Introduction to Communication

UNIT 4 MASS COMMUNICATION RESEARCH:

PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Learning Outcomes
4.2 Mass Communication Research: Principles and Process
4.2.1 Development of Mass Media Research
4.2.2 Objectives of Research
4.2.3 Motivation in Research
4.3 Scientific Approach In Mass Communication Research
4.3.1 Steps in Scientific Research
4.3.2 Theories
4.3.3 Predictions (Hypotheses)
4.3.4 Observations
4.3.5 Empirical Generalizations
4.4 Types of Research
4.4.1 Descriptive/Analytical Research
4.4.2 Applied/Action/Fundamental (Basic) Research
4.4.3 Quantitative/Qualitative
4.4.4 Conceptual/ Empirical
4.4.5 Clinical/Diagnostic/Exploratory Research
4.5 Research Approaches
4.5.1 Quantitative Approach
4.5.2 Qualitative Approach
4.6 Steps Involved in a Research Process
4.7 Selection of the Topic
4.7.1 Relevance
4.7.2 Feasibility
4.7.3 Broadness
4.7.4 Time and Cost Constraints
4.8 Retrieving Information and Review
4.9 Stating Hypothesis and Research Questions/Objectives
4.10 Preparation of Research
4.10.1 Exploratory Design
4.10.2 Descriptive Design
4.10.3 Diagnostic Design
4.10.4 Experimental Design
4.11 Research Methodology vs Research Methods
4.12 Types of Research Methods
4.12.1 Survey Method
4.12.2 Observation Method
4.12.3 Content Analysis
50 4.12.4 Historical Method
4.13 Data Mass Communication
Research: Principles and
4.14 Sampling Techniques Process
4.14.1 Non-probability or Purposive Sampling
4.14.2 Probability or Random Sampling
4.14.3 Stratified Sampling
4.14.4 Quota Sampling
4.14.5 Cluster Sampling
4.14.6 Multi-stage Sampling
4.14.7 Questionnaire
4.14.8 Interviews
4.15 Data Analysis and Presentation
4.16 Report
4.16.1 Abstract
4.16.2 Keywords
4.16.3 Introduction
4.16.4 Findings
4.16.5 Conclusion
4.16.6 Annexure and Appendices
4.16.7 Bibliography/References
4.16.8 Citations
4.17 Ethics in Research
4.18 Let Us Sum Up
4.19 Keywords
4.20 Further Readings
4.21 Check Your Progress: Possible Answers

4.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit is very important for understanding how the process of research is to be
conducted in the discipline of mass communication. The unit explains the various
aspects of mass communication research by breaking it down into different core
sections which explain in detail about the process that is followed in conducting
research and what type of techniques and instruments are to be utilized for specific
research objectives.
The unit will help in developing a conceptual understanding about both qualitative
and quantitative approaches to research and when and how they are applicable in
mass communication research. In addition to that, the unit will help you realise that
mere conduct of research is not enough. There are certain ethical principles to be
followed too.
We shall now discuss this unit in detail. We shall start with the development of mass
media research, objectives of research and other important topics.

4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

After reading through this unit, you should be able:
discuss the principles and process of mass communication research;
develop scientific approach to mass communication research;
51
Introduction to Communication describe the types of research and steps involved in the research process
develop a research report
differentiate between research method and methodology
appreciate the importance of ethics in research

4.2 MASS COMMUNICATION RESEARCH:

PRINCIPLES AND PROCESS
With the mass media spreading its wings wide and growing by leaps and bounds,
research in this field is also becoming immensely popular. The whole world rests on
the process of communication. With the expansion of technology, research in mass
communication has shown an immense growth all over the world. From Nautanki to
street plays to print media like books, newspapers, magazines and electronic media
like radio and T.V. have shown a great reach. The new media due to rapid growth of
internet has also proved to be a significant medium in brining mass mobilization and
spurring the masses. Thus, research in the field of mass communication is gathering
both popularity and significance. There are private research agencies both in India
and abroad doing research on various aspects of media.
As the content generated is getting specific with niche readers and viewers, the
advertisers have better chances to reach their target audiences. For this, they require
accurate research to be implemented.
Merriam-Webster dictionarydescribes “research” as “studious inquiryor examination
especially investigation or experimentation aimed at discoveryand interpretation of
facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts or practical
application of such new or revised theories or laws”. Advance Learner dictionary
defines research as a careful investigation or enquiry for the search for new facts in
any branch of knowledge. Reddman and Mory define research as a systematized
effort to gain new knowledge. Research is also defined as the scientific and systematic
search for pertinenent knowledge. Research is the art of scientific investigation.

4.2.1 Development of Mass Media Research

There were four major events that led to the development of the mass media research :
1) The World War I- Propaganda studies researchers worked from a stimulus
response point of view that attempted to uncover effects of media on people
(Lasswell, 1927). There was a need to understand the nature of propaganda
by using the media and media had a huge impact on the people. Assumptions
were being made and research was on a firm foundation.
2) Realization by the advertisers in 1950’s and 1960’s In this stage, research
data was used to persuade potential customers to buy products and services.
The advertisers used research studies to know their target audience in a better
way and reach them using an effective medium.
3) Increasing interest of the citizens in the effects of media on public:- At this
stage, subjects that garmered greater interest included violence and sexual
content in TV shows for children. Both the negative and positive effects of it
were being studied.
4) Increasing competition among media organizations:- Competition for the
52 audience and advertising revenue further increased the pace of the mass media
research. The audience was being segmented into groups and content created Mass Communication
had different niches. The advertisers wanted to know the demographics and Research: Principles and
Process
psychographics ofthese chunks of audience for which researchers had to work.

4.2.2 Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions by the application of
scientific procedures and to make oneself acquainted with the occurrence to garner
new insights. These studies are termed as exploratory research.
The research which can be used to portray the characteristic of either an individual
or a group is called descriptive research. When casual relationship between variables
is studied, it is called hypothesis testing.

4.2.3 Motivation in Research

The fundamentalimportance is what makes people undertake research. Afew factors
promoting motivation in research are given below:
1. It will help the researcher to get a research degree along with the consequential
benefits of the research.
2. It helps invoke interest in facing the challenges in solving the problems that are
unsolved.
3. Research brings an intellectual joy of doing some creative work.
4.. The research conducted will be of service to the society and beneficial for the
people.
5. The directives of government also motivate people to perform research and
the researcher earns great respect for his/her work.

4.3 SCIENTIFICAPPROACH IN MASS

COMMUNICATION RESEARCH
4.3.1 Steps in Scientific Research
Scientific method is closely related to the Webster dictionary meaning of the word
“research”. Ascientific research method involves an organized objective, controlled,
qualitative or quantitative empirical analysis of one or more variables. The four steps
of scientific method are:

4.3.2 Theories
A theory is an explanation that is proposed for how certain natural phenomena
occur which can make a prediction about the phenomena for the future as well as
can be falsified by empirical observations (West & Turner, 2006). The theories
based on the topic of research are properly read upon by the researcher to
come to a theory which must be backed by proper scientific support, data,
results and replications.

4.3.3 Predictions (Hypotheses)

A hypothesis is an idea suggested to be an explanation for particular conditions but
which is not yet proved to be correct (Collins dictionary). Sets of propositions are
formulated to reach an argument and form a logical conclusion. This is done on the 53
Introduction to Communication basis of syllogismwhere from a set of premises and a conclusion is reached. However,
for a conclusion to be correct, the premises must be true.

4.3.4 Observations
In this part of scientific method, the researcher tests the hypotheses formulated during
the previous step. Unlike physical sciences, testing hypotheses in social sciences is
difficult, simplybecause the humans provide multiple possibilities to the social science
researchers. There are certain processes although that can help remove the errors
and uncertainties to a certain extent. The researchers must be empirical and objective
while noting the observations for which certain tools are used.

4.3.5 Empirical Generalizations

This is the final stage of scientific method where a phenomenon is described based
upon the knowledge of the phenomenon at that point of time. These empirical
generalisations are based on the observations made in the previous step. At times, a
hypothesis may become true and at times false. This must be done with honesty in
research findings or the quality of research may suffer.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: 1) Use the space provided below for your Answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What do you understand by hypothesis?
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2. What is empiricalgeneralisation? Why should it be done with honesty?
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3. Explain the importance of objectives in research?
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4.4 TYPES OF RESEARCH

Come of the basic categories of research are:
4.4.1 Descriptive/Analytical Research
Descriptive research involves survey and enquiries to find facts of different kinds.
54 The foremost function of this research is to give a detailed description of the state of
the affairs regarding those that exist currently. The main characteristic of this research Mass Communication
is that the researcher has no control whatsoever over the variables and he can only Research: Principles and
report the happenings. The research methods applied here basically are different Process
types of survey methods including the comparative and co-relational methods
In analytical research, the facts and information already available are analyzed to
make a critical evaluation.

4.4.2 Applied/Action/Fundamental (basic) Research

Applied research or action research is aimed to find a solution for a problem in the
society or an organization. Certain examples of applied research are those to
identify social, economic or political trends, marketing research and evaluation
research. It aims to find a solution for an existing problem.
Fundamental research or basic research relates to generalizations or formulation of
theories Research in anykind of natural phenomena, human behaviours or related to
pure mathematics are fundamental or pure research. It aims to gather knowledge for
the sake of knowledge. It has a broad base of applications and is directed towards
finding information to add to the already existing mass of knowledge.

4.4.3 Quantitative/Qualitative
Quantitative research is based on quantitative data i.e. measurement of quantity or
amount.Allphenomena that are expressed inquantitycome under this type ofresearch
Qualitative research deals with qualitative phenomena like finding reasons for human
behavior. It aims to discover underlying desires and motives with the help of in-
depth interviews. Other techniques include storycompleting tests, sentence completing
tests, word association tests among others.
Attitude or opinion research is also qualitative research where research aims to find
out what people think about a particular topic or an institution. This research helps
find out reasons or factors of liking or disliking a particular thing by the people.
Practicing this type of research is difficult and requires guidance from expert
researchers.

4.4.4 Conceptual/ Empirical

Conceptual research relates to an abstract idea(s) or theory. This type of research is
generally used by thinkers or philosophers to formulate new concepts or reinterpret
the earlier ones.
Empirical research depends on the experiences and observations irrespective of the
system and the theory. It can be also called as experimental type of research as it is
based on the data, reaching conclusions that are verifiable by observation and
conclusion. The data, in empirical research, needs to be collected first hand from
the source. He must have with himself a working hypothesis and then gather enough
facts to prove or disprove it. This type of research is done through surveys and/or
observations. The researcher has control over the variables under study and he may
deliberately manipulate one of them to study the effects on others. Besides, there
may be other types of research and can be defined as onetime research and
longitudinal research. These types of researches are classified on the basis of time
period selected. This research is restricted to a solitary fixed time period while
longitudinal research is carried out over a larger time period.
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Introduction to Communication Field setting research and laboratory research. This classification is made on the
basis of the place where the research is carried out.

4.4.5 Clinical/Diagnostic/Exploratory Research

These types of research go for case-studymethods to reach the causes of events or
happenings. Asmall sample is taken and deep probing is done to gather the data. An
exploratory research develops a hypothesis rather than tests it while a formalized
research has a proper structure to test the hypotheses.

4.5 RESEARCH APPROACHES

The types of research given above reveal that there are basically two approaches to
research namely:

4.5.1 Quantitative Approach

This approach involves quantitative data which is subjected to rigorous analysis in a
formal procedure. It can be further classified into following categories:
In inferentialapproach, survey research is done through which a sample of population
is studied to infer or conclude certain characteristics or relationships of the population
In experimental approach, certain variables are manipulated to observe their effect
on other variables and thus exercising greater control over the research environment
Simulation approach creates an artificial environment where data can be generated
and relevant information can be studied. This allows observing dynamic behavior of
the system under controlled conditions. Simulation refers to the operation of a
numerical model within a dynamic process.

4.5.2 Qualitative Approach

This approach involves the subjective study of attitudes, opinions and behaviours
where the researcher works according to his insights and impressions. This is done
through focus group interviews and depthinterviews and the results are not subjected
to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: 1) Use the space provided below for your Answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the difference between applied and fundamental research? Which
research will help in the development of theories?
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2. What is the difference between the quantitative and qualitative approaches to Mass Communication
research? Research: Principles and
Process
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4.6 STEPS INVOLVED INARESEARCH PROCESS

Research consumes both time and money. Since time and money are highly valuable,
research must be carried out in a proper process. The eight steps involved in a
typical research process are:
1) Selection of a problem
2) Review of existing research studies and theories
3) Development of hypotheses and/or research questions
4) Deciding an appropriate methodology/ research design
5) Collection of relevant data
6) Analysis and interpretation of the results
7) Presentation of the results in an appropriate form
8) Replication of the study (when necessary)
All the above steps help to reach a maximally efficient research study. For instance,
the researcher must a clearly state the research problem before the review of literature
is done; the researcher must know the types of studies already conducted to design
the most efficient method of investigating a problem etc. In addition, all the steps are
interactive as review of literature mayrefine or even alter the initial research problem;
a study conducted before may expedite (or complicate) the current research effort
Step by step procedure of research The steps involved in a mass communication
research project are given below.

4.7 SELECTION OF THE TOPIC

Step 1: Selection of the topic: The topic selected for research must be thought over
carefully keeping the following aspects in mind:
4.7.1 Relevance
The topic must hold relevance in the existing scenario. Its significance is a crucial
aspect when starting the research. There are topics upon which immense research
are done like effects of violence in movies on children or celebrity endorsements in
advertising. Thus, research on such topics would not make sense and instead doing
research on current and new topics would be helpful.
4.7.2 Feasibility
The second aspect when selecting a topic for research is its feasibility which means
whether the research would be accomplished during the time period set or for that
matter, despite many other physical constraints. Like being located in Kashmir, it
would not be feasible enough to do research on the coverage of Tsunami in Tamil
Nadu or Andaman Broadness. 57
Introduction to Communication 4.7.3 Broadness
Depending upon the purpose of research project, the Broadness of the topic is
decided. For example, if you reach a topic for research which is online advertising,
it is way too broad to do research. Depending upon whether the research is a minor
project or a major project, the topic is crystallized and decided.
4.7.4 Time and Cost Constraints
Time and cost are important aspects to think of when selecting a topic for research.

4.8 RETRIEVING INFORMATIONAND REVIEW

After deciding the topic of research, an in-depth reading of the text related to the
topic follows. Review of literature is done on the topic chosen for the research for
proper understanding of the topic and the already done research on the topic. There
are different types of information sources that can be scanned to get the required
information. These include scholarly research journals, books, magazines,
newspapers, encyclopedias and handbooks, blogs and websites on the internet.
All the information sources must be cited properly and proper citations to the
information must be given. Following things must be kept in mind before going ahead:
1) Types of previous research in the similar area.
2) Results and conclusions of previous studies.
3) Suggestions by researchers for future studies.
4) Some aspects that have not been investigated.
5) Contribution of the proposed study to the knowledge of that area of research
methods that were used earlier.
Looking at previous research studies, the researcher can decide what perspective
the stuying does not have so that s/he mayfollow a different methodology and derive
results.After proper reading of the present sources of information, specific hypotheses
and research questions are defined.

4.9 STATING HYPOTHESISAND RESEARCH

QUESTIONS/OBJECTIVES
Specific hypotheses and research questions or objectives are framed keeping in
mind the topic of research. Ahypothesis as already mentioned is a formal statement
that has not been tested yet. It states the relationship between variables and is tested
directly. The predicted relationship between the variables is either true or false.
While a research question is a formally stated question that provides indications
about something. Unlike hypothesis, it is not limited to investigating relationships
between variables. Research questions or the objectives define the aim of the study
in the general area of investigation. The information used to draft the research
questions helps in testing the hypothesis later in the study.

4.10 PREPARATION OF RESEARCH

Research design means the conceptual structure within which a research study is
conducted. Depending upon the purposes of research, research design is prepared
which results in getting maximum information and evidences in less time, money and
58 effort.
4.10.1 Exploratory Design Mass Communication
Research: Principles and
The exploratorydesign involves exploring the new concepts or theories i.e. digging Process
deep into the problem to reach a particular conclusion. In this design, many aspects
of the problem are to be considered and a flexible research design is to be formed.
4.10.2 Descriptive Design
It involves the description of a problem or an event. The design must minimize the
biases and maximize the reliability of data collected and analysed.
4.10.3 Diagnostic Design
This type of research design takes a small sample and studies it on the basis of
several parameters. The reasons, causes and factors regarding a particular problem
or an event are studied by the collection of the data and its analysis.
4.10.4 Experimental Design
These experimental designs can be informal or formal designs and involves huge
amount of money for the laboratoryset-up. This is the most difficult type of research
design to be practiced.

4.11 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY VS

RESEARCH METHODS
The words methodology and methods are often confused with each other.
Methodology is the study ofmethods and the groundwork philosophical assumptions
of the research process itself. Different research questions will have different
methodologies. If a researcher is interested in how the Internet is affecting the
copyright laws, he or she would probably choose the methodologyof legal research.
If a researcher wants to trace how radio programming has evolved since the
introduction of television, he may choose historical methodology. Astudy about the
effects of television on children mayuse scientific methodology
In short; methodology deals with the question of “why” to do research in a certain
way. It lists what problems need to be investigated and how the research should
proceed. Different methodologiesmayhave different paradigmsto follow. Quantitative
methodology uses the positive paradigm while qualitative researchers use the critical
paradigm
In contrast, a method is a specific technique to collect and gather informationfollowing
the assumptions of the chosen research methodology .Researchers who choose the
positivist paradigmuse methods like surveysand experiments while those who choose
the interpretive paradigm choose methods like focus groups, ethnography, and
observation.

4.12 TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS

4.12.1 Survey Method
The literal meaning of word survey is to look at or study something carefully. It
encompasses investigation and examination. Complete study about the unknown
facts is survey. A descriptive survey attempts to describe or document current
conditions or attitudes i.e. to explain what exist at the moment whereas analytical
survey attempts to describe and explain whysituations exist. In this type of research
59
Introduction to Communication multiple variables are generally examined to investigate research questions.Amedia
survey is a process by which quantitative facts are collected about the media aspects
of community’s composition and activities. The media survey is a comparative
undertaking which applies scientific method to the study.
Types of surveys:
a) General or specific surveys
b) Regular and ad-hoc surveys
c) Preliminary and final surveys
d) Census
e) Opinion polls and exit polls
In surveymethod, the data is collected through tools such as questionnaire, schedule
or interviews. A set of questions are framed according to the objectives of the
research. The questions can be
Open-ended questions
Open-ended questions give respondents freedom in answering questions and an
opportunityto provide in-depth responses. The major disadvantage of these questions
is that the answers require large amount of time to collect and analyze the responses
Closed-ended questions
In these questions, the respondents have to choose to reply from the list provided
by the researcher and because of the greater standardisation of the questions it is
easy to collect the responses and the answers can be easily quantified. The major
disadvantage is that often certain responses are not included in the options. As a
solution to this problem, the researcher can insert an option like ‘other’so that the
respondents will get opportunity to give their own respective answers.
Mixed questions
These are a combination of both open ended and closed ended questions.
4.12.2 Observation Method
Observation means viewing things with a purpose. It consists of collection of the
facts which are in the direct knowledge of the investigators. Observation is the
perception with a purpose. It is the process of acquiring knowledge through the use
of sense organs. Types of observations:
a) Controlled
b) Uncontrolled
c) Participant
d) Non- participant
e) Case-study method
According to P.V. Young, case study is a method of exploring and analysing the life
of a unit be that a person, family an institution, a cultural group or even an entire
community”. Goode and Hatt described it as “a way of organizing social data so as
to preserve the unitary character of the social/object benefits studied”. Case study is
based on intensive study of comparatively fewer persons. It is a method of qualitative
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analysis. It aims at studying everything about something rather than something about Mass Communication
Research: Principles and
everything.
Process
4.12.3 Content Analysis
Berelson defined content analysis as “a research technique for the objective,
systematic and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication”.
Content analysis is a systematic way of analysis and description of the content of
communication media. It is specialized application of coding techniques. It allows
for the discovery and description of focus of an individual, group, institution or
social attention.
Steps in Content Analysis
There are several discrete stages in the procedure of content analysis. Following are
the steps listed in sequence but they need not be followed in the order given and at
times, the initial stages of analysis can be easily combined. Nonetheless, these steps
may be used as a rough outline:
a) Formulation of the research question or hypothesis
b) Defining the universe
c) Selecting an appropriate sample from the population
d) Selecting and defining a unit of analysis
e) Constructing categories of content to be analyzed
f) Training coders and conducting a pilot study
g) Establishing a quantification system
h) Coding of the content according to established definitions
i) Analyzing the collected data
j) Drawing conclusions and searching for indications

4.12.4 Historical Method

Past knowledge is considered to be pre- present knowledge. In so far as anything
has an anticipated history and natural development, past is properly related to the
present.
Check Your Progress 3
Note: 1) Use the space provided below for your Answers.
2) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is the difference between research method and research methodology?
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Introduction to Communication 2. How does review of information help in the formulation ofresearch hypothesis
and questions?
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4.13 DATA
One ofthe goals ofscientific research in science that believes in the notion of positivism
is that a researcher needs to describe the nature of the population i.e. a group or
class of variables, subjects, concepts, or phenomena. In certain research studies, an
entire class or group is investigated like the population counting that happens every
decade. This process of examining every member in a population is called census.
Studying every member of a population is costly and at times not feasible. Thus, to
go ahead with the study, a sample is taken from the population. Asample is a subset
of the populationand represents the entirepopulation. Even though it has appropriate
size, it is inadequate for testing purposes because the results cannot be generalized
to the entire population from where sample was drawn. Thus, the whole purpose of
study fails as such whenever a sample is drawn from a population; researchers need
a method for the estimation of the degree to which the sample differs from the
population. Since a sample does not provide the exact data coming from a population,
error is taken into account while interpreting research results. All research is riddled
with error. Much of the source of error in the behavioral sciences is that the research
is conducted with the respondents i.e. the human beings who are subject to constant
change.
There are two broad types of error present in all research
a) Sampling error- This is the error related to the selection of a sample from a
population
b) Non-sampling error- This is the error created by the aspects of a research
studylike data analysis errors, measurement errors, the influence ofthe research
situation itself, or evenerror froman unknown source that cannever be identified,
controlled or eliminated.
The most controversial aspect regarding sampling is to determine the adequate sample
size so that it is representative of the entire population and brings the preferred level
of assurance in the results. This answer is difficult to answer. However, the sample
selection depends on the either of these factors:
a) Purpose
b) Complexity of project
c) Amount of error tolerated
d) Time constraints involved
e) Financial constraints
f) Previous studies done on the topic
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Research intended for the groundwork for giving general indications usually does Mass Communication
not require a large sample. However, studies designed to answer significant questions Research: Principles and
or studies involving huge sum of currency or which will ultimately affect people’s Process
lives necessitate accuracy and a large sample.
Area of study
The research to be conducted has a specific area of study that can be based on the
topic, location of the researcher and so on. From this area a particular sample is
collected from the entire population using a suitable sampling technique.

4.14 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Sampling is an important part of all research which is often misunderstood by
beginners in research. Asample is collected from the universe or population and if
selected correctly, it can represent the characteristics, opinions and attitudes of the
entire population. The most important part of sampling procedure is to avoid any
kind of bias which means that each respondent should have an equal chance of
being selected. Afew sampling techniques to select samples for your research are
given below:

4.14.1 Non-Probability or Purposive Sampling

The non-probabilityor purposive sampling involves purposefulcollectionofparticular
units of universe that constitute the sample. Non-probabilitysampling never follows
the mathematical probability guidelines. When the units of population are selected
due to easy access, it is known as convenience sampling. This can be given by an
example where advertising agencies are to be taken as a sample then the researcher
can select the agencies according to his convenience. At times, this type of sampling
can give biased results especially when the audience is not homogeneous. There is
another type of purposive sampling known as judgment sampling where the
researcher uses his judgment to select the sample. This sampling is used in qualitative
research where hypotheses are to be developed or relationships between variables
are to be found instead of generalizing them to entire population.
Advantages
- It is easyand convenient to follow
- When the time for the research is limited, this technique is easier to be used
- This is not a costly method for sampling and can bring greater results for less
cost spent
Disadvantages
- The error in sampling cannot be calculated
- The sample selected can bring biased results at times

4.14.2 Probability or Random Sampling

The technique is also known as chance sampling since each unit of the population
has an equal chance of getting selected. In finite population each unit has the same
probability of being selected. It is mostly used when a study is being conducted to
support or refute a significant research question or a hypothesis and the results will
be generalized to the population. Probability sampling generally uses some type of 63
Introduction to Communication systematic selection procedure like lottery method or random number table so that
each and every unit has an equal chance of being selectedAnother type of sampling
known as systematic sampling is used in which every nth subject, unit, or element is
selected from a population. The researcher selects a starting point randomly
.Systematic samples are used frequently in mass media and save time as well as
resources but its limitation is that it doesn’t guarantee representative sample from
the population

Advantages

- Detailed knowledge about the population is not compulsory

- External validity maybe concluded statistically

- Arepresentative group can be easily obtained

- The chances of classification error are eliminated

Disadvantages

- A list of the population has to be compiled.

- A sample that is representative may not exist in all cases and is at times more
expensive than the other methods

4.14.3 Stratified Sampling

When the population is homogeneous and the sample is to be chosen to represent
the population, stratified sampling is used. Homogeneityhelps researchers to reduce
sampling error. The population is divided or stratified into several numbers of non-
overlapping strata called as subpopulations and the units are chosenfrom each stratum
to select the sample. If the sample from the strata is selected in a random way, it is
known as stratified random sampling. For example, research on the attitude towards
two waycable or satellite television. The investigator would state that the respondents
might have higher achievement levels to stratifythe population according to education
and thus divides the population into three education levels: grade school, high school,
and college.

Advantages

- Relevant variables are represented.

- The other populations can be compared too.

- A homogeneous group is chosen for selection.

- Sampling error is reduced.

Disadvantages

- Prior to selection, knowledge of the population is required.

- The procedure is time-consuming and expensive and can be tricky to locate

the sample when incidence is low.

64 - Variables defined strata may not be relevant.

4.14.4 Quota Sampling Mass Communication
Research: Principles and
Process
It is a form of non-probability sampling where the units from each stratum are given
different quotas to be filled and the selection of units depends upon the judgment of
the researcher. The size of each quota is proportionate to the size of the strata in the
population.

4.14.5 Cluster Sampling

This type ofsampling involves the division of the population into various segments or
clusters and taking those clusters instead of selecting individual units or the sample.
The sample size must be larger than the simple random sample for better level of
accuracy. Another kind of sampling known as area sampling is also used which is
quite similar to cluster sampling. When the geographical area for research is large, it
is divided into small clusters of non-overlapping areas and then these small areas are
randomly selected. It is helpful when the list of population is unavailable. It also
makes field interviewing easier as the interview can be taken at many times in the
same location to analyze the media habits of people in a country the research would
be complex and time consuming when individuals are selected as a sample randomly.
With cluster sampling, the state can be divided into districts, or pin-code areas, and
groups of people can be selected from each area.
Advantages
- Only a part of the population needs to be selected.
- Costs reduce when clusters are well elaborated and can be compared to the
population.
Disadvantages
- Sampling errors may occur.
- Clusters may or may not be representing the population.
- Each unit has to be assigned to a specific cluster

4.14.6 Multi-Stage Sampling

This is sampling technique which is followed when research extends to a wide
geographical area like the entire country. Thus, the stages are made and units are
selected like first the states, then the districts, towns and then families. When random
sampling is done at each stage, it is called as multi-stage random sampling. At times,
various above given techniques are used which is called as mixed sampling. The
sample design must be chosen according to the nature of the study and other related
factors.

4.14.7 Questionnaire
A set of questions are framed in the questionnaires and the researcher mails them
with a request to the respondents them after completion. It is widely used method
for carrying out surveys. Usually a pilot study is done, before sending the
questionnaires to test the weaknesses ofthe questionnaire. It must be framed carefully
to gather data and bring effective results.
In schedule, the researchers may go or train some of enumerators to go to the
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Introduction to Communication respondents. They then ask questions and record their replies on the basis of the
answers given by the respondents. As such the enumerators must have the ability to
record the answers properly.
4.14.8 Interviews
P.V. Young said “Interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which a
person enters more or less imaginatively into the life of the comparative stranger.
The interview is a data collection technique that depends on verbal method of
collection of data. This is a direct method of collecting data The interviews can be
personal or telephonic where personal interview is more structured and face to face.
Telephonic interviews are used in industrial surveys in developed regions when the
time for the survey is also limited.

4.15 DATAANALYSISAND PRESENTATION

Rigorous analysis of the collected datais done. There are various computer tools
and softwares available for this. Depending upon different types of research methods,
the analysis also differs and the hypotheses are tested at this stage. There are many
ways to test the hypothesis. Depending upon the nature and objectives of the research
study, the test can be used to test the hypothesis. When the hypothesis is tested and
replicated several times, it can lead to the formation ofa theory i.e. the results can be
generalized. This is the actual success of the research study conducted when the
results can be generalized. When the findings are explained on the basis of some
theory and there is no hypothesis to start with, then this is known as interpretation

4.16 REPORT
After the research study has been conducted; the report needs to be written. The
format is given below:
4.16.1 Abstract
This is a short paragraph at the beginning of the research paper that explains the
contents of the paper concisely and comprehensively. It must be accurate, self-
contained and concise. It must include the basic purpose of the research study and
relevant results or conclusions .

4.16.2 Keywords
These are the key terms or concepts that describe the ideas in a research. Through
these words, the study can be searched in various information sources, in libraries,
on the internet and so on
4.16.3 Introduction
The objectives or research questions ofthe research, explanation ofthe methodology,
its scope and limitations of the study are discussed in the introductory part of the
report. The hypothesis is written downwith the sample size, sampling technique and
research method. Thereafter, extensive review of literature is written.
4.16.4 Findings
The findings must be explained properlywith charts, graphics and illustrations to suit
the information presented.
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4.16.5 Conclusion Mass Communication
Research: Principles and
Process
This section comes in the end and includes the results. The results are put down
clearly and precisely.

4.16. 6 Annexure and Appendices

All other important information like questionnaires, code sheets are included in this
part towards the end of the report. A few more things to be kept in mind while
writing the report. They are

APAstyle: The report must be written inAPAstyle which is the most widely accepted
form of report writing. APA format includes the name of the author(s) title of the
source (book, journal, newspaper, magazine), name of the publisher, year of
publishing, edition of publication, page number. In case it is a website, the date of
retrieval is a also mentioned.

4.16.7 Bibliography/References
The references to the texts read must be given at the end of the report under the
bibliography section.

4.16.8 Citations
Within the text of the report, when writing about some particular terms, the citations
must be given to the references mentioned at the end of the report. These citations
are given ina set ofparentheseswith the name ofthe author and the year ofpublication.

4.17 ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Mass media researchers must follow certain rules according to the ethical obligations
to their subjects and respondents. Cook (1976), discussing the laboratory approach,
offered a code of behavior to represent the norms of research ethics:

Not to involve people in research without their knowledge or consent

Not to force the people to participate

Not to withhold or lie about the true nature of the research from the participant

Not to lead the participant to commit acts that may diminish his or her self-
respect

Not to violate the right to self-determination

Not to expose the participant to any kind of physical or mental stress

Not to invade into the privacy of the participants

Not to withhold benefits from participants in control groups

Not to fail treating research participants fairly and to show them consideration
and respect
67
Introduction to Communication Frey, Botan, and Kreps (2000) have mentioned following summarized moral
principles that must be commonly advocated:

Provide the respondents with free choice

Protect their right to privacy
Benefit them and do not harm them
Treat them with respect

4.18 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we explained the meaning of mass communication research. We started
with the development of mass media research and importance ofresearch objectives
followed by the importance for motivation in research. We discussed about the
scientific approach to mass communication and the importance for empirical
generalizations.
We further discussed about the types of research and when and where they are
used. We also discussed about the research approaches and the important steps to
follow in research such as selection oftopic to review of literature to development of
hypothesis and research objectives and how the data analysis and presentation should
be done. Further, we analysed the research design and the importance of ethics in
research.
It is hoped that the unit will help you in understanding how to approach research in
mass communication.

4.19 KEYWORDS
1) Mass Communication Research: Application of set rules to find out various
aspects of mass communication.
2) Empirical Generalisation: Universaltruth leading to theorisation.
3) Research Ethics: Principles of morality in research process.
4) Research Methodology: Philosophical assumptions of research.
5) Research Design: The basic framework or blue print for doing research.

4.20 FURTHER READINGS

1) Cook, S. (1976). Ethical issues in the conduct of research in social relations. In
C. Sellitz, L. Wrightsman, & S. Cook (Eds.), Social Relations. New York:
Holt, Rinehart.
2) Collins Advanced Dictionary of English. Harper Collins Publishers 2009.
3) Essays, UK. (November 2018). Mass Communication Research Principles
And Process. Retrieved from https://www.ukessays.com/essays/psychology/
the-mass-communication-research-principles-and-process-psychology-
essay.php?vref=1
4) Frey, L.R., Botan, C., & Kreps, G. (2000). Investigating Communication:
68 An Introduction to Research Methods (2nd ed.).U.K.: Needham Heights.
5) Merriam-Webster online dictionary. Research. Retrieved on December 13, Mass Communication
2012 from http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/research Research: Principles and
Process
6) West, R., & Turner, L.H. (2006). Introducing Communication Theory:
Analysis and Application (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
7) Wimmer, R.D., Dominick, J.R. (2011). Mass Media Research- An Introduction
(9th ed). Delhi, DL: Wadsworth Cengage Pvt. Ltd.
8) Wrench, J.S., Thomas, M.C.,Virginia, P., McCroskey, J.C. (2009).
Quantitative Research Methods for Communication (Indian edition). New
York, USA: Oxford University Press.

4.21 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: POSSIBLE

ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1. Hypothesis is a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of
limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation. It is a proposed
statement which requires research for validation. It is tested to be proven either
true or false.
2. It is a stage in research where a phenomenon is described based upon the
knowledge of the phenomena at that point of time. These empirical
generalizations are based on the observations made in the field. It is done with
honesty to ensure accuracy in the data and avoid the situation of bias in the
study.
3. Objectives in research help in defining what the research is focused on, what it
wants to study and why it wants to study. Research objectives help in giving a
concrete shape to the research. They help in defining the ways through which
the research is to be conducted and what tools and techniques will help the
best in completing the research.
Check Your Progress 2
1. When a research is focused on development of theory or a process which is
universal, then the form of research is called fundamental research. Applied
research, on the other hand, involves the use of the theories and testing them in
the social settings. The development of theories always takes place in
fundamental research.
2. When the research is focused on understanding the aspect of what or is dealing
with numericalvalues and statistics, then the approach of research is quantitative
as it is dealing with values and numbers. Qualitative approach is focused more
on understanding the how and why aspect of research. It is more in-depth and
requires critical analysis.
Check Your Progress 3
1. Methodology is a science of studying methods and deals with the question of
“why” to do research in a certain way. It lists what problems need to be
investigated and how the research should proceed. Different methodologies
may have different paradigms to follow. Quantitative methodology uses the
positive paradigm while qualitative researchers use the critical paradigm. In 69
Introduction to Communication contrast, a method is a specific technique to collect and gather information
following the assumptions of the chosen research methodology. Researchers
who choose the positivist paradigm use methods like surveys and experiments
while those who choose the interpretive paradigm choose methods like focus
groups, ethnography, and observation.
2. The review of information helps in understanding how much and how far the
research has been done regarding a specific discipline. The review of
information helps in developing an understanding about the questions that can
be raised to explore newer attributes in the respective field. As a result, research
hypotheses and questions cannot be formulated without proper review of
information.
Check Your Progress 4
1. It divides the population into various segments or clusters for sampling. The
sample must be larger for more accuracy. Thus is useful in conducting field inter
views.
2. a) Take the consent of the participants before involving them in research.
b) Do not violate their privacy.
c) Do not cause physical or mental stress to participants in research.

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