BOARD LICENSURE
EXAMINATION FOR
CRIMINOLOGISTS
(BLEC)
MS JAMILLA L ASALAN, RCrim.
BS Criminology, cum laude, 2003
MS Criminal Justice (academic units completed)
MA in Public Administration (ongoing)
1st Place, Criminologist
Licensure Examination, 2004
Former Program Chair, Area
Chair, Full-time Faculty,
Research Officer and
Review Coordinator;
Non-Uniformed Personnel,
Philippine National Police
Author, criminology
textbooks and reviewers
MODULE 6
CRIMINOLOGY
CRIM7 and CRIM8
CRIMINOLOGICAL
RESEARCH AND
STATISTICS
PRC TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
2021
[Link], interpret and use
the different types, kinds and
classification of research,
including the parts of a
thesis, research, scientific
article and the types, kinds
classification of research
methodologies;
2. Explain or apply the rules
adopted in writing technical
papers under the American
Psychological Association
under the following but not
limited to: basic formatting
of thesis/research paper,
verb, tone, punctuations,
rules in writing numbers,
tables and figures, quotation
and paraphrasing, citations
and reference;
3. Recall ethical issues in
research writing;
4. Apply the rules in
developing a problem,
collecting and gathering of
primary, secondary and
tertiary data sources;
5. Understand the research
design, research framework,
statement of the problem,
hypothesis, application and
relevance of literature and
related studies, research
designs, instrument or data
gathering tools, sampling
techniques and applicable
statistical tools.
DEFINITION, PURPOSE
AND IMPORTANCE OF
RESEARCH
RESEARCH
- a careful, critical,
disciplined inquiry, varying
in technique and method
according to the nature and
conditions of the problem
identified, directed toward
the clarification or
resolution of a problem
- the process of gathering
data or information to solve
a particular or specific
problem in a scientific
manner
- a systematic process of
collecting and logically
analyzing information or
data for some purpose
- a purposive, systematic and
scientific process of gathering,
analyzing, classifying,
organizing, presenting and
interpreting data for the
solution of a problem, for
prediction, for invention, for
the discovery of truth, or for
the expansion or verification of
existing knowledge, all for the
preservation and improvement of
the quality of human life
PURPOSES OF RESEARCH
[Link] discover new facts
about known phenomena;
[Link] find answers to
problems which are only
partially solved by existing
methods and information;
[Link] improve existing
techniques and develop new
instruments or products;
4. To provide basis for
decision- making in
business, industry,
education, government and in
other undertakings;
5. To satisfy researcher’s
curiosity;
6. To expand or verify
existing knowledge; and
7. To promote health and
prolong life.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
[Link]
-there are correct steps or
procedures to be followed
2. Objective
-based on real facts and
information and not on
personal opinions or
speculations
3. Comprehensive
- there is a need to examine
and analyze all aspects
before making a generalization
or conclusion
4. Critical
- procedures employed must be
able to withstand detailed
scrutiny by other researchers
5. Valid
- Conclusions must be based on
actual findings
6. Empirical
- Conclusions must be drawn
from hard evidence gathered
from information collected
from real life experiences or
observations
THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN
CRIMINOLOGY
1. It helps students and even
professionals to ascertain or
recognize what works in the
areas of law enforcement,
prosecution, court system,
correctional institutions and
the community;
2. It provides the basis for
the formulation of criminal
justice policies;
3. It helps students
identify more effective
approaches to law
enforcement and
administration of justice;
and
4. It helps students become
educated consumers of
research by being able to
identify the strengths and
weaknesses of studies in the
field of criminology
5. Researches in criminology
and criminal justice aids
the government in improving
the implementation of
policies and delivery of
services in the various
government agencies in the
field of criminal justice.
6. Researches in criminology
and criminal justice assists
the lawmakers in the
formulation of new laws and
revision of existing laws
concerned with public
safety, crime prevention and
maintenance of peace and
order.
TYPES
OF
RESEARCH
1. According to the kind of
researcher:
ACADEMIC RESEARCH
- one conducted by an
individual in fulfilling the
requirements for the
conferment of an academic
title or degree
RESEARCH PROJECT
- undertaken by an individual
as part of his professional
work
2. According to use or
application of research:
PURE/THEORETICAL RESEARCH
- done for the purpose of
formulating a theory, principle
or law with no intended
application of results, also
called BASIC RESEARCH
APPLIED/PRACTICAL
- an inquiry to test or evaluate
a theory or knowledge with
practical goal in mind such as
immediate solution to a problem
PURE/THEORETICAL RESEARCH
- examples: perception,
awareness, opinions of
respondents
APPLIED/PRACTICAL
- examples: proposed
policies, programs, products
or inventions
3. According to method of data
analysis:
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
- data subjected to analysis
are in the form of numbers
from precise measurements;
data are analyzed using
statistical measurement
- researches that use
statistical formulas, such as
chi-square, analysis of
variance, t-test, z-test etc.
in interpretation of findings
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
[Link]
-uses interview,
questionnaires and sample
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
-tests relationship between
two variables
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
-focuses on cause-and-effect
phenomenon
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
- data analysis is done by
using descriptive words and
themes
- does not rely on
statistical treatment to
analyze the findings
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Examples:
[Link] research
-investigates culture
through community immersion
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Examples:
2. Phenomenological Research
-aims to describe an
experience as it is actually
lived by the person
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Examples:
3. Historical Research
-involves analysis of events
that occurred to trace its
development
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Examples:
4. Case Study
-conducted to understand a
particular case, person, or
organization
4. According to research
methodology or design:
DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
- seeks to describe a
situation, problem or
phenomenon: answers the
questions: what is the
status of...? What is the
nature of...?
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
- studies the cause-and-
effect relationships;
answers the questions: what
will happen if...? What
happens next after...?
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
- attempts to explain an
incident that happened in
the past with the use of
data taken from the past;
answers the question: what
events took place in ____?
OTHER RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
1. EVALUATION RESEARCH – seeks
to determine the effects of a
social program or other types
of interventions and considers
the implementation and
outcomes of social policies
and programs
2. EXPLANATORY RESEARCH
-seeks to identify causes
and effects of social
phenomena, to predict how
one phenomenon will change
or vary in response to
variation in some other
phenomenon
3. EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
– undertaken when there is
little or no known facts
about the subject matter
- examples are feasibility
study or pilot study
CHARACTERISTICS
OF A GOOD
RESEARCH PROBLEM
S - SPECIFIC; clearly
stated
M - MEASURABLE; can be
quantified and qualified
A - ACHIEVABLE; results can
be achieved using
appropriate measures, such
as statistics
R - REALISTIC; results are
not manipulated or
invented
T - TIME-BOUND; can be done
within the specified
period
COLLECTION OF
DATA
DATA (singular, DATUM)
- are a collection of numbers,
quantities, facts or records
used as bases for drawing
conclusions or making inferences
- what research is searching for
and which are subjected to
analysis, statistical procedures
and interpretation so that
inferences, principles or
generalizations are drawn
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA ACCORDING
TO SOURCE
[Link] DATA
- those gathered from primary
sources
PRIMARY SOURCES:
-individual persons
-organized groups such as
schools, business firms,
government agencies
-documents in their original
forms such as laws, contracts etc
2. SECONDARY DATA
- those gathered from
secondary sources
SECONDARY SOURCES
- books, dictionaries,
encyclopedias
- articles in professional
journals, magazines and
newspapers
- thesis and dissertations and
other studies
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
- the tool used to collect
data from respondents
COMMON RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
[Link] QUESTIONNAIRE
[Link]
QUESTIONNAIRE
- written or printed form
containing the questions to
be asked to the respondents
INTERVIEW
- interaction between
researcher and respondents
through face-to-face
conversations or by
telephone
- data is collected using
pre-determined interview
questions
SAMPLING
- the process of selecting a
representative portion of
the population that can be
the source of data as
respondents of the study
SAMPLE (n)
- a selection of respondents
for a research study to
represent the total
population
POPULATION (N)
- consists of the total
number of members of a group
that a researcher is
interested in studying
SLOVIN FORMULA
- the mathematical formula
used to get the sample:
N
n = ----------
1 + N e²
n = sample size
N = population size
e² = desired margin of error
(0.05)
SAMPLING
METHODS
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
[Link] SAMPLING
[Link]-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
- random selection of
samples where every member
of the population has a
chance of being selected
FOUR PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
[Link] RANDOM SAMPLING
-most frequently used
-chance of selection is the
same
-ex. lottery
2. SYSTEMATIC RANDOM SAMPLING
-follows specific steps in
doing the random selection
-ex. first 100 in the list;
interval of 5s, 10s etc
3. STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
-the population is divided
into groups or categories
called strata
-ex. divide the students into
year levels
4. CLUSTER SAMPLING
-population is divided into
groups called clusters
-cluster sampling is used
when the target respondents
are spread across a
geographical location
-Ex. Manila Police District
police officers clustered
into 11 police stations
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
-used when the researcher
cannot employ random
selection
FOUR NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
TECHNIQUES
[Link] SAMPLING
-method of selecting samples
that are available and are
capable of participating
-ex. Only those who are
present will be the
respondents
2. SNOWBALLING SAMPLING
-identifies a key informant
then asks him/her for
referrals
-ex. One respondent
interviewed will refer
another respondent known to
him/her
3. PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
-samples are chosen for a
special purpose
-ex. Only those who interned
in the PNP can be
respondents
4. QUOTA SAMPLING
-gathering a sample from a
group based on certain
characteristics of the
population chosen
-ex. there must be equal
number of male and female;
equal number of criminology
students from each school
VARIABLES IN RESEARCH
VARIABLES
-attributes or characteristics
that can vary and can affect or
change the results of a study
-ex. characteristics of the
respondents, setting of the
study
KINDS OF VARIABLES
[Link] VARIABLES
-the variable that is being
manipulated in the study
-the variable that is
different between the groups
compared
KINDS OF VARIABLES
2. DEPENDENT VARIABLES
-the result or outcome of
the study
-the variable that the
researcher is interested in
KINDS OF VARIABLES
3. INTERVENING VARIABLES
-the variable that links the
independent and dependent
variables
-a hypothetical concept that
explains the relationship
between the independent and
dependent variables
KINDS OF VARIABLES
4. CONSTANT VARIABLES
-the variable that is not
changed or remains the same
throughout the conduct of
the study
THE
RESEARCH
PROCESS
STEP 1: IDEA-GENERATING
PHASE
- that stage where the
researcher is starting to
think of research topics or
problems to work on
- that stage where the
researcher starts collecting
materials, such as related
literature and studies
STEP 2: PROBLEM-DEFINITION
PHASE
- that stage where the
researcher decides on a
particular research topic or
problem and narrows down its
scope
- that stage where the problem
and sub-problems are
identified, the
theoretical/conceptual
framework is developed and the
hypothesis is formulated
STEP 3: PROCEDURES-DESIGN
PHASE
- that stage where the
researcher identifies who the
respondents will be, what
methodology is appropriate,
creation of data-gathering
tools or instruments and how
the data gathered will be
processed and analyzed
STEP 4: DATA-COLLECTION
PHASE
- that stage where the
researcher starts collecting
the data, such as
distribution of the survey
questionnaire and doing
interviews
STEP 5: DATA-ANALYSIS PHASE
- that stage where the
researcher sorts, organizes,
tallies and analyzes the
data collected
- data are recorded,
tabulated, computed or coded
STEP 6: INTERPRETATION-PHASE
- that stage where the data are
given their interpretations in
textual forms using sentences
and paragraphs
- that stage where the
researcher finalizes the
findings as answers to the
questions posed at the start
of the research and arrives at
conclusions and
recommendations
STEP 7: COMMUNICATION PHASE
- That stage where the
researcher shares the findings
of his study by furnishing
copies of the research paper
to concerned individuals or
agencies, or submits his
research paper for publication
and presentation in proper
venues
PARTS OF A
RESEARCH
PAPER/FORMAT OF
THESIS
CHAPTER 1 – THE PROBLEM AND
ITS SETTING
CHAPTER 2 – RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
CHAPTER 4 – PRESENTATION,
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
OF DATA
CHAPTER 5 – SUMMARY OF
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER 1 –
THE PROBLEMS AND ITS
SETTINGS
INTRODUCTION
SETTING OF THE STUDY
THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
HYPOTHESIS
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
STUDY
SCOPE AND DELIMITATION
OF THE STUDY
DEFINITION OF TERMS
INTRODUCTION
- introduces the subject
matter
- presents the existing
problem
- states the importance of
conducting the research
study
SETTING OF THE STUDY
- describes the place or
location of where the study
was conducted
- states the reason for
choosing said place as
setting of the study
THEORETICAL/CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
- cites a particular theory
which served as a guide or
basis for the study
- cites a particular law or
manual as the source of the
variables of the study
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
- depicts the concept of the
study through illustration,
such as the input-process-
output-feedback model; Venn
diagram and other
appropriate graphical
depiction of the study
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
- presents the general
statement of the subject
matter of the study; usually
a repetition of the research
title
- presents the specific
questions that the study
aims to answer
HYPOTHESIS
-a tentative conclusion or
answer to a specific
question raised at the
beginning of the research
TWO KINDS OR FORMS OF
HYPOTHESIS
1. NULL HYPOTHESIS
- stated in the negative
form
2. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
- stated in the positive
form
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
- states the importance of
conducting the study
- enumerates who will
benefit from the findings of
the study
SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE
STUDY
- explains the scope or
coverage of the study: the
subject matter, the
respondents, the location and
duration of time for the
conduct of the study
- explains the weaknesses
(delimitations) of the study
beyond the control of the
researcher
DEFINITION OF TERMS
- provides for the
definition of the terms used
in the study, including the
abbreviations or acronyms
Legal definitions – provided
by laws
Lexical definitions – provided
by dictionaries or books and
reference books and materials
Operational definitions –
provided by the researcher
based on how the term was used
in the study
CHAPTER 2 – REVIEW OF RELATED
LITERATURE AND STUDIES
- presents discussion of facts
and principles already
established prior to the
conduct of the study
- acts as support to the
present study
FOREIGN LITERATURE
LOCAL LITERATURE
FOREIGN STUDIES
LOCAL STUDIES
SYNTHESIS – final statement
stating the relationship of
these literature and studies
to the present study being
conducted
CHAPTER 3 – RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
POPULATION AND SAMPLING
SCHEME
DESCRIPTION OF RESPONDENTS
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
AND DATA VALIDATION
STATISTICAL TREATMENT
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY OR
DESIGN
- brief discussion of the
research methodology used
and explains why this is
appropriate for the study
POPULATION AND SAMPLING
SCHEME
- briefly explains why the
sampling scheme chosen is
appropriate for the study
- briefly discusses how the
researcher arrived at the
sample used in the study
DECRIPTION OF THE
RESPONDENTS
- briefly discusses the
kinds of respondents of
the study, why they are
the appropriate
respondents and how many
respondents were used in
the study
RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
- explains what instrument
was used to collect data,
how the instrument was
formulated and describes
the parts or contents of
the instrument
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
AND VALIDATION
- enumerates the steps
taken by the researcher in
collecting data, from the
time the questionnaires were
distributed up to the time
these were returned and
tallied
STATISTICAL TREATMENT
- presents the statistical
formula used in the
processing of the data in
order to come up with
accurate results and valid
and reliable
interpretation of findings
COMMON STATISTICAL FORMULAS
[Link] MEAN
[Link] DEVIATION
3.T-TEST
4.F-TEST
5.Z-TEST
[Link]-SQUARE
CHAPTER 4 – PRESENTATION,
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
OF DATA
- presents a detailed
discussion of the results
and findings of the research
study conducted by means of
tabular and textual
presentation
- data is presented using
tables or other appropriate
graphical presentation to
clearly present the results
of the study
- data is interpreted by
means of textual discussion,
in paragraph form
CHAPTER 5 – SUMMARY OF
FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
- a summary of the findings is
presented as answers to the
questions posed in Chapter
1, Statement of the Problem,
including a statement
whether the hypothesis was
proven to be correct or
incorrect
- conclusions are presented
based on the results or
findings of the study
- recommendations, which are
practical and realistic are
presented based on the
results or findings of the
study
BIBLIOGRAPHY
- a list of all written
materials used as reference in
conducting the study and
writing the thesis or research
paper
- these include books, theses
and dissertations, journals,
magazines and newspaper
articles
- also includes online sources
such as websites
ETHICS IN
RESEARCH
Ethics in Research
-refers to the use of
morally and legally
acceptable procedures in the
conduct of research
-consent of respondents must
be secured first and
foremost
Ethical Guidelines
[Link] of respondents
- rights
- safety
- privacy
- conflict of interest
2. Protection of
intellectual property rights
- attribution and citing
of sources
- avoiding plagiarism
3. Protection of the
integrity of the research
findings
- truthful and accurate
presentation of findings
- no manipulation of
findings
PLAGIARISM
PLAGIARISM
-the unauthorized copying of
another person’s work and
presenting it as one’s own
work
-using another person’s work
without proper attribution
ATTRIBUTION
- the proper citation of
sources based on the
prescribed or acceptable
format
Types of Plagiarism
[Link]-for-word plagiarism
- directly copying the
original text without
citing the source
2. Paraphrase plagiarism
- simple substitution of
synonyms for the original
words to make it appear new
or original without citation
of sources
3. Incomplete Citation
-citing only the source of a
portion of the used text
HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARIMS
[Link] cite your sources
[Link] the completeness of
your bibliography
Laws that Punish Plagiarism
[Link] 8293 – the Intellectual
Property Code of the
Philippines
[Link] 8792 – the E-Commerce
Act of 2000
[Link] 10175 – the Cybercrime
Prevention Act of 2012
APA STYLE AND
FORMAT
AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION (APA)
- the leading scientific and
professional organization
representing psychology in
the United States, with more
than 133,000 researchers,
educators, clinicians,
consultants and students as
its members
PUBLICATION MANUAL OF THE
AMERICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION (APA MANUAL)
-official source for APA
style and format
-APA Manual 7th edition was
published in October 2019
and is the most current
edition
PUBLICATION MANUAL OF THE
AMERICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
ASSOCIATION (APA MANUAL)
-APA Manual 6th edition,
published in 2009, is still
used by many universities
and journals
APA STYLE
- APA Style originated in
1929, when a group of
psychologists, anthropologists,
and business managers convened
and sought to establish a
simple set of procedures, or
style guidelines, that would
codify the many components of
scientific writing to increase
the ease of reading
comprehension
APA STYLE
-a writing approach that
embodies objectivity,
credibility of sources and
an evidence-based approach
-objectivity implies a
certain level of detachment
and formality
APA STYLE
-Objectivity implies
distance and balance in
approach
-refers to the content
-APA style is formal and
scientific
CHARACTERISTICS OF APA STYLE
[Link]
-the writing must be formal
and straightforward
-the writing does not
include the researcher’s
personal opinions
CHARACTERISTICS OF APA STYLE
2. CREDIBILITY OF SOURCES
-the reference materials
used in the study are timely
and updated
-the sources are reputable,
believable and verifiable
CHARACTERISTICS OF APA STYLE
3. EVIDENCE-BASED
-the actual findings must be
presented faithfully
-the findings must be
supported by data
-the conclusions and
recommendations must be
based on the findings
APA FORMAT
-refers to the precise rules
of writing the manuscript or
research paper by using the
rules set forth in the APA
Manual
-refers to the physical
appearance of the research
paper
APA FORMAT
- refers to how the
research paper would look
like in terms of margins,
fonts, how to write
abbreviations, numbers, how
to prepare tables, how to
write citations
RULES IN WRITING
NUMBERS
9 and below = words (one, two)
10 and above = numbers ( 10, 11)
Number at the beginning of a
sentence = words
Fractions = words (one-half)
Percentage = number and symbol
(50%, 10%)
Heading for tables, charts,
maps, pictures etc. =
Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1,
Figure 2
Decades = 1900s, 2000s
Age = 20s, 30s, 40s
RULES IN WRITING
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
IN-TEXT CITATIONS
ONE AUTHORS = (Asalan, 2022)
TWO OR MORE AUTHORS =
(Asalan et al., 2022)
-
RULES IN WRITING
REFERENCES
Write the last name,
initials date of
publication, title of the
book italicized and name of
publisher =
Asalan, J.L. (2022).
Research criminologized.
JAkB Publishing.
In case of multiple authors, up
to twenty, write the last name,
initials date of publication,
title of the book italicized
and name of publisher =
Asalan, J.L. and Beringa, V.A.
Jr. (2022). Research
criminologized. JAkB
Publishing.
REFERENCES:
Bachman, R. & Schutt, R.(2015).
Fundamentals of research in
criminology and criminal
justice. Sage Publications, Inc.
Calderon, J.F. & Gonzales, E.C.
(2006). Methods of research and
thesis writing. National
Bookstore
REFERENCES:
Almeida, A.B., Gaerlan, A.A.
& Manly, N. E. Research
fundamentals from concept to
output: A guide for
researchers and thesis
writers. Adriana Publishing
Company
REFERENCES:
Perfecto, M. R. G, Paterno,
M. G. & Pison. R. A. (2015).
The Anvil guide to research
paper writing. Anvil
Publishing
REFERENCES:
Prieto, N.G., Naval, V.C. & Carey,
T.G. (2017). Practical research for
senior high school 1 – Qualitative.
Lorimar Publishing
Prieto, N.G., Naval, V. C. & Carey,
T.G. (2017). Practical research for
senior high school 2 – Quantitative.
Lorimar Publishing
REFERENCES:
Garcia, C.D. (2015).
Fundamentals of
criminological research and
statistics. Books Atbp.
Publishing Corp.
Quest Review Center Lecture
Notes
REFERENCES:
[Link]
.89477467.1534927946.1656210653
-1630808994.1604826551
[Link]
style/apa-seventh-edition-
changes/
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