA
ACADEMIC YEAR : 2024-2025
TITLE
UNRAVELING THE SECRETS
OF CELL
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
AND EMF
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank my Physics teacher Mrs Kokila miss for
guiding me throughout this project work.
A Special acknowledgement goes to our Principal Madam
Mrs.Sylasree Vasunath and Senior Secondary Principal Madam
Mrs.Vedavalli who gave me the golden opportunity of this
wonderful project which also helped me in doing a lot of research
and I came to know about so many new things.
I wish to thank my parents as well for their support and
encouragement without whom I could not have completed this
project in the limited time frame.
In the end, I want to thank my friends who displayed appreciation
for my work and motivated me to continue my work. And not but
not least I thank the almighty for everything that I have achieved
till now.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the Physics Investigatory Project titled “To
investigate the factors affecting the internal resistance and
electromotive force (EMF) of a cell, and creatively visualize the
findings” has been successfully completed by R.K. HARRISH
RAM of XII under the supervision and guidance of Physics teacher
Mrs.KOKILA miss in Practical fulfilment of curriculum of Central
Board of Secondary Education(CBSE) leading to the award of
annual examination of the year 2024 – 2025. All the works related
to the project is original and genuine and has been completed solely,
sincerely and satisfactorily by the candidate to investigate about the
subject matter.
Signature of Signature of
Internal Examiner External Examiner
Signature of the Principal
TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No. CONTENTS
1. Objective
2. Introduction
3. Materials Required
4. Theory
5. Procedure
6. Observation
7. Calculations
8. Graph
9. Result
10. Conclusion
11. Precautions
12. Sources of Error
13. Bibliography
OBJECTIVE
To investigate the factors affecting the internal resistance and
electromotive force (EMF) of a cell, and creatively visualize the
findings.
INTRODUCTION
INTERNAL RESISTANCE:
Internal resistance refers to the opposition to the flow of current
offered by the cells and batteries themselves resulting in the
generation of heat. Internal resistance is measured in Ohms. The
relationship between internal resistance (r) and emf (e) of cell s
given by.
e = I (r + R)
Where, e = EMF i.e. electromotive force (Volts), I = current (A), R
= Load resistance, and r is the internal resistance of cell measured
in ohms.
On rearranging the above equation we get;
e = IR + Ir or, e = V + Ir
In the above equation, V is the potential difference (terminal) across
the cell when the current (I) is flowing through the circuit.
Note: The emf (e) of a cell is always greater than the potential
difference (terminal) across the circuit.
What is resistance?
Resistance is a measure of the opposition to current flow in an
electrical circuit.
OHM’LAW
Ohm’s law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided all physical
conditions and temperatures remain constant.
Mathematically, this current-voltage relationship is written as,
In the equation, the constant of proportionality, R, is called
Resistance and has units of ohms, with the symbol Ω.
The same formula can be rewritten in order to calculate the current
and resistance respectively as follows:
MATERIALS REQUIRED
• CELLS [DRY AND WET]
• MULTIMETER
• VARIABLE RESISTOR
• THERMOMETER
• POTENTIOMETER
• RHEOSTAT
• GALVANOMETER
• TWO WAY KEYS
• CONNECTING WIRES
• AMMETER
THEORY
The internal resistance of a cell is given by, the internal resistance
varies from one cell to another, depending on the following factors:
1. The Surface Area of the Electrodes – Internal Resistance of a
cell is inversely proportional to the area of the electrodes
dipping in the electrolytic solution. The greater is the surface
area of the electrodes of the cell, the lesser is the internal
resistance value.
2. The Distance between the Electrodes – The larger is the
distance between two electrodes of the cell, the higher is the
value of the internal resistance. This is because the current has
to flow through a larger distance of the electrolyte.
3. The Temperature of the Electrolyte – Internal resistance is
inversely related to the temperature of the electrolyte. The
more the temperature of the electrolyte, the lesser the internal
resistance of the cell. This is because, when the temperature is
high, ions easily gain energy. So, the resistance against the
charge flow decreases.
4. The Concentration of the Electrolyte – The higher is the
concentration of the electrolyte, the more is its internal
resistance.
5. The Nature of the Electrolyte – Internal Resistance is inversely
proportional to the nature of the electrolyte. The more is the
conductivity of the electrolyte, the lesser is the internal
resistance it offers.
DERIVATION OF FORMULA
Labelled electric circuit diagram: Potentiometer wire, Rh→
variable resistance, C- accumulator, D-experimental cell, G-
galvanometer, R.B- resistance box, K1,K2-keys, J-jockey.
let the EMF of the experimental cell is E and its internal resistance
is r. If the resistance R from the resistance box is connected with
this cell then the potential difference at the ends of the cell
becomes V.
E=I(R+r) and V=IR
then r=(E/V-1) ..........(1)
Let the potential gradient of the potentiometer be v.
When R is not connected, then let the balance point is found at
distance l1 from A, then
E=vl1 ........(2)
Now when R is connected with the cell, then let the balance point
is obtained at a distance l2 from A. The potential difference at the
ends of the cell
V=vl 2 ..........(3)
Substituting eqns. (2) and (3) in (1),
r=( vl1/vl2 - 1)R
r=(l1/l2 -1)R
where l1 and l2 are the balancing lengths without resistance and
with resistance (shunt) respectively and R is the shunt resistance
in parallel with given cells.
PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make
tight connections according to the circuit diagram.
2. Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.
3. Check the emf of the battery and the cell. Make sure that emf of
the battery is more than that of the cell, otherwise null point will
not be obtained.
TO STUDY VARIATION OF INTERNAL RESISTANCE WITH
DISTANCE OF SEPARATION.
4. Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16cm.
5. Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat
resistance small
6. Without inserting a plug in key K₂, adjust the rheostat so that a
null point is obtained on the last wire of the potentiometer.
7. Determine the position of the null point accurately using set
square and measure the balancing length (l1) between the null point
and the end P.8. Next, introduce plugs in both keys K1 and K2. At
the same time, take out a small resistance (1 - 5w) from the shunt
resistance box connected in parallel with the cell.
9. Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire and obtain the null
point.
10. Measure the balancing length (l2) from and P. Record these
observations
11. Now keep the electrodes 12 cm apart.
12. Then remove the plugs of keys k1 and k2. Wait for time and
repeat steps 7 to 10.
13. Next, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart to obtain another set of
observations.
TO STUDY VARIATION OF INTERNAL RESISTANCE
ELECTRODES WITH AREA OF ELECTRODES
14. Keeping all other factors constant, increase the area of
electrodes in the electrolyte by dipping them into the electrolyte at
different depths for each observation.
15. Obtain three such observations by repeating steps 7 to 10.
Record your readings.
TO STUDY VARIATION OF INTERNAL RESISTANCE. WITH
CONCENTRATION OF ELECTROLYTE
16. Keeping all other factors constant, decrease the concentration
of electrolyte by adding distilled water for different observations.
17. Obtain 3 such observations by repeating step 7-10. Record your
readings.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF A CELL
PARALLEL WITH THE GIVEN CIRCUIT
OBSERVATIONS
Table for internal resistance for step 1
Table for effect of separation between electrodes for step 2
CALCULATION OF INTERNAL
RESISTANCE
1st reading:
Ammeter reading- 0.3 A
null point with R L1-660.5 cm
null point without L2-35.5 cm
shunt resistance R-1 ohm
internal resistace:
formula:
r = ((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((660.5-35.5))/660.5)*1
=(625/660.5)*1
=0.946 ohm
Similarly for 2nd and 3rd reading:
r =((660.5-77.2)/660.5)*2
=(583.3/660.5)*2
=0.883*2
=1.77 ohm
r =((660.5-108.3)/660.5)*3
=(552.2/660.5)*3
=0.836*3
=2.508 ohm
CALCULATION FOR TABLE FOR
EFFECT OF SEPARATION BETWEEN
ELECTRODES
constant shunt resistance R=3 ohm
1ST reading:
Separation between electrodes d=1.2 cm
balancing lengths L1=326.6 cm L2=276.9 cm
Internal resistance:
r = ((L-L2)/L1)*R
=((326.6-276.9)/326.6)*3
=(49.7/326.6)*3
=0.152*3
=0.456 ohm
r/d ratio= 0.456/1.2 =0.38
2nd reading:
L1=320.7 L2=219.1 d=2.5
internal resistance:
r = ((320.7-219.1)/320.7)*3
=(101.6/320.7)*3
=0.316*3
=0.948 ohm
r/d ratio=0.95/2.5=0.38
3rd reading:
L1=660.5 L2=350.9 d=3.7
internal resistance:
r =((660.5-350.9)/660.5)*3
=(309.6/660.5)*3
=0.468*3 =1.40 ohm
r/d ratio=1.40/3.7 = 0.38
CALCULATION OF EFFECT OF
CONCENTRATION OF ELECTROLYTE
ON THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Concentration = 250ml
1st reading:
R=6.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 581 L2= 401
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((581-401)/581)*6 =180/581*6 =1.86ohm
2nd reading:
R=8.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 584 L2= 439.5
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((584-439.5)/584)*8
=1.98ohm
3rd reading:
R=10.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 588.2 L2= 443.9
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((588.2-443.9)/588.2)*10
=2.45ohm
Concentration = 300ml
1st reading:
R=6.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 593.5 L2= 352
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((593.5-352)/593.5)*6
=2.44ohm
2nd reading:
R=8.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 582.5 L2= 404
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((582.5-404)/582.5)*8
=2.45ohm
3rd reading:
R=10.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 583.75 L2= 383.5
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((583.75-383.5)/583.75)*10
=3.43ohm
Concentration = 350ml
1st reading:
R=6.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 582 L2= 337.5
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((582-337.5)/582)*6
=2.52ohm
2nd reading:
R=8.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 581 L2= 358.5
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((581-358.5)/581)*8
=3.06ohm
3rd reading:
R=10.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 576.5 L2= 348
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((576.5-348)/576.5)*10
=3.96ohm
CALCUTION FOR EFFECT OF
TEMPERATURE OF ELECTROLYTE
ON THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Temperature = 55 degree Celsius
1st reading:
R=6.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 595.5 L2= 415
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((595.5-415)/595.5)*6 =1.82ohm
2nd reading:
R=8.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 588.75 L2= 434.25
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((588.75-434.25)/588.75)*8
=2.10ohm
rd
3 reading:
R=10.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 596.5 L2= 486.3
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((596.5-486.3)/596.5)*10
=1.85ohm
Temperature = 45 degree Celsius
1st reading:
R=6.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 593 L2= 448
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((593-448)/593)*6 =1.47ohm
nd
2 reading:
R=8.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 593 L2= 446
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((593-446)/593)*8
=1.98ohm
rd
3 reading:
R=10.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 592 L2= 453
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((592-453)/592)*10 =2.35ohm
Temperature = 35 degree Celsius
1st reading:
R=6.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 600.5 L2= 367
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((600.5-367)/600.5)*6
=2.33ohm
nd
2 reading:
R=8.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 588.5 L2= 404.5
Internal resistance:
r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((588.5-404.5)/588.5)*8
=2.50ohm
3rd reading:
R=10.0ohm
Balancing lengths L1= 591.5 L2= 432
Internal resistance: r =((L1-L2)/L1)*R
=((591.5-432)/591.5)*10
=2.70ohm
GRAPHS
Graph for variation of internal resistance with respect to
separation of electrodes
Plotted a graph with separation between electrodes as x axis and
value of internal resistance as y axis and observed it’s nature.
As the separation between electrodes increases, the internal
resistance is also increasing which shows they are directly
proportion to each other.
Graph for variation of internal resistance with concentration
Plotted a graph with concentration of electrolyte as x axis and
internal resistance as y axis and observe it’s nature.
As the concentration of the electrolyte increases, the internal
resistance also increases which proves they are directly
proportional to each other.
Graph For Variation Of Internal Resistance With
Concentration.
Plotted a graph with temperature as x axis and internal resistance
as y axis and observed it’s nature.
As the temperature of electrolyte increases, the internal resistance
decreases which shows that they both are inversely proportional to
each other.
RESULTS
From the above observation, it is verified that:
(i) The internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional to the
separation between the electrodes.
(ii) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the
area of the electrodes dipped in electrolyte.
(iii)The internal resistance is inversely proportional the
temperature of the electrolyte
(iii) The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to
the concentration of the electrolyte.
CONCLUSION
This project has examined the various factors that affect the
internal resistance of a cell; the separation between its electrodes,
their surface area, the temperature of electrolyte and the
concentration of its electrolyte.
Internal resistance is the property responsible for decreasing the
terminal voltage of a cell below its emf. As such, it is generally
advantageous to reduce the internal resistance of cell.
Hence, the study of factors affecting internal resistance is of
economic relevance.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the
observations are to be taken.
3 The positive poles of the battery E and cells E, and E_{2}
should, all be connected to the terminal at the zero of the wires.
4. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should
touch the wire gently.
5. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular
set of observation. If necessary, adjust the rheostat for this
purpose.
6. The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than the e.m.f.s of
the either of the two cells
7. Some high resistance plug should always be taken out from
resistance box before the jockey is moved along the wire.
8. The e.m.f. of the battery should be greater than that of the cell.
9. For one set of observation the ammeter reading should remain
constant.
10. Current should be passed for short time only, while finding the
null point. 11. Rheostat should be adjusted so that initial null point
lies on last wire of the potentiometer
12. Cell should not be disturbed during experiment.
13. Jockey should not be rubbed against the potentiometer wire.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.
2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross-section
and material density throughout its length.
3. End resistances may not be zero.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Class XII comprehensive practical physics
2.www.google.com
3.www.scribd.com
4.www.chatgpt.com
5.https://www.dcode.fr/points-plotter
