EDC - Class 3

Types of Biasing of BJT

• Fixed bias configuration

• Emitter bias configuration
• Voltage-divider configuration
• Collector – Feedback configuration
• Emitter – Follower configuration
• Common-base configuration
Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Fixed bias configuration
Forward Bias of Base-Emitter

Load-Line Analysis

Movement of the Q-point with increasing level of IB . Effect of an increasing level of R C on the load line
and the Q-point.
Effect of lower
values of VCC
on the load line
and the Q-point.

Collector–Emitter Loop Transistor Saturation
and VE = 0 V, then

EXAMPLE: Determine the following for the fixed-bias configuration of Fig.
a. IBQ and ICQ.
b. VCEQ.
c. VB and VC .
d. VBC .

EXAMPLE: Given the load line of Fig. and the defined Q -point, determine the required
values of VCC , RC , and RB for a fixed-bias configuration.

Emitter-bias Configuration Base–Emitter Loop
Substituting for IE
and solving for IB gives

Collector–Emitter Loop
Substituting IE ≡ IC and grouping terms gives

EXAMPLE: For the emitter-bias network of Fig. , determine:

Saturation Level and Load-Line Analysis
Choosing IC = 0 mA gives
as obtained for the fixed-bias configuration. Choosing VCE = 0 V gives

Voltage Divider bias configurations
Exact Analysis

Approximate Analysis
Because Ri = (β+ 1)RE = βRE
Partial-bias circuit for calculating

the approximate base voltage VB
but because IE = IC,

Saturation Level and Load-Line Analysis
Load-Line Analysis

EXAMPLE: Determine the dc bias voltage VCE and the current IC for the voltage divider
configuration of Fig.
• Compare the
result if 𝛽 = 50

Collector Feedback Configuration
Base–Emitter Loop
It is important to note that the current through RC is not IC , but IC (where IC’ = IC + IB).
However, the level of IC =and IC far exceeds the usual level of IB , and the approximation
IC’= IC is normally employed. Substituting IC= IC’ = βIB and IE = IC results in
DC bias circuit with voltage feedback.

and solving for IB yields

Collector–Emitter Loop
Saturation Level

Common Collector (Emitter-follower) Configuration

Common-base Configuration

Bias Stability
• Maintaining IB constant will not provide operating-point stability as β changes.
• Ico doubles for every 10°C rise in temperature.
Graphs showing the collector characteristics for two transistors of the same type. The
dashed characteristics are for a transistor whose β is much larger than that of the transistor
represented by the solid curves.
BIAS Stability
• The stability of the operating point

depends on VBE, β, and ICO.
• β is very sensitive to temperature,
and VBE decreases about 2.5 mV for
each 1°C increase in temperature.
• The reverse saturation current
typically doubles for every 10°C
increase in temperature.

Self Bias (Voltage Divider)
Stabilization Against Variations in Ico , Vbe, and β

The Stabilization Factor S We define S as the rate of change of collector current with
respect to the reverse saturation current, keeping β and Vbe constant,
Note that S varies between 1 for small Rb/Re and 1 + β for Rb/Re →∞ If β + 1>> Rb/Re,
above Eq. reduces to
The Stability Factor S' The variation of Ic with Vbe is given by the stability factor S',
defined by
assume that β >> 1 and β + 1>> Rb/Re

The Stability Factor S" The variation of Ic with respect to β is given by the stability factor
S", defined by
where both Ico and Vbe are considered constant.
The change in collector current due to a change in β is

BJT Small Signal Analysis

BJT Transistor Modeling
• The drawback to using this equivalent circuit, however, is that it is defined for a set
of operating conditions that might not match the actual operating conditions.
Two design models

• re model
• Hybrid model
• The dc levels were simply important for determining the proper Q -point of
operation. Once determined, the dc levels can be ignored in the ac analysis of the
network.
• In addition, the coupling capacitors C1 and C2 and bypass capacitor C3 were chosen
to have a very small reactance at the frequency of application. Therefore, they, too,
may for all practical purposes be replaced by a low-resistance path or a short circuit.
• Capacitors assume an “open-circuit” equivalent under dc steady-state conditions,

permitting an isolation between stages for the dc levels and quiescent conditions.
After removal of the
dc supply and
insertion of the
short-circuit
equivalent for the
capacitors.
• the modifications of the network to define the ac equivalent that the parameters of
interest such as Zi, Zo, Ii, and Io as defined by
Z = V / I and Z = V / I
i i
Indian Institute ofi Technology,
o o o
Nagpur
• In summary, therefore, the ac equivalent of a transistor network is obtained by:
1. Setting all dc sources to zero and replacing them by a short-circuit
equivalent
2. Replacing all capacitors by a short-circuit equivalent
3. Removing all elements bypassed by the short-circuit equivalents
introduced by steps 1 and 2
4. Redrawing the network in a more convenient and logical form

The re Transistor Model
re = 26 mV / IE.
• The output resistance r is typically in
the range of 40 k to 50 k.
Common-Base Configuration
Equivalent ac resistance determined by

re = 26 mV / IE
• The output impedance ro will typically extend
into the megohm range.

Common-emitter Fixed Biasing

Phase Relationship

Voltage-divider Bias
To calculate Zo From Fig. with
Vi set to 0 V, resulting in Ib = 0
mA and βIb = 0 mA,

CE Emitter-Bias Configuration
To calculate Zo From Fig. with

Because RE is usually greater than re Vi set to 0 V, resulting in Ib = 0
mA and βIb = 0 mA,

Effect of ro
Because the ratio RC / ro is always much less

than (β + 1),
Substituting Zb = β(re + RE) gives

For ro ≥ 10(RC + RE),
and for the approximation Zb = βRE

However, ro >> re, and
The ratio re / ro << 1, and
which can be written as

Emitter-follower Configuration
• Used for impedance-matching purposes.

• High impedance at the input and a low impedance at the
output
Phase Relationship Vo and Vi are

in phase for the emitter-follower
configuration
Common-base Configuration
Assuming that RE >> re yields
Phase Relationship The fact that Av is a positive

number shows that Vo and Vi are in phase for the
common-base configuration.
Collector Feedback Configuration

Zo If we set Vi to zero as required to
define Zo ,
Substituting for Vi in the above equation

for Zi leaves
Av
Since RC >> re

For RC >> re
Phase Relationship The negative sign indicates a

180° phase shift between Vo and Vi .
For RF >> RC

Effect of RL And RS

BJT Transistor Amplifiers Including the Effect of Rs and RL

The Hybrid Equivalent Model
• The re model has the advantage that the parameters are defined by the actual
operating conditions.
• The parameters of the hybrid equivalent circuit are defined in general terms for any
operating conditions.
• The re model suffers from the fact that parameters such as the output impedance and
the feedback elements are not available, whereas the hybrid parameters provide the
entire set on the specification sheet.
The parameters relating the four variables are called h-

parameters

Approximate Hybrid Equivalent Circuit
Fixed-Bias Configuration

Ai Assuming that RB >> hie and 1/hoe ≥ 10RC, we find
Ib ≅ Ii and Io = Ic = hfeIb = hfeIi, and so

Voltage-Divider Configuration

Unbypassed Emitter-Bias Configuration

Emitter-Follower Configuration

Common-Base Configuration

Complete Hybrid Equivalent Model
Current Gain, Ai = Io / Ii
Substituting Vo = -IoRL gives
Io = hf Ii - ho RLIo
Voltage Gain, Av = Vo / Vi
Vi = Iihi + hrVo

Substituting Ii = (1 + hoRL)Io/hf from previous Eqn. and Io = -Vo/RL from previous results in
In this case, the familiar form of Av = -hfRL/hi returns if

the factor (hiho - hfhr)RL is sufficiently small compared to
hi .
Input Impedance, Zi = Vi / Ii
so that
Vi = hiIi - hrRLAiIi Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur
Output Impedance, Zo = Vo / Io
For the input circuit with Vs = 0,

Frequency Response of BJT
Low-frequency Analysis of BJT
• In the low-frequency region of the single-stage BJT amplifier, it is the RC combinations
formed by the network capacitors CC, CE, and Cs and the network resistive parameters
that determine the cut-off frequencies.

RC circuit of previous diagram at RC circuit of previous diagram
very high frequencies at f = 0 Hz.
At the frequency for which XC = R , the output

will be 70.7% of the input
For the special case where XC = R ,

For the magnitude when f = fL,

Low-frequency Response - BJT Amplifier With RL

• CC Because the coupling capacitor is normally connected between the output of the
active device and the applied load, the RC configuration that determines the low-cutoff
frequency due to CC.
• The total series resistance is now Ro + RL, and the cut-off frequency due to CC is
determined by

• CE To determine fLE , the network “seen” by CE must be determined as shown in below
Figure. Once the level of R e is established, the cutoff frequency due to CE can be
determined using the following equation:

• Cs , CC , and CE will affect only the low-frequency response. At the
midband frequency level, the short-circuit equivalents for the capacitors
can be inserted.
• Although each will affect the gain Av = Vo / Vi in a similar frequency

range, the highest low-frequency cut-off determined by Cs , CC , or CE
will have the greatest impact because it will be the last encountered
before the midband level.
• If the cut-off frequencies established by each capacitor are sufficiently

separated, the effect of one on the other can be ignored with a high
degree of accuracy.

Miller Effect Capacitance
• In the high-frequency region, the capacitive elements of importance are the
interelectrode (between-terminals) capacitances internal to the active device and
the wiring capacitance between leads of the network.
• The large capacitors of the network that controlled the low-frequency response are
all replaced by their short-circuit equivalent due to their very low reactance levels.

• For any inverting amplifier, the input capacitance
will be increased by a Miller effect capacitance
sensitive to the gain of the amplifier and the
interelectrode (parasitic) capacitance between the Demonstrating the effect of the Miller
input and output terminals of the active device. effect capacitance.
• The Miller effect will also increase the level of output capacitance, which must also be
considered when the high-frequency cut-off is determined.
Substituting Vi = Vo / Av from Av = Vo / Vi results in

resulting in the following equation for the Miller output capacitance:
For the usual situation where Av >> 1,
For noninverting amplifiers such as the common-base and emitter-

follower configurations, the Miller effect capacitance is not a
contributing concern for high-frequency applications.

High-Frequency Response – BJT Amplifier
• At the high-frequency end, there are two factors that define the 3-dB cut-off point:
the network capacitance (parasitic and introduced) and the frequency dependence
of hfe (β)
• In the high-frequency region, the RC network of concern has the configuration

appearing in Figure
RC combination that will define

a high-cutoff frequency.

• The various parasitic capacitances
(Cbe, Cbc, Cce) of the transistor are (a)
included with the wiring
capacitances (CWi , CWo) introduced
during construction.
• The high-frequency equivalent
model for the network of Fig. (a)
appears in Fig. (b).
Network of Loaded BJT amplifier with the capacitors that
affect the high-frequency response.
(b)
High-frequency ac equivalent
model for the network of Fig.
(a)

For the input network, the – 3-dB frequency is defined by
Thévenin circuits for the input and output networks

of the network of previous Fig.
At very high frequencies, the effect of Ci is to reduce the total impedance of the parallel
combination of R1, R2, βre, and Ci in BJT loaded amplifier Fig.
The result is a reduced level of voltage across Ci , a reduction in Ib , and a gain for the
system.
• At very high frequencies, the capacitive
reactance of Co will decrease and
consequently reduce the total impedance of
the output parallel branches of previous Fig.
(a).
• The net result is that Vo will also decline
toward zero as the reactance XC becomes
smaller.
• The frequencies fHi and fHo will each define a
– 6-dB/octave asymptote such as depicted in
Fig.
hfe (or β) Variation
• The only undefined quantity, fβ , is determined by a set of parameters employed

in the hybrid π or Giacoletto model of below Fig.
• The resistance rb includes the base contact, base bulk, and base spreading
resistance.
• The resistances rπ, ro, and ru are the resistances between the indicated
terminals when the device is in the active region.
• The same is true for the capacitances Cbc and Cbe , although the former is a
transition capacitance, whereas the latter is a diffusion capacitance.
• If we remove the base resistance rb, the base-to-collector resistance ru , and all
the parasitic capacitances, the result is an ac equivalent circuit that matches the
small-signal equivalent for the common-emitter configuration
• The base-to-emitter resistance rπ is βre and the output resistance ro is simply a
value provided through the hybrid parameter hoe
• re is a function of the network
design and fβ is a function of the
or, because rπ = βre = hfe mid re, bias configuration.
The following equation permits a direct conversion for

determining fβ if fα and α are specified:
Giacoletto (or hybrid p ) high-frequency transistor small-

signal ac equivalent circuit.
Gain-Bandwidth Product
• There is a Figure of Merit applied to amplifiers called the Gain-Bandwidth
Product (GBP) that is commonly used to initiate the design process of an
amplifier.
• It provides important information about the relationship between the gain of
the amplifier and the expected operating frequency range.

Finding the bandwidth at two different gain levels.
The gain-bandwidth product
In fact, at any level of gain the product of the two remains a constant.
The frequency fT is called the unity-gain frequency and is always equal to the
product of the mid-band gain of an amplifier and the bandwidth at any level of
gain.
The general equation for the
hfe variation with frequency is
defined by
Note that in each case the

frequency fH defines the
corner frequency.


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Types of Biasing of BJT

• Fixed bias configuration

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Forward Bias of Base-Emitter

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

and solving for IB gives

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Substituting IE ≡ IC and grouping terms gives

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

as obtained for the fixed-bias configuration. Choosing VCE = 0 V gives

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Because Ri = (β+ 1)RE = βRE

Partial-bias circuit for calculating

but because IE = IC,

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

DC bias circuit with voltage feedback.

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

• The stability of the operating point

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Stabilization Against Variations in Ico , Vbe, and β

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

where both Ico and Vbe are considered constant.

The change in collector current due to a change in β is

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Two design models

• Capacitors assume an “open-circuit” equivalent under dc steady-state conditions,

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Equivalent ac resistance determined by

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

To calculate Zo From Fig. with

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

Because the ratio RC / ro is always much less

Substituting Zb = β(re + RE) gives

and for the approximation Zb = βRE

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

which can be written as

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur

• Used for impedance-matching purposes.

Phase Relationship Vo and Vi are

Assuming that RE >> re yields

Phase Relationship The fact that Av is a positive

Indian Institute of Technology, Nagpur