Water supply Engineering 2022

2. WATER SOURCES
2.1 Types of water sources
The origin of all water is rainfall. Water can be collected as it falls as rain before it reaches the
ground; or as surface water when it flows over the ground; or is pooled in lakes or ponds; or as
ground water when it percolates in to the ground and flows or collects as ground water; from the
sea (ocean) in to which it finally flows.

Therefore sources of water supply schemes can conveniently be classified as follows:

1. Rain and snow

2. Surface water:

 Rivers  Sea water

 Lakes  Impounding reservoirs
 Pond  Wastewater reclamation
3. Underground sources

• Springs  Wells
Shallow wells
 Depression springs
Deep wells
 Contact springs
Infiltration galleries
 Artesian springs
Infiltration wells
 Hot springs
Impounding reservoirs: Are artificial lakes formed by the construction of dams across a valley.

Wastewater reclamation: Sewage or other waste water may be used as source of water for
cooling, flushing water closets (WCS), watering lawns, parks, etc. for firefighting and for certain
industrial purposes after giving the necessary treatment to suit the nature of the use.

Springs: Are formed when ground water appears at the ground surface for any reason as a
current of flowing water.
Types of springs:
1. Depression spring: is a spring formed when the ground surface intersects the water table.

Fig. 2.1 Gravity/ Depression Spring

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Water supply Engineering 2022

2. Contact/Surface spring: is a spring created by a water bearing formation overlying an impervious

formation that intersects the ground surface.

Fig. 2.2 Contact Spring

3. Artesian spring: is a spring that results from the release of water under pressure from confined
water bearing formation through either a fault or fissure reaching the ground surface. It is also known
as fracture spring.

Fig 2.3 Artesian Spring

Wells
A well is defined as an artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping water.
The three factors which form the basis of theory of wells are
1. Geological conditions of the earth’s surface
2. Porosity of various layers
3. Quantity of water, which is absorbed and stored in different layers
The following are different types of wells
1. Shallow wells 3. Tube wells
2. Deep wells 4. Artesian wells
1. Shallow wells
Shallow wells may be large diameter hand dug wells (diameter 1-7m) and depth < 20m. Or
machine drilled wells of small diameter (diameter 8-60cm) and depth < 60m.

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Quantity of water available from shallow wells is limited as their source of supply is uppermost
layer of earth only and sometimes may even dry up in summer. Hence they are not suitable for
public water supply schemes. The quantity of water obtained from shallow wells is better than
the river water but requires purification. The shallow wells should be constructed away from
septic tanks, soak pits etc because of the contamination of effluent.
The shallow wells are used as the source of water supply for small villages, undeveloped
municipal towns, isolated buildings etc because of limited supply and bad quality of water.
2. Deep wells
Deep wells are most large, deep, high-capacity wells constructed by drilling rig. Construction
can be accomplished by cable tool method or rotary method. Drilling rigs are capable of drilling
wells 8 to 60cm in diameter and depth < 600m.

The deep wells obtain their quota of water from an aquifer below the impervious layer. The
theory of deep well is based on the travel of water from the outcrop to the site of deep well. The
outcrop is the place where aquifer is exposed to the atmosphere. The rain water entered at
outcrop and gets thoroughly purified when it reaches to the site of deep well. But it dissolves
certain salts and therefore become hard. In such cases, some treatment would be necessary to
remove the hardness of water.

The depth of deep well should be decided in such a way that the location of out crop is not very
near to the site of well. The water available at a pressure greater atmospheric pressure, therefore
deep wells are also referred to as a pressure wells.

Infiltration Gallery
An infiltration gallery is a horizontal or nearly horizontal tunnel which is constructed through
water bearing strata. It is sometimes referred as horizontal well. Infiltration gallery may be
constructed with masonry or concrete with weep holes of 5cm by 10 cm.

Infiltration wells

In order to obtain large quantity of water, the infiltration wells are sunk in series in the blanks of
river. The wells are closed at top and open at bottom. They are constructed by brick masonry
with open joints.

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Water supply Engineering 2022

For the purpose of inspection of well, the manholes are provided in the top cover. The water
filtrates through the bottom of such wells and as it has to pass through sand bed, it gets purified
to some extent. The infiltrations well in turn are connected by porous pipes to collecting sump
called jack well and their water is pumped to purification plant for treatment.

Infiltration Well Jack well

2.2 Water Sources Selection Criteria

The choice of water supply to a town or city depends on the following:

i. Location iv. Cost

ii. Quantity of water v. Social and Environmental issues also
iii. Quality of water considered

a) Location: The sources of water should be as near as to the town as possible.

b) Quantity of water: the source of water should have sufficient quantity of water to meet up
all the water demand throughout the design period.
c) Quality of water: The quality of water should be good so that it can be treated easily with
affordable cost.
d) Cost: the initial cost, operation and maintenance cost of the water supply scheme have to
be to the affordable level the community. When there are many alternative water sources,
in addition to the above criterion the source which demand list cost has priority for
selection.

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Table2.1: Summary of methods of developing sources of water

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