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Mixed Methods Research Guide With Examples

Method · June 2024

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Mixed Methods Research
simplypsychology.org/mixed-methods-research.html

What are mixed methods?

Mixed methods research integrates both quantitative and qualitative research methods within
a single study or across multiple related studies.

Quantitative Methods: Used to identify trends and relationships between variables,

uses methods such as experiments, surveys, biological measures, and structured
observations to gather numerical data.
Qualitative Methods: Valuable for understanding participant experiences and
perspectives, employs methods like interviews, focus groups, analysis of open-ended
text, and observational field notes to gather non-numerical data.

Mixed methods research is particularly useful when a research question requires a

multifaceted approach that can simultaneously explore trends in data and the nuances of
individual experiences.

Integration, a key concept in mixed methods research, is the intentional combining of

quantitative and qualitative research in such a way that they become interdependent and
work together to achieve a common research goal.

For example, examining changes in school funding (quantitative) alongside teacher and
student narratives (qualitative) about educational quality in a school district can provide a
more comprehensive understanding of the relationship between funding and the actual
experiences of those within the school system.

Several factors make mixed methods research distinct from conducting

separate quantitative and qualitative studies. A few of these defining factors
are:

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Rigorous Methods: It is not sufficient to merely include both quantitative and
qualitative components within a study; both the quantitative and qualitative strands of
the research should follow rigorous methods independently. One way to ensure this
rigor is to match quantitative and qualitative data sources to guarantee parallel
concepts are investigated.
Integration: Integration, a key aspect of mixed methods research, involves
intentionally combining quantitative and qualitative research to create interdependence
and synergy between the two approaches. There are multiple potential levels of
integration, including at the design, methods, and representation levels.
Rationale: Researchers must clearly justify their reason for utilizing a mixed methods
design, demonstrating that a mixed method approach is either necessary or will yield
superior results in comparison to using a single methodology.

Examples

Here are some examples of how people use mixed methods research in real
life:

Mixed methods research is a powerful tool that can be used to answer complex
research questions in a way that neither quantitative nor qualitative research can do
alone:

1. Researchers could conduct a study to understand the impact of a new school-

based mental health program on student well-being. Qualitative data could be
collected through interviews with students and teachers to explore their experiences
with the program and identify any barriers or facilitators to implementation. This data
could then be used to explain variations in quantitative data on student mental health
outcomes, such as changes in depression or anxiety symptoms.
2. A mixed methods study could be used to investigate the relationship between
patient satisfaction and health outcomes following a specific medical procedure,
such as surgery. Qualitative data from patient interviews or focus groups could
provide insights into the reasons behind varying levels of satisfaction. Researchers
could then connect these qualitative findings with quantitative data on post-surgical
complications, recovery time, or readmission rates to see if there are correlations or
patterns.

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3. Researchers could use a mixed methods approach to examine the effectiveness
of a teacher training program on student academic achievement in a particular
subject, like mathematics. Quantitative data on student test scores before and after
the training could be combined with qualitative data from teacher interviews and
classroom observations. This integration of data could help determine if improvements
in student performance are related to changes in teaching practices resulting from the
training.

When to use mixed methods research

Researchers should clearly articulate their reasons for using a mixed methods research
design. This rationale helps reviewers and other researchers understand why this design is
the most appropriate for addressing the research questions.

1. Triangulation: When researchers want to double-check their findings, they can use
mixed methods. This involves comparing results from quantitative and qualitative
strands to confirm findings and enhance the validity of the study.
2. Complementarity: When researchers need to explain confusing results, they can use
mixed methods to get a clearer picture. This aims to elaborate on or clarify the findings
of one strand with the results of the other strand. This approach can be particularly
useful when quantitative findings are statistically significant but lack practical meaning
or when qualitative findings need further clarification.
3. Development: When researchers need to design a good survey or test, they can use
mixed methods. This rationale involves using the results from one method to help
develop or inform the other method. This can include using qualitative findings to
develop and validate an instrument for the quantitative strand, or using quantitative
findings to identify specific participants or groups for the qualitative strand.
4. Initiation: This is when researchers want to explore differences in findings from
different methods. By comparing different perspectives, they can develop new
interpretations of what they’re studying. It leverages the strengths of each approach to
clarify, contextualize, and enrich the overall findings, rather than focusing on resolving
contradictions.

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5. Expansion: When researchers want to learn more about something, they can use
mixed methods. This rationale seeks to expand the breadth and range of a study by
using mixed methods to investigate different components of a research question or to
study different research questions within the same study.

Mixed methods research designs

Mixed methods research designs provide researchers with a structured approach to

combining qualitative and qualitative data. Creswell and Plano Clark (2018) identify
three core mixed methods designs:

Convergent Parallel Design

Convergent parallel design involves simultaneously collecting quantitative and qualitative

data, analyzing these datasets separately, and then merging the results for interpretation.

For example, this design could be used to understand domestic violence and abuse among
gay and bisexual men by matching data from semi-structured interviews with survey data.

Here’s how it works:

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The process includes collecting data for both strands concurrently but separate from
each other, analyzing each independent strand, and merging them.
The key feature is that both types of data are given equal priority and are
collected within a short time interval or simultaneously.
Researchers then compare and contrast the findings to develop a more comprehensive
understanding of the research problem.

Explanatory Sequential Design

An explanatory sequential design is used in research when you want to use one type of data
to help explain the findings of another type.

For example, this design can be used to learn more about why students stayed enrolled in
online education programs. The researchers could first look at survey data and then followed
up with interviews to get a deeper understanding of the factors involved.

Here’s how it works:

You start by collecting and analyzing quantitative data. This usually means collecting
numbers, like from surveys, and analyzing them to see if there are any patterns or
relationships.
Then, you take those quantitative results – particularly the ones that are significant,
surprising, or need further explanation – and use them to guide your qualitative data
collection. Qualitative data usually involves words and stories, like what you would get
from interviews.
You analyze the qualitative data to see if they can help you understand the patterns
you saw in the quantitative data. For example, you might have found a surprising trend
in a survey, and now you can use interviews to better understand why that trend exists.
Finally, you combine what you learned from both types of data to get a more complete
understanding of what you’re researching

Exploratory Sequential Design

An exploratory sequential design is a type of research that involves two phases of data
collection and analysis, with the qualitative phase coming first.

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The exploratory sequential design is most effective when researchers have a clear rationale
for using a mixed methods approach and when the research questions lend themselves to
both qualitative and quantitative exploration.

Here’s how it works:

Phase 1: Qualitative Exploration: Researchers begin by collecting and analyzing

qualitative data. This typically involves gathering in-depth information from a smaller
group of participants through methods like interviews, focus groups, or observations.
The goal of this phase is to gain a rich understanding of the experiences, perspectives,
and meanings associated with the research topic.
Phase 2: Quantitative Expansion: The findings from the qualitative phase are then
used to inform the design of the quantitative phase. This might involve developing a
survey instrument based on the themes that emerged from the qualitative data,
identifying specific variables to measure, or creating an intervention to test.
Integration: In the final step, researchers integrate the findings from both phases to
develop a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic. This might involve
comparing the quantitative results to the qualitative findings, using the qualitative data
to explain unexpected quantitative results, or developing a theory based on the
combined insights from both phases.

An example:

Researchers were interested in understanding the factors that influence brain donation
decisions among older minorities.

They started by conducting interviews with individuals from this population to explore their
thoughts, beliefs, and experiences related to brain donation.

The themes and insights from these interviews were then used to develop a survey
instrument to measure the factors identified as potentially influencing donation decisions.

Embedded (or nested) Design

Embedded or Nested Designs in Health Sciences

Embedded designs use quantitative and qualitative approaches together, with one
embedded in the other, to yield greater insight. This might look like supplemental qualitative
data embedded in a larger quantitative study design, such as an experimental trial. These

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types of designs may be a variation of convergent or sequential designs.

Embedded design is a method for linking qualitative and quantitative data collection and
analysis at multiple points, particularly useful in intervention research.

Qualitative data may be used prior to the intervention to inform strategies to best recruit
individuals or to develop the intervention, during the experiment to examine the process
being experienced by participants, or after the experiment to follow up and better understand
the quantitative outcomes.

Embedding involves combining connecting, building, or merging data.

Connecting links data through sampling. For example, in a study with surveys and
interviews, participants for the interviews might be chosen from those who completed
the survey.
Building uses one type of data to inform the other. An example of this is when
researchers analyze baseline survey data and use those findings to design interview
questions.
Merging involves combining qualitative and quantitative data to directly compare
results.

Here’s how it works:

Pretrial: Qualitative data, or a mix of qualitative and quantitative data, can help clarify
outcome measures, understand factors that might lead to bias, or develop tools for use
during the trial.
During the Trial: Qualitative data helps understand contextual factors that might
influence results, providing detailed information about the subjects’ experiences.
Post-Trial: Researchers use qualitative data to explain outliers, debrief subjects or
researchers, or create hypotheses for implementation.

Integration

Integration is the intentional combination of quantitative and qualitative research,

resulting in a synergistic and interdependent relationship between the two approaches.
It is a multifaceted concept that manifests across various stages of the research
process, from design to reporting.

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Integration Trilogy: Design, Methods, and Interpretation & Reporting

Integration in mixed methods research operates at three distinct but interconnected levels,
often referred to as the integration trilogy:

1. Integration at the Design Level: This involves selecting a mixed methods design that
outlines the sequence, priority, and purpose of integrating the quantitative and
qualitative strands. Common designs include exploratory sequential, explanatory
sequential, and convergent designs.
2. Integration at the Methods Level: Integration strategies are the methods employed to
combine quantitative and qualitative research elements. These strategies are not
mutually exclusive and can be used in various combinations to achieve a holistic
understanding of the research problem.
Merging: This involves analyzing data from both strands and assessing whether
the findings converge, diverge, or expand upon one another. This can involve
comparing themes with statistical data, exploring the quantitative profile of
qualitative themes, or transforming qualitative data into quantitative data for
statistical analysis. Joint displays, such as tables or matrices, can visually
represent merged data.
Connecting: This involves using one type of data to inform the sampling frame of
the other. For instance, quantitative data can be used to identify a subset of
participants for qualitative interviews. This strategy is particularly useful in
sequential designs, where one strand precedes the other.
Building: This approach uses one database (qualitative or quantitative) to inform
the data collection approach of the other. This could involve developing a
quantitative instrument based on themes identified through qualitative research or
refining a qualitative interview guide based on quantitative findings.

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3. Integration at the Interpretation and Reporting Level: This involves combining and
presenting the findings in a way that highlights the synergistic insights gained from
integrating the two strands. This can be achieved through narrative techniques like
weaving and contiguous approaches or through data transformation and joint displays.
Integrating through narrative involves using a single report, or a series of
reports, to describe the quantitative and qualitative results. The Survival After
Acute Myocardial Infarction (SAMI) study provides an example of a narrative
integration.
Integrating through data transformation involves converting one type of data
(qualitative or quantitative) into the other type. For example, qualitative data may
be converted into numerical counts, which are then integrated with other
numerical data for analysis.
Integrating through joint displays involves using visual elements, such as
tables, matrices, or figures, to present the integrated data. An example of a study
using joint displays is a mixed-methods evaluation that explored ethical aspects
of adaptive clinical trial designs.

Narrative Integration

Integrating through narrative in mixed methods research involves describing qualitative

and quantitative findings within a single report or a series of reports. The manner in which
these findings are presented can take on three distinct approaches: weaving, contiguous, or
staged.

Weaving presents qualitative and quantitative findings together, interlacing them

theme-by-theme or concept-by-concept. For example, Classen et al. intertwined results
from a national crash dataset and stakeholder perspectives to understand the
causative factors of vehicle crashes among the elderly and to formulate guidelines for
public health interventions.
Contiguous integration entails presenting findings within a single report, but the
qualitative and quantitative findings are segmented into distinct sections. For instance,
presenting survey findings in the initial part of the results section and qualitative
findings about contextual factors in a subsequent part of the report.
The staged approach is frequently employed in multistage mixed methods studies,
where the results from each stage are reported sequentially as the data are analyzed
and published separately.

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Data Transformation

Mixed methods analysis encompasses the entire process of analyzing and interpreting both
quantitative and qualitative data within a single study or a program of research.

This involves selecting appropriate analytic techniques for each strand and implementing
integration strategies to merge, connect, or build upon the findings.

Mixed methods data transformation involves converting data from one form to another. This
can involve:

Quantitizing: Transforming qualitative data, such as interview transcripts, into

numerical codes or categories for statistical analysis.
Qualitizing: Converting quantitative data, such as survey responses, into narrative
descriptions or themes for qualitative analysis.

Data transformation facilitates merging data and conducting analyses that cut across the
quantitative-qualitative divide.

By adhering to these principles and employing these strategies, researchers can leverage
the strengths of mixed methods research to address complex research questions and
generate rich, insightful, and impactful findings.

Joint Displays: Visual Aid for Integration

Joint displays are visual representations, such as tables, matrices, figures, or graphs, that
bring together quantitative and qualitative data to facilitate interpretation and draw new
insights beyond what each strand could achieve independently.

They are particularly helpful in merging data, comparing results, and representing meta-
inferences, the novel insights that emerge from integrating the two strands.

Types of Joint Displays:

Side-by-side joint displays present quantitative and qualitative findings alongside

each other for direct comparison. For instance, researchers studying patient
experiences might present quantitative satisfaction scores next to qualitative themes
from interviews to illuminate both the numerical trends and the nuanced reasons
behind them

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Integrated matrix displays arrange data in rows and columns to facilitate the
comparison of themes, patterns, and relationships between the two strands. Using
color-matching to connect corresponding data points in the display can make it easier
to compare the quantitative and qualitative findings
Visual joint displays use graphs, charts, or other visual elements to enhance the
presentation and understanding of integrated findings.

Assessment of Fit and Integrated Interpretation

Assessment of fit of integration involves evaluating the coherence and consistency between
the quantitative and qualitative findings. This assessment can reveal three potential
outcomes:

Convergence: Findings from both strands align and support each other, strengthening
the validity and credibility of the results.
Divergence: Findings from the two strands differ, prompting further exploration to
understand the reasons behind the discrepancies and potentially revealing new
perspectives on the phenomenon under study.
Expansion: Findings from one strand complement and elaborate on the other,
providing a broader and more nuanced understanding of the research problem.

Integrated interpretation involves synthesizing the quantitative and qualitative findings to

develop a holistic understanding of the research problem, acknowledging both points of
convergence and divergence.

This process requires integrated thinking, a mindset that values both approaches equally and
seeks a synergistic understanding that transcends the limitations of either method in
isolation.

Steps for conducting mixed methods research

Remember that mixed methods research is an iterative process. Researchers should remain
flexible and adaptable throughout the study, adjusting plans as needed based on emerging
findings or unexpected challenges.

The dynamic interplay between quantitative and qualitative approaches is a hallmark of

mixed methods research, and embracing this fluidity contributes to the richness and depth of
the findings.

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Step1: Formulating the Research Problem

Identify the Overall Aim: Begin by clearly defining the overarching, long-term goal of
the study.
Develop Research Objectives: Establish specific objectives that will contribute to
achieving the overall aim.
Determine the Research/Mixing Rationale: Articulate a clear rationale for conducting
the study, justifying why it is needed. Additionally, explain why mixing quantitative and
qualitative approaches is the most appropriate methodology for addressing the
research problem. This involves outlining the specific reasons for combining the two
approaches, such as triangulation, complementarity, or development.
Establish the Research/Mixing Purpose: Define the purpose of the study, specifying
what will be undertaken. Similar to the rationale, elaborate on the purpose of mixing
quantitative and qualitative approaches, explaining how the integration will provide a
more comprehensive understanding of the research problem.
Formulate Research Questions: Develop clear and concise research questions that
will guide the study. In mixed methods research, it is essential to include integrated
mixed methods research questions that reflect the combined quantitative and
qualitative strands.

Step 2: Designing the Study

Select a Mixed Methods Design: Determine the most suitable mixed methods design
based on the research questions, rationale, and purpose. Consider whether a
convergent, sequential, transformative, or multiphase design aligns best with the
study’s objectives.
Develop a Sampling Design: Define the target population and create a sampling
scheme for both the quantitative and qualitative strands. Specify the sample size for
each strand and address any sampling considerations specific to the chosen mixed
methods design, such as the use of the same sample, a subsample, multiple samples,
or multilevel samples.
Plan for Data Analysis: Determine the data analysis techniques that will be used for
both quantitative and qualitative data. Consider how the data from each strand will be
integrated and analyzed to answer the mixed methods research questions.

Step3: Implementing the Study

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Collect the Data: Gather data using the selected methods, ensuring rigor and
adherence to ethical considerations for both quantitative and qualitative data collection.
Analyze the Data: Analyze the quantitative and qualitative data using the chosen
techniques.

Step 4: Integrating and Interpreting Findings

Validate the Data: Assess the validity and trustworthiness of both the quantitative and
qualitative data, employing appropriate methods for each strand.
Interpret the Data: Interpret the findings from both strands, considering the integrated
mixed methods perspective.
Draw Inferences: Integrate the quantitative and qualitative findings to generate meta-
inferences that provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem.
Clearly articulate the insights gained from mixing methods and how the integrated
findings contribute to the study’s overall conclusions.
Meta-Inferences: These are the overarching conclusions drawn by synthesizing
findings from the qualitative and quantitative strands.
Disseminate Findings: Communicate the findings in a clear and concise manner,
emphasizing the value added by using a mixed methods approach.

Key Considerations for Integration

Planning for Integration: Thoughtfully plan for integration throughout the research
process, from identifying data sources to selecting integration strategies and planning
data analysis.
Matching Data Sources: In convergent designs, strive to match data sources to
ensure that the quantitative and qualitative data capture parallel concepts. This
facilitates a more robust integration and comparison of findings.
Selecting Integration Strategies: Choose appropriate integration strategies, such as
merging, connecting, or building, based on the research questions and design. Merging
involves combining data to identify convergence, divergence, or relationships.
Connecting uses findings from one strand to inform the other. Building develops new
insights or hypotheses based on the combined data.

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Representing Integration: Clearly represent and write about the integration process
and findings, using tables, figures, or detailed descriptions to illustrate how the
quantitative and qualitative strands were combined to generate a more nuanced
understanding of the research problem.

Mixed Methods Quality and Publication

The quality of a mixed methods study hinges on several factors:

Methodological quality: This refers to the rigor and appropriateness of the methods
used in both the quantitative and qualitative strands.
Reporting quality: This pertains to the clarity, transparency, and completeness of the
research report in describing the research process, including the integration
procedures and the rationale for mixing methods.
Quality of integration: This refers to the effectiveness of the integration process in
generating meaningful and insightful findings that go beyond what either method could
achieve alone.

Mixed methods publications often employ a weaving approach, integrating findings

throughout the manuscript, or a contiguous approach, presenting quantitative and qualitative
results in separate sections but linking them through cross-referencing and discussion.

A staged approach involves publishing multiple papers, each focusing on a specific aspect of
the mixed methods study.

Benefits of mixed methods research

1. Enhanced Understanding: Mixed methods research provides a more complete
comprehension of research problems by combining quantitative and qualitative
approaches. This approach is especially valuable in positive psychology, where
constructs often have reciprocal relationships, and in understanding complex
processes and systems in health and healthcare. For instance, in studying adolescent
bullying, a mixed methods approach allows researchers to explore risk factors, PTSD
symptoms, and individual experiences.

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2. Increased Validity: Using multiple methods can strengthen the validity of findings by
allowing triangulation, where qualitative and quantitative data are compared to
corroborate results. For example, a study on domestic violence among gay and
bisexual men used a convergent design, matching semistructured interviews with
survey data to enhance the validity of their findings.
3. Complementarity: Mixed methods research allows researchers to examine different
facets of a research question using the strengths of each approach. Quantitative
methods can identify trends and relationships, while qualitative methods provide
nuanced insights. This approach is beneficial when a single method cannot fully
capture the complexity of a phenomenon, such as language learning motivation.
4. Development and Refinement: Researchers can leverage mixed methods research
to develop and refine research instruments and interventions. For instance, qualitative
data can inform the creation of quantitative surveys, ensuring they are culturally
relevant and address specific research questions.
5. Explanation of Findings: Qualitative data can be particularly useful in explaining and
contextualizing quantitative results. This allows researchers to move beyond statistical
associations and gain a deeper understanding of the underlying mechanisms and
individual experiences.
6. Methodological Innovation: Mixed methods research encourages methodological
innovation by blending different research traditions. It promotes flexibility and allows
researchers to adapt their approaches to best suit their research questions. This is
especially valuable for exploring novel research areas or addressing complex social
issues.

Disadvantages of mixed methods research

1. Labor Intensity: Mixed methods research demands significant time, resources, and
effort compared to single-method studies. The integration of qualitative and quantitative
approaches necessitates expertise in designing and implementing both phases,
potentially posing challenges for researchers with a predominant quantitative or
qualitative orientation.

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2. Expertise Requirements: Conducting rigorous mixed methods research requires
researchers to have expertise in both quantitative and qualitative methodologies. This
can be challenging, as researchers often specialize in one approach. The lack of
expertise in either strand can compromise the rigor of the study and lead to
methodological concerns, particularly in the qualitative strand.
3. Potential for Bias: The inherent differences between quantitative and qualitative data
can make integration challenging. Ensuring that data transformations are defensible
and addressing potential biases between methods is crucial for drawing valid
inferences.
4. Integration Challenges: Achieving meaningful integration of quantitative and
qualitative data can be difficult. The lack of clear guidelines and the potential for
irreconcilable data sources can hinder the synergistic potential of mixed methods
research, sometimes leading to separate publications of quantitative and qualitative
results instead of a unified, integrated analysis.
5. Limited Consensus on Terminology and Quality Assessment: The field of mixed
methods research lacks a universally agreed-upon terminology, leading to ambiguity
and challenges in comparing and evaluating studies. The absence of standardized
quality assessment criteria further complicates the evaluation of rigor and
trustworthiness in mixed methods research.
6. Power Imbalances in Data Integration: Integrating data from samples with different
power dynamics, such as those at different levels of a bureaucracy, can raise concerns
about the validity of triangulation and the interpretation of findings. The potential for
power imbalances to influence the identification of differences or paradoxes
necessitates careful consideration during data integration.

References
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Creamer, E. G. (2018). Striving for methodological integrity in mixed methods research: The
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Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2018). Designing and conducting mixed methods
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Examples

Bacchus, L. J., Buller, A. M., Ferrari, G., Brzank, P., & Feder, G. (2018). “It’s always good to
ask”:
A mixed methods study on the perceived role of sexual health practitioners asking gay and
bisexual men about experiences of domestic violence and abuse. Journal of Mixed Methods
Research, 12(2), 221–243.

Campbell, R., Fehler-Cabral, G., Bybee, D., & Shaw, J. (2017). Forgotten evidence: A mixed
methods study of why sexual assault kits (SAKs) are not submitted for DNA forensic
testing. Law and human behavior, 41(5), 454.

Clark, R. S., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2019). Grit within the context of career success: A mixed
methods study. International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 4(3), 91-111.

Clark, R. S., & Stubbeman, B. L. (2021). “I had hope. I loved this city once.”: A mixed
methods study of hope within the context of poverty. Journal of Community
Psychology, 49(5), 1044-1062.

O’Keeffe, S., Martin, P., Target, M., & Midgley, N. (2019). ‘I just stopped going’: A mixed
methods investigation into types of therapy dropout in adolescents with depression. Frontiers
in psychology, 10, 423542.

Roques, M., Laimou, D., Camps, F. D., Mazoyer, A. V., & El Husseini, M. (2020). Using a
mixed-methods approach to analyze traumatic experiences and factors of vulnerability
among adolescent victims of bullying. Frontiers in psychiatry, 10, 890.

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Roysircar, G., Thompson, A., & Geisinger, K. F. (2019). Trauma coping of mothers and
children among poor people in Haiti: Mixed methods study of community-level
research. American Psychologist, 74(9), 1189.

Journals

The Journal of Mixed Methods Research (JMMR)

Quality and Quantity
The Annals of Mixed Methods Research

© 2024 Simply Psychology

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