The Training and Development Process

It is first and foremost about learning

Knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAOs)

Training and Development are formal and planned events to help employees acquire KSAO to
improve performance in their current job or future job responsibilities.

Human Resource Development (HRD): system wide interventions to provide employees with
opportunities to learn skills necessary to meet current and future job demands to improve
individual, group, and organizational growth and effectiveness. This is bigger than just training
and development

HRD Involves:
 Training and development
 Organization development (example, Total Quality Management, changing jobs)
 Career development

Crew Resource Management (CRM) Training: team training that teaches members to use all
available resources and focuses on communication and decision making.

For organizations, success and competitiveness are highly dependent on training and development.

Performance Management: process of establishing performance goals and designing

interventions and programs to motivate and develop employees to improve their performance.
Assessment of performance and consequences.

Performance management is an on going continuous process.

The first step in the process is to set goals. Next, it is important for managers to monitor employee
performance and provide ongoing feedback so that employees know whether they are
accomplishing their goals.

Each step of the performance management process provides information on the developmental
needs of employees.

Training: formal and planned efforts to help employees acquire knowledge skills and abilities to
improve performance in their current job.

Development: formal and planned efforts to help employees acquire knowledge skills and abilities
required to perform future job responsibilities.

Benefits of Training and Development

Organizations
 Strategy: training and development helps to develop employees to meet organization goals
 Effectiveness: trained employees can do better work, make fewer errors require less
supervision and have more positive attitudes. They also produce higher quality products
and services
 Employee Recruitment and Retention: it’s effective tool for attracting and retaining top
talent. People under 30 consider career growth and professional development more
important than salary

To Employees
 Intrinsic Benefits: trained employees benefit from acquiring new knowledge and skills to
enable them to perform their job better. This leads to better job behaviour and job
performance
 Extrinsic Benefits: higher earnings are a result of increased knowledge and skills,
improved marketability, greater security of employment and enhanced opportunities for
advancement and promotion

Organizations don’t invest more in training and development because in Canada it is not a high
priority and training and development is seen as an expense rather than an investment

Training Bond: a contract between the employer and employee which states that the employer
will pay for the employee training as long as the employee remains in the organization for a
minimum period of time following the completion of the training program

The Conference Board of Canada publishes a biannual report, Learning and Development Outlook
to learn about learning, training and development in Canadian organizations.
The training process begins with a performance gap

There are three types of analysis that can be done: organizational analysis, task analysis and person
analysis.

Context of Training and Development

Training is not an independent or isolated activity

It is part of a larger context, process and system

What does this mean
 Environment
 The organization
 The HRM system

Strategic HRM: the alignment of HR practices with an organization’s business strategy.

Strategic Training: the training is aligned with the organization’s business strategy and with other
HR practices.
Learning and Motivation

Communities of Learning: groups of employees who share similar concerns and problems and
meet regularly to share their experiences and knowledge with each other and identify new
approaches to solving problems.

The core principles of communities of learning are that learning is social and that people learn
from each other while working on the job.

Characteristics of Communities of Learning

 Domain: a community of practice must have a domain of interest that is shared among its
members
 Community: in a community of practice, there is interaction, discussion, sharing and
exchanging information and mutual assistance among members
 Practice: members in a community of practice are practitioners with resources,
experiences, stories and tools that they use to solve problems.

What is Learning

Learning is the process of acquiring knowledge and skills and a change in individual behaviour
as a result of some experience.

Learning has occurred when

 Behave differently
 Think or feel differently
Learning is one of the main goals of most training programs

Informal Learning: learning that occurs naturally as part of work and is not planned or designed
by the organization

Formal Learning: learning that is structured and planned by the organization.

 Classroom
 On the job
 E-learning
There is evidence that informal training has significant effect on performance. Given the increasing
pace of work and the constant changes in technology, organizations are finding that informal
learning is more important than ever.

Email was found to be the most used method for informal learning followed by accessing
information. Other forms of informal learning include internet searches, communities of practices
voluntary mentoring and coaching.

A Multilevel Systems Model of Organizational Learning

Organization Level

Consists of organization’s leadership, culture, vision, strategy, and structure. Leadership is

extremely important because top management needs to articulate a vision for learning, support
learning and devote resources and time.

Group Level
Important factors that influence learning at this group level include group climate, culture, norms,
dynamics and processes.

Individual Level

At this level, employees must have formal and informal opportunities to learn. This includes
opportunities to acquire new knowledge and skills, and opportunities to share and exchange
information.
Learning can be categorized to five general categories (Gagne’s Learning Outcomes)
1. Verbal Information: Facts, knowledge, principles and packages of information known as
declarative knowledge
2. Intellectual skills: concepts, rules and procedures also known as procedural knowledge
(driving a car, shopping at a supermarket)
3. Cognitive strategies: the application of information and techniques and understand how
and when to use knowledge and information
4. Motor Skills: the coordination and execution of physical movements that involve use of
muscles such as learning how to swim
5. Attitudes: preferences and internal states associated with one’s beliefs and feelings.
Attitudes are learned and can be changed. This is considered the most difficult to influence
through training

Adaptive Character of Thought Theory (ACT) Stages: (Stages of Learning)

1. Declarative Knowledge: involves learning the knowledge, facts and information. (what
to do when you get in car, how to shift gears, how to start the car)
2. Knowledge compilation: integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and streamline the
task. This involves translating declarative knowledge. For example, when you first learn to
drive, you must be able to drive and not think of everything you must do. Instead of many
independent tasks, (lock car, put seat belt on etc.), it is all one smooth sequence
3. Procedural Knowledge: the learner has mastered the task and performance is automatic
and habitual.

Resource Allocation Theory: individuals possess limited cognitive resources that can be used to
learn a new task. Performance of a new task is determined by individual differences in attentional
and cognitive resources, the requirements of the task and self-regulatory activities

Performance of a new task is determined by:

 Individual differences in cognitive resources
 Requirements of the task (complexity of the task)
 Self-regulatory activities (self-monitoring and self-evaluation) used to allocate attention
across tasks
The amount of cognitive resources an individual can allocate to learning a new task varies across
3 stages (mainly at the beginning)

Design the training according to the stages.

Consider importance of cognitive resources at each stage
Reserve motivational interventions for later stages of learning

Learning styles involve the way people gather information (concrete experience or abstract
conceptualization) and the way people process information (active experimentation or reflective
observation) This is Kolb’s Theory.
Kolb’s theory implies that people have different learning styles and for training to succeed, it must
fit with the learning style.

Learning Cycle: CE – RO – AC - AE

Learning Theories

Conditioning Theory: learning is a result of reward and punishment contingencies that follow a
response to a stimulus (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement)

Shaping (reinforcing every step of the learning process, declarative knowledge) – Chaining
(reinforce the entire sequence, knowledge compilation) – Generalization (conditioned response
occurs in circumstances different than those during learning, procedural knowledge)

Social Cognitive Theory: learning through interactions with others. People learn by observing
the behaviours of others, making choices about different course of action to pursue and managing
their own behaviour in the process of learning. SCT differs from conditioning because you are
thinking instead of relying on rewards and contingencies.
 Observation: Learners must be aware of observable skills(attention), remember what they
observed(retention) try out the skill (reproduction) and result in positive outcomes
(reinforcement)
 Self-Efficacy: beliefs people have the ability to successfully perform a specific task
 Self-Regulation: managing one’s own behaviour through a series of internal processes

Self regulated learning is when trainees set goals and establish a plan for learning outcomes,
develop learning strategies, focus their time on learning, monitor their learning outcomes and
modify their behaviours over time.
Self-regulation prompts: ask trainees questions about their learning, goals and their goal process
to encourage self-regulation during training.
Adult Learning Theory: learning is different for adults and children due to variety of factors.

As children we are told what, when and how to learn. Adults have acquired a great deal of
knowledge and work related experience that they bring with them to a training program. Adults
are more problem orientated and learn independently.

Expectancy Theory: theory of motivation that one’s level of motivation depends on the
attractiveness of the rewards sought and the probability of obtaining these rewards.
To have a motivational reward, it must have high valence (valued by employees), high
instrumentality (attainment of goals must result in promised rewards), and expectancy
(employees feel that they can do the required tasks.)

Goal Setting Theory: based on idea that people’s intentions are a good predictor of their
behaviour. Individuals who set specific, difficult goals performed better than those who set
general, easy goals.
 Distal Goal: long term or end goal. People tend to break down a distal goal into smaller
sub goals
 Proximal Goal: short term or sub goal.

Implications:
 Ensure needs are met
 Consider expectancy theory components
 Set goals for learning

Locus of Control: refers to people’s beliefs about whether their behaviour is controlled by internal
or external forces.
Needs Analysis
Needs Analysis is a process designed to identify gaps or deficiencies in employee and
organizational performance.

Needs = Required Results – Current Results

The Needs Analysis Process

1. Concern: Something that causes managers to notice it. In other cases, the concern may
come from dangers on the job or awareness of a skills gap.
2. Importance: after a concern has been raised, the next step is to determine whether the
concern is central to the effectiveness of the organization or the cost implications of the
problem.
3. Consult Stakeholders: top management should understand the rationale for the needs
analysis. All stakeholders (managers, employees) must have input and buy into the needs
analysis program and they have a vested interest in the success of the program.
4. Data Collection: documentation of the concern and information from all three levels of
analysis

Organizational Analysis: examination of the environment, strategies and resources of the

organization to determine where training emphasis should be placed. M&As frequently require
employees to take on new roles. Other factors include technological change, globalization and
quality improvements which impact how work is done.

Strategic Alignment: what is the organization trying to achieve

Environment: respond to external factors affecting the organization

Resource Analysis: training tends to be one of the most expensive solutions and identify whether
the organization has the resources for this

Looking at different departments and seeing whether the training is needed or relevant

Economic and social policy issues also affect corporate training. After 9/11 attacks, airport security
training has increased substantially.

Training programs are often a direct result of government regulations. Besides regulations,
organizations are also conscious of the strategies of their competitors and social concerns.

Organization Context:
 Organizational Climate: collective attitudes of employees towards work, supervision and
company goals, policies and procedures.
 Transfer Training Climate: characteristics in the work environment that can either
facilitate or inhibit the application of training on the job. (apply and reward training on job
etc), extent to where support is given to peers

Continuous learning culture – organizations with this will be more likely to want to be trained

Task Analysis: the process of determining what the content of a training program should be on
the basis of a study of the activities or work operations and duties involved in the job. Once job is
understood, you can identify the KSAOs needed to complete these tasks.

What aspect/tasks are you planning to train on. Develop task statements, KSA Analysis,
development of training program for KSA – task links
Six Steps in a task analysis
1. Identify the target jobs: which jobs are contributing to the performance problem
2. Obtain a job description: tasks duties and responsibilities of job, after listing the tasks,
identify the KSAOs needed to do these tasks
3. Develop rating scale to rate the importance and difficulty of each task and the frequency
with which it is performed
4. Survey a sample of job incumbents
5. Analyze and interpret the information: which tasks are most important and difficult and
most frequently performed. Use statistical analysis
6. Provide feedback on the results: discuss strengths and weaknesses of results and
solutions to problems

Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA): a set of procedures that focuses on understanding the mental
processes and skills required for performing a job. This can include activities not observable like
decision making, problem solving and situational assessment.

Performance Analysis: is the process of studying employee behaviour and performance to

determine whether performance meets the work standards. A standard is the desired level of
performance.

By doing this, it answers these kinds of questions:

 How well does the employee perform the tasks?
 Who within the organization needs training?
 What kind of training do they need?

To answer these questions, a three-step process can be used

1. Define the desired performance
2. Determine the gap between desired and actual performance
3. Identify the obstacles to effective performance: what cause, can be deficiencies in
execution or in KSAOs.

Contingency Management: practice based on belief that every act has a consequence and if the
consequence is a reward then the act will be repeated.

Person Analysis: who needs to be trained. It can not be relevant to position or that some employees
know how to do it

Three Steps:
1. Define desired performance
2. Determine Gap (assess employee performance)
3. Identify Obstacles (reasons for the gap)

Needs Analysis Methods

 Observation
 Questionnaires
 Key Consultation: secures information from people by virtue of formal or informal
standing are in a good position to know what the needs of a particular group are
 Interviews
 Group discussions
 Tests
 Records, reports
 Work Sample: similar to observation but in written form

In many cases, data on employees’ performance and training needs are obtained from employees
who rate their own performance and indicate their training needs. This is known as self-
assessment.

Solutions to Performance Problems

 Is the problem worth spending time or money to correct it

Consider some basic solutions first:

 Quick fixes such as work expectations, standards and goals

 Are there adequate resources?
 Is the performance outcome visible and known?
 What is the cause of poor performance
 Analyze reward and punishment contingencies
 Is there a skill deficiency? Could the employee perform the task if their life depended on
it?
o Provide practice and feedback

Consider training if the environment is not the cause of poor performance and there is potential to
learn and change behaviour.

Contingency Management: practice based on belief that every act has a consequence and if the
consequence is rewarding employees for good performance, then it will be repeated and
maintained

Obstacles with Needs Analysis

 Trainers not rewarded for taking time and money to conduct a needs analysis.
 Time constraint: new equipment could be coming and train everyone on everything instead
of certain employees in certain procedures since training needs to be done in days
 Belief that needs are known already
 Not relevant given the reason for training (other companies are providing it)

Training Design
Training Design: the process of preparing and planning events to facilitate learning.
Training Objective: a statement of what trainees are expected to be able to do after a training
program. It is the intended outcome. This is important for trainers, trainees and managers

Four Key Elements

1. Who is to perform the designed behaviour?
2. What is the actual behaviour to be used to demonstrate mastery of the training
content or objective? Actions words such as calculate, type are easy but mental activities
like analyze or comprehend can be described in other measurable ways.
3. Where and when is the behaviour to be demonstrated and evaluated? (example such
as during a 60 second typing test, on a ski hill with icy conditions, when presented with a
diagram)
4. What is the standard by which the behaviour will be judged? (is the trainee expected
to type 60 words a minute with fewer than three errors)

Example: The sales representative (who) will be able to make 10 calls a day to new customers
(what) in the territory assigned (where and when) and will be able to generate three sales worth
at least $500 from these calls (how or the criterion)

Training Content: what topics should be included to meet the needs and accomplish the
objectives.
 Look at the needs analysis and training objective.
 Required content if legislated
 Consult with SMEs and top performers
 Literature and documents
 Refer to other similar programs
 Purchase off the shelf training program

In many cases it is economical for organizations to purchase training materials than to develop
materials themselves. The advantages of packed programs are high quality, immediate delivery,
the potential to customize the package, benefit from others’ implementation experience, extensive
testing and a lower price.

Training programs developed internally by an organization have advantages such as security and
confidentiality, use of organization’s language, incorporation of organization values, use of
content expertise and the pride and credibility of having a customized program.

One of the most important factors when deciding to purchase or design, a cost benefit analysis is
necessary. Other factors would be the time it take for HR staff to design a training program and
whether they have the expertise needed. How soon a training program should begin is also a factor
as well as the number of employees that will need to be trained.

Productive Responses: the trainee actively uses the training content rather than passively
watching, listening or imitating the trainer.

Practice: physical or mental rehearsal of a task

Active Practice: providing trainees with opportunities to practice performing a training task or
using knowledge they are learning during training

Conditions of practice: the effectiveness of active practice depends on conditions before and
during training

Metacognitive strategies include monitoring and control

 Monitoring involves identifying the task, checking and evaluating one’s progress, and
predicting the outcomes of the progress
 Control involves decisions about where to allocate one’s resources, the specific steps to
complete a task, the speed and intensity required to work on a task and the prioritization of
activities

Massed or distributed practice deals with the timing of practice while whole vs part learning deals
with dividing up the practice by tasks.

Advance organizers can include outlines, text, diagrams and graphic organizers.

Massed versus Distributed Practice: how the segments of a training program are divided and
whether the training is conducted in a single session (massed)

Research has shown that material we learned under distributed practice is retained longer.

Whole vs Part learning: has to do with whether all of the training material is learned and practiced
at one time or one part at a time.

Overlearning: continued practice even after trainees have mastered a task so that the behaviour
becomes automatic.

Advantages of Feedback
 Feedback lets trainees know whether they are performing the training task effectively
 Positive feedback can build confidence and strength trainee self-efficacy
 Positive feedback can be reinforcing and stimulate continued effort and learning
 Feedback is necessary for trainees to know whether they have attained their goals, whether
to revise them or set new ones

Routine Expertise: the ability to reproduce specific behaviours in similar settings and situations

Adaptive expertise: the ability to use knowledge and skills across a range of tasks, settings and
situations.

Proceduralized learning: provide trainees with step by step instruction on how to perform a task.
It provides trainees with rules principles and strategies for effective performance

Routine Expertise: the ability to reproduce specific behaviours in similar settings and situations

Exploratory/discovery learning: trainees learn rules, principles and strategies on their own

Error Management Training: involves explicitly encouraging trainees to make errors during
training and to learn from them. This can be done by providing trainees basic information or
minimal instructions on how to perform a task.

Error management instructions tells trainees they can mistakes and to teach to self-regulate
emotions.
Tell trainees it’s okay to make mistakes as it helps learning. Remind trainees that thus is good
thing. Statements about the positive function and importance of making errors for learning.
 “the more errors you make, the more you learn”
 “you have made an error? Great! Now you can learn something new”

Error training is beneficial because

 It informs trainees of knowledge and skills that need improvement and what they should
focus on.
 Errors force trainees to develop thoughtful strategies and a deeper processing of
information
 Lead to greater practice because trainees tend to practice those things they have yet to
master
 Trainees can learn error recovery strategies

EMT is more effective for learning and task performance. EMT effectiveness depends on several
factors:
 post training performance rather than during training performance
 Adaptive tasks rather than analogical tasks (routine tasks)
 Error management instructions

Training Design
 Training methods
 Active practice
 Conditions of practice
 Active learning
 Error training management

Off the Job Training

What are Training Methods: the techniques used to deliver the training method to trainees

Off the job training takes place away from the job site usually in a classroom or formal training
setting. It involves use of various instructional methods and instructed media

Instructional Methods: are the techniques used to stimulate learning. These are used to convey
course content. These are usually used in a classroom or formal setting for the purpose of learning.

Instructional Media: slides and AV media can be used to accompany most instructional methods.

Lecture: a training method in which the trainer presents to trainees the content to be learned.
Although a boring training method, the research shows that lectures are effective for training.
Lectures can provide large amount of information to large groups in a short time at minimum
expense. Good for declarative knowledge if that is training outcome.
The limitations are that it doesn’t take into differences in trainee learning styles. There are also
little trainee involvement and one way communication.

It should contain
 Introduction(purpose, topic to cover)
 Body of the lecture (topic content, sequence)
 Conclusion (summary of the main point)

What can we add to a lecture to facilitate learning and improve a training program
 Questions and answers (discussions)
 Analyze and solve problems (case study)
 Active practice (role play)
 Observation (behavioral modelling)
 Realism (simulation)
 Entertaining (games)

Discussion Method: two way communication between the trainer and trainees as well as among
trainees.

1. It helps trainees recognize what they do not know but should know
2. It is an opportunity for trainees to get answers to questions
3. It allows trainees to get advice on matters that are of concern to them
4. It allows trainees to share ideas and derive a common wisdom
5. It is a way for trainees to learn about one another as people

Case Study: a training method in which trainees discuss, analyze and solve problems based on
real situations

The objectives of a case study are to:

1. Introduce realism into trainees’ learning
2. Deal with a variety of problems, goals, facts, conditions and conflicts that often occur in
the real world
3. Teach trainees how to make decisions
4. Teach trainees to be creative and think independently

When writing a case, it should be a product of a real organizational situation.

Blended Training: the use of a combination of approaches

Case Incident: is usually no more than one page in length and is designed to illustrate or probe
one specific problem, concept or issue.

Behavioral Modelling Training (BMT): a training method in which trainees observe a model
performing a task and then attempt to imitate the observed behaviour. BMT has been used to teach
interpersonal skills such as a supervision, negotiation, communication and sales. Effective for
learning various kinds of skills and behaviours
It is based on four general principles of learning
1. Observation (modelling) such as handling a customer complaint
2. Rehearsal (practice)
3. Reinforcement (reward)
4. Transfer

Mixed modelling strategy: showing both what to do and what not to do.
Transfer of learning on the job is greatest when
 Models display positive and negative behaviours
 Trainees set goals
 Trainees’ superiors were trained
 Rewards and sanctions provided

Roleplay: method of training in which trainees are given the opportunity to practice new
behaviours in a safe environment. They are often used and effective in training programs that
involve interpersonal skills such as team building, leadership and mentorship. This is different than
BMT because you aren’t sure of every step unlike BMT when you are shown procedure.

A role play consists of three phases:

1. Development: must be developed to achieve objectives. Usually consists of a situation

with two actors
2. Enactment: trainees are assigned roles and to act out the scenario
3. Debriefing: participants discuss their experiences and outcomes of their role play. Correct
behaviours are then reinforced

Simulations: involves the use of operating models of physical or social events that are designed
to represent reality. Simulations must have physical fidelity (e.g appearance) and psychological
fidelity

Characteristics of Training Methods:

 Learning modality: extent to which the primary way of communicating information

 Training environment: setting in which training takes place (simulated, on the job,
contrived – in a made up environment)
 Trainer presence: trainer is present during training and delivering the content
 Proximity: locality of trainer
 Interaction level: the amount of interaction between trainees and interaction between
trainer and trainees
 Cost considerations
 Time demands on trainees

Choosing a Training Method

 Cost and Resource Availability

 On the job application: if trainees are expected to apply new knowledge and skills on the
job, then a role play, simulation or behaviour modeling training would be preferred
 Trainer skill and preferences
 Trainee preferences and characteristics

Aptitude Treatment Interaction : the effectiveness of a training method will vary based
on trainee characteristics.

Blended Training: the use of a combination of approaches to training such as classroom training,
on the job training and computer technology. This allows for multiple learning outcomes to be
achieved and increases the possibility that the training will be applied on the job.

Advantages of off the job training is trainers can use a wide variety of instructional training
methods, trainers are able to control the training environment and a large number of trainees can
be trained at one time.

Off the job training is much more costly than on the job training as well as the training environment
could be different than the work environment.

On the Job Training

On the Job Training: a training method in which a trainee receives instruction and training at his
or her workstation from a supervisor or experienced co-worker. Especially useful for small
businesses.

One of the big problems with OJT is often it is not well planned or structured. Another problem is
that most people assigned to the task of training others on the job have not received training on
how to be a trainer.

Another problem is that poor employees teach undesirable work habits and attitudes to new
employees and the traditional way of doing things get passed on to new employees as well.
Trainers might have their own work to do and have resentment. This type of training is inconsistent

Learning theories: To improve on the job training, can use positive reinforcement, self-efficacy,
observational learning.

Motivational Theories: Can use trainee needs, expectancy theory, components, goal setting

Training Design: training objectives, task sequencing, feedback, active practice

Job Instruction Training:

1. Preparation: trainer breaks down job into small steps and prepares all equipment, put the
trainee at ease, guarantee learning, build interest
2. Instruction: showing, telling, explaining and demonstrating the task to the trainee
3. Performance: trainee performs the task under the trainer’s guidance and the trainer
provides feedback and reinforcement
4. Follow-up: the trainer will monitor the trainee performance and provide support if
necessary

Performance Aid: a device at the job site that helps employees perform their job. They can be
signs or prompts, troubleshooting aids, flash cards or checklists. They can say time and money.
This is especially useful when
 Memorization requires excessive training
 Tasks are performed infrequently
 Consequences of poor performance are serious

Cross Training: training employees to perform each other’s jobs.

Apprenticeships are training methods that combine on the job training and classroom instruction.
Apprenticeship training differs from other training methods in that it is regulated through a
partnership among government, labour and industry.

Coaching: an experienced and knowledgeable person is formally called upon to help another
person develop the insights and techniques pertinent to the accomplishment of the job.

Mentoring: is a training method where a senior member of an organization takes a personal

interest in the career of a junior employee. Mentors play two major roles: career support and
psychosocial support.

Career Support: mentoring activities that include coaching, sponsorship, exposure, visibility,
protection and the provision of challenging assignments

Psychosocial Support: includes being a friend who listens and counsels, who accepts and provide
feedback and who offer a role model for success. Research has shown to be highly effective for
those that are mentored and their organizations.

On the job training has a very low cost as well as the likeliness that the trainee would apply the
training on the job.

Technology Based Training Method

Technology based training: is training that involves use of technology to deliver courses such as
web based training, computerized self-study, satellite or broadcast TV, and video or audio tele-
conferencing.

Computer based training: training delivered via the computer for the purpose of teaching job
relevant skills. It can include text, graphics, and/or animation and can be delivered via CD, intranet
or the internet.

E-learning: is the use of computer network technology such as the intranet or internet to deliver
information or instruction to individuals. E-learning is a specific type of computer based learning.
Instructor Led Training (ILT): raining method that involves an instructor or facilitator who leads
facilitates or trains online. This could be online discussions and video conferencing. In some cases,
the instructor is very involved and leads the process. Other cases are more self-study and the
instructor is available for answering questions.

Self-directed learning (SDL): occurs when individual or groups take the initiative and
responsibility for learning and managing their own learning experience. This shifts responsibility
from the trainer to the trainee. Trainees learn when they want to and at their own pace.

Asynchronous Training: training that is pre-recorded and available to employees at any time and
from any location. This includes simulations, interactive exercises, tests and feedback. Can choose
sequence of content and pace of learning

Two common methods of asynchronous training are online education and electronic performance
support systems. Online Training involves use of technology to deliver educational content and
courses.

Electronic Performance Support System: computer based system that provides information,
advice and learning experiences to improve performance. It provides support including assisting
warning, advising, teaching and evaluating. With an EPSS, information is only accessed when
needed.

Synchronous Training: training that is live and requires trainees to be at their computer at a
specific time

A common method of synchronous training is a virtual classroom which uses a web based
platform to deliver live, instruction led training to geographically dispersed learners. Trainees
participate in live discussions with facilitators and coworkers from any location. Shorter training
sessions can be held over a period of weeks and months.

Web Conferencing: is a live meeting or conference that takes place on the internet. Similarly, a
webinar which is a seminar or workshop that takes place live over the web. It can be a presentation
or workshop and can be interactive letting participants ask questions.

Benefits of Computer-Based Training for Trainees

 Flexibility: trainers don’t have to arrange their schedule and workload to accommodate
training schedules
 Learner Control: the degree to which the trainee has control over various instructional
features during a lesson or training program such as the content, sequence, and/or the pace
of training
 Self-Pacing: means trainees can work on training tasks as quickly or as slowly as they
want
 Convenience of time and place of learning
 Organizations can ensure that all trainees receive the same training regardless where
they are located
 Just in time learning
Disadvantages of Computer Based Training
 Less interpersonal contact and interaction with other trainees
 Trainee preferences need to be considered
 Computer literacy
 Requires discipline: need to commit to a certain time
 Too much learner control can have negative consequences:

Organization Advantages:
 Standardization and consistency
 More people trained in shorter time
 Easy to track performance and completion
 Training of new content is much faster
 Increase efficiencies and cost savings

Organization Disadvantages:
 Startup cost of development can be high
 Trainee resistance and acceptance
 Issues of control and completion: requires some monitoring, incentives, accountability and
guidelines

Designing Computer Based Training Programs

 Design Factors: objectives, active practice, feedback, task sequencing
 Learning theory: reinforcement, observation, self efficacy, self-regulation theory
 Instructional Methods: games, role plays, simulations, etc
 Computer Interaction: customization, personalization, human interaction

E-learning was 6% more effective on average for declarative learning. For one type of Gagne
Learning Outcome, one outcome is more effective.

Both methods are just as effective for procedural knowledge and trainees equally satisfied

Blended training was more effective than classroom instruction for declarative and procedural
knowledge.

Computer based training is more effective is when:

 Trainees were older (older people don’t procrastinate as much and better time
management)
 Instructional methods differ (but not when the same)
 Trainees choose training method ( but not when assigned)
 Trainers have greater learner control
 Training includes practice and feedback (but this is also true of classroom instruction)
 Length of training was greater
There really is no one best training method. The best approach is to use a combination of methods
including classroom instruction, on the job training and computer technology

Benefits of Blended Approach

 trainee preference
 multiple training outcomes
 maximize learning and retention
 on the job application

Generative Learning: a self-initiated and learner controlled form of collaborative learning in

which individuals in a social network share ideas and information and in the process solve
problems and create new knowledge

Wiki: a webpage or collection of web pages in which users share, contribute and modify
information on topic. Wikis enable relevant information to be obtained on demand and training
material to be constantly revised and updated.

Web 3.0
 Semantic Web: involves technology that can understand the meaning of data and create
customized experiences in which information is tailored to a user’s needs
 Mobile Web: allows one to use the web seamlessly across devices and locations
 Immersive web: immersive technologies such as virtual worlds, augmented reality and 3D
environment.

Mobile Learning: the use of mobile or portable technologies across locations for obtaining
information and training. Mobile devices can be used to deliver short videos or short amounts of
information.

Designing Effective Computer Based Training Programs:

Computer simulations: provides trainees with hands on training. These are reality based and
designed to replicate on the job experiences by providing trainees with opportunities to practice
and master knowledge and skills.

Games: are designed to engage trainees with realistic and entertaining experiences. These games
often simulate work related tasks and experiences. What distinguishes them from simulations is
that they are meant to be entertaining and competitive. Structured competition with rules and
scoring. Used for decision making, problem solving and interpersonal skills. Debriefing session is
key for learning and transfer

Personalization refers to structuring the program so that trainees feel they are engaged in a
conversation with the program

Training Delivery
Stage of Training

 Before training (needs analysis and design)

 During training (delivery)
 After training (evaluation and transfer)

Lesson Plan: the blueprint that outlines the sequence of activities that will take place in the training
program. It should be prepared in advance of a training program.

Should include
 Training program details (title, time, trainees)
 Training objectives
 Classroom requirements (e.g seating)
 Materials, supplies and equipment
 Handout (quiz, exercise)

The detailed lesson plan indicates what will happen, when will it happen and what the trainees and
trainer will be doing during each time period through the training program. Should also contain
title, objectives, total time of program and sequence of content and events and time allocation.

An important consideration should be sequencing or ordering of the content for the training
program.

Lesson: a cohesive unit of instruction with a specific learning objective

Trainer

The trainer should be a subject matter expert.

Regardless of how well a training program is designed, the success of the program rests in large
part on the trainer.
Trainer Expressiveness: the degree to which a trainer uses linguistic devices and is physically
animated (posture, gesturing, eye contact). There is evidence that a trainer’s expressiveness
enhances trainees’ motivation and self-efficacy.

Trainers also should be engaging which means to draw trainees into the program, keep them
focused and interested in the learning.

A trainer is effective if they are interesting and engaging, trainer expressiveness, seductive details
(interesting fact, story, joke)

Train the Trainer: training programs that teach SME how to design and deliver training programs

Learning Climate: a climate that is conductive to learning so that trainees are relaxed,
comfortable, and feel safe and ready to learn. These include pre arrival factors, greeting
participants, learning facility and environment, trainer’s style and behaviour.

Four questions that need to be asked when selecting participants for a training program
1. Who can benefit from the training
2. What programs are required by law or government?
3. Should training be voluntary or compulsory
4. Should participants be segregated by level in the organization or should two or more levels
be included in the same class?

Trainability Test: a test that measures an individual’s ability to learn and perform training tasks.
They typically take a mini course or learn a sample of the training. Then they take a test that
measures their learning and performance of the tasks.

Training Site: is the facility or room the training will take place. This should be conductive to
learning (in terms of space, lighting, comfort level). The training site should be free of noise or
distractions. Third, the training site should be appropriate for the training program (if DVD can
trainees hear sound and see screen?)

Training Administration: the coordination of all the people and materials involved in training
program. Trainee records, customized learning opportunities, course and material inventory are
necessary.

Learning Culture: a climate that is conductive to learning

 Pre-Arrival Factors: trainer can create positive perception of learning climate before
trainees arrive. (pre-readings, a pre-session get together)
 Greeting Participants: make them feel welcome when they arrive.
 Learning facility/environment: physical set up of the training room is attractive,
comfortable, bright, relaxing and clean.
 Trainer Style and Behaviour: how trainers interact and conduct the training

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction: external events that are designed to help facilitate learning
Events of instruction stimulate internal learning process. Stimulate recall leads to retrieval of prior
learning
1. Gain Attention: draw trainees into the learning process
2. Describe the objectives: trainers must communicate what they will learn in the training
program, what to expect and what they will be able to accomplish after
3. Stimulate recall of previous knowledge: important to show trainees that they already
know some things that are related to what they will learn in training
4. Present the material to be learned: presentation of the training material should be done
in a logical and consistent manner.
5. Provide Guidance for Learning: trainer should provide trainees with guidance and
direction on how best to learn the material. Let trainees what they should be focusing on
6. Elicit performance practice: trainees should be given the opportunity to practice and
apply the training material. This is called active practice
7. Provide Informative Feedback: It is essential that trainees know and understand what
they did correctly, what they did wrong and how to correct what they did wrong.
8. Assess performance test trainees on their learning during and after a training program
9. Enhance retention and transfer: trainers discuss how the training material can be applied
on the job and in actual work situations

Training Delivery Problems

 Most common problem Is an uncooperative and difficult trainee
 Fear: fear that is due to lack of confidence and anxiety while delivering the training
program
 Credibility: the perception that they lack credibility in the eyes of the trainees as SME
 Personal Experience: a lack of stories about personal experiences that can be used to
relate to the training content
 Difficult learners: don’t know how to handle problem trainees who may be angry, passive
or dominating
 Participation: difficulty getting trainees to participate
 Timing: trouble with the timing and pacing of the training material
 Adjusting instruction: difficulty adjusting the training material to the needs of the trainees
or being able to redesign the presentation of material during delivery
 Questions: difficulty using questions effectively and responding to difficult questions
 Feedback: unable to read trainees and use feedback and evaluations effectively
 Media, materials, facilities: concerns about how to use media and training materials
 Opening, closing techniques: the need for techniques to use as ice breakers, introductions
and effective summaries and closing
 Dependence on notes: feeling too dependent on notes and having trouble presenting the
material without them

Closing a Training Program

Focus on application of training on the job. Closing activity that signals the end of the program
Transfer of Training
This is the application, generalization and maintenance of trained knowledge, skills or attitudes on
the job.

Maintenance is applying what you learned over time. Generalization is applying the learning to
different tasks and situations.

Transfer can
 be positive: trainees are applying their training on the job
 zero: trainees are not applying their training) or
 negative: trainees are doing worse than before.
 Far or near: the extent to which the trainee can apply what they learned to tasks that are
similar or very different
 Horizontal (applying training at same level) or vertical (applying it at the organizational
level)

To what extent do employees apply learning following a training program? Immediately: 49%,
11% not at all.
Six months after: 25% large extent/ 26% not at all
12 months after: 25% large extent/ 45% not at all

Real problem of maintenance (transfer over time)

Training Development (Training environment)
Training transfer (work environment)

The difference between the two environments affect. Training environment is more safe, calm,
outside influences. Timing is also a difference. Most times you won’t immediately use the training
you used until later. In a training environment, the trainer has most control. In the work
environment, the supervisor has most control
Transfer Problems

Trainees
 Readiness to learn or trainability
 Readiness to learn = (ability x motivation x perceptions of the work environment)
 Trainees should be high on all 3 of these

Management and Work Environment

 Lack of supervisor support and rewards for transfer
 Lack of opportunity to practice and resources for transfer

Design
 Lack of learning principles in design of training
Trainee Characteristics that predict transfer of training
 Cognitive ability
 Self-efficacy
 Motivation to learn and transfer
 Job attitudes (e.g job satisfaction)
 Personality (e.g locus of control)

Training Design Elements

 Identical elements: training experience and conditions that resemble the work environment
(physical and psychological fidelity)
 General principles: the general rules and theoretical principles for the use and application
of knowledge and skills
 Stimulus variability: variety of examples and experiences about how to apply a concept
in different situations. Mixed modelling strategy
 Both of these lead to far transfer training to be applied.

Factors in the Work Environment can influence transfer

 Organizational Context
o Transfer training climate: work environment factors that can facilitate or hinder
positive transfer of training (cues, feedback, consequences and support)
o Continuous learning culture: culture that supports and encourages learning as part
of one’s job responsibilities

Activities before, during and after training

 Before training: ensure trainee readiness to learn (trainability test, motivation to learn)
management support for training (release time, benefits/rewards)
 During training: training design elements, set goals and action plan
 After training: opportunities for practice, management support (e.g encouragement,
feedback and rewards)

Transfer of Training Interventions

 Relapse prevention (coping skills and strategies)
 Self-management (manage transfer behaviour, monitor and track your performance)
 Goal setting (goals for transfer)

The Transfer System – 16 factors that predict transfer of training

 Person factors (motivation, self-efficacy)
 Training factors (content design)
 Organization factors (opportunities, support)

LTSI can be used to assess the transfer system in an organization

Training Evaluation

Training evaluation is a systematic process to assess the value or worthiness of training and
development programs.

Involves the collection of data before, during and after the training program.

Variables that pertain to the trainee, the training program and the organization

The Purpose of Evaluation

Formative evaluations
 Data about various aspects of a training program (content, complexity, clarity)
 Training materials and processes
 To improve the instructional experience

Summative Evaluations
 Data about the worthiness, or effective of a training program
 Benefits or results of the training

Descriptive Evaluation
 Describe the trainee after attending training (e.g trainee self-efficacy, trainee knowledge)

Causal Evaluations: did the training program cause a change in performance or behaviour
Kirkpatrick’s Model of Training Evaluation

L5: Return on Investment: did the organization benefit financially from the training

This is a simple model that is easy to understand.

It’s very good for summative evaluation but not for formative evaluation
Lack of precision in the measurement of some variables
It calls for evaluations to assess all four levels.
It is a one size fit all models.

COMA Model
Measures variables that are important for transfer of training
 Cognitive variables
 Organizational environment
 Motivation
 Attitudes

This
 Improves upon basic reaction measures following training
 It is especially useful for formative evaluation
 Adds precision to measurement of key variables

Decision Based Evaluation Model

 A model that tailors training evaluations to each training program and the decisions needed
 For each training situation
o Target (what to evaluate, e.g trainee)
o Focus (what variables e.g learning)
o Methods (how to collect data e.g survey)
 Training evaluation has to be tailored to each training program and situation

Exam Content
 Chapter 1, 2 (56-61), 3 – 11 and class material

Format: 50 MCQ
2 Short Answer Type Questions (25 Marks Each)