Auditing and Corporate Governance -B.

com 3rd Year

Unit I

Introduction to

Auditing

Meaning and Definition of Auditing

The word Audit is derived from Latin word “Audire” which means ‘to hear’. Auditing is the
verification of financial position as disclosed by the financial statements. It is an examination of
accounts to ascertain whether the financial statements give a true and fair view financial position and
profit or loss of the business. Auditing is the intelligent and critical test of accuracy, adequacy and
dependability of accounting data and accounting statements. Different authors have defined auditing
differently, some of the definition are:

“Auditing is an examination of accounting records undertaken with a view to establishment whether

they correctly and completely reflect the transactions to which they purport to relate.”-L.R.Dicksee

“Auditing is concerned with the verification of accounting data determining the accuracy and reliability of
accounting statements and reports.” - R.K. Mautz

“Auditing is the systematic examination of financial statements, records and related operations to
determine adherence to generally accepted accounting principles, management policies and stated
requirement.” -R.E.Schlosser

Objectives of Auditing
The objectives of auditing are changing with the advancement of business techniques. Earlier it
was only to check the correctness of receipts and payments. The objectives of the auditing have been
classified under two heads:

1) Main objective
2) Subsidiary objectives

Main Objective: The main objective of the auditing is to find reliability of financial position
and profit and loss statements. The objective is to ensure that the accounts reveal a true and fair view
of the business and its transactions. The objective is to verify and establish that at a given date balance
sheet presents true and fair view of financial position of the business and the profit and loss account
gives the true and fair view of profit or loss for the accounting period. It is to be established that
accounting statements satisfy certain degree of reliability. Thus the main objective of auditing is to
form an independent judgement and opinion about the reliability of accounts and truth and fairness of
financial state of affairs and working results.
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Subsidiary objectives: The subsidiary objectives of the auditing are:

1. Detection and prevention of fraud: the one of the important subsidiary objective of
auditing is the detection and prevention of fraud. Fraud refers to intentional
misrepresentation of financial information. Fraud may involve:
a. Manipulation, falsification or alteration of records or documents
b. Misappropriation of assets.
c. Suppression of effect of transactions from records or documents.
d. Recording of transactions without substance.
e. Misapplication of accounting policies
2. Detection and prevention of errors: is another important objective of auditing. Auditing
ensures that there is no mis-statement in the financial statements. Errors can be detected
through checking and vouching thoroughly books of accounts, ledger accounts, vouchers
and other relevant information.

Importance of Auditing
Importance of auditing can be judged from the fact that even those organizations which are
not covered by companies Act get their financial statements audited. It has become a necessity for
every commercial and even non- commercial organization. The importance of auditing can be summed
in following points:

a. Audited accounts help a sole trader in knowing the value of the business for the
purpose of sale.
b. Dispute over correctness of profits can be avoided.
c. Shareholders, who do not know about day-to-day administration of the company ,
can judge the performance of management from audited accounts.
d. It helps management in detecting and preventing errors and frauds.
e. Management gets advice on financial affairs from the auditors.
f. Long and short term creditors depend on audited financial statements while
taking decision to grant credit to business houses.
g. Taxation authorities depend on audited statements in assessing the income tax,
sales tax and wealth tax liability of the business.
h. Audited accounts are useful for the government while granting subsidies etc.
i. It can be used by insurance companies to settle the claims arising on account of loss
by fire.
j. Audited accounts serve as a basis for calculating purchase consideration in case of
amalgamation and absorption.
k. It safe guards the interests of the workers because audited accounts are useful for
settling trade disputes for higher wages or bonus.

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Types of audit
Based on ownership: On the basis of ownership audit can be:-

1. Audit of Proprietorship: In case of proprietary concerns, the owner himself takes the
decision to get the accounts audited. Sole trader will decide about the scope of audit and
appointment of auditor. The auditing work will depend upon the agreement of audit and
the specific instructions given by the proprietor.
2. Audit of Partnership: To avoid any misunderstanding and doubt, partnership audits
their accounts. Partnership deed on mutual agreement between the partners may
provide for audit of financial statements. Auditor is appointed by the mutual consent of all
the partners. Rights, duties and liabilities of auditor are defined in the mutual agreement
and can be modified by the partners.
3. Audit of Companies: Under companies Act, audit of accounts of companies in India
is compulsory. Chartered accountant who is professionally qualified is required for the
audit of accounts of companies. Companies Act 1913 for the first time made it compulsory
for joint stock companies to get their accounts audited from a qualified accountant. A
number of amendments have been made in companies Act, 1956 and 2013 regarding
appointment, duties, qualification, power and liabilities of a qualified auditor.
4. Audit of Trusts: The beneficiaries of the trusts may not have access and
knowledge of accounts of the trust. The trustees are appointed to manage and look after
the property and business of the trust. Accounts of the trust are maintained as per the
conditions and terms of the trust deed. The income of the trust is distributed to the
beneficiaries. There are more chances of frauds and mis-appropriation of incomes. In the
trust deed as well as in the Public Trust Act which provide for compulsory audit of the
accounts of the trust by a qualified auditor. The audited accounts of the trust ensure true
and fair view of accounts of the trust.
5. Audit of Accounts of Co-operative Societies: Co-Operative societies are
established under the Co-Operative Societies Act, 1912. It contains various
provisions for the regulations and the working of these societies. Some of the states
have adopted it without any change, while others have brought certain changes to
it. The auditor of the Co-operative Society should have an expert knowledge of the
particular act under which Co-operative society under audit is functioning. He should also
study by-laws of the society and make sure that the amendments made from time to time in
the by-laws have been duly registered in the Registrar’s Office. Companies Act is not
applicable to the co-operative Societies. The Registrar of co-operative societies shall audit or
cause to be audited by some person authorized by him, the accounts of the society once in
every financial year.

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6. Government Audit: Audit of government offices and departments is covered under
this heading. A separate department is maintained by government of India known as
Accounts and Audit Department. This department is headed by the Comptroller and Auditor
General of India. This department works only for the government offices and departments.
This department cannot undertake audit of non-government concerns. Its working is strictly
according to government rules and regulations.

Based on Time: On the basis of time the audit can be of following types:

1. Interim Audit: When an audit is conducted between two annual audits, such audit is
known as Interim audit. It may involve complete checking of accounts for a part of the year.
Sometimes it is conducted to enable the board of directors to declare an Interim dividend.
It may also be for the purpose of dealing with interim figures of sales.
2. Continuous Audit: The Continuous Audit is conducted throughout the year or at
the regular short intervals of time.
“A continuous audit involves a detailed examination of all the transactions by the
auditor attending at regular intervals say weekly, fortnightly or monthly, during the whole
period of trading.” - T.R. Batliboi
“A continuous audit is one where the auditor or his staff is constantly engaged in
checking the accounts during the whole period or where the auditor or hiss staff attends at
regular or irregular intervals during the period.” -R.C Williams

Advantages of continuous Audit:

a. Complete checking of all the records: Since the audit is carried out
throughout the year, sufficient time is available for detailed checking. Any enquiry
and doubt arising in the course of audit can be tackled in a better way.
b. Proper planning: Auditor can plan his audit work in a systematic manner. He
can evenly spread his work throughout the year. It will improve efficiency of auditor.
c. Early detection of frauds and errors: The work of auditor becomes easier
for detecting frauds and errors, otherwise it will involve more time.
d. Up-to-date accounts: The efficiency of account staff will increase and their
work will be up-to-date and accurate.
e. Valuable suggestions: Continuous audit will help the auditor to understand
the technicalities of business. This will help the auditor to make suggestions for
the improvement of business.

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f. Preparation of interim accounts: Interim accounts can be prepared
without much delay. It will help the Board of Directors to declare interim
dividend.

Disadvantages of Continuous Audit:

a. Expensive: It is an expensive system as it may not suit the budget of small

organizations.
b. Dislocation of routine work: Frequent visits by auditor may dislocate
the smooth flow of office work.
c. Alteration of Figures: after the accounts have been audited, the figures may
be fraudulently altered by the staff.
d. Losing link in the audit work: As the work is not completed
continuously, the auditor may lose continuity and certain questions and inquires
may be left unanswered.
3. Final Audit: Final Audit means when the audit work is conducted after the close of
financial year. A final audit is commonly understood to be an audit which is not
commenced until after end of the financial period and is then carried on until completed.
4. Balance Sheet Audit: Balance Sheet Audit relates to the verification of various items
of balance sheet such as assets, liabilities, reserves and surplus, provisions and profit and
loss balance. The procedure under this audit is to follow a backward process. First the item
is located in balance sheet, and then it is located in original record for the purpose of
verification.

Based on Objectives: On the basis of objectives the audit can be of following types:

1. Internal Audit: It implies the audit of accounts by the staff of the business. Internal
audit is an appraisal activity within an organization for the review of the accounting,
financial and other operations as basis for protective and constructive service to the
management. It is a type of control which functions by measuring and evaluating the
effectiveness of other types of control. It deals primarily with accounting and financial
matters but it may also properly deal with matters of operating nature.
2. Cost Audit: Cost Audit is the verification of the correctness of cost accounts and
adherence to the cost accounting plans. Cost Audit is the detailed checking of costing
system, techniques and accounts to verifying correctness and to ensure adherence to
the objectives of cost accounting.
3. Secretarial Audit: Secretarial Audit is concerned with verification compliance by the
company of various provisions o Companies Act and other relevant laws. Secretarial audit
report includes
a. Whether the books are maintained as per companies act, 2013.

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b. Whether necessary approvals as required from central Government, Company
law board or other authorities were obtained.
4. Independent Audit: Is conducted by the independent qualified auditor. The purpose
of independent audit is to see whether financial statements give true and fair view of
financial position and profits. Mainly it is for safeguarding the interest of owners,
shareholders and other parties who do not have knowledge of day-to-day operations of
organization.
5. Tax Audit: Now-a-days tax audit has become very important to ascertain the accuracy
of tax related documents. Tax audit mostly covers income returns, invoices, debit and
credit notes and various current and fixed assets. Tax audit is an innovation of 21st century.
It has added one more chapter to the practice of auditing. Tax audit ensures the validity
and credibility of tax related documents.

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Planning of Audit and Control
Qualities of an Auditor:
The Auditor must possess the following qualifications and qualities:

1. Only the qualified chartered accountant can be appointed as auditor of a limited company.
2. The auditor must have thorough knowledge of principles and practice of all aspects of
accountancy. He must be familiar with all systems of accountancy in use.
3. He should have adequate knowledge of financial management, industrial administration
and business organization.
4. He must have thorough knowledge of audit case laws as per the various cases decide by
the courts in and outside India.
5. He should be able to understand the technical details of business whose accounts he is
going to audit.
6. An auditor must be honest i.e. He must certify that he does not believe to be true and he
must take reasonable care and skill before he believes what he certifies is true.
7. He must act impartially and not influenced by others, directly or indirectly while discharging
his duties.
8. He should be hard working, systematic and methodical.
9. He must have capacity to hear arguments of others.
10. He should have adequate skills and courage to write audit report correctly clearly
and concisely.
11. He should not disclose the secrets of his client.

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Appointment of an Auditor
Appointment of Auditor in case of Sole proprietor: The appointment of Auditor in case of
sole trader is done by the owner of the business. In case of sole traders the auditor generally acts as an
accountant who also prepares accounts besides checking their accuracy. As He is appointed by an
individual he must get clear instructions from his client in writing as to what he is expected to do. His
work and its scope will depend upon the agreement with his client since the appointment of an auditor
is not under any statute, therefore the rights and the duties will depend upon the agreement.

Appointment of Auditor in case of partnership: The Auditor of a partnership firm is made

by the mutual consent of all the partners

Appointment of Companies Auditors: The provisions regarding appointment of the auditor

are contained in section 139 of Companies Act 2013

1. Appointment of auditor by members [sec 139(1)]:

a. A company shall appoint an individual or a firm as an Auditor at the first
annual general meeting and each subsequent sixth annual general meeting.
b. Such auditors shall hold office till conclusion of sixth annual general meeting.
c. Such appointment shall be placed before the members at each annual
general meeting for ratification.
2. Period for which the appointment is made [sec 139(2)]:

a. An individual can be appointed for a term no more than five years.

b. An audit firm can be appointed for a consecutive term not more than two terms
of five years.
c. An individual or a firm which has completed its term shall not be eligible for
reappointment as auditor in the same company for five years from the
completion of term.
3. Appointment of auditor of Government companies (sec 139 (5)): The comptroller and
Auditor general shall in respect of financial year appoint an auditor duly qualified within 180
days from the commencement of financial year who shall hold office till conclusion of annual
general meeting.
4. Appointment of First Auditor by Board of Directors [sec139 (6)]: The first auditor of a
company other than government company shall be appointed by the board of directors
within 30 days of registration of company. If the board fails to appoint first auditor it shall
inform the members of company who shall appoint auditor within 90 days at extra ordinary
general meeting who shall hold the office till conclusion of first annual general meeting.
5. Appointment of First Auditor of Government Company [sec 139 (7)]: The first Auditor
of a Government Company shall be appointed by Comptroller and Auditor general within 60
days of registration of company. In case of its failure to appoint first auditor, then board of
directors shall appoint auditor within next 30 days. The company shall inform the members if

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the board fails to appoint first auditor who shall appoint the auditor within 60 days at extra
ordinary general meeting who shall the office till conclusion of the first general meeting.
6. Casual vacancy of an Auditor [sec 139 (8)]:
a. The casual vacancy of auditor, except in case of Government Company, shall be
filled by the board of directors within 30 days but if it arises as a result of
resignation of the auditor it shall be approved by company at general meeting
convened within 3 months o recommendation of board. Such auditor shall
hold office till conclusion of next annual general meeting.
b. Casual vacancy in case of Government Company shall be filled by Comptroller
and Auditor General within 30 days if he fails to fill the vacancy, the board
shall fill the vacancy within next 30 days.
Reappointment of a retiring auditor [sec 139 (9)]:
Such an auditor can be reappointed at annual general meeting if.
a. He is not disqualified for reappointment.
b. He has not given notice to company of his unwillingness.
c. A special resolution has not been passed at annual general meeting appointing
some other person or providing expressly that he shall not be reappointed.
All the above is subject to the provisions of sec 139 (1)

Qualifications of an Auditor:
1. A person shall be eligible for the appointment of an auditor of a company only if he is
a chartered accountant.
2. Where a firm including a limited liability partnership is appointed as an auditor of a
company, only the partners who are chartered accountants shall be authorized to act
and sign on behalf of firm.

Disqualifications of an Auditor:
The following persons shall not be eligible for the appointment as an auditor of a
company:

1. An officer or employee of the company.

2. A person who is a partner, or who is in employment or an officer or employee of the
company.
3. A person or a firm who, whether directly or indirectly has business relationship with the
company, or subsidiary of such holding company or associate company of such nature
as may be prescribed.
4. A person whose relative is director or is in the employment of the company as director
or key managerial personnel.
5. A person who is in full time employment elsewhere or a person or a partner of a firm
holding appointment as its auditor, if such persons or partner is at the date of such
appointment or reappointment holding appointment as auditor of more than 20 companies.

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6. A person who has been convicted by a court of an offence involving fraud and a period of 10
years has not elapsed from the date of such conviction.

Remuneration of an Auditor (sec 142)

1. The remuneration of the Auditor of a company shall be fixed in its general meeting or in
such manner as may be determined therein.
2. The Remuneration under sub section (1) shall, in addition to the fee payable to an auditor,
include the expenses, if any, incurred by the auditor in connection with the audit of the
facility extended to him but does not include any remuneration paid to him by any other
services rendered by him at the request of the company.

Removal, Resignation of an Auditor

1. The Auditor appointed under section 139 may be removed from his office before expiry of is
term only by a special resolution of the company after obtaining the previous approval of
the central Government.
2. The Auditor who resigns from the company shall file within a period of thirty from the
date of resignation, a statement in a prescribed form with the company a registrar, the
auditor shall also file such statement with the comptroller and auditor –general indicating
the reasons and other facts as may be relevant with regard to his resignation.

Rights of an Auditor
1. Right to Access books of accounts: Every auditor of a company has right to free
and complete access at all the times to the books, accounts and vouchers of the
company
2. Right to obtain the information and explanation: An auditor is authorized to obtain
such information and explanation as the auditor may think necessary for the performance of
his duty as auditor.
3. Right to receive notice: All notices of the company and other communications relating to
any general meeting of the company shall be forwarded to the auditor of the company. He
is also authorized to attend the meetings and make any statement or explanation with
regard to the accounts audited by him.
4. Right to sign audit report: only the person appointed as auditor of the company, where a
firm so appointed only a partner in the firm practicing in India, may sign the auditor’s report
or authenticate any other document of the company required law to be signed or
authenticated by auditor.
5. Right to seek legal and technical advice: The auditor of a company is entitled to seek
the legal and technical advice which may be needed in the performance of his duties.
6. Right to remuneration: on completion of his work an auditor is entitled to his
remuneration.

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7. Right to be indemnified: for many purposes, an auditor is considered to be an officer the
company. An officer has a right to be indemnified out of the assets of the company against
any liability.

Duties of an Auditor: Duties under section 143 (1):

a. The auditor has a duty to enquire whether loans and advances made by the company
have been properly secured whether the term and the conditions there of are prejudicial
to the interest of the company or its members.
b. Duty to enquire whether assets of the company being shares or debentures and
other securities have been sold at a price less than at which these were purchased.
c. Whether any shares have been allotted for cash, whether cash actually received and
whether the position in the account books and balance sheet is correct, regular and
not misleading.

Duties under section 143 (2):

The auditor has the duty to report the members of the company, the accounts examined
by him and every financial statement to be laid before the company in the general meeting. The
auditor shall state in his report to the best of his information and knowledge, the said accounts and
financial statements whether give a true and fair view or not, of the state of company’s affairs

Duties under section 143(3):

1. He has the duty to sought and obtain all information and explanation which are necessary
for his audit.
2. He has a duty to ensure that the books of accounts as required by law have been kept by
the company.
3. He has a duty to see whether the company has adequate internal financial control systems in
place and their operative effectiveness.
4. He has a duty to ensure whether the company’s balance sheet and profit and loss account
dealt within the report or in agreement with the books of account and returns.

Liabilities of an Auditor:
The liabilities of an auditor can be summed under following heads:

1. Civil liabilities
2. Criminal Liabilities

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1. Civil Liabilities:

(I) Liability for Negligence: The liability of an auditor arises where it is proved that his
client has suffered a loss due to his professional negligence. The auditor may be held personally liable,
if it is proved, that had he exercised reasonable care and skill, he must have discovered the
discrepancy. In a case it was held that if an auditor fails to show as much skill and diligence as is
expected of a man of ordinary prudence, he must suffer the consequences.

(ii) Liability for misfeasance: According to section (340), the court may assess
damages against delinquent director and other officers of the company, including an auditor for
misfeasance or breach of trust. In case of an auditor who also comes within the definition of officer in
section 2 (59) for purpose of the section, if he is guilty of neglect of duty or misfeasance, so as to cause
loss of company in any way, proceedings may be taken under this section against him either
independently or other officers or jointly with them. This section provides a simple way to the company
to recover damages where an auditor or any other officer of the company is guilty of misfeasance. The
time limit for bringing an action is 5 years.

2. Criminal Liabilities:

i) Mis-statement in prospectus section 34: Where an auditor makes false

statement with material particulars in returns, reports, prospectus or other statements knowingly it
to be false or omits any material facts knowing them to be false, he shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a minimum term of 6 months extendable to 10 years.

ii) Non compliance by auditor with section 143 and 145: If the auditor does
not comply with section 143 and 145 regarding making his report or signing or authentication of any
document and makes willful neglect on his part he shall be punishable with imprisonment up to 1 year
and with fine not less than twenty thousand extendable to five lakhs.

In case an auditor knowingly or willfully with the intension to deceive the company or
shareholders or creditors or tax authorities, he shall be punishable with imprisonment up to 1 year and
fine not less than 1 lakh extendable up to twenty five lakhs.

iii) Failure to assist in the investigation section 217 (6): Where the central
Government appoints an inspector to investigate the affairs of the company, it is the duty of the
auditor to preserve and produce to the inspector all books and papers relating to the company. If an
auditor fails to assist the inspector in investigation he shall be punishable with imprisonment up to 1
year and with fine not less than twenty five thousand extendable to 1 lakh

iv) Penalty for falsification of books section 336: Any officer including auditor of
a company which is being wound up, with an intention to defraud or deceive any person, destroys,
mutilates, alters, falsifies any books, papers or securities. He shall be punishable with imprisonment for

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a term not less than 3 years extendable to 5 years and with fine not less than 1 lakh extendable to
three lakhs.

V) Penalty for deliberate act of commission or omission section 448: If any

officer including auditor of the company deliberately make a statement in any return, report,
certificate, balance sheet, prospectus etc. which false or which contains omission of material facts he
shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term not less than 6 months extendable to 10 years and
fine not less than amount involved in fraud extendable to 3 times of such amount.

Audit Programme
Meaning and Definition
Audit programme represents an outline of procedure to be followed to support an opinion on
financial statements. It is the auditor’s plan of action. It provides a plan of work of examination and a
set of audit procedures.

According to Megis, An audit programme is a detailed plan of the auditing work to be

performed, specifying the procedure to be followed in verification of each item in the financial
statements and giving the estimated time required.

According to holmes, Audit programme is a flexible planned procedure of examination. Thus

audit programme is a planning of audit by auditor so that he may be able to complete his work in a
diligent manner and complete the work without loss of time.

Advantages of audit programme:

Some of the important advantages of thee audit programme are:

1. It enables the auditor to keep in touch with the work done and general progress of
the work.
2. The auditor can be certain that the audit staff will cover whole of the ground.
3. It will help the audit assistants to know their duties.
4. It helps to increase the efficiency of audit assistants.
5. Fixing of the responsibility of audit assistants becomes easier.
6. It provides a check against the possibility of certain important items requiring
verification which are being omitted.
7. Continuity is not lost even if the person on the duty is changed.

Audit Note book:

Audit note book is a diary or register maintained by audit staff to note errors, doubtful
quarries and difficulties. The purpose is to note down the various points which need to be either

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clarified with the client or the chief editor. The Audit note book is used for recording important points
to be included in the auditor’s report.

Contents of an Auditor’s Note Book:

1. A list of books of accounts maintained.
2. The names, duties and responsibilities of principal officers.
3. The particulars of missing receipts and vouchers.
4. Mistakes and errors detected.
5. The points which need clarifications and explanations.
6. The points deserving the attention of the auditor.
7. Various totals and balances.
8. The Points to be a part of auditor’s report.

Advantages of Audit Note book:

Some of the advantages of the audit note book are.

1. It ensures the uniformity and helps in knowing the amount of work performed.
2. Important matters relating to the audit work may be easily recalled.
3. Facilities and preparation of the audit report.
4. In case of the assistant in charge is changed, no difficulty is faced in continuing the
incomplete work.
5. The responsibility of the errors undetected can be fixed on clerk concerned.
6. The audit note book shows the extent of the interest and pain taken by the audit
staff. It helps in their appraisal.
7. It ensures that the audit programme has been sincerely followed. Deviations can
be noticed.
8. It is reliable evidence in the court of law, If an auditor has to defend himself.

Audit working papers

Meaning and Definition
The term audit working papers designate the files of analysis, summaries, comments and
correspondence built by an auditor during the course of the field work of an audit engagement. These
papers contain essential facts about the accounts which are under audit.

According to Arnold W. Johnson, ‘’ Audit working papers are the written private
materials, which an auditor prepares for each audit. They describe the accounting information which
he receives from his client, the methods of examination used, the conclusions (and reasons thereof)
and the financial statements.”

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According to Jack C. Robertson, “Working papers are auditor’s own evidence of
compliance with generally accepted auditing standards and of the decisions respecting all procedures
necessary in the circumstances unique to the audit engagement.”

They consist of draft copies of trial balances, adjusting entries, accounts analysis, schedules
of debtors and creditors summaries of reconciliation statements, certificates of official comments,
copies of correspondence between auditors and debtors, creditors and bank, detailed schedule of
items like depreciation, inventories previous audit reports, important quarries with explanation audit
programme and other important materials.

Objectives of Audit working papers

The working paper serves following purposes:

1. They represent the volume of work performed by the auditor and his staff, which helps in
preparing the report.
2. They show the extent of adherence to accounting principles and auditing standards.
3. They are useful as evidence against the charge of negligence.
4. They act as guide for subsequent examinations.
5. They enable the auditor to know the weakness of the internal check system in operation
as also the accounting system.
6. They assist the auditor in coordinating and organizing the work of audit clerks.
7. They assist in planning and performance of audit work.

Internal Control

Meaning and Definition

Internal control is a broad term with a wide coverage. It covers the control of whole
management system. Internal control involves a number of checks and controls exercised in a business
to ensure its efficient and economic working.

According to The American Institute of Certified Public Accountants, “Internal control

comprises of the plan of organization and all the coordinate methods and measures adopted
within a business to safeguard its assets, check the accuracy and reliability of its accounting data
to promote operational efficiency and to encourage adherence to prescribed managerial
policies.”

The system of internal control can be defined as, “the plan of organization and all the methods
and procedures adopted by the management of an entity to assist in achieving the management’s
objectives of ensuring, as far as practicable, the orderly and efficient conduct of its business.”

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In brief it can be stated that internal control includes not only internal check and
internal audit but the whole system of controls, financial and otherwise, established by the
management in order to carry on the business of the company in an orderly manner, to safeguard its
assets and to secure as far as possible the accuracy and reliability of records.

Objectives/Need of the Internal Control:

1. Providing reliable data: Business decisions require accurate information o run the business
efficiently. Examples of significant areas where management requires reliable information
are fixation of selling prices production directives depending upon requirements etc. with
the efficient internal control in place the accurate, required and reliable information can be
provided for taking the important decisions and efficient performance of the activities.
2. To promote operational Efficiency: the controls within an organization are meant to prevent
unnecessary duplication of efforts, protect against waste in all aspects of business and
discourage other types of inefficient use of resources so as to promote the operational
efficiency.
3. To encourage adherence to the prescribed policies: the system of internal control is meant
to provide reasonable assurance that procedures and rules of various institutes are followed
by company personnel.
4. Safeguarding assets and records: the physical assets of the company can be stolen, misused
or accidently destroyed if not properly protected by adequate controls. The internal control
helps to safeguard the physical assets and to secure the accuracy and reliabilities of the
records of the company.

Internal Check
Meaning and Definition:
Internal check is the valuable part of the internal control. It is an arrangement of the duties of
members of staff in such a manner that the work performed one person is automatically and
independently checked by the other.

According to F.R. M.e paula, “internal check means practically a continuous internal
audit Carried on by the staff itself, by means of which the work of each individual is independently
checked by other members of the staff.”

According to D.R. Davar, “ Internal check is a system or method introduced with defined
instructions given to staff as to their sphere of work with a view to control and the verification of their
work and also the maintenance of accurate records as the ultimate aim.

According To Joseph Lancaster, “The internal check is a method of organizing the entire
operations, office, warehouse, factory and the duties to the respective staff so that frauds and
irregularities are impossible without collusion.”

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All the definitions of internal check give a common idea about system organized within the
concern itself, wherein the work of one employee is automatically checked up by the other and the
possibility of error or fraud is reduced to the minimum.

Objectives of internal check:

1. To exercise moral pressure over the staff.
2. To ensure that the accounting system produces reliable and adequate information.
3. To provide protection to the resources of the business against fraud, carelessness and
in efficiency.
4. To distribute work in such a manner that no business is left unrecorded.
5. To allocate duties and responsibilities of each clerk in such a way that he may held
responsible for particular fraud or error.
6. To increase the efficiency of clerks because the allocation of duties is based on the principle
of division of labour.
7. To detect errors and frauds easily if it is committed, because in an efficient internal check
system, there is a provision for independent checking.

Advantages of Internal Check:

1. Proper division of work: internal check entails a proper and rational distribution of work
among the members of staff of the enterprise keeping in view their individual qualifications,
experience and area of specialization.
2. Detection of errors and frauds: since no individual worker is allowed to handle a job
completely from the beginning to the end, and the work of each clerk is automatically
checked by the other, this helps in the early detection and discovery of errors and frauds.
3. Increased efficiency coupled with economy: A good system of internal check increases the
efficiency of work among the staff and leads to overall economy.
4. Convenience to auditor: where an organization is operating the system of internal check,
the statutory auditor may conveniently avoid detailed checking of the transactions. He may
apply a few tests here and there and can relieve himself from detailed checking.
5. Accuracy of the accounts can be relied upon: If there is a good system of internal check
the owner of the concern may rely upon the genuineness and accuracy of the accounts.
6. Increase in Profits: overall efficiency and economy in operations result in more profits- thus
ensuring larger dividends for the owners or shareholders.

Internal Check With Regard To Sales:

The system of internal check regarding sales should take care of following0:

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1. On receipt of the order, it should numbered and preserved in Orders Received Book with
full particulars.
2. The Despatch Department should be given a copy of the order with necessary particulars.
3. The Despatch Department should take steps to pack the goods as per order.
4. The statement of goods as prepared by the Despatch Department should be checked with
the customer’s order and then invoice will be prepared in triplicate by means of carbon
papers.
5. A responsible official should check the invoice particularly the rates charged and calculations
made.
6. With the help of the copy of invoices entries should be made in Sales Day Book.
7. On dispatch of the goods records should be made in the Goods Outward Book.
8. Two copies of the invoice may be sent to customer who will return one of them after signing
it. It will serve the purpose of delivery note. Third copy will be retained for further
reference.
9. Entries should be made in Goods inward Book for all the goods returned by the customers.
Credit notes should be prepared and should be duly checked and initialed by the responsible
official.
10. With the help of credit notes, records should be made in the Sales Return Book.

Internal Check With Regard To Purchases:

1. Requisition: the procedure for issuing purchase requisitions should be specified. The
head of the department, who is need of goods, should fill a requisition slip duly signed
and then should send to the purchase department. The details about the quality,
quantity and the time by which the goods must be supplied be clearly mentioned in the
requisition slip.
2. Enquiry: Purchases department makes an enquiry about terms and conditions of the
purchases from different suppliers for these purposes tenders are generally invited. But,
who shall open and accept the tenders, should be clearly specified. As rule lowest tender
should be accepted and decision be taken.
3. Purchase Order: the purchase department places orders which should be recorded in
the purchase order book. Four copies of purchase order should be prepared. One copy
will be sent to vendor, the second to the store department, third to the accounting
department and fourth will be retained by the purchase department itself. A responsible
officer should review the purchase order, before signing by the authorized person or
director.
4. Receipt of goods: on receipt of goods, the purchase department should properly
inspect them, and after an entry in the goods inward (receipt) book, the same should be
sent to the stores. Concerned department should be informed about the receipt of
goods.
5. Making the payments: the purchase department should thoroughly check the invoices
and send the same to accounting department for payment. The accounting department
should compare the invoice with the purchase order and incoming inspection report and
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should verify the calculations. The accounts department should enter the invoice in
purchase book. Only responsible official should draw cheque for the payment of invoice.
At the time of signing, a signing authority must verify that correct payment is made.

Internal check with regard to fixed assets:

1. A proper authority should be designated for the sanction of capital expenditure. The
authority may be given to managing director, a factory manager or a committee may
be set up for this purpose.
2. A proper authority should be designated even for sale of fixed assets, transfer or even
for discarding of an asset.
3. Proper accounting records in respect of fixed assets should be maintained and it
should be ensured that the proper accounting distinction is observed between capital
and review expenditure.
4. There should be a periodic inspection of assets.
5. A fixed asset register must be maintained giving details of all the fixed assets. In this
register description of the assets, their cost and location should be mentioned.
Management should also ensure that all the fixed assets are verified physically from
time to time.
6. Perfect arrangements should be made to ensure that fixed assets are properly
maintained and applied in the service of the company.
7. Where the fixed assets are transferred between branches or members of the sale
group, proper arrangements in respect of their pricing, depreciation and accounting
should be made.
8. Depreciation rates are to be authorized and evidenced and which persons are to be
responsible for carrying out and checking the necessary calculations.
9. Lastly it should be seen that these fixed assets should be adequately insured.

Internal check with regard to cash transactions

CASH RECEIPTS:

1. There should be a separate clerk known as cashier to deal with the receipts of cash.
Immediately upon receipts of cash a rough record of the amount should be made. The
cashier should not be authorized to keep cash with him. He should not be allowed to
make expenditure out of it and to make entries in the ledger an d other books of
prime entry.
2. All receipts should be banked daily. From time to time the bank reconciliation
statements should be prepared to reconcile bank and cash balances.
3. Bank pay- in-slips should not be prepared by the same person who is incharge of
making actual deposits in the bank.

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4. All receipts should be acknowledged by means of printed receipts. Counter-foils of all
the receipts issued should be properly maintained. Unused receipt must be kept with
some responsible officer.
5. Spoiled receipts should be cancelled and not torn off. If some alterations is made in the
receipts already written, it should be properly initialed.
6. Copies of receipts previously issued must be marked duplicate.
7. Some responsible persons of the firm should verify the balance of cash by carrying out a
surprise physical check from time to time.

CASH PAYMENTS:

1. The person in charge of making payments should have no connection with the receipts
of cash.
2. All payments should, as far as possible be by chance cheques excluding petty cash
payments. The cheques drawn for payment should be order cheques and as far
as practicable they should be crossed.
3. Arrangements should be made to ensure that the vouchers supporting payments cannot
be presented for the payments twice, such vouchers should be stamped as paid before
the cheques are signed.
4. An official should check up the statements received from creditors and verify with the
invoices and ledger accounts only after proper verifications cheques should be drawn in
favour of the creditors.
5. For sanctioning the payments of special nature, only directors and senior officers should
be empowered.
6. Bank reconciliation statements should be prepared to reconcile bank and cash balances
from time to time by some authorities other than the cashier.
7. Bank cheques must be held under lock and key with a responsible officer.
8. Receipts duly signed and stamped should be obtained for each payment.
9. Receipts so obtained should be properly arranged and maintained through proper
filing system.
10. To ensure the availability of cash discounts, monthly or periodic payments should be
made on the fixed dates.

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Vouching and Audit of Financial Statements
Vouching
Meaning and Definition
Vouching is concerned with examining documentary evidence to ascertain the authenticity
of entries in the books of accounts. In other words it is an inspection by the auditor of evidence
supporting the transactions made in the books. Vouching is a technique used by an auditor to judge the
truth of entries appearing in the books of accounts. Some important definitions of vouching are:

“Vouching means testing the truth of items appearing in the books of original
entry.” – J.R. Batliboi

“Vouching is an act of comparing entries in the books of accounts with

documentary evidence in support thereof.” - Dicksee

From the above definitions we can conclude that vouching is a technique in which an
auditor verifies authenticity and authority of transactions recorded in the books and on the basis of
which he submits a report, indicating that accounts are correct, free from errors or fraud and complete.

Objectives of Vouching:
1. All the transactions which are connected with the business have been recorded in the books
of accounts properly.
2. To verify that all transactions recorded in the books of accounts are supported by
documentary evidence.
3. The vouchers which support the entries are legally valid from the view point that they
are authentic, addressed to the business and properly dated.
4. To verify that no fraud or error has been committed while recording the transaction in books
of accounts.
5. The vouchers have been processed carefully through various stages of internal check system.
6. While recording the transaction whether distinction has been made between capital and
revenue items.
7. Whether accuracy has been observed while totaling, carrying forward and recording an
amount in the account.

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Vouching of cash Transactions:

How to vouch various cash receipts (Receipt side)

1. Cash sales: In vouching cash sales, cash register should be fully checked with carbon copies of
cash memos. Then, the auditor should verify the daily deposits of cash received in the bank
dates of the cash and the date on which the receipts are recorded in cash book must be same.
Where the cash memos are cancelled, all copies including the original copy duly cancelled
should be kept in the book. Where a company has a discount policy, if more discount is
allowed in a transaction it must be approved by a responsible officer.
2. Cash received from the debtors: The auditor should verify amount received from debtors from
the counterfoils or carbon copies of the receipt issued to the customers. All these receipts
should be serially numbered. Amount should be entered in the cash book on the day when
received. Discount allowed to customers should be authorized by a responsible officer.
Sometimes correspondence made with customer can also be verified.
3. Loans: While vouching the loans received, the terms and the conditions contained in the
agreement should be verified. If the loan is secured what security has been offered, whether the
fact has been disclosed in the balance sheet.
4. Bills receivable: Bills receivable book maybe verified because the various details regarding the
bills matured and discounted are available in it. Auditor should check the amount received
with the bank statement. Some bills might have become due but no amount has been
received. Whether the entry for the dishonor of such bill has been made.

A verification of the bills discounted should be made. Whether, entry for discount has
been made. Such bills should appear as contingent liability in the balance sheet; if the date of
maturity is after the date of balance sheet.

5. Sale of Investment: If the sales have been affected through a bank, the auditor should examine
the bank advice to know the various details. Sometimes the investment is sold through the
broker. Broker’s sold note or commission should be examined to verify the sale proceeds and
commission charged by the broker.
If the investments are sold at cum-dividend price, auditor should see that proper
apportionment has been made between capital receipts and revenue receipts.
Sometimes the investments are made against specified funds. Profit or loss on sale of
such investments must be transferred to such funds account.
6. Sale of Fixed Assets: Sale of fixed assets may be vouched with minute book of board of
directors, correspondence, agents’ sale account and sale contract. It should be seen that
proper account has been credited. Any profit arising on the sale of asset shall be credited to
revenue account which is not available for distribution of dividends. If any expense on the sale
of assets is paid, the sale proceeds of the asset should be reduced by such amount and the
balance should be credited to asset account. It must be seen that sale of fixed assets has been
sanctioned by the authorized person or committee.

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Vouching of cash payments (payment side):
1. Cash Purchases: good purchased are actually received by store keeper. Cash memos can be
compared with goods inward book to verify the goods received. Only the net amount (after
trade discount) should be entered in the books.
2. Payment to creditors: Should be examined with the receipts issued by the creditors. The
receipts should indicate the purpose for which the payment has been made. If the
payment is made in full and final settlement of account, the balance should be accounted
for as discount received. Where the payment is made in excess of the bill, either the excess
payment is in advance or the payment is made by mistake, which should be recovered back
from the creditor.
3. Bills payable: Bills payable honored on the date of maturity and is returned by the payee
after receiving the payment. These bills should be cancelled after being paid. Bills payable
paid can be vouched with bills book. If the payment is made by the bank, bank statement
or pass book can be examined to verify the payment of bill
4. Wages: wages paid and calculated for various months should be compared. If the wages of
particular month differ from the preceding month, the auditor should look into the reasons
for difference. Random checking of wages calculations should be made. The auditor should
see the proper record is maintained for unpaid wages, deductions for any advance taken
by the worker should also be verified, and deductions made from the wages should also be
entered in the proper account. Special attention should be given to the payments made to
casual workers.
5. Payment Of Salaries: in vouching the payment of salaries following points are important
a. Auditor should check salary register with the entries made in the cash book
b. He should examine carefully alterations in the amount of deductions on
account of fines, funds, loans, insurance etc.
6. Purchase of Investment: the auditor should compare the investment purchased with
Broker’s Bought Note. If the possible, physical verification of investments should be made.
Investments must be in the name of the company. Where the investments are purchased at
cum-interested price, interest included in the purchase price should be debited in the
interest account and the balance in investment account. Later on when the interest is
received on the investment, it should be credited in the interest account.
7. Rent paid: the auditor should verify the payment of rent from the agreement. The ret
voucher should be supported by rent receipt from the landlord. It should be seen that
payment of rent is sanctioned by responsible officer.
8. Loans: Auditor should be that the loan voucher should be supported by the receipt given
by the party. Further details regarding terms and condition of the loan can be verified
from the loan agreement. It should be seen that installment of loan along with interest are
received in time. Mortgage Deeds and other documents should also be examined.
9. Interest on Loan: Auditor should verify that rate of interest on loan does not differ from the
terms and conditions of loan agreement. Debenture interest can be verified from

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debenture interest book. All the payments of interest must be supported by vouchers and
receipts.

Vouching of Trading Transactions

Vouching of purchase book:

The main aim vouching of purchases book is to see that all purchase invoices are entered in
purchases book and the goods entered in the purchases book are entered are actually received by the
business.

While vouching credit purchases the auditor should examine and see the following points.
i. There should be proper record for all purchase orders. A duplicate
copy of the order is kept in office for record.
ii. A copy of purchase order shall be send to the Accounts Department.
iii. All goods received should be recorded on goods received note; a copy
of it should be sent to Accounts Department.
1. The auditor should see that only credit purchases of the goods are recorded
in purchase book.
2. The purchases book can be verified from purchase invoices, copies of orders
placed, goods received note, goods inward book, copies of challans from
suppliers.
3. The quantity mentioned in the invoice must be same as is shown in the purchase
order.
4. The price charged by the supplier must be as per quotation/pricelist of the
supplier.
5. The supplier bill must be in the name of business and for the period under audit.
6. While vouching the purchase vouchers, each voucher should be stamped or
initialed after examination, so that it could not be produced again.
7. Any purchase, made not for the purpose of business of the client, must not be
debited to purchase account.
8. Duplicate invoices must not be entered in the purchase book if original invoices
have already been recorded.
9. The auditor should be more careful while vouching the purchase made in th first
and last month of the accounting period, because sometimes the purchase of last
year may be included in the purchases of first month of current year or
purchases of the last month of current year may be recorded in the next.

Vouching of Purchase Returns

While vouching the purchase returns the following points should be taken into consideration by
the auditor.

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1. He should see that a Debit note has been sent to the supplier or Credit note
has been received from the supplier.
2. The quantity returned as per the return note must correspond with storekeeper’s
record, return outward register and gatekeeper’s outward register.
3. The amount showed in the credit note should be verified.
4. He should be careful about the recordings of purchases return in the current
year. Sometimes the profits of current year may be manipulated by recording
current year’s purchases return in the subsequent year.
5. The purchases return of the first month and last month of the Accounting year
should be vouched carefully, to detect any manipulation of amounts.

Vouching of Credit Sales

1. The sales register should be examined with copies of sales invoices. The sale of
capital items should not be recorded in the sales book, otherwise the profits will
be inflated.
2. Test check should be applied on the calculations made in sale invoices.
3. The totaling and the castings of sales book should be verified.
4. Sales Tax, duties collected thorough sales invoices must be recorded
under separate accounts.
5. It should be verified that all sales invoices are prepared on the basis of challans
and then sales invoices are entered in sales book and from there, posted to their
respected accounts.
6. Sales made in the current year must be recorded under that year and shall not be
treated as sales of subsequent year.
7. All cancelled sales invoices must be kept together for verification by auditor, Who
should see that cancelled invoices are properly treated in the books.
8. The statement of accounts should be verified by getting confirmations from the
customers.

Vouching of Sales Return

The Auditor should pay special attention to the following while vouching the sales return

1. Date on which the goods are actually retuned.

2. Credit note or Debit note of sales return.
3. Gatekeeper’s receipt book.
4. Return inward register.
5. Stores records.
6. Corresponding entry for the return of goods in customer’s account.
7. Goods returned should form the part of closing stock at cost price or market price
whichever is less.

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Vouching of Goods sent on consignment basis
The goods sent on consignment basis by principal to his agent should not be considered as sale.
Only when the goods are sold by the consignee, the entry for sale should be made in the books. The
goods sent on consignment still lying with the consignee should be taken into closing stock. A separate
book should be maintained to show the record of goods sent on consignment basis. At the end of the
year an account sale is received by the consignee, indicating the goods sold by him and balance of
closing stock of goods sent on consignment basis. The auditor should verify the goods sent on the
consignment basis from proforma invoices, goods outward register, correspondence with consignee and
account sales.

Investigation
Meaning and Definition
Investigation involves inquiry into facts behind the books and accounts into the technical,
financial and economic position of the business. Investigation is a critical examination of the books and
accounts with a specific objective.

“The term investigation implies an examination of the accounts of a business for some
special purpose.” - Spicer and Pegler

“An investigation is an examination of accounting records undertaken for a special

purpose; in fact, it is an audit of which the scope the scope is limited or extended in accordance with
requirements of the particular purpose. Its object is usually to discover and display the facts in such a
manner as will enable the parties for whom it is undertaken to draw conclusions and make their
decisions accordingly.”

Features Of investigation
1. It is critical examination and is based on Suspicion on the state of affairs to be investigated.
2. It may even extend to the examining of individuals like Directors, Auditors and other officers
of the company
3. It does not confine itself only with the financial aspects but technical, political, economical
and managerial aspect are also accounted for.
4. The investigation is normally conducted with certain specific objectives.
5. With the predefined objectives, the scope and the nature of investigation may be limited or
extended.
6. The investigator submits his report of investigation only to his client, who appoints him.
7. In the investigation report, the factual information is given in an analytical and descriptive
manner.
8. No specific rules and provisions are framed for the investigation. Investigation is voluntary
and contractual in nature, except in companies.

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9. It suggests the outlines for the future course of action on a particular problem.

Difference between Investigation and Audit

1. An Audit is carried out to ensure that the balance Sheet and the profit and Loss A/C show
a true and fair picture. But, on the other hand, an investigation is carried out on for some
predefined purpose e.g. to know the financial position of the company or its earning
capacity.
2. An Audit is limited only for an examination of the accounts of the concern but the
investigation covers not only examination of accounts, it involves probing deep into the
matter and looking for required information far behind the books whenever necessary.
3. The Investigation is not legally compulsory but audit is statutorily compulsory in case of joint
stock companies.
4. Auditing can only be conducted by a chartered accountant but it is not necessary that an
investigator must be a Chartered accountant.
5. An audit is always carried out on behalf of the owner of the business, but the investigation
may be conducted on behalf of the proprietor of the business, in case he suspects any
fraud, or on behalf of the outside parties.
6. An audit always relates to a period of 1 year or 6 months but the investigation may cover
several years.
7. Investigation is done when the books of accounts are already subject to a regular audit i.e.
the investigation starts where the audit ends.
8. Unlike auditor, an investigator is not bound by accounting conventions, policies and
disclosure requirements.

Verification
Meaning and Definition
Verification means the procedures normally carried out at the year end, to confirm the
ownership, valuation and existence of items at the balance sheet date. In simple words verification
means, ‘proving the truth or conformation.’

“The verification of assets implies an enquiry into the value, ownership and title,
existence and possession, and the presence of any charge on the assets.” - Spicer and Pegler

Valuation
Meaning and Definition
Valuation means to set the exact value of an asset on the basis of its utility. Valuation forms an
important part of the everyday audit. It is because the accuracy of balance sheet depends much upon
how correctly the estimation of the value of various assets and liabilities has been made. Both over-

27
valuation and under- valuation of assets and liabilities would exhibit wrong picture of the financial
affairs of a concern. The auditor has to see that the assets and liabilities appearing in balance sheet
have been exhibiting their proper value i.e. neither they have been over-valued nor under- valued.

Methods of Valuation:
1. Cost price: The price which is paid for the acquisition of an asset is known as cost price, of
course the expenses incurred in the purchase of an asset and its installation in its cost price.
2. Market value: A value which an asset can fetch in the market when sold is known or
termed as Market value.
3. Replacement Value: It is a price at which a particular asset can be replaced. The assets such
as commission, freight etc. is included in such a value.
4. Book Value: A value at which an asset appears in the books of accounts is known as its book
value. It is usually the cost less depreciation written off so far.
5. Going Concern value or Conventional value or token value or Historical value: It is
equivalent to the cost less reasonable amount of depreciation written off. No notice is taken
of any fluctuation in the price of the assets. Reason for this is that these assets are acquired
for use in the business and not for sale.
6. Residual Value: A value which will be realized in the market and received from the sale of
an asset it is known as its realizable Value.
7. Scrap Value: A value which is obtained from the asset if it is sold as scrap.

Verification and Valuation of Different assets

For the purpose of convenience we may divide the assets in the following categories

1. Intangible Assets. Viz., goodwill, patents, trademarks, copyrights etc.

2. Fixed Assets viz., land and building, plant and machinery, furniture and fixtures etc.
3. Floating assets viz., cash in hand and at bank, BR, stock in trade, sundry letters etc.

Intangible assets:

1. Goodwill:
Verification: Where goodwill has been purchased along with a running business,
the same should be verified from the agreement with the vendor showing the price paid
for it. But when the amount is not specially fixed, the goodwill is the amount for the
purchase of the business over the net assets taken over.

It should be verified that the goodwill has been recorded in the books of
accounts only when some consideration in money or its equal has been paid for.

In case of partnership the auditor should verify the changes made in the goodwill
account from time to time on the basis of provisions made I the partnership deed.

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Valuation: Goodwill should be valued at a cost less amounts written off.

2. Patents:
Verification: The Auditor should examine the patents with the help of certificate
which have granted such patent rights. The auditor should also ensure that the patents
are registered in the name of client

Valuation: patents must be valued at cost less depreciation. The patents should
be written off in a period of sixteen years after which the right automatically lapses
unless the term is extended.

3. Copyrights:
Verification: In verifying the copyrights, auditor should inspect the
agreement between the auditor and the publisher.
Valuation: Generally the value of the copyright is not stable because copyrights
lose their value by passage of time. In the balance sheet copyright must be shown a cost
less amounts written off from time to time.

4. Trademarks:
Verification: Trademarks can be verified by examining the assignment deed duly
endorsed by the office of the registrar of trademarks. In case they have been purchased
from others, the auditor should vouch the expenditures incurred in connection with
their acquisition e.g. registration fees, payments made to designers etc.
Valuation: The valuation method is the most suitable method valuation of
trademarks. it should be seen that trademarks are properly valued and shown in
balance sheet.

Fixed Asset:
1. Freehold land and building:
Verification: The auditor should examine the title deeds to ensure that they are
in the name of the client. Any addition or sale during the year should be carefully
examined.
Valuation: Freehold land being a no depreciable asset is generally shown at cost
which includes the purchase price, broker’s commission, registration fees, legal charges
etc. Any payments made to Municipality Corporation or improvement trust as
developmental charges should be included in the cost. If market realizable value is
taken as basis for valuation of freehold land the same should be disclosed clearly in the
balance sheet
Valuation of buildings: Buildings should always be valued at cost less
depreciation at a reasonable rate. Actually, the market or realized value of the buildings

29
keeps on fluctuating. Therefore, it should be taken into account while valuing the
buildings.
2. Leasehold property:
Verification: The auditor should inspect the lease agreement to find out the
value and duration. The auditor should see that lease agreement is registered with the
registrar and certificate testing to the validity of the same.

Valuation: Leasehold land and buildings are to be valued at cost less

depreciation which should be sufficient writes it off completely during the period of
lease

3. Plant and machinery:

Verification: Auditor should commence the process of verification by obtaining
a schedule of plant and machinery certified by responsible officer of the concern.

Valuation: For valuing the plant and machinery, the auditor should prepare a list
of each machine from the plant register and should get the list certified by the woks
manager. The auditor should see the plant and machinery account is shown in the
balance sheet at cost less depreciation after making proper adjustments regarding new
purchases of machinery and sale of older machinery during the year.

Floating Assets:
1. Cash in hand:
Verification: The auditor should verify the cash in hand by actually counting it
on the date of balance sheet.
2. Cash at Bank:
Verification: The auditor should verify cash at bank by comparing the balance
shown in cash book and pass book. In verifying the bank balance the auditor should also
prepare bank reconciliation statement to ascertain the correct position.
3. Stock in trade:
Verification: It is practically impossible for auditor to physically verify each item
of the stock in hand because of various reasons i.e. limited time and the lack of
technical knowledge. Therefore the auditor has to rely upon test checks to ascertain the
accuracy of stock in trade
Valuation: The stock in trade being a floating asset should be valued at cost
price or market price whichever is less.
The cost price can be calculated from any of the following methods
a. Unit cost method
b. Average cost method

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c. First in first out method (FIFO)
d. Last in first out method (LIFO)
e. Highest In first out (HIFO)
f. Base stock method
g. Adjusted selling price method
h. Standard cost method.
4. Investments:
VERIFICATION: The auditor should verify the details of the schedule of
investment by applying tests e.g. financial journals and newspapers should be consulted
for checking the market rates. The securities themselves may be consulted or the
broker’s notes may be examined for checking the cost etc.

The auditor should verify the amount of interest or dividends ass have already
have been declared before the date of the balance sheet, should be taken into account
as outstanding ones.

Valuation: If investments are to be held as a fixed asset for the purpose of

earning interest/dividend; these are to be valued at cost which includes brokerage and
stamp duty paid in regard there to.

But if the investments are held as current assets, these assets should be valued at cost or
market price whichever is less. The auditor may come across the situations where the market Value is
much below the cost of acquisition of investments. Ordinarily he should ignore a temporarily fall in the
market value, but where the fall in value seems to be of a permanent nature, he should see that
adequate depreciation is provided by passing the required entries.

Verification of Liabilities:

Capital:
In case of firm, the auditor should verify the liability on account of the capital with the
help of partnership deed; pass book and the cash book.
In case of a company auditor should examine the memorandum of association to verify
the information as to the maximum capital the company is authorized to raise. He should also ascertain
the amount of called up in respect of each class of shares and also ascertain how many shares of each
class are allotted as fully paid. Auditor should also specify the sources from which the bonus shares are
issued i.e. capitalization of profits are reserves for share premium accounts. He should also ensure that
capital profit, if any on issue of forfeited shares, has been transported to capital reserve.

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Debenture:
The auditor should note the following points while verifying the depreciation:

a. Debenture trust deed’ should be inspected and with its help, the debenture
account in the ledger should be examined.
b. If necessary, the auditor can obtain a certificate from the debenture holders.
c. Since the debentures are supposed to be redeemed, the auditor should see
the arrangements for their redemption.
d. The debenture may be issued at par or at premium.
e. The auditor should see the details as given in the Register of Mortgages and
charges.

Trade creditors:
a. The First task the auditor is to ask for schedule of creditors.
b. The purchase ledger should be checked with the books of original entry,
invoices and credit notes etc.
c. Discount on creditors should be checked with reference to creditor’s account.
d. If any debt Is found unpaid for a longer period of time any enquiry should be
made since it is possible that instead of paying to the creditor the amount
might have been misappropriated

Loans:
The auditor should examine the loan agreement in order to ascertain the terms of loan, amount
of loan and period and the nature of the loan. In case the loans are overdrafts have been taken from a
bank an agreement with the bank and a certificate to that effect should be obtained and examined.

Outstanding liabilities for expenses:

The auditor should obtain a certificate from responsible officer of the company stating that all
outstanding liabilities for expenses incurred have been brought into account.

The auditor can verify those items of expenses which usually constitute outstanding liabilities.
E.g. salaries payable, legal expenses, rent, wages, audit fees etc.

Reserves and Funds:

The auditor should examine and verify that whether the decision to create reserve or fund is
dictated by needs and circumstances of business and relevant legal provisions and check the relevant
entries in books of accounts and check the entries passed for the purpose in the profit and loss
appropriation account.

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Income Received in Advance
The auditor should examine the schedules of income received in advance and ensure that
these are fully disclosed in the balance sheet

The auditor duty is to examine whether interest, rent, installments etc, received in
advance should be classified as liability and shown as such in the balance sheet.

Distinction between vouching, verification and valuation

Vouching Verification Valuation

Meaning Vouching is a process of Verification is a process Valuation is a process

comparing the entries in which proves the which certifies the correct
the books of accounts existence, ownership value of the assets and
with the bonafide and title to the assets liabilities at the date of
vouchers balance sheet.

Subject matter Vouching is made of the Verification on the other Valuation is also made of
entries recorded in the hand is made of assets assets and liabilities
books of original entry and liabilities appearing appearing in the balance
and their posting in the in the balance sheet at sheet at the end of the
ledger the end of the year year
By Whom Vouching is done by the Verification on the other Valuation on the other
senior auditor and audit hand is done by the hand is done by the
clerks. auditor himself or his auditor himself or his
associates associates
When Vouching is done after the Verification on the other Valuation on the other is
entry of transactions in is done at the end of the done at the end of the
the account books financial year when the financial year when the
final accounts are to be final accounts are to be
prepared prepared
Evidence In vouching , bonafide Verification is made on In valuation an auditor has
vouchers are sufficient the basis of evidence to depend upon the
evidence for vouching such as the title deeds, certificates of the
receipts and payments owners/directors.
etc.

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Audit of Financial Statements
Audit of Financial statements is the examination of an entity's financial statements and accompanying
disclosures by an independent auditor. The result of this examination is a report by the auditor,
attesting to the fairness of presentation of the financial statements and related disclosures. The
auditor's report must accompany the financial statements when they are issued to the intended
recipients. The purpose of a financial statement audit is to add credibility to the reported financial
position and performance of a business.

Audits have become increasingly common as the complexity of the two primary accounting frameworks,
Generally Accepted Accounting Principles and International Financial Reporting Standards, have
increased, and because there have been an ongoing series of disclosures of fraudulent reporting by
major companies.

Auditor’s duty with regard to:

Fixed Assets:
1. Freehold land and building:
The auditor should examine the title deeds to ensure that they are in the name of the
client. Any addition or sale during the year should be carefully examined.
2. Leasehold property:

The auditor should inspect the lease agreement to find out the value and duration. The
auditor should see that lease agreement is registered with the registrar and certificate testing to
the validity of the same.

3. Plant and machinery:

The Auditor should commence the process of verification by obtaining a schedule of

plant and machinery certified by responsible officer of the concern.

Stock in trade:
It is practically impossible for auditor to physically verify each item of the stock in hand because
of various reasons i.e. limited time and the lack of technical knowledge. Therefore the auditor has to
rely upon test checks to ascertain the accuracy of stock in trade.

Investments:
The auditor should verify the details of the schedule of investment by applying tests e.g.
financial journals and newspapers should be consulted for checking the market rates. The securities
themselves may be consulted or the broker’s notes may be examined for checking the cost etc.

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The auditor should verify the amount of interest or dividends ass have already have been
declared before the date of the balance sheet, should be taken into account as outstanding
ones.

Capital:
In case of firm, the auditor should verify the liability on account of the capital with the help of
partnership deed; pass book and the cash book.

In case of a company auditor should examine the memorandum of association to verify the
information as to the maximum capital the company is authorized to raise. He should also ascertain the
amount of called up in respect of each class of shares and also ascertain how many shares of each class
are allotted as fully paid. Auditor should also specify the sources from which the bonus shares are
issued i.e. capitalization of profits are reserves for share premium accounts. He should also ensure that
capital profit, if any on issue of forfeited shares, has been transported to capital reserve.

Reserves and Funds:

The auditor should examine and verify that whether the decision to create reserve or
fund is dictated by needs and circumstances of business and relevant legal provisions and check
the relevant entries in books of accounts and check the entries passed for the purpose in the
profit and loss appropriation account

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Management and Tax Audit

MANAGEMENT AUDIT

Meaning and Definition

Management audit is attempt made to evaluate various management functions and process. A
detailed and critical review of all the objectives, policies, procedures and functions of management is
made with a view to bring about an overall improvement in managerial efficiency.
According to Leslie R. Howard, “ An investigation of a business from the highest level
downward in order to ascertain whether sound management prevails throughout, thus facilitating the
most effective relationship with outside world and the most efficient organization and smooth running
of internal organization.”
According to W.P. Leonard, “A comprehensive and constructive examination of an organization
structure of a company, institution or a branch of government or of any component thereof such as
division or department, and its plans and objectives, its means of operations, and its uses of human
and physical facilities.”

Thus it can be simply stated that management audit, on the basis of established standards,
examines, reviews and appraises the various policies and actions of management.

Objectives/Aims of management Audit

1. To ensure that sound objectives are set by the management.
2. To reveal any irregularity or defect in the process of management and to
suggest improvements to obtain the best results.
3. To ensure that the management objectives are achieved.
4. To help various levels of management in the effective discharge of their duties.
5. To assist management in achieving coordination among various departments.
6. To help to achieve the efficiency of management.
7. To assist management in establishing good relations with the employees and to
elaborate duties, rights and liabilities of entire staff.
8. To evaluate the performance by comparing inputs with outputs (human and
physical both).
9. To ensure most effective relationship with the outsiders and the most efficient
internal organization.
10. To recommend changes in the policies and procedure for a better future.

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Advantages of Management Audit

1. It helps management in preparation of plans, objectives and policies and their

efficient achievement.
2. It helps management in taking vital decisions for maximization of profits.
3. It helps the management in strengthening its communication systems within and
outside the business.
4. It helps in evaluating the performance of management in various areas and
measures to improve it.
5. It can help management in preparation of budgets and resource management.
6. It can help management in training of personnel and marketing policies.

Need/importance of Management Audit:

The statutory auditor is not required to examine the policies of management and their
implementation or whether any improvement in the efficiency of management can be made. In these
days a report on all these matters is very important to the business. The management auditors are
appointed to advise the management on various matters related to management. These persons
examine the various aspects of management and evaluate the actual performance by comparing it with
predetermined standards. Such auditors may or may not be from the field of accountancy. They advise
management on the matters relating to performance of various departments as well as of the
organization as a whole.

The management may conduct management audit periodically to review the efficiency of
managers. The results may be used to provide incentives to staff.

The management audit reveals irregularities and defects in the working of management and
suggests the ways to improve the efficiency of management. It concentrates on the results and does
not examine whether procedures have been followed or not.

The government may ask for management audit of sick industrial units with a view to examine
the efficiency of management. It may be conducted to find whether the sickness is due to functioning of
management or the circumstances beyond the control of management. On the basis of report of
management auditor, the government may decide to take over to sick units.

It can be said that management audit is a guide which helps in improving the efficiency of management.

Appointment of Management Auditor

A team of experts should be appointed to conducted management audit. It can’t be expected
that an individual can possess expertise in all management’s fields; therefore, an expert in each field of
management should be included in the team of management auditors. Such team should have full
cooperation from the top level management to enable it to conduct the audit smoothly.

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The members of management audit team should have a proper training and expert knowledge
of science of management. A wide experience of actual work situations will be added to the
advantage. The audit of the management involves an appraisal of activities of organization; the
auditor must study the organization and its plan in detail.

The internal auditors may be regarded as suitable persons for conduct of management audit
because they are familiar with the internal workings of management. Sometimes it is desirable
to have O & M experts as management auditors. All will depend on the scope of management
audit which the management has to decide.

Qualities of a Management Auditor

The area of activities of management audit is wide; no specific qualities can be narrated for
management auditor. He must possess enough qualities to fulfill his professional obligations. Some of
the qualities of the management auditor can be described as follows.

1. He should have a good knowledge of managerial functions.

2. He should be familiar with the various principles of management, planning,
control, management by objectives, and management by exception.
3. He should have a good understanding of financial statements and their preparations.
4. He should understand the working of organization and its problems.
5. He should be able to understand the objectives of organization.
6. He should be able to assess and critically examine the internal control systems.
7. He should be able to understand the nature of the product and its production process.
8. He should understand plans, budgets, rules and the procedures applied in the
organization.
9. He should have a good knowledge of financial statement analysis techniques like
standard costing, budgetary control, ratio analysis, fund flow statements etc.
10. He should be familiar with the human resources accounting, social accounting, etc.
11. He should have a good knowledge of economics, business laws, etc.

Management Auditor’s Report

In the end, the management auditor prepares a report. On the basis of findings and definite
information, the auditor prepares a report making suggestions for improvement in the working of the
management. His report should give a correct assessment of the working of organization. He should not
hesitate in criticizing the management. His recommendations should be constructive and not merely
condemning in nature. His report may include the following matters:

1. Whether the management; and the staff relations are healthy.

2. Whether the return to shareholders is adequate.
3. Whether the methods of production are out-dated.
4. Comparison of operating efficiency of the organization with other concerns.
5. Rate of the return on investment.

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Conduct of Management Audit
Following points need careful attention before he commences his work.
1. The auditor should ensure that various objectives and goals are properly established
which are likely to help to achieve the desired results.
2. He should see that the plan laid down by management is practicable and helpful to
achieve objectives.
3. He should see that whether the organization has a well defined structure, authority lines
and responsibility areas are clear, decision making is centralized or decentralized.
4. He should verify the efficiency of information system operating in the organization.
5. To collect necessary information he should prepare a questionnaire such as:
a. Whether the resources are efficiently employed,
b. Whether plans, policies , procedures and systems are strictly followed
c. Whether the objectives are split up into target of each department.
d. Whether management by exception is possible.
e. Whether the planned and actual performance are compared at regular intervals
of time.
f. Whether irregularities arise frequently, if so, who is responsible?
g. Whether the methods used in organization are satisfactory.
6. The information obtained with the help of above questions should be counter checked
from the various records and statements available in the organization.
7. To arrive at definite conclusions, the management audit has to correlate the
information collected through various means.

Distinction between Management Audit and Statutory Audit

The statutory Audit is examining the accounts as per provisions of law but management audit is
concerned with audit of performance of functions of management. Following are the points of
difference

Management Audit Statutory Audit

1. The management auditor examines the 1. Statutory Audit reports on the financial aspects
performance of management and makes of an organization indicating whether financial
suggestions to improve it in the future. statements show a true and fair view of state
2. The Conduct of management audit is optional of affairs for a particular period.
and voluntary. There is no legal compulsion in 2. The audit of financial accounts is legally
this regard so far. compulsory for a joint stock of company.
3. The management auditor is answerable to 3. The Statutory auditor is accountable to the
management only. shareholders and authorities under the Act.
4. No qualification has been fixed for the 4. The statutory auditor must be a Chartered
management auditor. accountant and emphasis is on independent
5. The management audit is an aid to report on financial matters.
management. 5. It is a check on management.
6. The management audit may cover more than 6. It is conducted for a particular accounting

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one financial year. period.
7. The management auditor critically examines 7. The statutory reviews historical record only.
the past as well as looks to future activities of 8. The work of statutory auditor ends with
management. reporting on financial records.
8. The management auditor’s work begins where 9. It is not concerned with management’
the work of statutory auditor ends. performance.
9. The management audit is concerned with
making activities of management more
effective and efficient.

Tax Audit
Introduction

Now-a-days tax audit has become very important to ascertain the accuracy of tax related
documents. Tax audit mostly covers income returns, invoices, debt and credit notes and various current
and fixed assets. Tax audit is an innovation of 21st century. It has added one more chapter to the
procedure of auditing. Tax audit ensures the validity and credibility of tax related documents.

The financial statements are certified by the auditor for truth and fairness of operating results
and financial position of the business. These are meant for general purpose being used by the owners,
creditors, banks and other interested parties. Sometimes a specific information my required by certain
people which may not be available in these statements

Under Income Tax Act, profits shown by profit and loss A/c have to be adjusted as per the
provisions of the Act. In this way profits for accounting and profits for taxation are not the same. These
profits differ due to various reasons. Profits for accounting are ascertained As per accounting policies
and standards but profits for the tax purpose are computes as per the provisions and rules of Income
Tax Act.

The Income Tax Department cannot verify each and every detail of provisions compiled by the
assessee. In this regard expertise of auditors is utilized, who certify the compliance of the provisions of
Income Tax Act.

How to conduct tax Audit

1. The tax auditor shall be guided by the auditing standards and guidance notes as issued from
time to time by Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.
2. Obtaining books of accounts, financial statements and other statements of particulars duly
authenticated.
3. Evaluation of internal control system on the basis of which extent of vouching and
verification can be determined.

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4. While conducting tax audit the provisions and objectives of sec, 44 AB shall be kept in mind.
5. The auditor shall have thorough knowledge of taxation provisions and judicial
pronouncements.
6. The Central Government has notified the following ‘accounting Standards’ in respect of
audit of financial statements under section 44 AB.

Disclosure of accounting policies – AS (IT) I

Disclosure of prior period items, extra ordinary items and changes in accounting
policies AS (IT) II

Both of these standards are similar to accounting standards issued by Institute of Chartered
Accountants of India i.e. AS 1 and AS 5 except the points in standard issued by central government like
application of standards to the assessee following mercantile system of accounting, standards include
fund flow statement instead of cash flow statement, question regarding the changes in accounting
policy may be referred to Central Board of Direct Taxes etc.

Compulsory Tax Audit

Following are provisions relating to compulsory audit under Section 44(AB) of income Tax Act.

I. Tax audit is compulsory for a business if its total sales, turnover or gross
receipts in a previous year exceed Rs 1 crore.
II. In case of a profession, Tax audit is compulsory if gross receipt exceed Rs.
25 lakhs.
III. If the profits of a business are determined on presumptive basis, the audit of
accounts shall be on compulsory basis if he assessee claims that their profits
are less then profits computed under the following sections
A. Sec 44 (AD) –profit from any business (whether it is retail trading or civil
construction or any other business)

Provisions are as follows

a. Assessee should be resident individual or resident HUF or

resident partnership
b. Assessee has not claimed exemption under section 10 (A), 10 (AA),
10 (B), 10 (BA), 80 (HH) or 80 (RRB)

The following persons are not eligible

a. Person carrying on profession under [section 44 (AA) (1)]

b. The person earning commission or brokerage or carrying on
agency business or plying, hiring or leasing goods carriage.
c. Turnover/gross receipt in the previous year should not exceed
1 crore

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B. Profit from the business of carriage of goods [section 44 (AE)]
This sec is applicable to only those persons who are engaged in plying, hiring or
leasing goods carriages and own not more than 10 such goods carriages.
C. Profit and gains of a non resident from shipping business [sec. 44 (B)]

A sum equal to 7.5% of the aggregate receipts in India shall be deemed to be the
profit

If the assessee does not opt for the above scheme he will have to get accounts
audited.

D. Profit and gain of business of Oil exploration of non-resident assessee [sec. 44

(BB)]

A sum equal to 10% of amount payable in India or outside India to assessee

shall be deemed to the profit

If the assessee does not opt for the above scheme he will have to get accounts
audited.

E. Profit and gains of business of operation of Aircraft by Non- resident[ sec. 44

(BBA)]

A sum equal to 5% of amount payable in India or outside India to assessee

shall be deemed to the profit

If the assessee does not opt for the above scheme he will have to get accounts
audited.

F. Profit Of Foreign Company Engaged in Business of civil Construction or Erection of

plant and machinery or/and Commission thereof[ sec. 44 (BBB)]
A sum equal to 10% of amount payable in India or outside India to assessee
shall be deemed to the profit

If the assessee does not opt for the above scheme he will have to get accounts
audited.

iv. If Gross receipts or sales or turn over exceed a specified amount in a business only then
audit is required.
v. Persons covered under section 44 (AB)
a. The persons who are not covered by Income Tax Act need to get their
accounts audited for the purpose of this section like a person having agricultural
income exceeding 40 lakhs.
b. The persons who are covered by this section but their income is exempted shall
get their accounts audited as in case of charitable Trust, co-operative societies etc.

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c. Persons, who are covered under this section, having income below the taxable
limit, they have to get their accounts audited if the specified limit under section 44
AB has exceeded.
d. In case of non-resident assessee, if his global or receipts exceed the specified
limit, then h has to get Indian operations accounts audited.

Vi. Persons not covered under section 44 AB

a. A non-resident assessee carrying business of operation of ship U/S 44 B.

b. A Non-Resident assessee having income from operation of aircraft u/s 44
BBA
vii. Specified date

The audit of accounts must be conducted and audit report must be submitted
by the assessee by October 31.

VIII Penalty sec. 271 B

If any person fails to get his accounts audited as required u/s 44 AB, the
assessing officer may direct such person shall pay a penalty equal to or .5% total sales,
turnover or gross receipts in business or gross receipts in profession or Rs. 100000,
whichever is less.

Meaning of Business
Business simply means any economic activity carried on for earning profits. Section2 (3) of Income Tax
Act 1961, has defined term Business as, “Any trade, commerce, manufacture or any adventure or
concern in the nature of trade, commerce and manufacture.” In the words of Justice S.R. Das, “The
Word ‘Business’ connotes some real, substantive and systematic or organized course, activity or
conducted with a set purpose.”

In This connection it is not necessary that there should be a series of transactions in business
and also it should be carried on permanently. Neither repetition nor continuity of similar
transactions necessary.

Meaning of Profession
A Profession is an occupation requiring purely intellectual skill or manual skill controlled by the
intellectual skill of operator e.g. Lawyer, Accountant, Engineer, Surgeon etc. So profession refers to
those activities where livelihood by the persons through their intellectual or manual skill. Under section
2 (6) profession includes vocation.

Vocation simply means any type of activity in which a person is engaged and he earns hi
livelihood from such activity.

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Audit of Institutions

Audit of Accounts of partnership Firms

To avoid any misunderstanding and doubt, partnership firms recognize the advantage of audit
of financial statements. Partnership deed on mutual agreement between the partners may provide for
audit of financial statements. Auditor is appointed by the mutual consent of all the partners. Rights,
duties and liabilities of the auditor are defined in the mutual agreement and can be modified by
partners. It will be in the interest of the auditor to get in writing the nature and scope of his work to
avoid any dispute later on.

While conducting the audit of partnership firm the auditor must refer to the deed or
Partnership Act 1932.

It is not legally compulsory to get accounts of partnership audited. The possibilities of mistrust
and dissatisfaction are greater incase of partnership. An independent Auditor’s view on the correctness
of accounts is desirable in case of partnership concerns. Usually the partnership deed provides for the
audit of accounts.

When partnership is silent, the following provisions of Partnership Act, 1932 will apply and
auditor will take care of following points:

1. All partners will share profit or loss equally.

2. None of the partners will be entitled to receive any salary or remuneration.
3. Interest payable to partner on his capital, if any, shall be payable out of profits.
4. A partner contributing moneys in excess of agreed amount of capital will get interest at
the rate of 6% p.a1
5. The partners shall use the property of the firm exclusively for the purposes of business.
6. A new partner can be admitted only with the consent of all partners.
7. Every partner has the right of access to the books of accounts and obtain a copy of the
same.
8. A minor can be admitted to a firm for profits only.
9. When the other partners carry on the business after a partner ceases to be a partner
due to death or for any other reasons without settlement of accounts between them,
the outgoing partner or heirs of the deceased partner are entitled to either such share
of profits attributable to his share in the property of the firm or interest at the rate of 6
% on his share in the property of the firm.
10. While settling the accounts of the firm on its dissolution, the goodwill of the firm will
be considered as one of the assets of the firm. This goodwill may be sold separately
or along with the other assets of the firm. Anyone or more partners will have the right
to bid for the purpose of this goodwill.

44
11. On the dissolution of the firm, while settling the accounts, losses(including deficiencies
of capital) shall be paid in the following order:
a. Firstly, out of profits
b. Secondly, out of capital and
c. Lastly, by the partners individually in their profit sharing ratio.
12. On the dissolution of the firm, its assets, including any sums contributed by the
partners to make up deficiencies, shall be applied in the following:
a. Firstly, in paying debts of the firm to third partners.
b. Secondly, in paying off proportionately to the partners their loans.
c. Thirdly, if there is any balance, in paying proportionately to the partners
towards their capital, and
d. Fourthly, the balance, if any, shall be divided among the partners in their
profit sharing ratio.

Advantages of audit of partnership firms:

1. It helps in detection and prevention of frauds or frauds or errors, and verification of
correctness of accounts.
2. Any dispute between the partners relating to accounts can be settled by presenting
independently audited accounts.
3. The periodical visits and suggestions by the auditor may prove to be helpful in
improvement of management of the firm.
4. In case of admission, retirement or death of a partner, audited accounts are acceptable
to all to adjust the accounts between the partners.
5. The audited accounts are helpful for income-tax assessment or for borrowing from the
banks.

Consideration before the commencement of audit

1. He should have a contact with the client in writing. He should also have all
the instructions and scope of audit in writing.
2. He should obtain a copy of partnership Deed. In case of no implied or expressed
agreement between the partners regarding accounts, the provisions of Indian
Partnership Act, 1932 relating to accounts will be applicable.
3. Before planning the audit programme, he should study the internal control system
in operation.
4. He should study the system of accounting in operation and list of books maintained by
the firm.
5. He should obtain list of members of staff, their duties, powers, and responsibilities.
6. He should make study of technicalities of the business of the firm to perform his job
efficiently.

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Company Audit
A company is said to be an artificial person created by law having a separate legal entity distinct
from its members. It cannot be directly managed by its owners because they are very large in number
have small holding and also scattered over a wide area. As such the management and control of the
affairs of the company is done by directors but an absolute faith put in directors is not considered to be
desirable on social and moral grounds. Hence, it becomes essential for a company to appoint an
independent and qualified person i.e. an auditor, to verify and certify the truth and fairness of the
financial statements.

Further, the companies usually work with a large staff and auditing serves a very useful purpose
of locating all errors and irregularities in their work.

In order to achieve the above objectives, The Indian Companies Act 1956 has made it a
statutory obligations for joint staff companies, whether public or private, to get their accounts audited
by qualified auditor.

Statutory requirements governing the Company Auditors

Before commencing the audit work of company, the auditor should go through the following

1. Ensuring Whether his appointment is in order: Before commencing the audit work of a
company the auditor shall ensure that all legal provisions relating to his appointment have
been duly compiled with to ensure is appoint is in order. If his appointment is made in
general meeting of the company, he should obtain the resolution of his appointment
passed in such meeting. In case he has appointed in place of retiring auditor, he shall find
out a due notice has been given to the retiring auditor in this regard. In case if the casual
vacancy is due to resignation of the auditor, he shall obtain the copy of the resolution
passed at general meeting making his appointment. He shall ensure that his remuneration
has been fixed by the company as per the provisions of the Act.
2. Inspection of Statutory Books and Documents: Before the auditor commences the work of
audit, he should examine the following documents
a. Memorandum of Association.
b. Articles of Association.
c. Prospectus.
d. Certificate of in cooperation and certificate to commence business

He should also examine the following statutory books and registers.

a. Register of Members. (Sec 88)

b. Index of Members. (Sec 88)
c. Register and Index of Debenture holders. (Sec 88)
d. Register to Mortgages and charges (Sec 85)
e. Register of Investment [sec 187(3)]

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f. Foreign Register ( Sec 88)
g. Register of Contracts (Sec 188, 184 and 189)
h. Register of Directors, managing Director , Manager and Secretary (170)
i. Register of Director’s Shareholdings (170)
j. Register of Deposits (73)
k. Register of Loans (Sec [186(9)]
l. Minute books (118)
3. Inspection of Contracts: The auditor should inspect and examine the contracts which have
been entered into by a company with other e.g.
a. Contracts with the vendors of any property.
b. Contracts with brokers and under writers for their commission.
c. Contract with the promoters for the preliminary expenses, etc.

If any statement regarding these contracts has been made by the company in the
prospectus, the auditor should see that such statement is correct and that entries relating to
such contracts are correctly recorded in the books of account.

4. Study of Previous year’s balance Sheet and Auditor’s report: the auditor should inspect the
previous year’s balance sheet to verify the opening balances of the current year. Moreover,
according to Companies Act, the corresponding figures of the previous year have to be
given in the balance sheet.
The last audit report is inspected by the auditor mainly for two purposes.
a. To formulate a rough idea about the company and its working.
b. To see whether the recommendations made there in have been carried
out or not.
5. Study of the Internal Control System in Operation: The study and evaluation of the internal
control system in operation is important it serves as a basis there on. It helps the auditor in
determining the extent of the tests to which auditing procedures can be restricted.

Audit Report /Auditor’s Report

An auditor’s Report is the format of result of all the effort that goes into the audit.
Communicating the Auditor’s findings to interested users is part of all audits. Thus, the Final phase of an
Audit involves preparing that communication, which is known as auditor’s report.

According to Lancaster, “Audit report is statement of collected and considered facts, so

drawn up as to give clear and concise information to persons who are not already in
possession of full facts of subject matter of the report.”

It presents the results of the examination done by the auditor. An audit involves collection of
evidence about the financial statements. The evidence collected needs to be carefully shifted and
analyzed to enable the auditor to draw appropriate conclusions. The conclusions drawn are
communicated to the interested parties through the auditor’s report.

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Contents of Audit Report
Under section 227 (2) every auditor is required to make report to the shareholders on the
accountants examined by him and every balance sheet and profit and loss A/c and every document
declared by law to be part of or annexed to the balance sheet and profit or loss A/C which are placed
before the shareholders of the company at the general meeting during tenure of his office. The report
has to state whether, in his opinion and to the best of his information and according to the explanations
given to him, the said accountants give the information required by the Companies Act in manner so
required and give a true and fair view.

i. In the case of the balance sheet, of the state of the company’s affairs as at
the end of its financial year; and
ii. In the case of profit and loss account, of the profit or loss account for
its financial year.

Sub-section (iii) of the section 227 required that the auditor’s report shall also state.

a. Whether he has obtained all the information and explanations which to the best
of his knowledge and belief were necessary for the purpose of his audit;
b. Whether in his opinion, proper books of account as required by law have been kept
by the company so far as appears from hiss examination of these books, and
proper returns adequate for the purposes of his audits have been received from
the branches not visited by him .
c. Whether the report on the accounts of any branch office audited under section 228
by a person other than the company’s auditor has been forwarded to him and how
he has dealt with the same in preparing the auditor’s report.
d. Whether the company’s balance sheet and profit and loss A/C dealt with by the
report are in agreement with the books of accounts and returns.
If any of the matters as referred to in section 227 (2) and (3) is answered in
the negative or with the qualification the auditor has to state in his report the
reasons for such answer.
The Auditor’s report shall also include a statement on such additional
matters as specified by the Central Government under section 227 (4-A) of the
Companies Act, This section empowers the Central Government to order the
inclusion of certain matters in the auditor’s report.
The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India requires the auditor’s to
ensure that the accounting standards are implemented in the presentation of
financial statements covered by their audit reports. The deviation should be
reported in the report.

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Preparation/Matters to be included in the Audit Report
1. Fixed Assets:
The auditor’s report shall include statements on the following matters:
a. Whether the company is maintaining the proper records showing particulars, including
quantitative details and situations of fixed assets.
b. Whether these assets have been physically verified by the management at reasonable
intervals, whether any material discrepancies were noticed on such verification, and if
so whether the same have been properly dealt within the books of accounts.
c. If a substantial part of fixed assets has been disposed off during the year, Whether it
has affected the going concern.
2. Inventories:
The auditor has to make the following three specific statements on verification and
valuation of inventories:
a. Whether the physical verification of inventory has been conducted at reasonable
intervals by the management.
b. Are the procedures of physical verification of inventories followed by management
reasonable and adequate in relation to the size of the company and the nature of
its business? If not the inadequacies in such procedures should be reported.
c. Whether the company is maintaining proper records of inventory and whether any
material discrepancies have been noticed on physical verification and if so, whether the
same have been properly dealt in within the books of account.
3. Loans taken from/granted to parties covered under section 189:
The auditor ha to made four specific statements as under
Has the company either granted or taken any loan, secured or unsecured to/from
companies, firms or other parties covered in the register maintained under section 189 of the
Act. If so give the number of parties and amount involved in the transactions.
a. Whether rate of interest and other terms and conditions of loans given or taken by
the company, secured or unsecured are primafacie prejudicial to the interest of the
company
b. Whether the payment of principal amount and interest are also irregular
c. If overdue amount is more than 1 lakh, whether reasonable steps has been taken by
the company for recovery/payment of principal and interest.
4. Internal control on purchase of assets and sale of goods:
The auditor has to commit on the following:

Is there an adequate internal control procedure commensurate with the size of the
company and the nature of its business for the purchase of inventory and fixed assets and for
the sale of goods?

Whether there is continuing failure to correct major weaknesses in internal control.

5. Maintenance of Cost Record:

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Whether the maintenance of cost records has been prescribed by the central
government u/s 128 of the Act, Whether such accounts and records have been made and
maintained.
6. Indication of sickness:

Whether in case of a company which has been register for a period not less than five
years, its accumulated losses at the end of the financial year for not less than 50% of its net
worth and whether it has incurred cash losses in such financial year immediately preceding in
such financial year also.

7. Documents and records for Secured loans:

Whether adequate documents and records are maintained in case where the company
has granted loans and advances on the basis of security by way of pledge of shares,
debentures and other securities? If not, the deficiency to be pointed out.

8. Guarantees for loans taken by other:

Whether the company has given any guarantee for loans taken by others from bank or
financial institutions, the Terms and conditions whereof are prejudicial to the interest of the
company.

9. Disclosure of end use of money raised from public issue:

Whether the management has disclosed on the end use of money raised by public issue
and the same has been verified.

10. Fraud:

Whether the fraud on or by the company has been noticed or reported during the year
if yes the nature and the amount involved to be indicated.

Unqualified/ Clean/ Fair report:

When an auditor is satisfied with the fairness of the balance sheet and profit and loss account
he will give a clean report. The auditor makes various statutory affirmations without reservations He is
said to have the given an unqualified report on financial statements of the company.

Even when an auditor has given a clean report, it does not mean that it is absolutely accurate in
other words the auditor is not guarantor of insurer as is observed by

Lord Justice lopes in re. Kingston cotton mills co. Ltd. Case, “auditor must not be held liable for
not tracing out ingenious and carefully laid schemes or fraud, when there is nothing to arose their
suspicion.”

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Qualified Report:
If the auditor is of the opinion that the balance sheet does not give the true and the fair view of
the state of company’s affairs or, that profit and loss account does not give true and fair view of the
profit or loss for the year he must qualify his report accordingly. When an auditor concludes on the basis
of sufficient appropriate audit evidence that mis-statements are material but not pervaise to the
financial statements or he is unable to obtain sufficient or appropriate evidence to conclude that
financial statements are free from material mis-statements, such mis-statements remaining undetected
may be material but not pervaise

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