SD 4.

25 Freedom of mind, freedom by wisdom, and freedom both ways

25 Ceto,vimutti, paññā,vimutti
and ubhato.bhāga,vimutti
Freedom of mind, freedom by wisdom, and freedom both ways
An introduction by Piya Tan

1 Terms for freedom

1.1 TWO KINDS OF MENTAL FREEDOM. We have already noted that the freedom of mind (ceto,vimutti), in its
highest sense, refers to the fruition of arhathood [2.4.4.2]. Here, we will examine other usages of this
important term. We have also made a brief analysis of the distinction between the terms “the both-ways
freedom” (ubhato,bhāga vimutti) and “freedom by wisdom” (paññā,vimutti) [2.2.2]. Here, we will
examine the connections between “freedom of mind” (sometimes “freedom of mind”) (ceto,vimutti),
“freedom through wisdom” (paññā,vimutti) and related terms.

1.2 DIFFERENCES. Although the two terms—ceto,vimutti and paññā,vimutti—relate to “freedom” (vumutti),
they are not synonyms, and have important differences, especially regarding the kind of freedom that
they refer to. While “freedom by wisdom” (paññā,vimutti) simply refers to the realization of nirvana or
final freedom of any arhat, when paired with “freedom of the mind” (ceto,vimutti),1 it means that the
arhat has also mastered the form dhyanas.

1.3 When the arhat has mastered the 4 form dhyanas, the 4 formless dhyanas, and the cessation of
perception and feeling—meaning that he has mastered the 8 liberations (aṭṭha vimokkha)2—then, he is
said to be “freed both ways” or “dual-freed” (ubhato.bhāga,vimutta) [2.2.1]. This freedom is known as
ubhato.bhāga,vimutti. An example of such an arhat is found in the Asaṁsa Bhikkhu Sutta (A 3.13).3

1.4 CONTENTS. The different kinds of mental or spiritual freedom (vimutti) mentioned in the Pali texts
can be summarized as follows in this study:

(1) ceto,vimutti temporary freedom [2.2; 4.5]

(2) akuppa ceto,vimutti final freedom [2.3-2.4]
(3) paññā,vimutti final freedom [3, esp 3.1, 3.3; 4.5]
(4) paññā,vimutti and ceto,vimutti final freedom [3.1, 3.3]
(5) ubhato.bhāga,vimutti final freedom [3.3, esp 3.3.2]

2 Ceto,vimutti
2.1 USAGES

2.1.1 Two senses. Ceto,vimutti is generally used in two ways in the suttas,4 that is, meaning (1) tempo-
rary and pleasant (sāmāyika ceto,vimutti) [2.1.2.1], and (2) “unshakable” or permanent (akuppa ceto,-

1
The mfn ceto,vimutta is rare, but does occur, eg Sākacchā S (A 5.65/3:81,3), SD 58.5.
2
See SD 49.5b (1).
3
A 3.13/1:108 (SD 51.12).
4
Although technically sutta is only one of the “9 limbs of the Teacher’s teaching” (navaṅga satthu,sāsana), it can
also refer to the whole ninefold set. Sometimes, the term suttanta is used for this purpose, although it is

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vimutti) [2.2.3]. The Mahā Vedalla Sutta (M 43)5 and the Go,datta Sutta (S 41.7)6 give the following 8
types of freedom of mind (ceto,vimutti):

(1) neutral freedom of mind adukkham-asukha ceto,vimutti M 43,26

(2) the freedom of mind that is lovingkindness mettā ceto,vimutti M 43,31(1)
(3) the freedom of mind that is compassion karuṇā ceto,vimutti M 43,31(2)
(4) the freedom of mind that is gladness muditā ceto,vimutti M 43,31(3)
(5) the freedom of mind that is equanimity upekkhā ceto,vimutti M 43,31(4)
(6) the freedom of mind that is nothingness ākiñcaññā ceto,vimutti M 43,32+35
(7) the empty freedom of mind suññata ceto,vimutti M 43,33+36
(8) the signless freedom of mind animitta ceto,vimutti M 43,27-29, 34, 37

The first—the neutral freedom of mind (adukkham-asuka ceto,vimutti) refers to the mental freedom en-
joyed in the 4th dhyana, which is said to be beyond pleasure and pain. The other freedoms of mind are
explained below.

2.1.2 Words with –samaya, -sāmaya, -sāmāya.

2.1.2.1 We have already mentioned the freedom that is “temporary and pleasant” (sāmāyika ceto,-
vimutti) [2.1.1]. The adjective asāmāyika here comes from the prefix na (“no, not”) + samaya (“time,
duration, occasion) + ika (suffix signifying an adjective).7 This is the kind of mental freedom we enjoy
when we are focused in our meditation, especially in dhyana, but this lasts only from within a moment
to some hours. In the more advanced meditators, such a dhyana state may last for days, but not beyond
a week.8

2.1.2.2 The opposite of sāmāyika (also spelt sāmayika)—and the near-synonym samayika, “tempor-
ary” [2.1.2.3]—is asāmāyika (literally, “not temporary”), “permanent, unconditioned” (asāmāyika, “not
temporary”). It appears as a qualifier (adjective) for “freedom” (vimutti) in the Mahā Suññata Sutta (M
122).9 The Paṭisambhidā,magga asks the question, “What is temporary liberation” (sāmatika vimokkha)?
It answers it as “the 4 dhyanas and the 4 formless attainments” (cattāri jhānāni catasso ca arūpa,samā-
pattiyo) (Pm 2:40,22).

2.1.2.3 There are also the forms samaya, “temporary,” and asamaya, “permanent,” as qualifiers of
mental freedom (vimutti) and spiritual liberation (vimokkha). The terms, “temporary liberation” (samaya,-

sometimes used only in the titles of longer discourses, esp those of the Dīgha Nikāya. In the term dhamma,vinaya,
dhamma refers to the suttas, but can sometimes incl the Abhidhamma. See eg Dhamma,vihārī S (A 5.74,2/3:88),
SD 44.5; also SD 30.10 (4); SD 26.11 (3.2.1.3).
5
M 43,26-37 (SD 30.2).
6
S 30.2 (SD 60.4).
7
Sāmāyikaṁ vimuttiṁ occurs at S 1:120,14 [2.2.3.1]; A 3:349,14; Sn 54b sāmayikaṁ ~ṁ.
8
See eg how the Buddha spends the 7 weeks after his awakening, changing his posture and meditation every
7 days: see Dhamma & Abhidhamma, SD 26.1 (5). These 7-day breaks are prob are used for attending to the toilet,
and drinking water, perhaps even taking some food in the case of most meditators. The Buddha, it is said, here
fasts throughout the 7 weeks.
9
M 122,4/3:110 (SD 11.4).

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vimokkha), “temporary freedom” (samaya,vimutti), “permanent liberation” (asamaya,vimokkha) and

“permanent freedom” (asamaya,vimutti), are found in the Mahā Sārôpama Sutta (M 29).10
The term “permanently freed” (asamaya,vimutta) is found in the (Ekādasaka) Nandiya Sutta (A
11.17), which lists the 11 spiritual practices for a lay person. Near the Sutta’s end, the arhat is described
as one who is “permanently freed” (asamaya,vimutta). This means that he “does not see in himself
anything else that still needs to be done, or anything to add to what already has been done”11 This last
important statement describing the arhat is also found in the Soṇa (Koḷivīsa) Sutta (A 6.55).12
These words with the form samaya are, however, less common than those mentioned above.

2.2 TEMPORARY CETO,VIMUTTI

2.2.1 When “freedom of the mind” (ceto,vimutti)13 is used by itself, it never signifies arhathood (unless
qualified with “unshakable,” akuppa, etc) [2.3-2.4]. Used by itself, ceto,vimutti simply denotes a tempor-
ary mental freedom, especially that of the 4 dhyanas or the 4 divine abodes [2.2.4].

2.2.2 The suttas often speak ceto,vimutti as being “temporary but pleasant” (sāmāyika kanta), such as
in the Mahā Suññata Sutta (M 122) and the Miga,sālā Sutta (A 6.44).
The Mahā Suññata Sutta (M 122) says that a solitary life of meditation can bring about mental free-
dom that pleasant but temporary (sāmāyikaṁ vā kantaṁ ceto,vimuttiṁ).14
The Miga,sāla Sutta (A 6.44) uses the term sāmāyika vimutti, “temporary liberation,” omitting kanta.
Here, the Buddha says that even an immoral person (dussīla) may better himself if he only understands
the nature of the freedom of mind (ceto,vimutti) and the freedom by wisdom (paññā,vimutti), and with
the help of Dharma study and instruction, he is able to experience at least temporary liberation, and
continues in this way, he would have a happy rebirth where hecan progress in the Dharma.15

2.2.3 The impermanent and conditioned nature of ceto.vimutti is further illustrated in the Godhika Sutta
(S 4.23) and the Aṭṭhaka,nāgara Sutta (M 52).

2.2.3.1 The Godhika Sutta (S 4.23) recounts how the monk Godhika is unable to sustain and stabil-
ize the mental freedom that he experiences six times. When he attains it in his seventh attempt, he
commits suicide, and so immediately awakens as an arhat.16 The third Pārājika rule disallows killing a
human being, and also suicide, or causing or encouraging it. The breach of this rule entails defeat (auto-
matic expulsion from the sangha).17 It is probable that Godhika’s suicide occurs before this rule was
instituted.18

10
M 29: samaya,vimokkha (M 29/1:196,29), samaya,vimutti (M 29/1:196,30), samaya,vumokkha (M 29/1:197,-
27), and asmaya,vimutti (M 29/1:197,28).
11
A 11.14/5:336,26 (SD 99.2).
12
A 6.55,4.2/3:376 (SD 20.12). This clearly shows that arhats do not need to become Buddhas, as falsely claimed
by some later Mahāyāna teachers and writers. See Mahā Assa,pura S (M 39,21.3), SD 10.13 highest goal; also
Mahā,nidāna S (M 15.36.3/2:71,26), SD 5.17; SD 30.8 (6.4.4). On dealing with Buddha’s death, see SD 27.6b (4.1.1)
dealing with Buddha’s death.
13
The mfn ceto,vimutta (eg ceto,vimutto) is rare, but does occur, eg Sākacchā S (A 5.65/3:81,3), SD 58.5. The adj
paññā,vimutto occurs in all the 4 Nikāyas (eg D 2.70; M 1:439; S 3.65; A 1:74, 5:23).
14
M 122,4/3:110 f (SD 11.14); Nc:Be270; MA 4:158.
15
A 6.44,5.4/3:349 (SD 3.2(6)); Nc:Be270; MA 4:158.
16
S 4.23/1:120 f (SD 61.16).
17
Pār 3 (V 1:71-86).
18
See Oxford Dict of Buddhism: suicide.

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2.2.3.2 The Aṭṭhaka,nāgara Sutta (M 52) explains that even ceto,vimutti is “(mentally) constructed
[mind-made], intentionally formed...impermanent, subject to ending” Be that as it is, when we direct
the calm, clear mind and constantly reflect on this fact, when properly done, we may gain arhathood, or
non-returning if there is still some restlessness.19

2.2.4 The simplest most sutta common usage of “freedom of mind,” then, is in qualifying the experien-
ces of dhyana and of the divine abodes. We see this typical passage on lovingkindness (which applies
mutatis mutandis to the other three abodes, too) in the Te,vijja Sutta (D 13):

76 With a heart of lovingkindness,

he dwells suffusing one quarter, the second, the third, the fourth.
Thus above, below, in between, everywhere and to everyone as well as to himself,
he dwells suffusing the whole world with lovingkindness
that is vast, exalted, boundless, without hate, without ill will.
77 Just as a mighty conch-blower, Vāseṭṭha,
might with little difficulty make a proclamation to the four quarters, so by this cultivation,20
Vāseṭṭha, by this freedom of the mind through lovingkindness,
any karma done in a limited way21 neither remains nor persists there.
(D 13,76-77/1:151 f), SD 1.8; cf A 1:38,23 f

2.3 AKUPPA CETO,VIMUTTI

2.3.1 The term ceto,vimutti is sometimes used in a special way qualified by various terms such as kuppa,
“unshakable,” qualifies ceto,vimutti. Here, it special meaning has to be noted. Near the end of the
Dhamma,cakka Pavattana Sutta (S 56.11), the Buddha recounts how his awakening is an “unshakable
freedom of mind” (akuppā me ceto,vimutti).22 This phrase famously occurs in the Buddha’s declaration
of his own awakening, called “the Buddha’s basic awakening pericope”: which runs thus:

Unshakable is my freedom of mind. This is my last birth. There is now no more rebirth!
Akuppā me ceto,vimutti, ayaṁ antimā jāti. N’atth’idāni punabbhāvo’ti.

This famous line occurs in the same context in the Buddha’s life, as recorded in the Ariya Pariyesanā
Sutta (M 26), the (Dhātu) Pubbe Sambodhi Sutta (S 14.31), the Acariṁ Sutta (S 14.32), the Pubb’eva

19
M 52,8-11/1:351 f (SD 41.2). On non-returning and restlessness, see SD 32.7 (2.1.4).
20
“By this cultivation,” bhāvitāya. Alt tr “by this meditation.”
21
“Karma done in a limited way” or “limited karma,” pamāṇa,kataṁ kammaṁ. As in Saṅkha,dhama S (S 42.8/-
4:322) & Brahma,vihāra S (A 10.208/5:299), SD 2.10. Comys on Brahma,vihāra S says that “limited karma” refers to
sense-sphere karma (kāmâvacara,kamma)” (AA 5:77), and “unlimited karma” (appamāṇa,kataṁ kammaṁ) refers
to form-sphere karma. It is called “unlimited” because it is done by transcending the limit, for it is developed by
way of specified, unspecified and directional pervasion (DA 2:406; MA 3:450; cf J 2:62). SA on Saṅkha S explains
that “When (simple) lovingkindness is said, this can be interpreted either as access concentration or dhyana, but
when it is qualified as ‘freedom of mind’ (ceto,vimutti) it definitely means dhyana or meditation dhyana (jhāna).”
(SA 3:105). The point is that if a person masters the “freedom of mind by lovingkindness” at the level of dhyana,
the karmic potential of this dhyana attainment will take precedence over sense-sphere karma and will generate
rebirth into the form realm. See Brahmavihāra, SD 38.5 (8.2) & Vism 309-311/9.49-58. (S:B 1149 n346; A:B 315
n73).
22
S 56.11,14,2/5:423 @ SD 1.1 = V 1.11,30.

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Sambodha Sutta (A 3.100a), and the Gayā,sīsa Sutta (A 8.64).23 The Buddha is here referring to his own
awakening, that is, arhathood. The same term is used to refer to a monk’s arhathood in the (Lābha,-
sakkāra,siloka) Bhikkhu Sutta (S 17.30).24

2.3.2 Similarly, in the Mahā Sārôpama Sutta (M 29), the Buddha speaks of the holy life, that is, monastic
training (and the Buddhist life in general) as having “the unshakable freedom of mind” as its goal.25 Its
commentary glosses akuppa ceto,vimutti here as “the freedom of the fruit of arhathood” (arahatta,phala
vimutti, MA 2:232).
The Das’uttara Sutta (D 34) lists “the unshakable freedom of mind” in its collections of “ones” under
the caption, “Which one thing is to be realized?” (katamo eko dhammo sacchikatabbo). It is, of course,
referring to the attaining of nirvana, as confirmed by its Commentary as “the freedom of the fruit of
arhathood” (just as in the Majjhima Commentary above).26 [2.4]

2.4 USAGES OF AKUPPA CETO,VIMUTTI

2.4.1 One of the most important usage of the term “unshakable freedom of mind” (akuppa ceto,vimutti)
is found in the closing half of the Mahā Vedalla Sutta (M 43), that is, the teaching on the 4 kinds of
mental freedom (akuppa ceto,vimutti). The first begins with the cultivation of the divine abodes (brahma,-
vihāra), and so is as the “immeasurable freedom of mind” (appamānā ceto,vimutti). The second is the
freedom of mind through nothingness (ākiñcaññā ceto,vimutti), which is attained through full concentra-
tion in “the sphere of nothingness” (ākiñcaññ’āyatana), the third of the formless attainments.
The third is the freedom of mind through emptiness (suññatā ceto,vimutti), which is attained by re-
flecting on existence to be empty (suñña) of self (attā), or what is owned by the self (attaniya). The fourth
is the signless freedom of mind (animittā ceto,vimutti), which is attained by “the non-attention to all signs”
(that is, disregarding all mental objects) and “the attention to the signless element” (that is, nirvana).

2.4.2 These 4 freedoms are identical in meaning and purpose (the attaining of arhathood), differing only
in name. They differ only by the way that we are liberated from the unwholesome roots (lust, hate,
delusion), as follows:

Being freed from the unwholesome roots it is called

as a measuring tendency (pamāṇa,karaṇa)27 the immeasurable freedom of mind
as something or “things” (kiñcana)28 the freedom of mind through nothingness
(as any of the three here)29 the freedom of mind through emptiness
as signs (nimitta)30 the signless freedom of mind (M 43), SD 30.2

23
Respectively, M 26,18.7/1:167,28 @ SD 1.11; S 14.31/2:171 @ SD 29.17; S 14.32/2:172 @ SD 29.18; A 3:100a-
/1:259,11 @ SD 19.11; A 8.64/4:305,4 @ SD 86.7. For a philological comment, see Norman, “Aspects of Early
Buddhism,” Leiden, 1990:25 n2.
24
S 17.30/2:239,6 (SD 100.4).
25
M 29/1:197,32 (SD 55.8).
26
D 34,1.2(10); DA 3:1057; also at MA 2:174, 232, 5:59 (lemma: vimutti); SA 1:171; only as vimutti at MA 5:59,
SA 2:53; NmA 2:333; Pm 1:128; cf AA 3:174; SnA 1:336.
27
That is, through conceit (māna): see Me: The nature of conceit, SD 19.2a.
28
That is, the craving that reifies: see Atammayatā, SD 19.13.
29
Although “emptiness” (suñña or Comy, suññatā) is not mentioned here, it is implied by the triad, since empti-
ness underlies the activity of the other three kinds of freedoms. It has been listed according to its mention in the
Sutta.
30
That is, as an external object: see Nimitta & anuvyañjana, SD 19.14.

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All the 4 freedoms have a common name: “the unshakable freedom of mind” (akuppa ceto,vimutti).31
They all refer to the same thing: the bliss of nirvana.32

3 Paññā,vimutta and ubhato.bhāga,vimutta

3.1 PAÑÑĀ,VIMUTTA. The suttas often speak of 2 kinds of arhats or spiritually freed beings: the “wisdom-
freed” (paññā,vimutta)33 and the one freed both ways or “dual-freed” (ubhato.bhāga,vimutta). Both are
freed through wisdom—which is always the best tool for cutting off the ignorance that holds back and
feeds the defilements.
Both have the same kind of liberating wisdom, that is, the understanding of the 4 noble truths. For
both, too, the defilements are fully uprooted and destroyed birth. It is important to note here that they
neither go on to become Buddhas nor need to, as they have attained the same awakening as the Buddha
himself.34
The “wisdom-freed” arhat cultivates only the form-dhyanas, and using the calm and clarity that the
dhyana provides, he directs his attention to see true reality with right view. He does not go on to culti-
vate the 4 formless attainments.35

3.2 UBHATO.BHĀGA,VIMUTTA. The Commentaries explain the term ubhato.bhāga,vimutta as meaning (1)
freed through two “parts,” and (2) freed from two “parts” (ubhato,bhāga). Through attaining the formless
spheres, he is freed from the body (kāya), and through attaining the path of arhathood (agga,magga, “the
foremost path”) he is freed from the mind (nāma).36 While the former is also called “freedom of mind”
(ceto,vimutti), the latter is also called “freedom by wisdom” (paññā,vimutti).
In other words, he is freed in both body and mind.37 The one “freed both ways” is an arhat who
attains the 8 liberations (aṭṭha,vimokkha),38 which include the 4 formless attainments and freedom by
wisdom, that is, the destruction of all defilements. His mind is fully freed by the attaining of the fruit of
arhathood. Hence, he is freed “both ways,” in both body and mind.39

31
M 43/1:298 (SD 30.2); S 4:297. For details, see (2.3-2.4).
32
For more details on ceto,vimutti, see SD 30.2 (3).
33
This adj form (esp as paññā,vimutto) is common [2.2.1 n].
34
On arhats not needing to become Buddhas, see Mahā Assa,pura S (M 39,21.3), SD 10.13 (arhathood as the
highest goal); Mahā,nidāna S (M 15,36.3/2:71,26), SD 5.17; also SD 30.8 (6.4.4), On dealing with the Buddha’s
death, see SD 27.6b (4.1.1).
35
On the form dhyanas, see Dhyana, SD 8.4 (5). On the formless attainments, see SD 24.11 (5).
36
DA 2:524, 3:889; SA 1:278; AA 2:147 (the 7 types of saints), 4:2, 207; PugA 191.
37
In Upasīva Māṇava Pucchā (Sn 5.7), the Buddha is said to be “Thus the sage is free in both body and mind”
(evaṁ muni nāma,kayā vimutto, Sn 1074).
38
Briefly, the 8 liberations are those of: (1) one with physical form sees physical forms (rūpī rūpāni passati); (2)
one who does not see physical form internally, but sees physical forms externally (ajjhattaṁ arūpa,saññī bahiddhā
rūpāni passati); (3) one freed after contemplating the idea of the beautiful (subhan’ t’eva adhimutto hoti); (4) the
sphere of infinite space; (5) the sphere of infinite consciousness; (6) the sphere of nothingness; (7) the sphere of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception; and (8) the cessation of perception and feeling (Pm 2:38-40). Comy on
Mahā Sakul’udāyi S (M 77,22/2:13) says that these liberations are the mind’s full (but temporary) release from the
opposing states and its full (but temporary) release by delighting in the object (ārammaṇa) (MA 3:255, cf 255-259).
For details, see SD 49.5b (1); also SD 5.17 (10).
39
See Jhānâbhiñña S (S 16.9,29 n), SD 50.7; also A Wynne 2002.

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3.3 DIFFERENCE

3.3.1 The only difference between the “wisdom-freed” and the “one freed both ways” is in their progress
in the calm (samatha) aspect of mental cultivation, that is, the extent to which they have mastered the
meditative states of deep concentration (samādhi). This is clear from the Kīṭāgiri Sutta (M 70), where the
dual-freed arhat is described as one who dwells “having touched touched with the body” (kāyena phas-
sitvā or phusitvā) the formless states of freedom40
This peculiar phrase means that he has personally won those formless attainments, which in turn
frees him from his body, meaning he is no more under the sway of his physical senses. The Sutta states
it in this way:

Here, bhikshus, a certain person, dwells, having touched with the body,41 those freedoms,42
peaceful and formless,43 that transcend form,44 and his mental influxes45 are utterly destroyed
through his seeing with wisdom. (M 70,15), SD 11.1

3.3.2 In short, both the dual-freed arhat and the wisdom-freed arhat have destroyed all their defile-
ments (just like the Buddha), but the wisdom-freed does not attain the 8 liberations, that is, he is unable
to attain the formless attainments (but attains only the form dhyanas), which is sufficient to provide the
calm and clarity with which he is able to see true reality with liberating wisdom.

4 Dhyana and arhathood

4.1 PROFICIENCY IN SAMADHI. All arhats are perfectly freed in the same way from ignorance and suffering,
but are distinguished into two types, on the basis of their proficiency in concentration (samādhi). Those
who have destroyed the defilements but lack the mastery over the 8 liberations [2.2.1] are called “freed
by wisdom” or “wisdom-freed” (paññā,vimutta).
If he is able to attain any of all of the form dhyanas, but no higher, he is said to but “mentally freed”
(ceto,vimutta). However, if he is able to attain all the formless attainments (that is, the 8 liberations),
then is said to be “freed both ways” (ubhato.bhāga,vimutta).46

4.2 DEFINITION. This difference between the two types of liberation is evident from this definition of the
wisdom-freed arhat, given in the Kṭā,giri Sutta (M 70), thus:

40
The mention of “the body” (kāya) he is intentional: through the formless attainments, the arhat is freed from
his body, ie, he is not subject to his 5 physical senses. His mind is freed through self-realized wisdom.
41
Kāyena phassitvā viharati. Phassitvā has vll: phusitvā (Be Se), phussitvā. MA defines phassitvā thus: Having
touched, mastered, attained it with the mental body nāma,kāyena phassitvā pāpuṇitvā adhigantvā ti vuttam hoti)
(MA 1:162), ie, experienced in one’s own person (body and mind), an idiomatic expression for personal experience.
Cf A 2:87.
42
Here the “liberations” (vimokhā, vl vimokkhā) refer to the “8 liberations” (aṭṭha vimokkhā). On aṭṭha vimokkhā,
see Mahā Nidāna S (D 15,35/2:70 f), Saṅgīti S (D 33,3.1(11)/3:262) + SD 5.17 (10).
43
“Formless,” ie, devoid of material shape in terms of sense-object and of their result (MA 1:162).
44
That is, having passed beyond the form dhyanas (rūpa jhānā) (MA 1:162).
45
“Mental influxes,” āsava: see (5).
46
Note here that these 3 word—paññā,vimutta, ceto,vimutta, and ubhato,bhāga,vimutta—all with the –a end-
ing are adjectives (which are very common). Their respective nouns are, viz, paññā,vimutti, ceto,vimutti, and ubha-
to,bhāga,vimutti, all with the –i ending.

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Here, bhikshus, a certain person dwells

not having touched with the body those freedoms that are peaceful and formless,
that transcend form,
but his mental influxes are utterly destroyed through his seeing with wisdom.
(M 70,16), SD 11.1

The wisdom-freed, then, does not attain any of the formless attainments, and also note that there is
no mention of the form dhyanas—all arhats and non-returners need to at least attain the form dhyanas.
This is so for two important reasons. Firstly, only the dhyanas provide us with a joy than can transcend
those of the body, so that we can fully overcome sense-based lust and desire. Secondly, only the dhyana
can calm and clear the mind well enough to see into through reality to attain non-returning or arhat-
hood.47

4.3 MASTERY OF SAMADHI. The Mahā Nidāna Sutta (D 15) gives us more important details about the arhat
“freed both ways,” thus

1 Ᾱnanda, when a monk attains these 8 liberations

2 in a forward order, or in a reverse order, or in both forward and reverse order,
3 when he attains them and emerges from them,
4 wherever he wishes, in whatever way he wishes, for as long as he wishes,
5 And, by realizing for himself through direct knowledge, right here and now,
6 with the destruction of the mental influxes,
7 attains and dwells in the influx-free freedom of mind, freedom by wisdom—
8 then he is called a monk who is freed both ways.48 (D 15,36), SD 5.17

Line 1: Only the one who masters the 8 liberations with be freed both ways [2.2.1].
Line 2: He has to be fully familiar with all the 8 liberations, that is, he has to know master “inside
out,” so to speak. Here, it is clear that the 8 liberations work as a set for the arhat-to be.
Line 3: He has to fully master these liberations, both in attaining and in emerging.
Line 4: He should be able to these liberations in every other way. Lines 2-4 are a set referring to the
full mastery (vasa) of the mind during meditation, as taught in discourses such as the Vasa Suttas (A
7.38ab), which refer to the 7 meditative skills, that is, those in samadhi, in attaining samadhi, in
remaining in it, in emerging from it, in keeping fit for it, in the resort for it, and in the resolution for
samadhi.49 The last skill is that of directing the mind into the 1st dhyanas and the higher ones (AA 3:355).
Line 5: With this mastery, he cultivates insight through them (PmA 1:233). With this, he gains direct
knowledge (abhiñña), that is, seeing into true reality, and including other related knowledges and
powers.
Line 6 is important and will discussed in some detail separately [5].
Line 7 is important and will discussed in some detail separately [4.5.1].
Line 8: We see the mention of the arhat “freed both ways” mentioned in the Mahā,nidāna Sutta (D
15) immediately after the passage on the 8 liberations, showing that he has mastered them.

47
The paths of streamwinning and of once-returning do not need dhyana, but a good level of moral conduct, and
some level of mindfulness, such as the perception of impermanence: see Entering the stream, SD 3.3.
48
On types of saints, see Intro (10).
49
Vasa S (A 7.38ab), SD 41.16.

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4.4 THE 2 KINDS OF FREEDOM

4.4.1 Line 7 has two important terms: “freedom of mind” (ceto,vimutti) and “freedom by wisdom”
(paññā,vimutti). These 2 freedoms should not be confused with the 2 kinds of arhats we have been dis-
cussing: the one liberated both ways (ubhato.bhāga,vimutta) and the wisdom-freed [2.2.2]. The 2 free-
doms here are (1) the freedom of mind, and (2) the freedom of wisdom. These two kinds of freedom
describe arhats in general,50 and even to arhats who do not attain the 8 liberation.51

4.4.2 We have already noted (2) the freedom by wisdom (pañña,vimutti) under the category of “the
one liberated by wisdom” (paññā,vimutta) [2.2.2], the common term here. Paññā,vimutti is called “free-
dom through wisdom” because it arises from insight (vipassanā), the wisdom of seeing true reality,
especially in terms of impermanence or of suffering, and on a deeper level, on non-self. “Freedom
through wisdom” frees us from ignorance (avijjā). Freedom from ignorance refers to the spiritual pene-
tration of the 4 noble truths.52
“Freedom from wisdom” is often used with ceto,vimutti, which is mental concentration that frees us
from lust or craving (taṇhā). Hence, it is called “freedom of mind,” because lust arises on account of the
6 senses (the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body and mind). This freedom usually arises from calm (samatha),
which may be some level of samadhi, but especially so through the any of the 4 form dhyanas or all of
them. Through calm, the mind is free from grasping the 5 physical senses and also from grasping itself.

4.5 PAÑÑĀ,VIMUTTI CETO,VIMUTTI

4.5.1 When the two terms—paññā,vimutti and ceto,vimutti—are paired together in a stock passage and
qualified as being “influx-free” (anāsava), then, the passage refers to the destruction of the influxes by
the supramundane path of arhathood. Here is the passage from the Mahā Sakul’udāyi Sutta (M 49.5a):

Furthermore, Udāyi, the path has been shown to my disciples, practising as such,
by realizing for himself through direct knowledge, right here and now,
with the destruction of the mental influxes,53
attains and dwells in the influx-free freedom of mind, freedom by wisdom.54
(M 77,59/2:22), SD 49.5a

50
See eg Ākaṅkheyya S (M 6,19/1:35 f), SD 59.1; Samaṇa-m-acala S 1 (A 4.87,3/2:87), SD 20.13.
51
See eg Samaṇa-m-acala S 1 (A 4.87,4/2:87+ 6(5)/2:88), SD 20.13.
52
On the noble truths, see Dhamma,cakka Pavattana S (S 56.11), SD 1.1.
53
“With the destruction of the mental influxes destroyed,” khīṇ’āsava. The term āsava (lit “inflow, outflow”)
comes from ā-savati “flows towards” (ie either “into” or “out” towards the observer). It has been variously trans-
lated as taints (“deadly taints,” RD), corruptions, intoxicants, biases, depravity, misery, bad (influences), or simply
left untranslated. The Abhidhamma lists 4 āsava: the influx of (1) sense-desire (kām’āsava), (2) (desire for eternal)
existence (bhav’āsava), (3) views (diṭṭh’āsava), (4) ignorance (avijjâsava) (D 16,2.4, Pm 1.442, 561, Dhs §§1096-
1100, Vbh §937). These 4 are also known as “floods” (ogha) and “yokes” (yoga). The list of 3 influxes (omitting the
influx of views) is probably older and is found more frequently in the Suttas (D 3:216, 33.1.10(20); M 1:55, 3:41; A
3.59, 67, 6.63). The destruction of these āsavas is equivalent to arhathood. See BDict under āsava.
54
“Freedom of mind and freedom through wisdom,” respectively, ceto,vimutti (or, freedom by concentration, ie
through destruction of the mental hindrances) and paññā,vimutti (freedom through insight) (A 1:60). One who is
freed by wisdom “may not have reached the 8 liberations or deliverances (vimokkha = jhāna) in his own body, but
through seeing with wisdom, his mental influxes are destroyed” (M 70,16/1:478). All arhats are perfectly freed in
the same way from ignorance and suffering, but are distinguished into two types on the basis of their proficiency in
concentration. Those who can attain the 8 liberations (aṭṭha,vimokkha), which include the 4 formless attainments
and the attainment of cessation, are called freed both ways, that is, freed from the physical body by means of the

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4.5.2 The freedom of mind (ceto,vimutti), in the highest sense, refers to the fruition of arhathood, parti-
cularly the concentration associated with it. Here, then, it refers to the freeing of the mind from lust that
occurs through the arhat’s prior cultivation of concentration, while the freedom by wisdom (paññā,vi-
mutti) is the freeing of the mind from ignorance that occurs through the cultivation of wisdom—as stated
in the Vijjā Bhāgiya Sutta (A 2.3.10).55 In the Commentaries, “freedom of mind” is taken to refer to the
concentration faculty in the arhat’s fruition attainment (phala samāpatti), and “freedom by wisdom”
denotes his wisdom faculty.56 [2.4.5]

5 The mental influxes (āsava)

5.1 The Pali term for “mental influxes,” āsava (literally, “inflow, outflow”), comes from ā-savati, “flows
towards” (that is, either “into” or “out” towards us). It has been variously translated as “taints” (“deadly
taints,” Rhys Davids), “corruptions, intoxicants, biases, depravity, misery, bad (influence),” or simply left
untranslated.

5.2 They are so called because they “flow” into our minds through the 6 sense-bases (the eye, ear,
nose, tongue, body and mind). We mentally “process” these experiences of seeing, hearing, smelling,
tasting, touching and minding, thinking them over (perceiving and conceiving),57 measuring them (liking,
disliking and being bored),58 and attracting more thoughts (mental proliferation).59 Such activities are
rooted in the latent tendencies,60 which are fed by the influxes, and so perpetually self-generate.

5.3 The list of 3 influxes—those of sense-desire, desire for eternal existence, and ignorance—is prob-
ably an older one, and is found more frequently in the suttas.61 The destruction of these āsavas is equi-
valent to arhathood.
The Abhidhamma lists 4 mental influxes, those of

(1) sense-desire, kām’āsava

(2) (desire for eternal) existence, bhav’āsava
(3) views, and diṭṭh’āsava62
(4) ignorance. avijjâsava63

formless dhyanas, and from all defilements by the path of arhathood [§3.33]. Saha, like the arhats Sāriputta and
Moggallāna, is “freed both ways” (ubhato,bhāga,vimutta). The differences between the two types of freedom are
given in Mahā,nidāna S (D 2:70 f), Kīṭāgiri S (M 1:477 f), and esp Jhānâbhiññā S (S 16.9,29), SD 50.7. For full list of
the 8 liberations, see Mahā Nidāna S (D 15,35/2:70 f), SD 5.17.35. See also D 3:262, 228; Vimokkha S, A 8.66/4:306;
also M 120,37/3:103 (SD 3.4). See also Aṭṭha Vimokkha, SD 62.5 & Analayo 2009:141-148.
55
A 2.3,10/1:61 @ SD 3.2(4.2).
56
MA 2:40; SA 3:299; UA 36.
57
On perception (saññā), see Saññā, SD 17.4. On conception (maññanā), see Mūla,pariyāya S (M 1,3) n, SD 11.9;
Ejā S 1 (S 35.90), SD 29.10 (3). See also SD 31.10 (2.6); SD 43.3 (4.2.3.5).
58
On feeling, see Vedanā, SD 17.3.
59
On thought proliferation (papañca), see Madhu,piṇḍika S (M 18), SD 6.14 (2).
60
On the latent tendencies, see Anusaya, SD 31.3.
61
D 3:216, 33.1.10(20); M 1:55, 3:41; A 3.59, 67, 6.63.
62
This 3rd āsava was added later (eg D 2:81). The 3 influxes of sensual desire, existence and ignorance are prob
the original set. See Johansson 1976:178; Premasiri 1990:58.
63
D 16,1.12/2:82, 16.2.4/2:91, Pm 1.442, 561, Dhs §§1096-1100, Vbh §937.

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These four are also known as “floods” (ogha) and “yokes” (yoga) because when we allow them, they
dominate us, flooding our lives and drowning us in them. Otherwise, we are helplessly swept around by
them.64

6 Dhyana and arhathood

6.1 It is helpful to state here that dhyana, at least form dhyanas, are necessary for the attaining of
arhathood. Firstly, we need to understand that the 8 liberations (which is a functional listing of the 8
dhyanas, along with cessation) work successively in that order as a set; otherwise, there is no need for
such a set. In this sense, the dual-freed is said to have mastered them, that is, they have mastered both
the form dhyanas and the formless attainments.
This is not to say that dhyana is necessary for awakening itself. While dhyana is necessary for the
attaining of non-returning or arhathood,65 it is not necessary for the attaining of streamwinning or once-
returning.66 As a rule, the path of renunciation, whether monastic or lay, properly has arhathood or non-
returning as it goal. For effectively lay discipleship, it is sufficient to work towards streamwinning in this
life itself, as the Buddha exhorts us in the (Anicca) Cakkhu Sutta (S 25.1).67

6.2 There is a popular belief amongst some circles of traditional or ethnic Buddhists that dhyana is not
necessary arhathood. The practitioner, it is claimed, need only practise “insight” (vipassanā), a form of
modernist meditation systematized in Burma in the mid-20th century.68 This modernist approach is
based on the notion of “dry-insight” (sukkha,vipassaka) practice, which includes meditation without
needing to attain dhyana.
The point is that the term sukkha,vipassaka is not found in the Pali canon at all. It is only found in the
Commentaries. Paired with this term is that of “the pure insight vehicle goer” (suddha,vipassāna,yānika).
Again this term is an innovation introduced by Buddhaghosa in his Visuddhi,magga.69 This is not to say
that Vipassana as a meditation method has not merit at all. It may certainly help certain people, but not
others.70 If the method helps to be mentally calm, focused, and above all, happy (“open-minded”), then
we have a good reason to keep on the practice. Otherwise, it is helpful to find a suitable method and a
good teacher so that we progress in our mental cultivation.

6.3 TYPES OF ARHATS

6.3.1 Sutta typology

6.3.1.1 The suttas mentions various types of arhats, the best known of which are 4 types, that is,
the “one with the 3 knowledges” (te,vijja), the “one with the 6 superknowledges” (cha-ḷ-abhiññā), the
one “freed both ways” (ubhato.bhāga,vimutta) and the “wisdom-freed” (paññā,vimutta). The Pavāraṇā
Sutta (S 8.7) mentions a group of 500 monks, of which there are on 60 “three-knowledge” arhats, 60

64
See SD 50.12 (2.5.2).
65
Dhyana (jhāna) is esp necessary for proper practice of celibacy and the overcoming of lust. Such a practice
should, of course, be accompanied by proper tutelage (nissaya), along with the cultivation of insight (vipassanā)
and of lovingkindness (mettā).
66
On dhyana being unnecessary for streamwinning, see SD 8.5 (2) & SD 23.6 (4).
67
S 25.1 (SD 16.7).
68
See Samatha and Vipassana, SD 41.1 (1).
69
Vism 18.5/588.
70
See Samatha and Vipassana, SD 41.1.

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“with the 6 superknowledge” and 60 “liberated both ways.” This shows that while these 3 kinds of
arhats are rare, the most common are those “wisdom-liberated.”71
The number 500 here simply means a big number, probably a few hundred. The number “1,250
[twelve and a half hundred] monks” (aḍḍha,telasa bhikkhu,sata) famously refers to those arhats who
assembled at the 1st Māgha Pūjā assembly.72 Or, it may refer to a much large assembly than 500 monks,
such as that mentioned by Jīvaka in the Sāmañña,phala Sutta.73
We also see the phrase, “many hundreds of monks” (aneka,sata bhikkhu),74 or “surrounded by
many hundred sangha disciples” (aneka,sata,parivāra sa.sāvaka,saṅgha).75 The number become astro-
nomical is size in the accounts of the past buddhas whose life-spans are incredibly long. Take, for exam-
ple, Vipassī, the 1st of the 7 buddhas in the lineage ending with Gotama, had 3 assemblies of arhats,
numbering respectively, 80,000, 100,000 and 6,800,000!76 Such huge numbers are not found in connect-
ion with the historical buddha, Gotama, who lived at a time when the average human lifespan was only
100 years.

6.3.1.2 While all 4 types of arhats are mentioned together in the Pavāraṇā Sutta (S 1:191), they are
separately listed (amongst other kinds of saintly individuals) in the Puggala Paññatti (Pug 3, 14). These
4 arhats and their spiritual characteristics are given in Table 6.3.3 below.

6.3.2 Vinaya typology

6.3.2.1 The most evolved being according to early Buddhism is the self-awakened arhat. The Vinaya
gives a list, in an ascending order, of those worthy of the best alms, the last three are “the worthy” (ara-
ha), the “one with the 3 knowledges” (te,vijja) and the “one with the 6 superknowledges” (cha-ḷ-abhiñ-
ñā).77 The term araha translates “arhat,” but here refers to arhats in general, while the other two are
those with higher knowledges and psychic powers. [2.7.3]

6.3.2.2 Since the term araha [6.3.2.1] refers arhats in general, it should include the two mentioned
earlier [3], that is, the arhats who are “freed both ways” (ubhato.bhāga,vimutta) and who are “wisdom-
freed” (paññā,vimutti).
Thus, altogether they we have these following 4 kind of arhats [6.3.3]

6.3.3 The arhats and their characteristics. Here is a summary table of the 4 kinds of arhats and their
characteristics (their qualifications and attainments), and some sample references.78

71
S 8.7/1:191 (SD 49.11).
72
SD 16.1 (6); SD 45.16 (1.4).
73
Eg D 2,8/1:48 (SD 8.10).
74
Eg D 26,25/3:76), SD 36.10.
75
Eg A 7.69/4:136.
76
See Mahā’padāna S (D 14,1.10) + SD 49.8b (1.0.4.5).
77
Cv 6.6.2 (V2:161)
78
For further details, see SD 1.8 (2.2.3); also Lily de Silva 1978:143 f.

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Type Characteristics References

cha-ḷ-abhiññā The arhat “with the 6-superknowledges”
Mastered the 4 dhyanas or more as samatha. Cv 6.6.2 (V 2:161)
Has 6 superknowledges: psychic powers, the Das’uttara Sutta (D 34,1.7(10)/3:281)79
divine ear, mind-reading, retrocognition, the Ākaṅkheyya Sutta (M 6,19/1:35 f)
divine eye, knowledge of the destruction of Apadāna (some 80 references)
the mental influxes.80
te,vijja The arhat “with the 3 knowledges”
Mastered the 4 dhyanas or more as samatha. Te,vijja S (D 13,76-81/1:250-252)81
Has the 3 knowledges: retrocognition; the Vāseṭṭha Sutta (M 98,59*/2:196 = Sn 656)
divine eye; and knowledge of the destruction (Apara,diṭṭhi) Aññatara Brahmā Sutta
of the mental influxes. (S 6.5,18*/1:146)
Ti,kaṇṇa Sutta (A 3.58/1:163)
(Te,vijja) Jāṇussoṇi Sutta (A 3.59/1:166)
(Tika) Te,vijja Sutta (It 99/98-100)
ubhato.bhāga,-
vimutta The arhat “freed both ways”
Mastered the 8 liberations or the 9 progres- Ariya Pariyesana Sutta (M 26,42/1:174)
sive abodes. Cūḷa Sārôpama Sutta (M 30,/1:204)82
Has knowledge of the destruction of the Cūḷa Go,siṅga Sutta (M 31,18/1:209)83
mental influxes. Nimitta Sutta (A 3.100b20/1:256)
paññā,vimutta “The wisdom-freed” arhat
Any or all of the 4 dhyanas as samatha. Nivāpa Sutta (M 25,20/1:160),
Has knowledge of the destruction of the Cha-b,bisodhana Sutta (M 112,20/3:36)
mental influxes.

Table 6.3.3. The arhats and their characteristics

— evaṁ —

79
The Sutta answers to “What are the 6 things to be realized?” (katame cha dhammā sacchikātabbā), giving the
6 superknowledges (the first 5 being psychic powers), the last of which is: “He dwells, here and now, by his super-
knowledge and realization, in the attainment of the influx-free freedom of mind and freedom through wisdom,”
(āsavānaṁ khayā anāsavaṁ ceto,vimuttiṁ paññā,vimuttiṁ diṭṭh’eva dhamme sayaṁ abhiññā sacchikatvā
upasampajja viharati).
80
On these 6 superknowledges, see SD 27.5a (6).
81
In Te,vijja S (D 13), SD 1.8, the ref to “the unshakable freedom of mind” by way of the divine abodes [2.2.3-
2.2.4] is obliquely alluded to in D 13,76-81.
82
The “unshakable freedom of mind” (akuppa ceto.vimutti) is mentioned here.
83
“Cessation of perception and feeling” (saññā,vedayita,nirodha) is mentioned here.

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