DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN

1. Medical Asepsis and Surgical Asepsis

● Medical Asepsis:
○ Focuses on reducing the number and spread of microorganisms.
○ Practices include hand hygiene and disinfecting surfaces.
○ Used in routine patient care (e.g., during medication administration, wound
care).
○ Breaks the chain of infection by controlling pathogens.
● Surgical Asepsis:
○ Focuses on eliminating all microorganisms.
○ Practices include sterile technique and maintaining a sterile field.
○ Used in invasive procedures like surgery or catheterization.
○ Prevents introduction of pathogens into sterile areas.

2. Nursing Diagnosis and Medical Diagnosis

● Nursing Diagnosis:
○ Focuses on the patient’s response to health conditions or life processes.
○ Developed based on the nursing assessment.
○ Addresses issues nurses can treat independently (e.g., impaired mobility).
○ Aims to promote patient well-being and function.
● Medical Diagnosis:
○ Focuses on identifying a disease or medical condition.
○ Developed by a physician or advanced practitioner based on diagnostic tests.
○ Requires medical interventions (e.g., diabetes, pneumonia).
○ Aims to treat or cure the underlying condition.

3. Palpation and Percussion

● Palpation:
○ The use of hands to feel the body for abnormalities like lumps, tenderness, or
organ size.
○ Used to assess texture, temperature, moisture, swelling, and pain.
○ Performed gently to avoid causing discomfort.
○ Useful in assessing soft tissues and superficial structures.
● Percussion:
○ Tapping on the body to assess underlying structures by evaluating the sound
produced.
○ Used to detect fluid, air, or solid masses (e.g., in the lungs or abdomen).
○ Helps assess organ size, density, and borders.
○ Provides a quick overview of deeper structures.

4. Bradycardia and Tachycardia

● Bradycardia:
○ Defined as a heart rate below 60 beats per minute.
○ Can be normal in athletes or indicate a problem (e.g., heart block).
○ May cause symptoms like dizziness, fatigue, or fainting.
○ Treated depending on the underlying cause (e.g., pacemaker in severe
cases).
● Tachycardia:
○ Defined as a heart rate above 100 beats per minute.
○ May occur due to stress, fever, exercise, or underlying health conditions (e.g.,
hyperthyroidism).
○ Can lead to palpitations, shortness of breath, or chest pain.
○ Managed by treating the cause (e.g., medications, lifestyle changes).

5. Retention and Incontinence

● Retention:
○ The inability to fully empty the bladder.
○ Can result in bladder distension and discomfort.
○ May be caused by obstruction, nerve issues, or certain medications.
○ Treated with catheterization or addressing the underlying cause.
● Incontinence:
○ The inability to control urination, leading to leakage.
○ Can be stress, urge, overflow, or functional incontinence.
○ Often caused by weak pelvic muscles, nerve damage, or medical conditions.
○ Managed with pelvic floor exercises, medications, or surgery.

6. Instillation and Inhalation

● Instillation:
○ Involves administering liquid medication drop by drop into a body cavity or
organ (e.g., eyes, ears, or bladder).
○ Used for localized treatment (e.g., eye drops for glaucoma).
○ Helps in delivering medication directly to the site of action.
○ Common in ophthalmic, otic, or nasal care.
● Inhalation:
○ Involves breathing in medication, usually in the form of a mist or gas.
○ Used in conditions like asthma or COPD (e.g., inhalers, nebulizers).
○ Medication acts directly on the lungs for quick absorption.
○ Helps deliver medications to the respiratory tract efficiently.

7. Insomnia and Parasomnia

● Insomnia:
○ Difficulty falling or staying asleep or waking up too early.
○ Leads to fatigue, irritability, and impaired concentration during the day.
○ May be caused by stress, anxiety, or medical conditions.
○ Managed with sleep hygiene practices, medication, or therapy.
● Parasomnia:
○ Abnormal behaviors during sleep (e.g., sleepwalking, night terrors).
○ Occurs mostly during the transitions between sleep stages.
○ Can be triggered by stress, medications, or sleep disorders.
○ Treated by addressing triggers and maintaining a safe sleep environment.

8. Eupnea and Apnea

● Eupnea:
○ Normal, regular breathing rate and depth.
○ Indicates a healthy respiratory system.
○ In adults, it typically ranges from 12 to 20 breaths per minute.
○ No signs of distress are observed.
● Apnea:
○ Temporary cessation of breathing, often during sleep (e.g., sleep apnea).
○ Can result in reduced oxygen levels and interrupted sleep.
○ May lead to serious health issues like hypertension or heart problems.
○ Treated with CPAP, lifestyle changes, or surgery depending on the cause.

9. Beneficence and Non-Maleficence

● Beneficence:
○ The ethical principle of doing good and acting in the best interest of the
patient.
○ Promotes actions that improve patient outcomes and well-being.
○ Encourages interventions that benefit the patient’s health and recovery.
○ Examples include providing pain relief, patient education, and emotional
support.
● Non-Maleficence:
○ The ethical principle of “do no harm” or avoiding actions that may cause
harm.
○ Nurses must avoid treatments that may harm the patient, either physically or
emotionally.
○ Encourages careful consideration of potential risks vs. benefits.
○ Examples include avoiding unnecessary procedures or harmful medications.

10. Rigor Mortis and Algor Mortis

● Rigor Mortis:
○ The stiffening of muscles after death due to chemical changes in the body.
○ Usually begins 2 to 4 hours after death and lasts up to 48 hours.
○ Indicates the body’s transition into the post-mortem state.
○ Used as an indicator of time since death in forensic investigations.
● Algor Mortis:
○ The cooling of the body after death as it equilibrates with ambient
temperature.
○ Typically occurs 1 to 2 hours after death, depending on environmental
conditions.
○ Used to estimate the time of death in forensic cases.
○ The rate of cooling can be affected by factors like body size, clothing, and
temperature.

11. Dyspnoea and Orthopnoea

● Dyspnoea:
○ Difficulty or discomfort in breathing, often described as shortness of breath.
○ Can occur during exertion or at rest, depending on the severity of the
condition.
○ Common in patients with respiratory or cardiac disorders (e.g., asthma, heart
failure).
○ Managed by identifying the cause and providing oxygen or respiratory
treatments.
● Orthopnoea:
○ Shortness of breath that occurs when lying flat and is relieved by sitting or
standing up.
○ Commonly associated with heart failure or chronic lung disease.
○ Patients often need to sleep propped up with pillows.
○ Treatment involves managing the underlying condition (e.g., heart
medications, diuretics).

12. Constipation and Faecal Impaction

● Constipation:
○ Infrequent or difficult bowel movements, often accompanied by hard stools.
○ Caused by lack of fiber, fluid intake, inactivity, or medications (e.g., opioids).
○ Managed through dietary changes, increased fluid intake, and laxatives if
necessary.
○ Preventative measures include promoting mobility and ensuring a high-fiber
diet.
● Faecal Impaction:
○ A severe form of constipation where a large, hard mass of stool becomes
stuck in the rectum.
○ Can cause abdominal pain, bloating, and sometimes overflow diarrhea.
○ Managed by manual removal of stool, enemas, or laxatives.
○ Prevention includes treating constipation early and ensuring regular bowel
habits.

13. Disinfection and Sterilization

● Disinfection:
○ The process of eliminating most or all pathogenic microorganisms, except
bacterial spores, on inanimate objects.
○ Used for cleaning surfaces, medical instruments that contact intact skin, and
equipment in patient care areas.
○ Involves chemicals like alcohol, chlorine, or hydrogen peroxide.
○ Does not guarantee complete elimination of all microbes.
● Sterilization:
○ The process of completely eliminating all forms of microbial life, including
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and spores.
○ Used for surgical instruments, implants, and devices that come into contact
with sterile body areas.
○ Common methods include autoclaving, dry heat, and chemical sterilization.
○ Ensures an aseptic environment to prevent infection during invasive
procedures.

14. Subjective Data and Objective Data

● Subjective Data:
○ Information provided by the patient about their feelings, perceptions, and
symptoms.
○ Cannot be observed or measured by others (e.g., pain, nausea, fatigue).
○ Documented exactly as reported by the patient.
○ Used to assess the patient’s experience and guide personalized care.
● Objective Data:
○ Observable and measurable information, obtained through physical
examination or diagnostic tests.
○ Includes vital signs, lab results, skin color, and physical assessment findings.
○ Provides concrete evidence to support or refute subjective data.
○ Essential for diagnosis and ongoing evaluation of the patient’s condition.

15. Side Effects and Toxic Effects

● Side Effects:
○ Unintended, usually mild, effects of a medication or treatment.
○ Can be predictable or common (e.g., nausea from chemotherapy, dry mouth
from antihistamines).
○ Often tolerable and manageable with minor adjustments (e.g., dose changes,
symptom management).
○ Do not typically cause long-term harm.
● Toxic Effects:
○ Harmful, often dangerous effects caused by a medication taken in excessive
doses or over a prolonged period.
○ Can lead to serious health consequences (e.g., liver damage from
acetaminophen overdose).
○ Requires immediate intervention, possibly discontinuation of the medication.
○ Can be life-threatening if not addressed promptly.

16. Stomatitis and Glossitis

● Stomatitis:
○ Inflammation of the mucous membranes in the mouth, which can cause pain,
ulcers, and swelling.
○ Often results from infections, irritants (e.g., tobacco), or systemic diseases.
○ Managed with mouth rinses, pain relief, and treating the underlying cause.
○ Can impair eating and speaking due to discomfort.
● Glossitis:
○ Inflammation of the tongue, causing swelling, color changes, and pain.
○ Can be caused by infections, vitamin deficiencies, or allergic reactions.
○ Treatment includes addressing the cause (e.g., supplements for deficiencies,
avoiding irritants).
○ May interfere with chewing and swallowing.

17. Isotonic Exercise and Isometric Exercise

● Isotonic Exercise:
○ Involves muscle contraction with movement, where the muscle length
changes (e.g., walking, lifting weights).
○ Improves muscle strength, endurance, and cardiovascular fitness.
○ Engages large muscle groups in a rhythmic manner.
○ Examples include jogging, swimming, and cycling.
● Isometric Exercise:
○ Involves muscle contraction without movement, where the muscle length
remains the same.
○ Improves muscle tone and strength without stressing the joints.
○ Typically used for rehabilitation or for individuals with joint issues.
○ Examples include planks, wall sits, or holding a yoga pose.

18. Tachycardia and Bradycardia

● Tachycardia:
○ A condition characterized by a heart rate that exceeds 100 beats per minute.
○ Can be caused by exercise, anxiety, fever, or underlying conditions like
hyperthyroidism.
○ May lead to symptoms like palpitations, shortness of breath, or chest pain.
○ Treatment focuses on addressing the underlying cause (e.g., medications or
lifestyle changes).
● Bradycardia:
○ A condition characterized by a heart rate below 60 beats per minute.
○ Can occur in healthy individuals (e.g., athletes) or indicate a heart conduction
problem.
○ Symptoms may include fatigue, dizziness, or fainting.
○ Treatment depends on severity and may involve pacemaker insertion for
severe cases.

19. Livor Mortis and Rigor Mortis

● Livor Mortis:
○ The pooling of blood in the lower parts of the body after death due to gravity,
causing purplish discoloration of the skin.
○ Begins 30 minutes to a few hours after death and is fully developed within 6
to 12 hours.
○ Useful in determining the time and position of death.
○ Can help forensic experts in investigations.
● Rigor Mortis:
○ The stiffening of the muscles after death due to biochemical changes in
muscle fibers.
○ Begins 2 to 4 hours post-death, peaks at 12 hours, and dissipates after 24-48
hours.
○ Used in forensic investigations to estimate time of death.
○ Progresses from smaller muscles (e.g., face, neck) to larger muscles (e.g.,
arms, legs).

20. Livor Mortis and Rigor Mortis

● Livor Mortis:
○ Postmortem settling of blood in the dependent parts of the body, resulting in
purple or red skin discoloration.
○ Begins within 30 minutes to a few hours after death.
○ Helps in determining the time and position of death.
○ No stiffness is present, and it’s used in forensic pathology.
● Rigor Mortis:
○ The stiffening of muscles after death due to chemical changes in the muscles.
○ Begins 2 to 4 hours after death and peaks around 12 hours, lasting up to 48
hours.
○ Helps in determining the time of death.
○ Starts in the smaller muscles and progresses to larger muscles.

21. Palpation and Percussion

● Palpation:
○ The process of using the hands to feel body parts to assess texture, size,
consistency, and location.
○ Used to evaluate tenderness, masses, or organ enlargement.
○ Requires good knowledge of anatomy and is used in physical assessments.
○ Common in abdominal, lymph node, and breast examinations.
● Percussion:
○ The technique of tapping on a surface of the body to assess the underlying
structures based on the sound produced.
○ Used to evaluate the presence of fluid, air, or solid masses.
○ Helpful in assessing lungs, liver, and abdomen.
○ Sound differences can indicate health conditions like pleural effusion or liver
enlargement.

22. Source Isolation and Protective Isolation

● Source Isolation:
○ Used to prevent the spread of infection from a contagious patient to others.
○ Applied to patients with highly infectious diseases (e.g., TB, COVID-19).
○ Involves isolating the patient in a specific room, wearing PPE, and using
standard precautions.
○ Aimed at protecting others, especially healthcare workers and other patients.
● Protective Isolation:
○ Used to protect immunocompromised patients from acquiring infections.
○ Used for patients with compromised immune systems (e.g., chemotherapy,
transplant patients).
○ Involves keeping the patient in a controlled environment to minimize exposure
to pathogens.
○ Aimed at protecting the vulnerable patient rather than others.

23. Dysphagia and Dysuria

● Dysphagia:
○ Difficulty in swallowing, often related to problems with the throat or
esophagus.
○ Causes include neurological disorders, esophageal strictures, or tumors.
○ Can lead to malnutrition or aspiration pneumonia.
○ Management includes speech therapy, thickened liquids, or addressing the
underlying condition.
● Dysuria:
○ Painful or difficult urination, often a symptom of urinary tract infections (UTIs).
○ Can be caused by infections, irritation, or obstruction in the urinary tract.
○ Symptoms may include burning or discomfort during urination.
○ Management involves treating the underlying cause (e.g., antibiotics for
infections).

24. Innunction and Instillation

● Innunction:
○ The application of medication by rubbing it into the skin.
○ Commonly used for creams, ointments, and lotions.
○ Allows for localized absorption of the drug through the skin.
○ Often used in cases of skin conditions or localized pain.
● Instillation:
○ The administration of a liquid medication drop by drop into a body cavity (e.g.,
eyes, ears, nose).
○ Used for eye drops, ear drops, or nasal medications.
○ Allows for targeted treatment with minimal systemic absorption.
○ Common in ophthalmic and otic treatments.

25. Record and Report

● Record:
○ Written documentation of patient care, including observations, interventions,
and outcomes.
○ Used as a legal document and communication tool among healthcare
providers.
○ Ensures continuity of care and helps in auditing for quality control.
○ Includes patient charts, medication records, and nursing notes.
● Report:
○ A verbal or written communication given at the end of a shift or during patient
transfer.
○ Summarizes the patient’s status, recent changes, and upcoming care needs.
○ Ensures seamless transition of care between healthcare providers.
○ Typically given during handover or at the end of the shift.

26. Dicrotic Pulse and Bigeminal Pulse

● Dicrotic Pulse:
○ A pulse with a double beat during each cardiac cycle, felt as a secondary
wave after the primary pulse.
○ Often seen in conditions like sepsis or heart failure.
○ Indicates poor cardiac output or vascular resistance issues.
○ Can be observed through invasive monitoring or pulse waveforms.
● Bigeminal Pulse:
○ A pulse pattern where every normal heartbeat is followed by a premature
contraction, resulting in a paired beat.
○ Seen in patients with arrhythmias or premature ventricular contractions
(PVCs).
○ Indicates cardiac electrical activity irregularities.
○ Managed through medications that regulate heart rhythm.

27. Medical Diagnosis and Nursing Diagnosis

● Medical Diagnosis:
○ A diagnosis made by a physician based on the patient’s medical condition or
disease (e.g., pneumonia, diabetes).
○ Focuses on identifying and treating the pathology or illness.
○ Remains consistent until the condition is resolved or managed.
○ Guides medical treatment, tests, and interventions.
● Nursing Diagnosis:
○ A diagnosis made by a nurse that focuses on the patient’s response to health
conditions (e.g., impaired mobility, risk for infection).
○ Focuses on providing care to improve overall well-being.
○ May change frequently as the patient’s condition evolves.
○ Guides nursing interventions and care plans.

28. Empathy and Sympathy

● Empathy:
○ The ability to understand and share the feelings of another person, creating a
deep emotional connection.
○ Involves active listening and responding to a patient’s concerns without
judgment.
○ Essential in patient-centered care and therapeutic communication.
○ Helps build trust and rapport between nurse and patient.
● Sympathy:
○ Feeling pity or sorrow for someone else’s situation, but maintaining a certain
emotional distance.
○ Can lead to a more distant or less involved interaction with the patient.
○ May not foster the same level of connection as empathy.
○ Involves expressing concern but not necessarily understanding the patient's
feelings deeply.

29. Lithotomy Position and Trendelenburg Position

● Lithotomy Position:
○ The patient is lying on their back with hips and knees flexed, and legs in
stirrups.
○ Commonly used for gynecological, rectal, and urological procedures.
○ Allows easy access to the pelvic area.
○ Care must be taken to ensure the patient’s legs are supported to avoid nerve
damage.
● Trendelenburg Position:
○ The patient is lying flat on their back with the feet elevated higher than the
head.
○ Used to improve venous return in cases of shock or during certain surgeries.
○ Enhances blood flow to the heart and brain.
○ Should be used cautiously in patients with respiratory or intracranial pressure
issues.

30. Active Exercise and Passive Exercise

● Active Exercise:
○ The patient performs the movement independently using their muscles.
○ Helps strengthen muscles, improve mobility, and increase circulation.
○ Examples include walking, lifting weights, or stretching.
○ Encourages patient participation in their own rehabilitation.
● Passive Exercise:
○ The movement is performed by another person (e.g., a nurse or therapist)
without the patient using their muscles.
○ Used for patients who are paralyzed or immobilized.
○ Prevents contractures, improves circulation, and maintains joint flexibility.
○ Common in post-surgical or bedridden patients.

31. Medical Asepsis and Surgical Asepsis

● Medical Asepsis:
○ Also called “clean technique,” involves reducing the number of
microorganisms.
○ Practices include handwashing, wearing gloves, and disinfecting surfaces.
○ Used in everyday nursing procedures like administering medications or taking
vital signs.
○ Goal: Prevent the spread of infection.
● Surgical Asepsis:
○ Also called “sterile technique,” involves eliminating all microorganisms from
an area.
○ Used in operating rooms, catheter insertions, and wound care.
○ Involves sterilizing instruments and maintaining a sterile field.
○ Goal: Prevent contamination during invasive procedures.

32. Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure

● Systolic BP:
○ The pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts.
○ It is the top number in a blood pressure reading (e.g., 120 in 120/80 mmHg).
○ Indicates how forcefully the blood is being pumped.
○ A higher systolic pressure can indicate hypertension or cardiovascular issues.
● Diastolic BP:
○ The pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest between beats.
○ It is the bottom number in a blood pressure reading (e.g., 80 in 120/80
mmHg).
○ Reflects how relaxed the arteries are during this period.
○ A high diastolic pressure can indicate stiff or narrow arteries.

33. Gastric Gavage and Gastric Lavage

● Gastric Gavage:
○ A procedure where liquid food, medications, or nutrients are introduced into
the stomach via a tube (nasogastric or gastrostomy tube).
○ Used for patients who cannot eat orally but require nutrition or medication.
○ Common in patients with swallowing disorders, neurological issues, or comas.
○ Goal: Provide adequate nutrition and medication.
● Gastric Lavage:
○ A procedure where the contents of the stomach are washed out through a
tube.
○ Used in cases of poisoning, drug overdose, or to remove toxins.
○ Involves inserting a nasogastric tube and flushing the stomach with saline or
water.
○ Goal: Remove harmful substances from the stomach.

34. Tachycardia and Bradycardia

● Tachycardia:
○ An abnormally fast heart rate, generally over 100 beats per minute.
○ Can result from fever, dehydration, stress, or heart conditions.
○ May lead to symptoms like dizziness, chest pain, or shortness of breath.
○ Management includes addressing the underlying cause and medications to
control heart rate.
● Bradycardia:
○ An abnormally slow heart rate, generally below 60 beats per minute.
○ Can be caused by heart disease, hypothyroidism, or medications.
○ May cause fatigue, dizziness, or fainting.
○ Management may include medications or a pacemaker in severe cases.

35. Open Bed and Closed Bed

● Open Bed:
○ A bed prepared for an incoming patient, with the top linens folded down to
allow easy entry.
○ Used when a bed is ready for use by a patient after they have been up for
some time.
○ Usually prepared after discharging a patient or for patients coming from
surgery.
○ Allows easy access to the bed.
● Closed Bed:
○ A bed prepared for a new patient or when not in use, with linens pulled up to
cover the pillow and bed completely.
○ Used in unoccupied rooms or after the bed is cleaned.
○ Prevents dust and dirt from settling on the linens.
○ Indicates the bed is ready for a new patient.

36. Medical Asepsis and Surgical Asepsis

● (Already explained in 31.)

37. Active Exercise and Passive Exercise

● (Already explained in a previous response.)

38. Primary Prevention and Secondary Prevention

● Primary Prevention:
○ Actions taken to prevent disease before it occurs.
○ Includes health education, vaccinations, and lifestyle changes (e.g., diet and
exercise).
○ Targets healthy individuals to reduce the risk of developing diseases.
○ Goal: Prevent the onset of illness.
● Secondary Prevention:
○ Actions taken to detect and treat disease at an early stage.
○ Includes screenings (e.g., mammograms, blood pressure checks) and early
interventions.
○ Targets individuals at risk or those with early signs of disease.
○ Goal: Reduce the impact of disease and prevent complications.

39. Intradermal Injection and Subcutaneous Injection

● Intradermal Injection:
○ Injection administered into the dermis, just beneath the skin's surface.
○ Commonly used for allergy testing and tuberculosis (TB) tests.
○ Volume injected is very small (usually 0.1 mL), and absorption is slow.
○ Example: Mantoux test.
● Subcutaneous Injection:
○ Injection administered into the fatty tissue under the skin.
○ Commonly used for insulin and anticoagulants.
○ Absorption is slower than intramuscular injections but faster than intradermal
injections.
○ Example: Insulin injection.

40. Urinary Retention and Urinary Incontinence

● Urinary Retention:
○ The inability to completely empty the bladder.
○ Can be caused by an obstruction, nerve damage, or medications.
○ Symptoms include difficulty starting urination or a weak stream.
○ Management includes catheterization or addressing the underlying cause.
● Urinary Incontinence:
○ The loss of bladder control, leading to unintentional urine leakage.
○ Causes include weakened pelvic muscles, neurological conditions, or
infections.
○ Symptoms include frequent urination, urgency, or leakage.
○ Management includes pelvic floor exercises, medications, or surgery.

41. Subjective and Objective Data

● Subjective Data:
○ Information reported by the patient that cannot be directly observed or
measured.
○ Includes symptoms, feelings, perceptions, and experiences (e.g., “I feel
pain”).
○ Collected through patient interviews and self-reports.
○ Important for understanding the patient's perspective and experience.
● Objective Data:
○ Information that can be observed, measured, or verified by healthcare
professionals.
○ Includes vital signs, lab results, and physical examination findings (e.g., blood
pressure readings).
○ Collected through clinical observations and diagnostic tests.
○ Provides factual evidence to support clinical decisions.

42. Infection and Inflammation

● Infection:
○ The invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms in the body.
○ Symptoms can include fever, chills, and localized pain or swelling.
○ Can result in various clinical conditions, such as pneumonia or urinary tract
infections.
○ Requires antimicrobial treatment (antibiotics, antifungals).
● Inflammation:
○ A local response of body tissues to injury or infection, characterized by
redness, heat, swelling, and pain.
○ Is a protective mechanism to help eliminate pathogens and initiate healing.
○ Can occur without infection (e.g., in response to an injury).
○ May require treatment to reduce inflammation (e.g., anti-inflammatory
medications).

43. Inhalation and Exhalation

● Inhalation:
○ The process of taking air into the lungs.
○ Occurs when the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, creating a
negative pressure that pulls air in.
○ Essential for oxygen uptake, which is delivered to the bloodstream.
○ Can be voluntary or involuntary, controlled by the respiratory center in the
brain.
● Exhalation:
○ The process of expelling air from the lungs.
○ Occurs when the diaphragm and intercostal muscles relax, causing the chest
cavity to decrease in size.
○ Removes carbon dioxide from the body, which is a waste product of
metabolism.
○ Primarily a passive process at rest, but can be active during exertion (e.g.,
forceful breathing).

44. REM Sleep and NREM Sleep

● REM Sleep:
○ Stands for Rapid Eye Movement sleep, characterized by rapid movement of
the eyes, increased brain activity, and vivid dreams.
○ Important for cognitive functions such as memory consolidation and learning.
○ Occurs about every 90 minutes during the sleep cycle and lasts longer with
each cycle.
○ Associated with muscle atonia, preventing the body from acting out dreams.
● NREM Sleep:
○ Non-Rapid Eye Movement sleep, which includes three stages: N1 (light
sleep), N2 (moderate sleep), and N3 (deep sleep).
○ Characterized by slower brain waves and reduced physiological activity.
○ Essential for physical restoration, growth, and immune function.
○ N3 stage is particularly important for deep restorative sleep.

45. Health and Illness

● Health:
○ A holistic state of well-being encompassing physical, mental, and social
aspects.
○ Defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a state of complete
physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease.
○ Influenced by lifestyle, genetics, environment, and access to healthcare.
○ Focuses on maintaining wellness and preventing disease.
● Illness:
○ A subjective experience of loss of health, which may or may not be
associated with a diagnosable disease.
○ Includes symptoms and affects the individual’s physical, emotional, and social
well-being.
○ Can vary greatly in perception and impact among individuals.
○ Treatment focuses on alleviating symptoms and improving quality of life.

46. Ethics and Values

● Ethics:
○ A branch of philosophy dealing with what is morally right or wrong, particularly
in the context of healthcare.
○ In nursing, includes principles such as autonomy, beneficence,
non-maleficence, and justice.
○ Guides nurses in making decisions that respect patient rights and promote
welfare.
○ Involves adherence to professional standards and codes of conduct.
● Values:
○ Core beliefs or ideals that guide an individual’s behavior and decision-making.
○ Can include compassion, integrity, respect, and empathy in nursing practice.
○ Influence how nurses interact with patients and colleagues.
○ Developed through personal experiences and cultural background.

47. PRN Order and STAT Order

● PRN Order:
○ Stands for “pro re nata,” meaning “as needed” in Latin.
○ Medications or treatments are given only when a specific condition arises
(e.g., pain relief).
○ Requires assessment of the patient’s condition to determine if the medication
is needed.
○ Allows for flexibility in medication administration based on patient needs.
● STAT Order:
○ Indicates that a medication or treatment should be administered immediately.
○ Used in emergencies or urgent situations where a quick response is
necessary (e.g., anaphylaxis).
○ Requires prompt action from nursing staff to ensure timely delivery.
○ Affects the prioritization of nursing tasks and patient care.

48. Instillation and Inhalation

● Instillation:
○ The process of administering a liquid drop by drop, usually into the eyes,
ears, or nose.
○ Commonly used for medications like eye drops or nasal sprays.
○ Requires sterile techniques to avoid contamination.
○ Aims for localized delivery of medication or treatment.
● Inhalation:
○ The act of breathing in substances (e.g., medications, oxygen) into the lungs.
○ Commonly used for respiratory treatments, such as nebulizers or inhalers.
○ Allows for rapid absorption of medication into the bloodstream via the alveoli.
○ Can be used for both systemic and local effects.

49. Isometric Contraction and Isotonic Contraction

● Isometric Contraction:
○ Muscle contraction without any change in muscle length.
○ Involves generating tension while maintaining the same position (e.g.,
pushing against a wall).
○ Builds strength and endurance without joint movement.
○ Useful for rehabilitation and maintaining muscle tone.
● Isotonic Contraction:
○ Muscle contraction with a change in muscle length while the tension remains
constant.
○ Includes two types: concentric (muscle shortens) and eccentric (muscle
lengthens).
○ Common in physical activities like lifting weights or performing squats.
○ Promotes strength and flexibility through movement.

50. Osmotic Pressure and Hydrostatic Pressure

● Osmotic Pressure:
○ The pressure required to prevent the flow of water across a semipermeable
membrane due to solute concentration differences.
○ Important in regulating fluid balance in cells and tissues.
○ Influences the movement of water in and out of cells, affecting hydration and
nutrient transport.
○ Essential for maintaining homeostasis.
● Hydrostatic Pressure:
○ The pressure exerted by a fluid due to gravity, particularly in blood vessels.
○ Influences the movement of fluids in the cardiovascular system and across
capillary membranes.
○ Higher hydrostatic pressure in blood vessels can lead to edema and other
complications.
○ Critical for understanding circulatory and renal physiology.

51. PRN Order and SOS Order

● PRN Order:
○ Stands for "pro re nata," meaning "as needed."
○ Medications or treatments are administered based on the patient's condition
or symptoms (e.g., pain relief, nausea).
○ Nurses assess the patient’s status and determine if intervention is necessary.
○ Requires documentation of administration and the rationale for use.
● SOS Order:
○ Similar to PRN, "SOS" stands for "si opus sit," meaning "if there is a need."
○ Indicates medications or interventions are to be given if a specific condition
arises (often used interchangeably with PRN).
○ Focuses on providing flexibility in treatment as needed.
○ Less commonly used in contemporary practice compared to PRN.

52. Cold Compress and Tepid Sponge

● Cold Compress:
○ Application of ice or cold packs to an area to reduce swelling, inflammation, or
pain.
○ Often used for acute injuries, headaches, or fever reduction.
○ Acts by causing vasoconstriction, which reduces blood flow and numbs the
area.
○ Should not be applied directly to the skin; a barrier (e.g., cloth) is
recommended to prevent frostbite.
● Tepid Sponge:
○ Use of a damp cloth soaked in lukewarm water applied to the skin.
○ Often used to lower fever or provide comfort.
○ Helps to cool the body through evaporation and is gentle on the skin.
○ Can be used for patients who may be sensitive to cold temperatures.

53. Hypotension and Hypertension

● Hypotension:
○ Abnormally low blood pressure, typically below 90/60 mmHg.
○ Can cause symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, and fatigue.
○ May result from dehydration, blood loss, or heart problems.
○ Requires monitoring and potential intervention (e.g., fluid replacement).
● Hypertension:
○ Abnormally high blood pressure, generally defined as 130/80 mmHg or
higher.
○ Often asymptomatic but can lead to serious health issues (e.g., heart disease,
stroke).
○ Risk factors include obesity, high salt intake, and sedentary lifestyle.
○ Managed through lifestyle changes and medication.

54. Primary Prevention and Secondary Prevention

● Primary Prevention:
○ Aims to prevent disease before it occurs through health promotion and risk
reduction.
○ Examples include vaccinations, health education, and lifestyle modifications
(e.g., diet, exercise).
○ Focuses on reducing risk factors and enhancing overall health.
○ Implemented in community health settings and public health initiatives.
● Secondary Prevention:
○ Focuses on early detection and intervention to halt the progression of
disease.
○ Involves screening tests (e.g., mammograms, blood pressure checks) and
regular health examinations.
○ Aims to identify diseases at an early stage when treatment can be more
effective.
○ Helps reduce morbidity and mortality associated with disease.

55. Disinfection and Sterilization

● Disinfection:
○ The process of eliminating most or all pathogenic microorganisms on
inanimate objects or surfaces.
○ Does not necessarily kill all spores and is often used for medical instruments
and surfaces.
○ Common disinfection agents include alcohol, bleach, and hydrogen peroxide.
○ Essential for maintaining a clean environment in healthcare settings to
prevent infection.
● Sterilization:
○ The complete elimination of all forms of microbial life, including spores.
○ Methods include autoclaving, ethylene oxide gas, and radiation.
○ Required for surgical instruments, implants, and other items that enter sterile
body areas.
○ Critical for preventing infections during invasive procedures.

56. Idiosyncratic Effect and Synergistic Effect

● Idiosyncratic Effect:
○ An unusual or unexpected reaction to a medication that is specific to an
individual.
○ Often not related to the drug's pharmacological action and may occur after the
first dose.
○ Can result from genetic factors, allergies, or underlying health conditions.
○ Important for nurses to document and communicate to avoid future
occurrences.
● Synergistic Effect:
○ Occurs when two or more drugs or substances work together to produce an
effect greater than the sum of their individual effects.
○ Can enhance therapeutic outcomes but may also increase the risk of toxicity.
○ Common in polypharmacy situations where patients take multiple
medications.
○ Requires careful monitoring and adjustment of dosages by healthcare
providers.

57. Orthopnea and Apnea

● Orthopnea:
○ Difficulty breathing while lying flat, often relieved by sitting or standing.
○ Commonly associated with conditions such as heart failure or respiratory
disorders.
○ Patients may need to use multiple pillows or sleep in a reclined position.
○ Assessment of orthopnea is important in evaluating respiratory status.
● Apnea:
○ The cessation of breathing for a brief period, typically longer than 20 seconds.
○ Can occur during sleep (e.g., sleep apnea) or as a result of medical
conditions.
○ May lead to hypoxia (lack of oxygen) and requires immediate intervention.
○ Important to monitor respiratory patterns and identify underlying causes.

58. Supine Position and Sims Position

● Supine Position:
○ The patient lies flat on their back with arms at the sides.
○ Used for many examinations and procedures, including surgical interventions
and assessments.
○ Provides easy access to the anterior body for examinations and interventions.
○ Important for maintaining airway patency in unconscious patients.
● Sims Position:
○ The patient lies on their left side with the right knee bent and pulled up
towards the chest.
○ Commonly used for rectal examinations and administering enemas.
○ Allows for easier access to the rectal area and facilitates drainage.
○ Promotes comfort for patients with certain medical conditions.

59. Abduction and Adduction

● Abduction:
○ Movement of a limb away from the midline of the body.
○ Common in shoulder and hip movements (e.g., lifting arms or legs outward).
○ Important for assessing joint mobility and function during physical
examinations.
○ Assists in activities of daily living, such as dressing and reaching.
● Adduction:
○ Movement of a limb toward the midline of the body.
○ Involves bringing limbs closer together (e.g., lowering arms or legs inward).
○ Essential for stability and coordination during movement.
○ Important for rehabilitation exercises and recovery programs.

60. Algor Mortis and Livor Mortis

● Algor Mortis:
○ The postmortem reduction in body temperature following death.
○ Body temperature decreases at a predictable rate, typically about 1.5°F
(0.5°C) per hour until reaching ambient temperature.
○ Important for forensic examinations to help estimate time of death.
○ Affected by factors such as environmental temperature and body mass.
● Livor Mortis:
○ The gravitational pooling of blood in the lowest parts of the body after death,
leading to discoloration of the skin.
○ Begins within 20 minutes to 3 hours after death and becomes fixed after
about 6 hours.
○ Provides information about the position of the body at the time of death and
can indicate potential foul play.
○ Important for forensic investigations and determining the cause of death.

61. Constipation and Fecal Impaction

● Constipation:
○ A condition characterized by infrequent bowel movements (typically less than
three times a week) and difficulty passing stool.
○ Symptoms may include hard or dry stools, abdominal discomfort, and
bloating.
○ Can be caused by factors such as low fiber intake, dehydration, lack of
physical activity, or medication side effects.
○ Management includes dietary changes, increased fluid intake, and laxatives if
necessary.
● Fecal Impaction:
○ A more severe condition where stool becomes hard and lodged in the rectum,
preventing normal bowel movements.
○ Symptoms may include severe abdominal pain, inability to pass stool, and
sometimes leakage of liquid stool.
○ Often requires manual removal or the use of enemas or laxatives for
treatment.
○ Can lead to more serious complications like bowel obstruction if not
addressed promptly.

62. Irrigation and Instillation

● Irrigation:
○ The process of washing out a body cavity or wound with a solution to remove
debris, bacteria, or other unwanted materials.
○ Commonly used for wound care, bladder irrigation, and cleansing of surgical
sites.
○ Helps maintain cleanliness and promote healing by preventing infection.
○ Can involve the use of sterile saline or other appropriate solutions depending
on the procedure.
● Instillation:
○ The introduction of a liquid dropwise into a body cavity or onto a surface (e.g.,
eye drops, nasal drops).
○ Used for delivering medications directly to the target area, such as eyes, ears,
or nasal passages.
○ Requires proper technique to ensure effective delivery and prevent
contamination.
○ Important for patients who cannot take medications orally or need localized
treatment.

63. Concurrent Disinfection and Terminal Disinfection

● Concurrent Disinfection:
○ Refers to the ongoing cleaning and disinfection of surfaces and equipment
during patient care to prevent the spread of infection.
○ Involves regular cleaning of high-touch areas in healthcare settings (e.g.,
doorknobs, bed rails).
○ Essential in maintaining a safe environment, especially in patient care areas
with high infection risk.
○ Helps in controlling the transmission of pathogens between patients and
healthcare workers.
● Terminal Disinfection:
○ The thorough cleaning and disinfection of a patient area or equipment after
the patient has been discharged or transferred.
○ Involves a more comprehensive cleaning process, including deep cleaning
and sterilization of all items.
○ Aims to eliminate all infectious agents and prepare the environment for the
next patient.
○ Important for preventing healthcare-associated infections (HAIs).

64. Pulse Deficit and Pulse Pressure

● Pulse Deficit:
○ The difference between the heart rate (measured at the apex of the heart)
and the pulse rate (measured at peripheral sites).
○ Indicates that not all heartbeats are being perfused to the extremities, often
seen in conditions like atrial fibrillation.
○ Requires careful assessment and monitoring by nurses, especially in patients
with cardiac issues.
○ Can signify decreased cardiac output and may require medical intervention.
● Pulse Pressure:
○ The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure readings (e.g.,
120/80 mmHg results in a pulse pressure of 40 mmHg).
○ Provides information about the volume of blood ejected by the heart and the
elasticity of the arteries.
○ A normal pulse pressure is typically around 40 mmHg; wide pulse pressure
can indicate conditions such as aortic regurgitation.
○ Important for assessing cardiovascular health and stability.

65. Signs and Symptoms

● Signs:
○ Objective findings that can be observed or measured by healthcare
professionals (e.g., rash, elevated blood pressure, fever).
○ Can be documented through physical examinations, lab tests, and imaging
studies.
○ Important for diagnosing conditions and monitoring patient progress.
○ Help in developing a nursing care plan and interventions based on observable
data.
● Symptoms:
○ Subjective experiences reported by the patient regarding their health status
(e.g., pain, fatigue, nausea).
○ Provide valuable information for understanding the patient’s perspective and
experience of illness.
○ Cannot be measured directly and rely on patient self-reporting.
○ Essential for assessing the effectiveness of treatment and adjusting care
plans.

1. Acidosis and Alkalosis

● Acidosis:
○ A condition characterized by an excess of hydrogen ions (H+) in the blood,
leading to a decrease in blood pH (below 7.35).
○ Can be caused by respiratory issues (respiratory acidosis) or metabolic
processes (metabolic acidosis).
○ Symptoms may include confusion, lethargy, shortness of breath, and a rapid
heart rate.
○ Requires careful monitoring and treatment, including the administration of
bicarbonate or respiratory support.
● Alkalosis:
○ A condition characterized by a deficit of hydrogen ions in the blood, leading to
an increase in blood pH (above 7.45).
○ Can be classified as respiratory alkalosis (due to hyperventilation) or
metabolic alkalosis (due to loss of acid or gain of bicarbonate).
○ Symptoms may include muscle twitching, hand tremors, and dizziness.
○ Treatment may involve addressing the underlying cause, such as rebreathing
carbon dioxide or electrolyte replacement.

2. Addiction and Idiosyncrasy

● Addiction:
○ A chronic condition characterized by compulsive drug-seeking behavior and
use despite harmful consequences.
○ Often involves physical dependence (tolerance and withdrawal symptoms)
and psychological dependence.
○ Requires comprehensive treatment approaches, including behavioral therapy
and sometimes pharmacotherapy.
○ Can affect various aspects of life, including physical health, mental health,
and social relationships.
● Idiosyncrasy:
○ An unusual or abnormal response to a drug that is not commonly seen in the
majority of patients.
○ May be genetically determined or related to individual biochemistry.
○ Can lead to unexpected side effects or therapeutic outcomes and may require
alternative treatment approaches.
○ Important for nurses to recognize idiosyncratic reactions to ensure patient
safety and appropriate care.

3. Addiction and Tolerance

● Addiction:
○ Involves a psychological and physical dependence on a substance,
characterized by the inability to stop using despite negative consequences.
○ Can lead to changes in behavior, increased craving, and a cycle of use and
withdrawal.
○ Treatment often involves multidisciplinary approaches, including counseling
and support groups.
○ Recognizing addiction is crucial for nurses to provide appropriate
interventions and referrals.
● Tolerance:
○ A physiological adaptation to a substance where increasing amounts are
needed to achieve the same effect.
○ Can develop with chronic use of medications, especially opioids, leading to
higher doses and increased risk of overdose.
○ Nurses should monitor patients for signs of tolerance and adjust medication
regimens accordingly.
○ Important to differentiate between tolerance and addiction to guide safe
medication practices.

4. Aerobic and Anaerobic Exercise

● Aerobic Exercise:
○ Involves sustained physical activity that increases heart rate and respiration,
improving cardiovascular fitness (e.g., running, swimming).
○ Utilizes oxygen to generate energy, enhancing endurance and overall fitness.
○ Benefits include improved heart and lung function, weight management, and
reduced stress.
○ Recommended for patients as part of a comprehensive wellness or
rehabilitation plan.
● Anaerobic Exercise:
○ Involves short bursts of high-intensity activity that do not rely on oxygen for
energy (e.g., weightlifting, sprinting).
○ Builds muscle strength, power, and mass but does not improve
cardiovascular endurance as effectively as aerobic exercise.
○ Can be beneficial for patients recovering from certain conditions or for
building muscle.
○ Important for nurses to incorporate appropriate exercise recommendations
based on patient needs and capabilities.

5. Algor Mortis and Livor Mortis

● Algor Mortis:
○ Refers to the postmortem cooling of the body after death.
○ The body temperature drops at a predictable rate, typically around 1-1.5
degrees Fahrenheit per hour until it reaches room temperature.
○ Important in forensic and nursing practice to estimate the time of death.
○ Nurses must understand this process for proper handling of deceased
patients.
● Livor Mortis:
○ Also known as hypostasis, it is the settling of blood in the lower parts of the
body after death due to gravity.
○ Appears as purplish discoloration of the skin, typically developing within 30
minutes to a few hours postmortem.
○ Can indicate the position of the body at the time of death and assist in
forensic investigations.
○ Nurses should be aware of this process for documentation and ethical care of
deceased patients.

6. Analgesics and Tranquilizers

● Analgesics:
○ Medications designed to relieve pain without affecting consciousness (e.g.,
acetaminophen, NSAIDs, opioids).
○ Work through various mechanisms, including inhibiting pain signal
transmission or altering perception of pain.
○ Important for nurses to assess pain levels accurately and administer
analgesics accordingly for patient comfort.
○ Monitoring for side effects, especially with opioids, is crucial to ensure patient
safety.
● Tranquilizers:
○ Medications used to reduce anxiety and promote calmness (e.g.,
benzodiazepines, barbiturates).
○ Work by depressing the central nervous system to induce sedation and
reduce agitation.
○ Nurses must monitor patients for sedation levels and potential side effects,
such as respiratory depression.
○ Important for managing patients with anxiety disorders or during stressful
medical procedures.

7. Antidote and Antibiotics

● Antidote:
○ A substance that counteracts the effects of a poison or overdose of a drug.
○ Administered in emergencies to reverse toxic effects, such as naloxone for
opioid overdose or activated charcoal for certain ingestions.
○ Nurses must be knowledgeable about specific antidotes and their appropriate
use.
○ Understanding the mechanism of action and indications for antidotes is
crucial in emergency nursing.
● Antibiotics:
○ Medications used to treat bacterial infections by killing bacteria or inhibiting
their growth (e.g., penicillin, cephalosporins).
○ Should be prescribed based on the specific type of infection and sensitivity
testing.
○ Nurses need to monitor for allergic reactions, side effects, and efficacy of
antibiotic therapy.
○ Educating patients about completing prescribed courses to prevent antibiotic
resistance is essential.

8. Anuria and Dysuria

● Anuria:
○ The absence of urine production, typically defined as less than 50 mL of urine
output in 24 hours.
○ Can indicate severe kidney dysfunction, dehydration, or obstruction of the
urinary tract.
○ Requires immediate assessment and intervention to prevent complications
such as fluid overload.
○ Nurses play a crucial role in monitoring urine output and reporting changes to
the healthcare team.
● Dysuria:
○ Painful or difficult urination, often associated with urinary tract infections
(UTIs) or bladder irritation.
○ Symptoms may include burning sensation during urination, urgency, and
frequency.
○ Important for nurses to assess and document symptoms, provide comfort
measures, and facilitate appropriate diagnostic testing.
○ Education on hydration and preventive measures for UTIs is essential in
nursing care.

9. Anuria and Enuresis

● Anuria:
○ Defined as a lack of urine output, often indicating serious medical issues such
as acute kidney injury or severe dehydration.
○ Requires immediate medical evaluation and intervention.
○ Nurses must monitor vital signs and fluid status in patients presenting with
anuria.
○ Documentation of urine output is essential for assessing kidney function.
● Enuresis:
○ Refers to involuntary urination, commonly known as bedwetting, usually
occurring in children.
○ Can be a normal developmental phase or associated with underlying
conditions such as bladder dysfunction or psychological stress.
○ Nurses should provide education and support for families dealing with
enuresis, including behavioral strategies.
○ Assessment of contributing factors is key to developing an effective
management plan.

10. Anuria and Polyuria

● Anuria:
○ A medical condition characterized by a very low urine output, less than 50 mL
in 24 hours.
○ Can indicate severe kidney dysfunction or urinary obstruction.
○ Nurses must monitor and document urine output and assess fluid balance in
affected patients.
○ Requires prompt intervention to prevent complications like fluid overload or
electrolyte imbalances.
● Polyuria:
○ A condition defined by excessive urine production, often exceeding 3 liters
per day.
○ Can be caused by diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, or excessive fluid
intake.
○ Important for nurses to assess and monitor fluid intake, output, and signs of
dehydration in patients with polyuria.
○ Patient education regarding fluid management and recognition of symptoms
is crucial for effective care.

11. Autonomy and Accountability

● Autonomy:
○ The right of patients to make informed choices about their own healthcare.
○ Nurses support patient autonomy by providing information, respecting patient
preferences, and involving them in decision-making.
○ It emphasizes the importance of informed consent and the ethical principle of
respect for persons.
○ Autonomy promotes patient empowerment and active participation in their
care.
● Accountability:
○ The responsibility of nurses to provide care that meets professional standards
and ethical guidelines.
○ Involves being answerable for one’s actions and decisions in clinical practice.
○ Nurses must maintain competence, document care accurately, and
communicate effectively with the healthcare team.
○ Accountability ensures quality patient care and enhances trust in the nursing
profession.

12. Autopsy and Biopsy

● Autopsy:
○ A postmortem examination performed to determine the cause of death or
evaluate disease processes.
○ Involves the examination of tissues, organs, and body fluids.
○ Can provide valuable information for public health, medical education, and
legal purposes.
○ Nurses may assist in preparing the body and documentation but do not
perform autopsies.
● Biopsy:
○ A diagnostic procedure that involves the removal of tissue samples from the
body for examination.
○ Used to diagnose diseases, particularly cancers, by analyzing cellular
structures under a microscope.
○ Types of biopsies include needle, incisional, and excisional biopsies.
○ Nurses play a role in educating patients, preparing them for the procedure,
and providing post-procedural care.

13. Bacteriostatic and Bacteriocidal

● Bacteriostatic:
○ Refers to agents that inhibit the growth and reproduction of bacteria without
necessarily killing them (e.g., tetracycline).
○ Commonly used in infections where the immune system can eliminate the
bacteria.
○ Requires careful monitoring of the patient's response to treatment and
potential resistance development.
○ Nurses must understand the differences to administer appropriate antibiotics
based on the infection.
● Bacteriocidal:
○ Refers to agents that kill bacteria outright (e.g., penicillin, vancomycin).
○ Used in serious infections where immediate bacterial eradication is
necessary.
○ Can lead to rapid reduction of bacteria and improved patient outcomes but
may also contribute to resistance.
○ Nurses need to monitor for effectiveness and adverse reactions in patients
receiving bacteriocidal antibiotics.

14. Bed Block and Bed Cradle

● Bed Block:
○ A device used to prevent a patient from rolling out of bed, often used for
patients at risk of falls.
○ Provides safety and security for patients, especially those with mobility issues
or confusion.
○ Important for nurses to assess patient needs and determine appropriate use
based on safety protocols.
○ Regular checks are necessary to ensure the patient's comfort and safety.
● Bed Cradle:
○ A supportive device used to keep bed linens off a patient’s body, often used
for those with skin ulcers or burns.
○ Helps alleviate pressure and provides comfort for patients with sensitive skin.
○ Nurses should assess the patient's condition and adjust the bed cradle
accordingly.
○ Important for preventing complications related to immobility and skin integrity.

15. Beneficence and Non-maleficence

● Beneficence:
○ The ethical principle of doing good and promoting the well-being of patients.
○ Involves taking actions that contribute to the health and welfare of individuals
and communities.
○ Nurses practice beneficence by advocating for patients and providing
compassionate care.
○ Balancing beneficence with other ethical principles is essential in clinical
decision-making.
● Non-maleficence:
○ The ethical principle of "do no harm," emphasizing the importance of
preventing harm to patients.
○ Involves assessing risks and benefits of interventions to ensure patient safety.
○ Nurses must be vigilant in monitoring for potential adverse effects of
treatments and interventions.
○ Understanding both beneficence and non-maleficence is crucial for ethical
nursing practice.

16. Bland Diet and Soft Diet

● Bland Diet:
○ A diet consisting of foods that are easy to digest and do not irritate the
gastrointestinal tract.
○ Commonly prescribed for patients with conditions like gastritis, ulcers, or
postoperative recovery.
○ Foods typically include rice, bananas, applesauce, and boiled potatoes.
○ Nurses educate patients on following dietary restrictions and monitor
tolerance to the bland diet.
● Soft Diet:
○ A diet that includes foods that are easy to chew and swallow, often used for
patients with swallowing difficulties or after certain surgeries.
○ Includes softer textures such as mashed potatoes, yogurt, and cooked
vegetables.
○ Nurses assess the patient's ability to tolerate soft foods and make dietary
recommendations based on their needs.
○ Important for maintaining nutrition and preventing complications such as
aspiration.

17. Blood Pressure and Pulse Pressure

● Blood Pressure:
○ The force exerted by circulating blood against the walls of blood vessels,
typically measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
○ Expressed as two values: systolic (pressure during heartbeats) and diastolic
(pressure between beats).
○ Essential for assessing cardiovascular health and detecting conditions such
as hypertension or hypotension.
○ Nurses routinely measure and monitor blood pressure to guide treatment
decisions and patient education.
● Pulse Pressure:
○ The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure (e.g., 120/80
mmHg has a pulse pressure of 40 mmHg).
○ Indicates the force that the heart generates with each contraction and reflects
cardiovascular health.
○ A narrow pulse pressure may indicate poor cardiac function, while a wide
pulse pressure may suggest conditions like aortic regurgitation.
○ Nurses should consider pulse pressure alongside blood pressure
measurements for a comprehensive assessment.

18. Burns and Scalds

● Burns:
○ Injuries to the skin or other tissues caused by heat, chemicals, electricity, or
radiation.
○ Classified into degrees (first, second, third, and fourth) based on severity and
depth of tissue damage.
○ Treatment varies from first aid measures for minor burns to advanced care for
severe burns.
○ Nurses assess burn severity, provide wound care, and educate patients about
prevention and healing.
● Scalds:
○ A specific type of burn caused by contact with hot liquids or steam.
○ Often seen in children and the elderly, leading to significant morbidity if not
treated promptly.
○ Prevention strategies include educating caregivers about safe food and drink
temperatures.
○ Nurses play a key role in managing scald injuries, including pain management
and wound care.

19. Calculus and Sordes

● Calculus:
○ A hard deposit of mineralized plaque that forms on teeth, commonly known as
tartar.
○ Can lead to periodontal disease and other oral health issues if not removed.
○ Nurses and dental hygienists educate patients about oral hygiene practices to
prevent calculus formation.
○ Regular dental cleanings are important for maintaining oral health.
● Sordes:
○ Refers to crusts or collections of dried secretions, typically found in the mouth
or respiratory tract.
○ May indicate dehydration or poor oral hygiene, often seen in patients who are
critically ill or bedridden.
○ Nurses must provide oral care to prevent sordes and maintain comfort for
patients.
○ Assessing and managing sordes is crucial for promoting overall patient
well-being.

20. Cathartics and Carminatives

● Cathartics:
○ Medications or agents that promote bowel movements, often used to relieve
constipation.
○ Includes substances like laxatives, which stimulate the bowel or soften stools.
○ Nurses must assess the patient's bowel habits and provide education about
safe use.
○ Monitoring for potential side effects, such as cramping or diarrhea, is
essential.
● Carminatives:
○ Substances that help relieve gas and bloating by soothing the digestive tract.
○ Often herbal or dietary agents, such as peppermint or ginger, that promote
digestion.
○ Nurses may recommend carminatives as part of dietary advice for patients
experiencing gastrointestinal discomfort.
○ Understanding patient preferences and potential allergies is important when
suggesting carminative options.

21. Change of Shift Report and Incident Report

● Change of Shift Report:

○ A communication tool used to transfer critical patient information between
nursing shifts.
○ Ensures continuity of care by summarizing patient status, treatment plans,
and significant changes during the previous shift.
○ Includes details such as vital signs, medications administered, and any new
assessments or concerns.
○ Nurses must provide clear, concise, and accurate information to facilitate safe
handoffs.
● Incident Report:
○ A formal document that records an unusual occurrence or accident that
affects patient safety or quality of care.
○ Used for internal review to identify system weaknesses and prevent future
incidents.
○ Must include objective details of the event, actions taken, and any follow-up
required.
○ Nurses are responsible for completing incident reports accurately and in a
timely manner to ensure transparency and accountability.

22. Cleansing Enema and Retention Enema

● Cleansing Enema:
○ A procedure that involves introducing liquid into the rectum to stimulate bowel
evacuation.
○ Used for relieving constipation, preparing for medical examinations, or
surgeries.
○ Typically consists of a saline or tap water solution that promotes peristalsis.
○ Nurses educate patients on the procedure, monitor for discomfort, and assess
bowel output afterward.
● Retention Enema:
○ A type of enema where liquid is retained in the rectum for a specific period to
soften stool or provide medication.
○ Commonly used to administer medications or to hydrate the bowel.
○ Retention enemas may contain oil, medication, or nutrient solutions.
○ Nurses must instruct patients on the procedure and monitor for effectiveness
and potential complications.

23. Constipation and Diarrhea

● Constipation:
○ A condition characterized by infrequent bowel movements and difficulty
passing stools.
○ Common causes include inadequate fiber intake, dehydration, and certain
medications.
○ Symptoms may include abdominal pain, bloating, and straining during
defecation.
○ Nurses assess bowel patterns and provide education on dietary changes and
fluid intake to prevent constipation.
● Diarrhea:
○ An increase in the frequency of bowel movements and the passage of loose,
watery stools.
○ Can result from infections, dietary changes, or underlying health conditions.
○ May lead to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances if not managed promptly.
○ Nurses monitor fluid balance, educate patients about dietary modifications,
and assess for signs of dehydration.

24. Cold Sponging and Tepid Sponging

● Cold Sponging:
○ A method of applying cold water to the skin using a sponge to reduce fever or
provide comfort.
○ Can help lower body temperature and alleviate discomfort associated with
fever.
○ Used cautiously, as it may cause shivering or discomfort if the temperature
difference is too great.
○ Nurses should monitor the patient’s response and ensure comfort during the
procedure.
● Tepid Sponging:
○ Involves the application of lukewarm water to the skin to lower body
temperature gradually.
○ Considered safer and more comfortable than cold sponging, as it reduces the
risk of shivering.
○ Effective for managing fever in both children and adults.
○ Nurses assess the patient’s temperature and adjust water temperature to
optimize comfort and effectiveness.

25. Colostomy and Gastrostomy

● Colostomy:
○ A surgical procedure that creates an opening (stoma) in the abdominal wall to
allow stool to exit from the colon.
○ Used for patients with bowel diseases, injuries, or conditions requiring bowel
diversion.
○ Nurses educate patients on stoma care, hygiene, and dietary considerations
post-surgery.
○ Important for monitoring for complications such as infection, skin irritation, or
blockage.
● Gastrostomy:
○ A surgical procedure to create an opening in the stomach for feeding
purposes, typically via a feeding tube.
○ Used for patients unable to eat orally due to neurological conditions, head
and neck cancers, or prolonged unconsciousness.
○ Nurses are involved in educating patients and caregivers about tube care,
feeding protocols, and potential complications.
○ Monitoring for signs of infection, tube displacement, or feeding intolerance is
crucial.

26. Concurrent and Terminal Disinfection

● Concurrent Disinfection:
○ Ongoing disinfection practices carried out during patient care to reduce the
risk of infection.
○ Involves cleaning surfaces and equipment regularly to minimize
contamination in healthcare settings.
○ Nurses implement concurrent disinfection techniques to protect both patients
and healthcare staff.
○ Essential for maintaining a safe and hygienic environment, especially in
high-risk areas.
● Terminal Disinfection:
○ A thorough cleaning and disinfection process conducted after patient
discharge or transfer.
○ Aims to eliminate all pathogens and prevent the spread of infections to future
patients.
○ Involves cleaning all surfaces, equipment, and potentially contaminated
areas.
○ Nurses may assist in ensuring proper disinfection protocols are followed
before preparing the area for new patients.

27. Crisis and Lysis

● Crisis:
○ Refers to a sudden and significant change in a patient’s condition, often
requiring immediate medical intervention.
○ Can involve critical situations such as respiratory distress, cardiac arrest, or
severe allergic reactions.
○ Nurses play a key role in recognizing crises, initiating emergency protocols,
and providing lifesaving care.
○ Continuous assessment and quick response are essential for positive patient
outcomes.
● Lysis:
○ Refers to the gradual resolution or breakdown of a pathological condition or
fever.
○ In clinical settings, it often describes the process of fever reduction or the
resolution of infection.
○ Nurses monitor vital signs and symptoms during lysis to assess the
effectiveness of treatment.
○ Understanding the process of lysis helps in patient education and managing
expectations regarding recovery.

28. Dental Caries and Dental Plaque

● Dental Caries:
○ Commonly known as cavities, they are localized areas of decay in the tooth
enamel caused by bacterial action.
○ Results from the accumulation of sugars and poor oral hygiene, leading to
demineralization of teeth.
○ Nurses educate patients on proper oral hygiene practices to prevent dental
caries.
○ Early detection and intervention are crucial to prevent progression to more
severe dental issues.
● Dental Plaque:
○ A sticky, colorless film of bacteria that forms on teeth and can lead to dental
caries and gum disease.
○ Forms from food particles and saliva, especially in areas not properly
cleaned.
○ Nurses emphasize the importance of regular brushing and flossing to remove
plaque and maintain oral health.
○ Regular dental check-ups are recommended to manage plaque buildup and
prevent complications.

29. Diagnosis and Prognosis

● Diagnosis:
○ The process of identifying a disease or condition based on patient symptoms,
history, and diagnostic tests.
○ Involves clinical reasoning and assessment skills to formulate a nursing
diagnosis or medical diagnosis.
○ Nurses collaborate with the healthcare team to gather data and contribute to
the diagnosis process.
○ Accurate diagnosis is essential for developing an effective care plan and
interventions.
● Prognosis:
○ The predicted outcome or course of a disease or condition, including the
likelihood of recovery or complications.
○ Nurses must understand the prognosis to provide appropriate patient
education and support.
○ Prognosis can be influenced by various factors, including the patient's overall
health, treatment responses, and available interventions.
○ Communication about prognosis should be compassionate and tailored to the
patient’s understanding and needs.

30. Dicrotic Pulse and Bigeminal Pulse

● Dicrotic Pulse:
○ A pulse that has two distinct beats in one cardiac cycle, often described as a
"double" pulse.
○ Typically associated with conditions such as aortic regurgitation or low stroke
volume.
○ Nurses assess the quality and character of the pulse to identify potential
cardiovascular issues.
○ Understanding variations in pulse types helps in evaluating patient
hemodynamics.
● Bigeminal Pulse:
○ A pulse pattern characterized by alternating strong and weak beats,
commonly resulting from a premature heartbeat.
○ May indicate underlying cardiac arrhythmias or other heart conditions.
○ Nurses monitor and assess for symptoms associated with arrhythmias, such
as palpitations or dizziness.
○ Proper documentation and reporting of abnormal pulse patterns are crucial for
appropriate interventions.

31. Discharge and Transfer of Patients

● Discharge:
○ The process of releasing a patient from a healthcare facility after treatment.
○ Involves providing discharge instructions, follow-up care plans, and
medication management.
○ Nurses play a key role in ensuring the patient understands their care plan and
has necessary resources for a safe transition home.
○ Includes assessing the patient’s readiness for discharge, which may involve
physical, psychological, and social factors.
● Transfer:
○ Refers to moving a patient from one healthcare setting or unit to another,
which could include transfers within a hospital or to another facility.
○ Nurses are responsible for providing pertinent information about the patient’s
condition and care during the transfer process.
○ Documentation of the transfer is essential for continuity of care and ensuring
the receiving staff has the necessary information.
○ The process should be smooth and patient-centered, addressing any
concerns the patient may have regarding the transfer.

32. Disease-Centered Approach and Patient-Centered Approach

● Disease-Centered Approach:
○ Focuses primarily on the diagnosis, treatment, and management of the
disease.
○ Emphasizes clinical symptoms, lab results, and pathology while often
neglecting the patient's broader context.
○ Nurses may encounter limitations in understanding the patient's experiences,
beliefs, and preferences.
○ Treatment may prioritize medical interventions over patient preferences,
potentially leading to dissatisfaction.
● Patient-Centered Approach:
○ Prioritizes the individual patient’s needs, preferences, and values in the care
process.
○ Encourages shared decision-making and active participation of patients in
their care.
○ Nurses play a crucial role in assessing patient preferences and incorporating
them into the care plan.
○ Aims for holistic care that considers physical, emotional, and social factors,
enhancing patient satisfaction and outcomes.

33. Disinfection and Sterilization

● Disinfection:
○ The process of eliminating or reducing harmful microorganisms on surfaces
or instruments.
○ Typically uses chemical agents (e.g., disinfectants) and does not necessarily
kill all spores.
○ Essential for maintaining a safe healthcare environment, particularly in areas
at risk of infection.
○ Nurses ensure proper disinfection protocols are followed for equipment and
surfaces to prevent healthcare-associated infections.
● Sterilization:
○ A process that destroys all forms of microbial life, including bacteria, viruses,
fungi, and spores.
○ Common methods include steam sterilization, ethylene oxide gas, and
radiation.
○ Critical for surgical instruments and items that come into contact with sterile
body sites.
○ Nurses must understand sterilization protocols to ensure that instruments are
safe for use in invasive procedures.

34. Drug Tolerance and Drug Interaction

● Drug Tolerance:
○ A phenomenon where a patient’s response to a drug diminishes over time,
requiring higher doses to achieve the same effect.
○ Common with long-term use of certain medications, such as opioids or
sedatives.
○ Nurses monitor patients for signs of tolerance and adjust medication
regimens as necessary.
○ Educating patients about the potential for tolerance can enhance adherence
and safety in medication management.
● Drug Interaction:
○ Occurs when the effects of one drug are altered by the presence of another
drug, food, or substance.
○ Can lead to increased toxicity, reduced effectiveness, or unexpected side
effects.
○ Nurses need to review medication histories and educate patients on potential
interactions with prescribed therapies.
○ Proper communication and documentation are essential for safe medication
administration and preventing adverse effects.

35. Dysphagia and Dyspepsia

● Dysphagia:
○ A medical condition characterized by difficulty swallowing, which may involve
pain or discomfort.
○ Can result from various conditions, including neurological disorders, structural
abnormalities, or esophageal issues.
○ Nurses assess swallowing ability and collaborate with speech therapists for
management strategies.
○ Monitoring for aspiration and dietary modifications are critical components of
care.
● Dyspepsia:
○ A term used to describe indigestion or discomfort in the upper abdomen, often
related to digestive issues.
○ Symptoms may include bloating, nausea, and early satiety.
○ Nurses educate patients about dietary habits and lifestyle changes that may
alleviate symptoms.
○ Evaluating potential underlying conditions is essential for appropriate
management and referral.

36. Dyspnea and Orthopnea

● Dyspnea:
○ Refers to the sensation of shortness of breath or difficulty in breathing.
○ Can be acute or chronic and may result from various medical conditions such
as asthma, COPD, or heart failure.
○ Nurses assess respiratory status and monitor for signs of respiratory distress.
○ Providing interventions such as positioning and oxygen therapy may help
alleviate dyspnea.
● Orthopnea:
○ A specific type of dyspnea that occurs when lying flat, leading to difficulty
breathing while supine.
○ Commonly associated with conditions like heart failure or pulmonary edema.
○ Nurses may instruct patients to use pillows or sit up to improve breathing
comfort.
○ Monitoring changes in orthopnea can provide insight into the patient’s heart or
lung status.

37. Dysuria and Oliguria

● Dysuria:
○ Painful or difficult urination, often associated with urinary tract infections
(UTIs) or inflammation.
○ Patients may describe a burning sensation or discomfort during urination.
○ Nurses assess the underlying causes and provide education on hydration and
hygiene practices to prevent UTIs.
○ Documentation of symptoms is essential for diagnosis and management.
● Oliguria:
○ Defined as a decreased urine output, typically less than 400 mL per day.
○ Can indicate renal impairment, dehydration, or acute kidney injury.
○ Nurses closely monitor urinary output and fluid balance, collaborating with the
healthcare team to identify the cause.
○ Prompt identification and intervention are crucial to prevent complications.

38. Elixir and Extract

● Elixir:
○ A clear, sweetened liquid containing medicinal substances, often used to
mask unpleasant tastes.
○ Typically contains alcohol, which can enhance solubility and act as a
preservative.
○ Nurses administer elixirs by measuring doses accurately and educating
patients about potential interactions with alcohol.
○ Suitable for patients who have difficulty swallowing solid forms of medication.
● Extract:
○ A concentrated preparation made by extracting active ingredients from plant
or animal sources.
○ Can be in liquid or solid form and is often used in herbal medicine.
○ Nurses should educate patients about the source and purpose of extracts,
including potential side effects or interactions.
○ Ensuring quality control and understanding dosing are critical in administering
extracts safely.

39. Emollient and Dentifrice

● Emollient:
○ A substance applied to the skin to moisturize and soften it, often used for dry
skin conditions.
○ Helps restore the skin barrier and prevent irritation or damage.
○ Nurses apply emollients as part of skin care regimens for patients with
conditions like eczema or psoriasis.
○ Education on proper application techniques can enhance the effectiveness of
emollients.
● Dentifrice:
○ A paste or powder used for cleaning teeth, commonly found in toothpaste.
○ Contains abrasives, flavoring agents, and fluoride to promote oral hygiene
and prevent dental issues.
○ Nurses encourage proper oral care practices, including the use of dentifrice,
to maintain oral health.
○ Monitoring for oral hygiene habits is essential, particularly in patients with
limited mobility.

40. Empathy and Sympathy

● Empathy:
○ The ability to understand and share the feelings of another, promoting a
connection with the patient’s experience.
○ Involves active listening, validation of feelings, and a compassionate
approach to care.
○ Nurses utilize empathy to build trusting relationships and provide
patient-centered care.
○ Enhances communication and can improve patient satisfaction and
adherence to treatment plans.
● Sympathy:
○ Involves feeling pity or sorrow for someone else's misfortune, but may lack
the depth of understanding that empathy provides.
○ Can create a distance between the nurse and the patient, as it may come
across as condescending or superficial.
○ While sympathy is important, nurses are encouraged to practice empathy to
foster a more supportive environment.
○ Balancing empathy and sympathy is essential for effective communication
and patient support.

41. Fecal Impaction and Fecal Incontinence

● Fecal Impaction:
○ A condition where a large mass of dry, hard stool becomes stuck in the
intestines or rectum, leading to bowel obstruction.
○ Symptoms include abdominal discomfort, cramping, and inability to pass stool
or gas.
○ Nurses assess patients for signs of impaction and may perform digital rectal
examinations or administer enemas for relief.
○ Education on dietary fiber intake, hydration, and regular bowel habits is
crucial in prevention and management.
● Fecal Incontinence:
○ The inability to control bowel movements, resulting in involuntary loss of stool.
○ Causes may include muscle damage, neurological conditions, or
gastrointestinal disorders.
○ Nurses assess the underlying cause and provide interventions like dietary
modifications, pelvic floor exercises, and hygiene education.
○ Supportive measures and emotional support are vital for patients
experiencing incontinence.

42. Fowler's Position and Left Lateral Position

● Fowler's Position:
○ A semi-sitting position where the patient’s head is elevated at an angle
between 30 to 90 degrees.
○ Often used to facilitate breathing, improve circulation, and provide comfort
during meals or assessments.
○ Nurses assess the patient’s comfort and ensure proper positioning to prevent
pressure injuries.
○ This position may also help with reducing the risk of aspiration in patients with
swallowing difficulties.
● Left Lateral Position:
○ The patient lies on their left side, often with the left arm behind the body and
the right arm in front.
○ Commonly used for examinations, procedures, and in patients who require
improved venous return.
○ This position can be beneficial in pregnancy to enhance blood flow to the
fetus.
○ Nurses monitor patients in this position for comfort and potential
complications, such as pressure sores.

43. Gastric Gavage and Gastric Lavage

● Gastric Gavage:
○ The process of delivering nutrition or medication directly into the stomach
using a feeding tube.
○ Used for patients who are unable to eat orally due to medical conditions or
post-surgery.
○ Nurses ensure proper tube placement, monitor for tolerance, and maintain
hygiene to prevent complications.
○ Patient education on the feeding process is essential for home care
situations.
● Gastric Lavage:
○ A procedure that involves washing out the stomach, often used in cases of
poisoning or overdose.
○ Typically performed using a large-bore nasogastric tube and saline solution.
○ Nurses assess the need for gastric lavage and monitor the patient for
complications, such as aspiration or electrolyte imbalances.
○ This procedure should be conducted within a specific timeframe after
ingestion for effectiveness.

44. Gastritis and Glossitis

● Gastritis:
○ Inflammation of the stomach lining, often caused by infections, irritants, or
autoimmune disorders.
○ Symptoms may include abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and indigestion.
○ Nurses assess the patient’s symptoms, monitor dietary intake, and educate
on avoiding irritants like alcohol and NSAIDs.
○ Treatment may involve medications to reduce stomach acidity and promote
healing.
● Glossitis:
○ Inflammation of the tongue, which can manifest as swelling, redness, and
changes in texture.
○ Often caused by infections, vitamin deficiencies, or allergic reactions.
○ Nurses assess the oral cavity for signs of glossitis and provide oral care and
dietary recommendations to address deficiencies.
○ Monitoring for pain or difficulty swallowing is essential in managing this
condition.

45. Glycosuria and Albuminuria

● Glycosuria:
○ The presence of glucose in the urine, often indicating uncontrolled diabetes
mellitus.
○ Nurses assess blood glucose levels and monitor for signs of dehydration or
other complications related to diabetes.
○ Education on blood glucose monitoring and dietary management is critical for
patients with diabetes.
○ Glycosuria can serve as an indicator of the need for adjustments in the
patient’s medication regimen.
● Albuminuria:
○ The presence of albumin (a type of protein) in the urine, which can be a sign
of kidney damage or disease.
○ Nurses monitor renal function and assess for risk factors, such as
hypertension or diabetes.
○ Early detection is vital for preventing further kidney damage, and education
on monitoring and dietary changes may be necessary.
○ Referral to a nephrologist may be indicated for further evaluation and
management.
46. Goals and Expected Outcomes

● Goals:
○ Broad, general statements outlining what the patient and healthcare team aim
to achieve during care.
○ Goals provide direction for the care plan and are often long-term, such as "the
patient will regain mobility."
○ Nurses help set realistic and measurable goals in collaboration with the
patient to enhance engagement in care.
○ Goals may be related to physical, emotional, or social health outcomes.
● Expected Outcomes:
○ Specific, measurable criteria that describe the anticipated results of nursing
interventions within a certain timeframe.
○ Expected outcomes provide a basis for evaluating the effectiveness of nursing
interventions.
○ Nurses document outcomes to assess progress and adjust the care plan as
necessary.
○ They should be patient-centered and realistic, promoting active participation
in care.

47. Grief and Bereavement

● Grief:
○ The emotional response to loss, which may include feelings of sadness,
anger, confusion, and guilt.
○ Nurses provide support by acknowledging the patient's feelings and
facilitating discussions about their experiences.
○ Understanding that grief is a personal process can help nurses offer
appropriate interventions and resources.
○ Education on coping strategies and support groups can be beneficial for
patients and families experiencing grief.
● Bereavement:
○ The period of mourning and adjustment following the loss of a loved one,
encompassing the grief process.
○ Nurses may help families navigate this time by providing resources and
referrals to counseling services.
○ Supporting families in understanding their emotions and providing a safe
space for expression can be crucial.
○ Assessing the need for interventions, such as hospice care, may also be
necessary for families during this period.

48. Health and Illness

● Health:
○ A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.
○ Nurses promote health by encouraging healthy lifestyles, preventive care, and
patient education.
○ Holistic care considers all aspects of a patient's life and fosters a proactive
approach to maintaining wellness.
○ Assessment and intervention strategies focus on empowering patients to take
an active role in their health.
● Illness:
○ A subjective experience that encompasses the individual’s perception of their
health status, often involving symptoms and impairments.
○ Nurses assess the impact of illness on the patient’s life and provide
appropriate care and support.
○ Understanding the patient's experience of illness can help nurses tailor
interventions to address specific needs.
○ Management may involve symptom relief, education, and strategies for
coping with chronic conditions.

49. Hemoptysis and Hematemesis

● Hemoptysis:
○ The expectoration (coughing up) of blood from the respiratory tract, often
indicative of underlying lung issues such as infections, tumors, or pulmonary
embolism.
○ Nurses assess the volume, appearance, and associated symptoms to aid in
diagnosis and management.
○ Monitoring respiratory status and providing oxygen or interventions may be
necessary depending on severity.
○ Immediate medical evaluation may be warranted, especially in acute cases.
● Hematemesis:
○ The vomiting of blood, typically originating from the upper gastrointestinal
tract, which can indicate serious conditions like ulcers, varices, or
gastrointestinal bleeding.
○ Nurses assess the patient’s vital signs, volume of blood, and associated
symptoms to determine severity.
○ Maintaining patient safety through monitoring and preparing for potential
interventions is essential.
○ Prompt reporting and collaboration with the healthcare team are critical for
managing hematemesis effectively.

50. Hot Application and Cold Application

● Hot Application:
○ The use of heat to alleviate pain, relax muscles, and improve circulation in
affected areas.
○ Common forms include heating pads, warm compresses, and hot water
bottles.
○ Nurses educate patients on the safe application of heat to prevent burns and
monitor skin integrity.
○ Indicated for conditions like muscle tension, arthritis, or chronic pain but
should be avoided in acute injuries.
● Cold Application:
○ The application of cold to reduce inflammation, swelling, and pain, often used
in acute injuries or after surgery.
○ Common forms include ice packs and cold compresses.
○ Nurses educate patients on the appropriate duration and frequency of cold
applications to prevent frostbite.
○ Cold applications can be beneficial for conditions like sprains, strains, and
swelling.

50. Hot Application and Cold Application

● Hot Application:
○ Involves applying heat to a specific body part to relieve pain, improve blood
circulation, and promote muscle relaxation.
○ Common methods include heating pads, warm compresses, and hot packs.
○ Nursing considerations include monitoring for skin integrity, duration of
application (typically no longer than 20-30 minutes), and contraindications like
acute injuries or inflammation.
○ Education for patients on how to safely apply heat and recognize signs of
overheating is essential.
● Cold Application:
○ Involves applying cold to reduce inflammation, swelling, and pain, often used
for acute injuries or post-surgical recovery.
○ Common methods include ice packs, cold compresses, and cryotherapy.
○ Nurses assess the area for temperature tolerance and monitor for adverse
reactions such as frostbite.
○ Duration of cold application is generally 15-20 minutes, and patients should
be educated on safe usage.

51. Hyperthermia and Hypothermia

● Hyperthermia:
○ A condition where the body temperature rises above the normal range
(usually above 38°C or 100.4°F) due to excessive heat exposure or inability to
dissipate heat.
○ Symptoms may include flushed skin, confusion, rapid heart rate, and in
severe cases, heat stroke.
○ Nurses monitor temperature, provide cooling interventions, and educate on
prevention strategies such as hydration and avoiding strenuous activities in
hot weather.
○ Prompt recognition and treatment are critical to prevent complications.
● Hypothermia:
○ A condition where the body temperature drops below 35°C (95°F), often due
to prolonged exposure to cold environments.
○ Symptoms may include shivering, confusion, lethargy, and decreased heart
rate.
○ Nurses assess for signs of hypothermia, provide rewarming measures (such
as blankets or warm fluids), and monitor vital signs closely.
○ Education on appropriate clothing and precautions in cold weather is
essential for prevention.

52. Incident Report and Transfer Report

● Incident Report:
○ A formal document that records any unusual or unexpected events that occur
during patient care, such as falls, medication errors, or equipment failures.
○ The purpose is to analyze incidents to improve patient safety and prevent
recurrence.
○ Nurses are responsible for completing incident reports accurately and
promptly, including details of the incident, witnesses, and follow-up actions.
○ These reports are usually confidential and should not be included in the
patient’s medical record.
● Transfer Report:
○ A summary of a patient’s medical condition, treatment, and care plan when
transferring a patient from one unit to another or from one facility to another.
○ The report ensures continuity of care and includes critical information like
allergies, current medications, and any ongoing treatments.
○ Nurses provide thorough and accurate transfer reports to the receiving
healthcare team to facilitate seamless patient care.
○ Verbal handover may accompany written reports to address any immediate
concerns.

53. Infection and Inflammation

● Infection:
○ The invasion and multiplication of pathogenic microorganisms in the body,
leading to tissue damage and disease.
○ Symptoms may include fever, pus formation, redness, swelling, and systemic
signs depending on the infection site.
○ Nurses assess patients for signs of infection, implement infection control
measures, and educate on prevention strategies, such as hand hygiene and
vaccinations.
○ Prompt identification and appropriate antibiotic therapy are crucial in
managing infections.
● Inflammation:
○ The body's response to injury, infection, or irritation, characterized by
redness, heat, swelling, and pain.
○ Inflammation can be acute or chronic and may occur without infection, as
seen in autoimmune diseases.
○ Nurses assess the degree of inflammation, monitor symptoms, and
implement treatments such as anti-inflammatory medications, rest, and
elevation.
○ Education on recognizing inflammation and managing symptoms is important
for patient understanding.

54. Inhalation and Exhalation

● Inhalation:
○ The process of taking air into the lungs, which involves diaphragm contraction
and expansion of the thoracic cavity.
○ Nurses monitor respiratory patterns and assess lung sounds to ensure
effective inhalation and oxygenation.
○ Inhalation therapies, such as nebulizers or inhalers, may be prescribed for
patients with respiratory conditions.
○ Education on proper inhaler techniques and the importance of inhalation for
gas exchange is essential.
● Exhalation:
○ The process of releasing air from the lungs, which involves diaphragm
relaxation and reduction of thoracic cavity volume.
○ Nurses assess for signs of difficulty in exhalation, such as wheezing or
prolonged expiratory phase, which may indicate respiratory distress.
○ Teaching techniques for effective exhalation can help patients manage
conditions like asthma or COPD.
○ Monitoring oxygen saturation levels post-exhalation is critical for patient
safety.

55. Inspection and Palpation

● Inspection:
○ The visual examination of a patient to assess physical condition, appearance,
and any abnormalities.
○ Nurses look for signs such as skin color, swelling, or lesions during
inspections.
○ Inspection is often the first step in a physical assessment, guiding further
examination and interventions.
○ Good lighting and adequate exposure are necessary for effective inspection.
● Palpation:
○ The use of hands to examine the body and assess the texture, temperature,
size, shape, and location of various structures.
○ Nurses palpate areas such as the abdomen, pulse points, and swollen lymph
nodes to gather diagnostic information.
○ Light palpation is used to assess surface characteristics, while deep palpation
may help identify underlying issues.
○ Patient comfort and consent are essential during palpation, along with proper
technique to avoid discomfort.

56. Instillation and Irrigation

● Instillation:
○ The process of introducing a liquid medication or solution into a body cavity,
such as the eye, ear, or bladder.
○ Nurses use sterile techniques to prevent infection and ensure proper
administration.
○ Patient education on the procedure and its purpose is important for
compliance and comfort.
○ Monitoring for adverse reactions after instillation is crucial for patient safety.
● Irrigation:
○ The flushing or washing out of a body cavity, wound, or organ with a solution,
often used to clean or deliver medications.
○ Commonly performed for wounds, urinary catheters, and during surgical
procedures.
○ Nurses assess the need for irrigation and select appropriate solutions while
monitoring the patient’s response.
○ Education on the procedure and aftercare is important for patient
understanding and safety.

57. Intermittent and Inverse Fever

● Intermittent Fever:
○ A pattern of fever characterized by alternating periods of fever and normal
temperature.
○ Common in conditions like malaria or certain infections, requiring regular
monitoring and management.
○ Nurses assess temperature regularly and provide antipyretics as ordered to
manage discomfort.
○ Education on recognizing fever patterns can help in patient monitoring and
reporting.
● Inverse Fever:
○ A rare pattern where body temperature rises during the night and falls during
the day, often associated with certain infections or conditions.
○ Nurses monitor temperature patterns and assess for accompanying
symptoms to guide treatment.
○ Effective management may involve addressing the underlying cause of the
fever.
○ Education for patients and families on recognizing this pattern can aid in
monitoring.

58. Intradermal Injection and Subcutaneous Injection

● Intradermal Injection:
○ A method of delivering medication into the dermis, just below the epidermis,
commonly used for allergy tests or tuberculosis screening.
○ Nurses use a fine needle and small volume of medication, usually 0.1 mL or
less.
○ Site selection is crucial, with the forearm being a common area for
administration.
○ Proper technique is essential to ensure an adequate wheal formation and
minimize discomfort.
● Subcutaneous Injection:
○ The administration of medication into the subcutaneous tissue, often used for
insulin or heparin delivery.
○ Nurses can inject larger volumes (typically 0.5 to 2 mL) and must rotate sites
to prevent tissue damage.
○ Common sites include the abdomen, thigh, and upper arm.
○ Patient education on self-administration techniques and potential side effects
is crucial.

59. Isolation and Quarantine

● Isolation:
○ The separation of individuals known to be ill with a contagious disease from
those who are healthy to prevent transmission.
○ Nurses implement various isolation precautions (e.g., contact, droplet,
airborne) based on the infectious agent.
○ Education for patients and families on the importance of isolation and
adherence to precautions is essential for infection control.
○ Monitoring for compliance with isolation protocols helps ensure safety.
● Quarantine:
○ The separation of individuals who may have been exposed to a contagious
disease but are not yet symptomatic to prevent potential spread.
○ Nurses provide education on the duration and rationale for quarantine,
ensuring patients understand monitoring requirements.
○ Support and resources may be offered to those in quarantine to address
emotional and practical needs.
○ Ongoing assessment and communication are crucial during quarantine
periods.

60. Isometric Contraction and Isotonic Contraction

● Isometric Contraction:
○ Muscle contractions that occur without changing the muscle length; tension
increases without movement.
○ Commonly used in rehabilitation settings to strengthen muscles without joint
movement.
○ Nurses can instruct patients in isometric exercises to improve muscle strength
and stability, especially post-injury or surgery.
○ Monitoring for patient tolerance and proper technique is essential to prevent
strain.
● Isotonic Contraction:
○ Muscle contractions that result in movement and changes in muscle length;
includes

61. Kyphosis and Lordosis

● Kyphosis:
○ A condition characterized by an excessive outward curvature of the thoracic
spine, resulting in a hunchback appearance.
○ Can be caused by degenerative diseases, osteoporosis, or congenital factors.
○ Nursing considerations include assessing posture, providing education on
proper body mechanics, and recommending exercises or physical therapy for
strength and flexibility.
○ Monitoring for respiratory function may also be necessary as severe kyphosis
can impact lung capacity.
● Lordosis:
○ An excessive inward curvature of the lumbar spine, often referred to as
swayback.
○ Commonly seen in obesity, pregnancy, or muscular imbalances.
○ Nurses assess for pain, gait abnormalities, and potential complications such
as herniated discs.
○ Patient education on maintaining proper posture, weight management, and
core strengthening exercises is important.

62. Lithotomy Position and Trendelenburg Position

● Lithotomy Position:
○ A position where the patient lies on their back with legs raised and supported
in stirrups, often used for gynecological exams or procedures.
○ Nursing considerations include ensuring patient comfort, maintaining privacy,
and monitoring for potential complications such as nerve compression or
impaired circulation.
○ Proper positioning aids in access to the pelvic area for surgical or
examination purposes.
● Trendelenburg Position:
○ A position where the patient lies flat on their back with the legs elevated
higher than the head, often used in emergencies to improve venous return in
cases of shock.
○ Nurses monitor vital signs and assess for respiratory distress, as this position
can hinder lung expansion.
○ Education on indications for this position, as well as its potential risks, is
essential.

63. Maximum Dose and Lethal Dose

● Maximum Dose:
○ The highest amount of a medication that can be administered safely without
causing harmful effects.
○ Nurses calculate maximum doses based on individual patient factors, such as
age, weight, and kidney function.
○ Education on the importance of adhering to prescribed dosages and
understanding potential side effects is essential for patient safety.
● Lethal Dose:
○ The amount of a substance that can cause death in a particular population,
often referenced as LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of a test population).
○ Nurses must be aware of potential toxic effects of medications and the
importance of monitoring for overdose symptoms.
○ Patient education on the dangers of misuse or overdose is critical for
prevention.

64. Medical Asepsis and Surgical Asepsis

● Medical Asepsis:
○ Refers to practices designed to reduce the number and spread of pathogens
(e.g., hand hygiene, use of barriers).
○ Nurses implement medical asepsis in everyday practices to prevent infection
during patient care.
○ Education on the importance of maintaining cleanliness and hygiene practices
helps prevent hospital-acquired infections.
● Surgical Asepsis:
○ Refers to the practices used to maintain a sterile environment during surgical
procedures (e.g., sterile gloves, gowns, and instruments).
○ Nurses play a key role in ensuring surgical asepsis by preparing the surgical
site and instruments, and by maintaining a sterile field.
○ Education for patients regarding the significance of surgical asepsis helps
reinforce the importance of infection prevention during procedures.

65. Medical Diagnosis and Nursing Diagnosis

● Medical Diagnosis:
○ The identification of a disease or condition based on the assessment of
clinical data and laboratory results.
○ It is made by a licensed physician and often involves the application of
medical knowledge and diagnostic tests.
○ Nurses must be familiar with medical diagnoses to provide appropriate care
and interventions based on established treatment plans.
● Nursing Diagnosis:
○ A clinical judgment about individual, family, or community responses to actual
or potential health problems or life processes.
○ It provides the basis for the selection of nursing interventions to achieve
outcomes for which the nurse is accountable.
○ Nursing diagnoses are derived from assessment data and guide nursing care
planning and evaluation.

66. Negligence and Malpractice

● Negligence:
○ A failure to provide the standard of care that a reasonably prudent nurse
would provide in a similar situation, leading to harm or injury.
○ Nurses must adhere to established protocols and standards to avoid
negligent practices.
○ Education on accountability and responsibility in nursing practice helps
prevent negligent actions.
● Malpractice:
○ A specific form of negligence that involves professional misconduct or failure
to meet the standards of care, resulting in patient harm.
○ Malpractice claims can arise from errors in judgment, improper treatment, or
inadequate supervision.
○ Understanding legal implications and maintaining up-to-date knowledge on
best practices are essential for preventing malpractice.
67. Open Bed and Closed Bed

● Open Bed:
○ A bed that is made and left open for a patient to occupy, often used in nursing
homes and hospitals to welcome a patient.
○ Nurses prepare open beds by arranging linens neatly and ensuring the
environment is clean and inviting.
○ Education on the importance of a comfortable environment can enhance
patient experience.
● Closed Bed:
○ A bed that is made and left covered to protect the linens from contamination,
often used when the bed is unoccupied.
○ Nurses ensure closed beds are properly made to prevent dust accumulation
and maintain cleanliness.
○ Closed beds may be opened when a patient is admitted or transfers from
another unit.

68. Open Bed and Operation Bed

● Open Bed:
○ As defined above, it is a bed prepared for immediate patient use, promoting a
welcoming atmosphere for incoming patients.
○ It is a practice that enhances comfort and facilitates patient admission
processes.
● Operation Bed:
○ A specialized bed equipped for surgical procedures, often with features like
adjustable height, positioning, and sterile covering.
○ Nurses must ensure that operation beds are properly prepared with sterile
drapes and necessary equipment before a surgical procedure.
○ Knowledge of operational protocols and equipment is critical for maintaining a
sterile field and patient safety during surgery.

69. Osmosis and Diffusion

● Osmosis:
○ The movement of water across a semipermeable membrane from an area of
lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
○ Nurses assess fluid balance and hydration status in patients, as osmosis
plays a key role in maintaining homeostasis.
○ Patient education on fluid intake and signs of dehydration is important for
promoting health.
● Diffusion:
○ The process by which molecules move from an area of higher concentration
to an area of lower concentration, aiming for equilibrium.
○ Diffusion is crucial for gas exchange in the lungs (oxygen and carbon dioxide)
and the delivery of medications.
○ Nurses monitor patients for respiratory status and teach about factors
affecting diffusion, such as altitude and lung health.
70. Percussion and Auscultation

● Percussion:
○ A physical examination technique that involves tapping on the body surface to
assess underlying structures, such as the lungs and abdomen.
○ Nurses use percussion to evaluate organ size, density, and fluid presence,
helping to identify abnormalities.
○ Proper technique is important for obtaining accurate diagnostic information.
● Auscultation:
○ The process of listening to internal body sounds, typically using a
stethoscope, to assess the heart, lungs, and abdomen.
○ Nurses auscultate to detect normal and abnormal sounds, guiding further
assessment and interventions.
○ Education on the significance of auscultation findings helps patients
understand their health status.

71. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics

● Pharmacokinetics:
○ The study of how the body absorbs, distributes, metabolizes, and excretes
drugs.
○ Key components include absorption (how a drug enters the bloodstream),
distribution (how it spreads through the body), metabolism (how it is
processed by the liver), and excretion (how it is eliminated via urine or feces).
○ Nurses use pharmacokinetics to understand dosing schedules, potential
interactions, and side effects, ensuring medications are administered safely
and effectively.
● Pharmacodynamics:
○ The study of how drugs affect the body and their mechanisms of action.
○ It involves understanding the relationship between drug concentration and
therapeutic effect, including the dose-response relationship.
○ Nurses need to be aware of pharmacodynamics to monitor patient responses
to medications and adjust doses accordingly.

72. Polyuria and Pyuria

● Polyuria:
○ The condition characterized by the production of abnormally large volumes of
urine (more than 3 liters per day).
○ Common causes include diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, and certain
medications.
○ Nurses monitor fluid intake and output, assess for signs of dehydration, and
educate patients on managing underlying conditions.
● Pyuria:
○ The presence of pus or white blood cells in the urine, often indicating a
urinary tract infection (UTI).
○ Symptoms may include cloudy urine, strong odor, and discomfort during
urination.
○ Nurses must collect a urine sample for laboratory testing and provide
education on hygiene and hydration to prevent UTIs.

73. Primary Prevention and Secondary Prevention

● Primary Prevention:
○ Measures taken to prevent disease before it occurs, focusing on health
promotion and risk reduction (e.g., vaccinations, lifestyle changes).
○ Nurses engage in community health education, screenings, and immunization
programs to promote wellness.
○ Empowering patients with knowledge about healthy behaviors is crucial for
effective primary prevention.
● Secondary Prevention:
○ Early detection and intervention to prevent the progression of disease (e.g.,
screening tests like mammograms, blood pressure checks).
○ Nurses play a vital role in performing assessments, providing referrals for
further testing, and educating patients on recognizing early signs of health
issues.
○ The goal is to identify diseases at an early stage to improve treatment
outcomes.

74. Pulse Deficit and Pulse Pressure

● Pulse Deficit:
○ A condition where the heart rate (measured by auscultation of heart sounds)
exceeds the peripheral pulse rate (felt at peripheral arteries), indicating that
not all heartbeats result in effective circulation.
○ It can be indicative of arrhythmias, heart failure, or other cardiovascular
conditions.
○ Nurses assess pulse deficit by comparing the apical pulse to peripheral
pulses and monitor patients for signs of decreased perfusion.
● Pulse Pressure:
○ The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure, indicating the
force the heart generates with each contraction.
○ A normal pulse pressure ranges from 40 to 60 mmHg; significant changes
may indicate cardiovascular issues.
○ Nurses monitor pulse pressure to assess cardiovascular health and respond
to abnormal findings appropriately.

75. Pyorrhea and Diarrhea

● Pyorrhea:
○ Also known as periodontal disease, it is an advanced stage of gum disease
characterized by inflammation, bleeding, and pus formation in the gums.
○ Nurses may educate patients about oral hygiene practices and encourage
regular dental visits to prevent and manage pyorrhea.
○ Monitoring for systemic effects of periodontal disease, such as cardiovascular
health, is essential.
● Diarrhea:
○ The condition of having loose, watery stools, often accompanied by
abdominal cramps and urgency.
○ Causes include infections, food intolerances, medications, and
gastrointestinal disorders.
○ Nurses assess hydration status, provide education on dietary modifications,
and monitor for complications such as electrolyte imbalances.

76. Pyrexia and Asphyxia

● Pyrexia:
○ An elevated body temperature, commonly referred to as fever, often indicating
an underlying infection or inflammatory response.
○ Nurses assess temperature, monitor for accompanying symptoms, and
determine appropriate interventions, such as antipyretics.
○ Patient education on the significance of fever and when to seek medical
attention is important.
● Asphyxia:
○ A condition resulting from insufficient oxygen reaching the tissues, potentially
leading to unconsciousness or death.
○ Common causes include choking, drowning, or suffocation.
○ Nurses must be trained in emergency response techniques, such as the
Heimlich maneuver, and monitor patients for signs of respiratory distress.

77. Records and Reports

● Records:
○ Documentation of patient care, including assessments, interventions, and
outcomes, maintained in the patient's medical record.
○ Accurate record-keeping is essential for continuity of care, legal protection,
and quality improvement.
○ Nurses are responsible for timely and precise documentation to ensure
effective communication among healthcare team members.
● Reports:
○ Verbal or written communication regarding patient status, changes in
condition, or incidents that require attention.
○ Effective reporting is critical during handoffs and interdisciplinary
collaboration.
○ Nurses must use clear, concise language in reports to ensure understanding
and prompt action.

78. Recreational Therapy and Occupational Therapy

● Recreational Therapy:
○ A therapeutic approach that uses leisure activities to improve physical,
emotional, cognitive, and social functioning.
○ Nurses may collaborate with recreational therapists to promote patient
engagement and well-being through enjoyable activities.
○ Education on the benefits of recreational therapy helps patients explore new
interests and hobbies for recovery.
● Occupational Therapy:
○ A therapy focused on helping individuals achieve independence in daily
activities through therapeutic interventions.
○ Nurses often refer patients to occupational therapy for rehabilitation after
injury, illness, or surgery.
○ Understanding the role of occupational therapy helps nurses support patients
in regaining skills for daily living.

79. Reflex and Stress Incontinence

● Reflex Incontinence:
○ Involuntary leakage of urine due to an overactive bladder or neurological
conditions that affect the bladder's ability to store urine.
○ Nurses assess patient history, provide education on pelvic floor exercises,
and collaborate with specialists for management.
○ Understanding the impact of reflex incontinence on quality of life is important
for holistic care.
● Stress Incontinence:
○ The involuntary leakage of urine during physical activities that increase
abdominal pressure, such as coughing, sneezing, or exercise.
○ Nurses educate patients on lifestyle modifications, pelvic floor exercises, and
potential surgical options for management.
○ Promoting open discussions about urinary incontinence helps reduce stigma
and improve patient comfort.

80. Regurgitation and Vomiting

● Regurgitation:
○ The backward flow of stomach contents into the esophagus or mouth without
nausea, often occurring in infants or as a result of gastroesophageal reflux
disease (GERD).
○ Nurses assess for signs of aspiration and provide education on dietary
modifications and positioning to reduce regurgitation.
○ Monitoring for complications, such as esophagitis, is important for effective
management.
● Vomiting:
○ The forceful expulsion of stomach contents through the mouth, often
accompanied by nausea and abdominal discomfort.
○ Nurses assess the cause of vomiting, provide interventions to control
symptoms (such as antiemetics), and monitor for dehydration and electrolyte
imbalances.
○ Patient education on dietary adjustments and when to seek medical attention
is essential for managing vomiting episodes

81. Relapsing and Remittent Fever

● Relapsing Fever:
○ Characterized by recurrent episodes of fever, separated by periods of normal
temperature.
○ Often caused by infections such as Borrelia (spirochete bacteria) or certain
viral infections.
○ Nurses monitor vital signs, administer antibiotics as prescribed, and educate
patients about potential complications.
● Remittent Fever:
○ A type of fever where the body temperature fluctuates but remains elevated,
not returning to normal between spikes.
○ Commonly associated with infections such as pneumonia or typhoid fever.
○ Nursing interventions include administering antipyretics, monitoring hydration
status, and evaluating response to treatment.

82. REM Sleep and NREM Sleep

● REM Sleep (Rapid Eye Movement Sleep):

○ A sleep stage characterized by rapid eye movements, increased brain activity,
and vivid dreaming.
○ Important for cognitive functions such as memory consolidation and mood
regulation.
○ Nurses assess sleep patterns and educate patients on the importance of
adequate REM sleep for mental health.
● NREM Sleep (Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep):
○ Divided into three stages, this type of sleep is characterized by slower brain
waves and is crucial for physical restoration and growth.
○ During NREM sleep, the body undergoes repair and immune function
enhancement.
○ Nurses may address sleep hygiene practices to promote quality NREM sleep
for overall health.

83. Remittent and Intermittent Fever

● Remittent Fever:
○ A persistent elevated body temperature that does not return to normal, with
daily fluctuations.
○ Often seen in conditions like typhoid fever or certain infections.
○ Nurses monitor vital signs, fluid intake, and administer medications as needed
to manage symptoms.
● Intermittent Fever:
○ Characterized by periods of fever that alternate with periods of normal
temperature, often associated with malaria or certain bacterial infections.
○ Nurses observe for patterns in temperature changes and provide care tailored
to the underlying cause of the fever.

84. Respiratory Acidosis and Respiratory Alkalosis

● Respiratory Acidosis:
○ A condition resulting from increased carbon dioxide (CO2) levels due to
hypoventilation, leading to decreased blood pH.
○ Common causes include chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and
respiratory failure.
○ Nurses monitor respiratory status, arterial blood gases (ABGs), and provide
interventions such as oxygen therapy or ventilatory support.
● Respiratory Alkalosis:
○ A condition caused by decreased CO2 levels due to hyperventilation,
resulting in increased blood pH.
○ Often seen in anxiety, panic attacks, or pulmonary embolism.
○ Nurses assess respiratory patterns and educate patients on breathing
techniques to manage symptoms.

85. Sepsis and Asepsis

● Sepsis:
○ A life-threatening condition resulting from the body's extreme response to an
infection, leading to organ dysfunction and failure.
○ Symptoms may include fever, increased heart rate, confusion, and
hypotension.
○ Nurses play a critical role in early recognition, administering antibiotics,
monitoring vital signs, and providing supportive care.
● Asepsis:
○ The absence of pathogenic microorganisms, achieved through practices that
prevent infection (e.g., hand hygiene, sterilization).
○ Nurses implement aseptic techniques during procedures to minimize infection
risk.
○ Understanding asepsis is crucial for maintaining patient safety in healthcare
settings.

86. Side Effects and Toxic Effects

● Side Effects:
○ Unintended, often mild effects of a medication that occur alongside the
desired therapeutic effects.
○ Common side effects include nausea, headache, and dizziness.
○ Nurses educate patients about potential side effects and monitor for their
occurrence, adjusting care plans as needed.
● Toxic Effects:
○ Severe, harmful effects resulting from excessive drug exposure or overdose.
○ Toxic effects can lead to serious health complications and require immediate
medical intervention.
○ Nurses must recognize signs of toxicity, administer antidotes if applicable, and
ensure appropriate monitoring.

87. Signs and Symptoms

● Signs:
○ Objective evidence of disease observed by healthcare professionals (e.g.,
rash, elevated blood pressure, abnormal laboratory results).
○ Nurses document signs to assist in diagnosing and evaluating patient
conditions.
○ Monitoring and reporting signs are essential for timely intervention and care
adjustments.
● Symptoms:
○ Subjective experiences reported by patients, indicating their feelings or
perceptions of illness (e.g., pain, fatigue, nausea).
○ Nurses assess and document symptoms to inform care and collaborate with
the healthcare team.
○ Effective communication about symptoms helps ensure patient-centered care.

88. Smith’s Test and Rothera’s Test

● Smith’s Test:
○ A test used to assess the presence of glucose in urine.
○ Positive results indicate possible diabetes mellitus or renal glycosuria.
○ Nurses must understand the implications of test results for patient
management and education.
● Rothera’s Test:
○ A qualitative test for detecting the presence of ketone bodies in urine.
○ Positive results may indicate diabetic ketoacidosis or starvation.
○ Nurses monitor patients for related symptoms and ensure appropriate
interventions based on test outcomes.

89. Source-Oriented Records and Problem-Oriented Records

● Source-Oriented Records:
○ Documentation organized by the source of information (e.g., physician notes,
nursing assessments, laboratory results).
○ Each discipline’s notes are kept separately, making it easy to find information
from specific sources.
○ Nurses contribute to source-oriented records by documenting their
assessments and interventions clearly.
● Problem-Oriented Records:
○ Documentation organized around patient problems or diagnoses, integrating
information from various disciplines.
○ It typically includes four components: problem list, care plan, progress notes,
and discharge summary.
○ Nurses use problem-oriented records to facilitate interdisciplinary
communication and holistic patient care.

90. Sprain and Dislocations

● Sprain:
○ An injury to a ligament caused by overstretching or tearing, often resulting in
pain, swelling, and bruising.
○ Common in joints like the ankle and knee.
○ Nurses assess the extent of the injury, implement the RICE method (rest, ice,
compression, elevation), and provide education on rehabilitation.
● Dislocation:
○ The displacement of a bone from its normal joint position, often accompanied
by severe pain, swelling, and immobility.
○ Common sites include shoulders and fingers.
○ Nurses assess for neurovascular compromise, immobilize the joint, and
collaborate with the healthcare team for reduction and management

91. Standard Precautions and Isolation Precautions

● Standard Precautions:
○ A set of infection control practices used to prevent transmission of diseases
that can be acquired by contact with blood, body fluids, non-intact skin, and
mucous membranes.
○ Includes hand hygiene, use of personal protective equipment (PPE), and safe
handling of sharps.
○ Nurses implement standard precautions for all patients to reduce the risk of
healthcare-associated infections.
● Isolation Precautions:
○ Specific measures taken to prevent the spread of infections in patients known
or suspected to be contagious.
○ Types include contact, droplet, and airborne precautions, tailored to the mode
of transmission of the infectious agent.
○ Nurses are responsible for enforcing isolation protocols and educating
patients and visitors about infection control.

92. Standing Order and Stat Order

● Standing Order:
○ A written document outlining specific instructions for patient care that can be
executed without a physician's direct order.
○ Used for routine medications or treatments (e.g., pain management
protocols).
○ Nurses follow standing orders within their scope of practice, ensuring
consistency in patient care.
● Stat Order:
○ An immediate order that must be carried out without delay, typically for urgent
medical situations (e.g., administering a medication during a code blue).
○ Nurses prioritize stat orders and communicate promptly with the healthcare
team to ensure rapid response.

93. Stomatitis and Glossitis

● Stomatitis:
○ Inflammation of the mucous membranes in the mouth, which may cause pain,
swelling, and sores.
○ Common causes include infections, irritants, and certain medications (e.g.,
chemotherapy).
○ Nurses assess oral health, provide mouth care, and educate patients on
avoiding irritants to promote healing.
● Glossitis:
○ Inflammation of the tongue, characterized by swelling, color changes, and
soreness.
○ Often linked to nutritional deficiencies (e.g., vitamin B12, iron) or allergic
reactions.
○ Nurses monitor dietary intake, assess for underlying conditions, and promote
a balanced diet to support oral health.

94. Subcutaneous and Intramuscular Injection

● Subcutaneous Injection:
○ Administration of medication into the subcutaneous tissue, allowing for slow,
sustained absorption (e.g., insulin, heparin).
○ Common sites include the abdomen, thigh, and upper arm.
○ Nurses ensure proper technique, including site selection and needle gauge,
to minimize discomfort.
● Intramuscular Injection:
○ Injection of medication directly into the muscle tissue, providing faster
absorption than subcutaneous routes (e.g., vaccines, antibiotics).
○ Common sites include the deltoid, vastus lateralis, and ventrogluteal muscles.
○ Nurses assess muscle mass, select appropriate needle length, and monitor
for complications such as pain or swelling.

95. Subjective and Objective Data

● Subjective Data:
○ Information reported by the patient regarding their experiences, feelings, and
perceptions (e.g., pain level, fatigue).
○ Nurses collect subjective data through interviews and assessments to
understand the patient's perspective.
○ Important for developing a patient-centered care plan.
● Objective Data:
○ Observable and measurable information obtained through physical
examination, diagnostic tests, and monitoring (e.g., vital signs, lab results).
○ Nurses document objective data to support clinical decision-making and
evaluate patient progress.
○ Objective data is crucial for forming a comprehensive assessment.

96. Suspension and Solution

● Suspension:
○ A heterogeneous mixture in which solid particles are dispersed in a liquid,
requiring shaking before administration (e.g., some antibiotics).
○ Nurses educate patients on proper preparation and administration techniques
to ensure accurate dosing.
● Solution:
○ A homogeneous mixture in which a solute is completely dissolved in a solvent
(e.g., saline, glucose).
○ Nurses administer solutions based on specific protocols, ensuring
compatibility and proper dosage.

97. Systolic and Diastolic Pressure

● Systolic Pressure:
○ The pressure in the arteries during the contraction of the heart muscle
(systole).
○ Represents the peak pressure exerted against arterial walls during each
heartbeat.
○ Nurses monitor systolic pressure to assess cardiovascular health and identify
hypertension.
● Diastolic Pressure:
○ The pressure in the arteries during the relaxation of the heart (diastole).
○ Represents the minimum pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest
between beats.
○ Nurses assess diastolic pressure to evaluate overall cardiovascular function
and potential risk for heart disease.

98. Tachycardia and Bradycardia

● Tachycardia:
○ A condition characterized by an abnormally high heart rate, typically over 100
beats per minute in adults.
○ Common causes include stress, anxiety, fever, and cardiovascular issues.
○ Nurses assess the underlying cause, monitor vital signs, and collaborate with
the healthcare team for appropriate interventions.
● Bradycardia:
○ A condition characterized by an abnormally low heart rate, typically below 60
beats per minute in adults.
○ Can result from medication effects, heart disease, or increased vagal tone.
○ Nurses monitor symptoms (e.g., dizziness, fatigue) and may need to initiate
emergency protocols if the bradycardia is symptomatic.

99. Tachypnea and Bradypnea

● Tachypnea:
○ Rapid breathing, typically defined as a respiratory rate greater than 20
breaths per minute in adults.
○ Often indicates underlying conditions such as anxiety, fever, or respiratory
distress.
○ Nurses monitor respiratory rate and oxygen saturation, providing interventions
to address the cause.
● Bradypnea:
○ Abnormally slow breathing, typically defined as a respiratory rate less than 12
breaths per minute in adults.
○ Can result from respiratory depression, neurological conditions, or drug
effects.
○ Nurses assess the patient's airway and overall condition, ready to initiate
appropriate respiratory support.

100. Toxic Effects and Synergistic Effects

● Toxic Effects:
○ Adverse effects that occur as a result of excessive drug concentrations in the
body, leading to harmful reactions.
○ Symptoms can range from mild to life-threatening, depending on the
substance and dose.
○ Nurses must be vigilant in monitoring for signs of toxicity and administering
antidotes or supportive care as needed.
● Synergistic Effects:
○ Occurs when two or more drugs interact to produce a combined effect greater
than the sum of their individual effects.
○ Can enhance therapeutic effects but may also increase the risk of adverse
reactions.
○ Nurses assess for potential drug interactions and adjust medication plans
accordingly to maximize safety and efficacy.

101. True Crisis and False Crisis

● True Crisis:
○ A genuine acute episode characterized by a significant and rapid change in a
patient's clinical condition, often requiring immediate intervention (e.g., a
hypertensive crisis).
○ Nurses respond promptly, assessing vital signs and implementing emergency
protocols to stabilize the patient.
● False Crisis:
○ A situation that may appear to be an emergency but does not require
immediate intervention, often resulting from misinterpretation of symptoms or
data.
○ Nurses evaluate the patient carefully, reassess the situation, and provide
reassurance or follow-up as necessary.

102. Urinary Retention and Urinary Incontinence

● Urinary Retention:
○ A condition in which a person is unable to completely empty their bladder,
leading to an accumulation of urine.
○ Causes can include obstructions, neurological disorders, medications, or
post-surgery complications.
○ Nurses assess the patient for symptoms such as a distended bladder,
discomfort, or urinary urgency, and may perform catheterization or other
interventions to relieve retention.
● Urinary Incontinence:
○ The involuntary loss of urine, resulting in a lack of control over urination,
which can vary in severity and type (e.g., stress, urge, overflow).
○ Causes may include weakened pelvic muscles, neurological conditions, or
medications.
○ Nurses assess the type and frequency of incontinence, provide education on
pelvic floor exercises, and coordinate care plans that may involve medications
or bladder training.

103. Verbal and Non-verbal Communication

● Verbal Communication:
○ The use of spoken or written words to convey messages and information.
○ Essential for clear interaction between healthcare providers and patients,
facilitating understanding, and ensuring accurate information exchange.
○ Nurses utilize verbal communication to explain procedures, provide
education, and engage in therapeutic conversations to build rapport with
patients.
● Non-verbal Communication:
○ The transmission of messages without the use of words, including body
language, facial expressions, gestures, posture, and eye contact.
○ Plays a critical role in expressing feelings and attitudes, often providing cues
to the patient’s emotional state or understanding.
○ Nurses are trained to interpret non-verbal signals, which can enhance patient
assessments and improve the quality of care by identifying unspoken
concerns or discomforts.