FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF LAFIA

FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

COURSE CODE: PSY224

COURSE TITTLE: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF ETHNICITY

GROUP 4:

GROUP MEMBERS:

2020/SS/PSY/0007 (GROUP LEADER)

2020/SS/PSY/0012

2020/SS/PSY/0040

2020/SS/PSY/0045DE

GROUP QUESTIONS: DISCUSSED ON ATTRIBUTION FORMATION OR ATTRIBUTE FORMATION (

Form a topic)

DATE: 21/11/2023
ABSTRACT

Assigning motives or reasons to situations and actions have been the basic premise of human existence.
Attributing cause to an action makes it logical and easier to comprehend. In social psychology,
attribution is the process through which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events. Various
theories and models have been proposed to explain this concept, starting from the early works of Fritz
Heider in the early 20th century and further advances by Harold Kelley and Bernard Weiner.
Attributional concepts can be used in a wide arena of behavioral science ranging from mental health
stigma-related interventions to consumerism, corporate and jury psychology, and finally, attributional
bias in psychosis and learned helplessness in depression. Attribution theories are viewed as the relevant
concepts in the exploration and explanation of a wide repertoire of psychopathologies, especially for
culture bound syndromes. Research into the translational use of attributional theories has declined in
the recent years, the models being criticized for being mechanistic and reductionistic in approach.
Nevertheless, the role of “attributions” in social psychology remains equally important today to explore
the various facets of human behavior and reactions. The article explores the relevance of attributions in
the fields of psychosocial health. It discusses various theoretical perspectives and frameworks premised
on attributional models and narrates the understanding as well as the applications of the relevant
theories in the realms of stigma research and consumerism. The criticism and implications in mental
health are highlighted thereafter.

"Attribution formation is the process by which people explain and make sense of their own behavior
and the behavior of others. This process has important implications for our emotions, motivation, and
social interactions. This research sought to explore the factors that influence attribution formation, with
a focus on the role of culture and individual differences. The findings suggest that attribution formation
is influenced by a complex interplay of factors, including cultural norms, individual experiences, and
personal biases."

INTRODUCTION

Humans are inherently motivated to assign causes to their actions and behaviors. Since evolutionary
times, the discoveries and explorations of humanity have been based on this instinctive need. Assigning
a cause to an action necessarily justifies it and makes it rational and understandable. Social psychology
deals with this aspect of human need using the models of attribution theories. The motives, sentiments,
intentions, and processes that define and guide these attributions are explained through the various
models. As civilization has progressed, attributions have shaped anthropological and sociological
constructs, to guide human bonds, conflict, social structures, and interpersonal interaction. Starting
from politics to consumerism or prejudice, “attributions” have been fundamental in studying the
phenomena. Even in psychiatric disorders, attributional models help understand psychopathology and
genesis of culture-bound syndromes. Though popular in the earlier century, research related to
attribution theories has diminished over time. Keeping this in background, this narrative review
attempts to revisit these models, their effect on human behavior and limitations.

Heider was the first to theorize about attribution in the field of psychology; however, Weiner et al.,
developed a theoretical framework that has become a relevant research paradigm in the realm of social
psychology. Heider shed light on naive or common sense psychology in which e viewed people as
amateur scientist who attempt to understand and decipher other's behaviors by collating information
unless they deduce a rational inference or explanation. According to to Fiske and Taylor, attribution
theory deals with how the social perceiver pieces together information to arrive at causal explanation
for events. It examines what information is gathered and how is it combined to form.

Social psychology is the scientific study of how people think, feel, and behave in social situations. Social
psychologists are interested in understanding the individual and group dynamics that influence how
people interact with each other, and how these interactions impact our thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors. Social psychology also explores the factors that lead to prejudice, discrimination, and conflict,
as well as the conditions that promote cooperation and harmony.

The field of social psychology encompasses a wide range of topics, including attitudes, group dynamics,
social influence, interpersonal relationships, and intergroup relations.

Attributions in social psychology are inferences generated by people when they try to explain reasons
for events, the behavior of others, and their own behavior. Attributions may be internal (dispositional),
based on something within a person, or external (situational), based on something outside a person .

TYPES OF ATTRIBUTION FORMATION

Attributions can be categorized in several ways, each offering a different lens through which to view
your life’s events:

1. Internal vs. External: Internal attributions assign the cause of an event to personal factors, like
your own abilities or effort. External attributions, on the other hand, place the cause outside
yourself, such as luck or other people’s actions.
2. Stable vs. Unstable: Stable attributions suggest that the cause of an event is unchanging and will
influence future situations. Unstable attributions indicate that the cause is temporary and
specific to the situation at hand.
3. Controllable vs. Uncontrollable: Controllable attributions imply that you have power over the
cause, while uncontrollable attributions suggest that the cause is beyond your control.
HEIDER, FISKE, AND TAYLOR PIONEERS IN THE FIELD OF ATTRIBUTION FORMATION AND THEIR WORK
HAS BEEN HUGELY INFLUENTIAL IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1. Fritz Heider
Heider's 'Common Sense' Theory
Heider groups these explanations into either external attributions or internal attributions.
External attributions are those that are blamed on situational forces, while internal attributions
are blamed on individual characteristics and traits.

Heider attribution theory proposed that people tend to make either internal or external attributions for
their own and others' behavior, based on a variety of factors including consensus, distinctiveness, and
consistency.

2. Susan Fiske

investigates aspects of social cognition, such as how stereotyping, prejudice, and

discrimination are encouraged or discouraged by relationships with others.

- Fiske developed the correspondent inference theory, which states that people make attributions based
on the extent to which a behavior is perceived to be intentional, under volitional control, and consistent
with a person's past behavior.

3. Taylor

Taylor's social cognition theory suggests that people are motivated to make attributions that
protect their self-esteem and self-concept. The theory proposes four principles of self-
protection:
- Self-serving bias: We tend to take credit for successes and blame outside factors for failures.
- Defensive attribution: We tend to blame others for negative events to protect our own sense
of morality.
- Illusion of control: We tend to overestimate our own ability to control events and
underestimate the role of chance.
- Selective memory: We tend to remember information that confirms our existing beliefs and
forget information that contradicts them.

MAIN BOBY OF ATTRIBUTION FORMATION IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Here are the main tenets of attribution formation:
- People are motivated to understand and explain their environment.
- People make attributions about others' behavior based on information available to them.
- Attributional biases can influence the way we interpret others' behavior.
- Attributional biases can lead to errors in judgment and inaccurate conclusions.
By understanding how attribution formation works, we can become more aware of our own
biases and try to make more accurate and unbiased judgments about the world around us.
Attribution is a three stage process: (1) behavior is observed, (2) behavior is determined to be
deliberate, and (3) behavior is attributed to internal or external causes.
SOME RESEARCH TOPICS:

a research topic on attribution formation! Here are some ideas:

- Exploring the relationship between attribution and self-esteem.

- Examining how attribution formation varies across cultures.
- Investigating the role of attribution in workplace conflict.
- Studying how attribution can influence decision-making and problem-solving.
- Comparing attribution in children and adults.

TOPIC:

EXAMINING THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG COGNITIVE ABILITY, DOMAIN-SPECIFIC SELF-CONCEPT, AND

BEHAVIORAL SELF-ESTEEM OF GIFTED CHILDREN AGED 5–6 Years: A CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY.

Although childhood is a critical period of development during which all children begin a lifelong process
of self-discovery that shapes their identities, few studies have focused on the self-concept and self-
esteem of young, gifted children. This study recruited 108 gifted children aged 5–6 years from Greece
and their preschool teachers to explore the relationships among cognitive ability, domain-specific self-
concepts, and global self-esteem. The Pictorial Scale for Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance
was used to assess the domain-specific self-concepts of the participants, whereas behavioral
manifestations of self-esteem were rated by the children’s teachers using the Behavioral Academic Self-
Esteem Scale. There were positive correlations among IQ, perceived scholastic competence, and global
self-esteem. Hierarchical regression analysis indicated that significant predictors of global self-esteem
were male gender, higher IQ, perceived scholastic competence, and perceived maternal acceptance.
Additionally, there were gender differences in global self-esteem and perceived physical competence in
favor of boys, whereas perceived maternal acceptance favored girls. This article discusses the need for
practitioners working with gifted children to enact a comprehensive social–emotional learning
curriculum in schools that promotes academic as well as personal and character strengths. Finally, the
limitations of the study and suggestions for future research are also presented.
Childhood is a critical period of development during which both gifted and average children begin the
lifelong process of self-discovery that shapes their personality and identity. Harter asserted that
children aged between 5 and 7 years develop new cognitive acquisitions that allow them to give vivid
descriptions of their virtuosity. Moreover, young children typically begin to describe themselves as
having a spectrum of specific competencies that range from academic to physical and social domains
(e.g., I am good at football and writing and/or I am not good at swimming and drawing). The positive
representation of the child’s competency reinforces the child’s intrinsic desire to actively participate in
challenging activities, with the child persisting with the task and aiming for mastery. This mechanism
enhances a continuous cycle of pursuit and commitment to improve performance, which in turn
influences how the child perceives himself/herself , and may strengthen the development of other
aspects of the self, such as self-confidence and self-esteem. Therefore, developing a positive sense of
self throughout one’s early years can aid in acquiring strategies and skills to cope with future
challenges .

Studies indicate that young children’s self-perceived overall worth as a person cannot be accurately
conceptualized because of age-related cognitive and developmental limitations that prevent children
from easily verbalizing such concepts [7]. Accordingly, children may have trouble responding
symbolically and making sense of abstract statements such as “I’m a valuable person” or “I like to set
goals for myself” [8]. However, even at a young age, children can develop a rudimentary sense of self-
esteem and may experience low or high self-esteem, which can be identified through behavioral-based
manifestations that are observable by adults such as teachers, childcare providers, and parents [7,9]. For
example, young children with high self-esteem are typically active, exploratory, and persistent, and they
tend to participate fully in daily activities at home and at school, showing mastery, whereas children
with low self-esteem tend to react inappropriately to transitions and avoid challenge and exploration .

In psychology, the notion of the self has been described using interchangeable terms, including self-
esteem and self-concept [11]. However, an accurate categorical distinction between these two
constructs is not supported by empirical research [12]. Self-esteem, which is generally described as the
feelings and appraisals one has regarding oneself in different roles and domains of life [13], includes
both emotional and cognitive facets, as does self-concept, which has recently been perceived as a
dynamic multidimensional construct [14,15] that is generally described as one’s self-beliefs. From this
perspective, both self-esteem and self-concept can be conceptualized as members of the common self-
view category [16], which can be examined in association with the meaning individuals attribute to their
experiences.
Research on giftedness supports the idea that gifted children develop their thinking and reasoning
abilities earlier than do their non-gifted peers , and they can move faster through the curriculum in the
area of their talents . Neuropsychological studies suggest that children with high intelligence learn more
rapidly than others, possibly due to enhanced frontal cortical activation and faster neural processing
speed . This neuronal efficiency promotes the development of high-level neurocognitive capabilities,
including enhanced executive functions and an effective working memory system. Gifted children can
thereby master a domain (e.g., language, physics, mathematics, arts) easily and rapidly at an early age
by teaching themselves, with little or no help from adults . In addition, research has suggested that
gifted children tend to develop in-depth understanding of their self-perceptions because of their
exceptional abilities . This understanding allows gifted individuals to develop great awareness of
personal values and morals, which are linked to their well-developed subjective self-representations and
unique experiences of the world ; further, these experiences differ from those of their average-ability
classmates.

During critical childhood years, global self-esteem is an important personal variable that contributes to
academic development and positive school outcomes for both gifted and average-ability students .
Coopersmith and Markus and Nurius suggested that positive self-esteem increases children’s
confidence, which in turn can contribute to greater cognitive aptitude and success at school individuals
being more able to complete difficult tasks successfully.

Empirical studies of self-esteem and giftedness have highlighted that self-esteem is a catalyst in the
process of talent development and is positively correlated with motivation and superior academic
outcomes . However, results of studies of self-esteem in gifted children are varied. Versus their average
peers, gifted children have been reported to exhibit higher , lower , or equivalent self-esteem. However,
the current literature suggests that, although gifted children can face complex socio-emotional concerns
that threaten their subjective well-being, they are at least as psychosocially well-adjusted as their
average-ability classmates . The discrepancies in reported self-esteem among gifted students could have
been influenced by various factors. From a developmental perspective, the self-esteem of gifted children
can be influenced by social and emotional characteristics, such as emotional intensity, perfectionism,
and difficulties in relationships with peers caused by asynchronous development .Silverman (p. 209)
reported that “giftedness is a ground of experience that differs significantly from the norm”. Indeed,
gifted children who feel different may display low self-esteem, as they lack the skills required to diminish
the gap that exists between their intellectual and interest levels and those of their non-gifted peers.
Furthermore, the type of giftedness and areas of cognitive strength may also influence this
heterogeneity. For example, individuals who are verbally gifted are more vulnerable than those who are
mathematically talented

.One of the most important goals of education is to provide opportunities for students to develop and
maintain a positive self-concept, which is particularly apparent in educational programs designed for
gifted students [36]. Self-concept has been found to be critical in achieving valued personal, social, and
academic goals in both gifted and typically developing children [37]. Thus, a positive self-concept
experienced by students, particularly in the domain of achievement, has been associated with optimal
learning and academic success in school as well as subsequent commitment, motivation, and
educational aspirations [38,39]. Additionally, self-concept is positively related to various psychosocial
factors, including happiness [40] and greater prosocial behaviors [41]. Furthermore, a strong self-
concept is associated with low evaluative anxiety in school, as individuals who feel academically
confident are usually successful in test situations, which, in turn, leads to less fear of failure in evaluative
situations and therefore greater academic achievement .

Research evidence is inconsistent regarding gifted children’s self-concept. Some scholars have found
that gifted students tend to score higher on academic self-concept, but score lower on physical and
social self-concept than their non-gifted peers [34,35,43]. In contrast, other researchers found no
difference in self-concept between gifted and typically developing students [44,45], whereas Pyryt and
Mendaglio [46] and Bain and Bell [47] found that gifted children scored higher not only on academic, but
also on social and physical self-concept. From an alternative perspective, Strop and Goldman [48] found
that gifted persons have a low level of general self-concept as a consequence of unrealistic expectations
from their teachers and parents, resulting in a sense of anxiety and frustration. These discrepancies
suggest that gifted and talented students are a heterogeneous group, as is the nature of their self-
concepts; therefore, various profiles can be differentiated .

Many of these conflicting research results regarding self-concept may be related to the educational
setting in which the gifted children were placed. Zeidner and Schleyer [50] conducted a cross-sectional
study that examined the academic self-concept, school grades, and test anxiety of 1020 gifted Israeli
students attending mixed-ability classes and homogenous special classes for gifted students. They found
that participants in the dedicated classes had lower academic self-concept than those who participated
in mixed-ability classes. Indeed, gifted students tend to feel more confident about themselves in
heterogeneous classrooms, in which they are among the most able, rather than in homogenous ability
classes, in which all students have exceptional abilities and outstanding school outcomes [51]. This
phenomenon is known as the “Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect” (BFLPE); it states that able students in high-
ability environments have lower academic self-concept than those students with equal abilities in lower-
ability settings. That is, being a big fish in a small pond benefits one’s academic self-concept. Research
has demonstrated that the BFLPE is likely the result of students comparing their competence to the
average ability of their peers [52]. Further, research has shown that gifted children, when placed in
segregated classrooms, experience less loneliness [53], have more friends [54], and tend to perceive
themselves as acceptable.

Gifted children’s self-concepts develop from interactions among perceptions of personal experiences
and reflected evaluations, as well as from social understanding [56]. Thus, the development of self-
concept is impacted by comparisons with peers and the characteristics of the environment in which the
individual participates actively [57,58]. From a developmental and social perspective, gifted children
mature in the social setting in which they live and interact with other people, including the family, and
supportive networks significantly affect the individual’s lifestyle, development of beliefs, and values,
which can act as the foundation for the creation of the self [27,59]. For example, the transition from
kindergarten to elementary school is followed by a substantial development in self-concept, as cognition
and environment engender critical changes in the way the individual consciously thinks and evaluates
their accomplishments. Moreover, the quality of the parent–child relationship and a secure attachment
with parents tend to play a critical role in the foundation of children’s self-views [60]. This is a reciprocal
process, as children with high self-esteem may better internalize positive feedback received from
significant others.

Internationally—including in studies from America and Europe—gifted students are frequently identified
by their intelligence quotient (IQ) and school grades; both factors have been considered in the literature
as acceptable criteria by which to identify giftedness in children [17,26]. Research has shown that other
possible criteria by which to evaluate gifted children are thus ignored, resulting in gifted children being
identified and subsequently accepted into gifted education services based on their global IQ scores [61].
Thus, talented students in non-academic areas and gifted students from minority groups, such as
children from immigrant parents and children from different cultural contexts, are often overlooked and
usually excluded from after-school programs offered to students with high abilities. Specifically in
Greece, the general educational level is low, and there is a lack of holistic and scientifically organized
provision supervised by the Ministry of Education to identify students with gifts and talents.
Additionally, adult society, including teachers of gifted persons, holds stereotypes regarding the gifted
group that reflect incorrect beliefs and various myths and fears about elitism in education that remain
present in Greek society. In this framework, developing talent in Greece and globally is a challenging and
demanding process that requires the promotion of knowledge and sensitization of societies regarding
the unique characteristics and needs of gifted individuals.

Given that gifted and talented persons are often considered to be psychologically resilient and immune
to problems related to social and emotional development , previous studies focused predominately on
the academic needs and achievement of gifted individuals, particularly among intellectually gifted
students. However, recent research has highlighted the need to place equal importance both on the
academic/cognitive and social–emotional development of gifted students to transform their abilities
into talents and, therefore, help such persons to succeed in life research from Greece has
predominately explored the cognitive, academic, and motivational profiles of gifted individuals. To the
best of the author’s knowledge, only one previous study conducted in Greece has focused on the social
and emotional development of gifted children: Papadopoulos investigated the effects of a social–
emotional learning program on gifted kindergarten students, finding marked differences before and
after the program was conducted in variables related to the self. In addition, this is the first study in
Europe to examine gifted children’s self-esteem and self-concept in critical preschool years.

PARTICIPANTS AND PROCEDURE

A cross-sectional survey study was conducted of 108 gifted preschool children (59 boys, 49 girls; age
range 5–6 years, Mage = 5.52, SD = 1.68) who were attending mixed-ability classes in private
kindergartens in the metropolitan area of Athens, and at the time of the study were taking part in an
after-school program. To be eligible for the study, each gifted child was required to have a signed report
from a licensed psychologist certifying that his/her full-scale IQ score was 120 or above according to the
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPSSI-III-Greek version). This cutoff score has
been proposed by other researchers to identify giftedness and for enrollment in services for gifted
persons [17,65]. Participants who had been previously diagnosed with any learning disability or mental
health condition were excluded from the study.

First, the purpose and aims of the study were explained to parents, teachers, and children. Second,
parental written consent was obtained, and gifted children agreed to participate in the study verbally.
Third, both gifted children and their parents were informed that they could withdraw their participation
at any time without penalty. Furthermore, participants were assured that their personal information
would be anonymized to protect their confidentiality. All measurements were completed under the
same conditions, and the administration of the questionnaires was carried out by the author, who
checked that all measurements and parental socio-demographic data were fully completed. The study
adhered to the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. It is important to note that the data for
this study were collected by the author as part of a larger research project focused on the self-perceived
abilities of gifted children which was supported by the South-West University “Neofit Rilski”.

MEASURES

Cognitive Ability The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI-III) , Greek version ,
is a cognitive ability measure for children aged 2.6–7.3 years that provides an overall ability score (the
Full-Scale IQ) and scores on four factor indices: verbal IQ (VIQ), performance IQ (PIQ), processing speed
quotient (PSQ), and a general language composite (GLQ). Wechsler scales are commonly used to identify
gifted children and to plan psycho-educational services . Scores are reported as standard scores with a
mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15. WPPSI-III index score reliability coefficients have been
reported as high, ranging from 0.72 (for animal coding, a processing speed subtest) to 0.86 (for the Full-
Scale IQ).

SELF-CONCEPT The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance for Young Children
[68], Greek version (PATEM-I) [69], was used to evaluate children’s perceived four domain-specific self-
concepts: (1) Scholastic competence, (2) Physical competence, (3) Peer acceptance and (4) Maternal
acceptance. Each of the four subscales is comprised of five items, constituting a total of 20 items. The
instrument is available in two versions, one for girls and one for boys, which minimizes respondents
providing socially desirable answers. Specifically, 20 picture pairs are presented to the child, which show
a gender-matched child succeeding in an activity and performing less adequately in the same activity.
First, participants indicate which image they are “most like”. Second, participants rate whether the
image chosen is “really true for me” or “sort of true for me”. Items are scored on a four-point scale
(from 4 to 1); then, scores are averaged across the five items for each subscale . Thus, each child
receives a score between 4, indicating the highest self-concept, and 1, representing the lowest self-
concept. In this study, the internal consistency for self-concept domains ranged from 0.702 for physical
competence to 0.814 for scholastic competence. The administration of the instrument required
approximately 15–20 min.

SELF-ESTEEM The Behavioral Academic Self-Esteem Scale (BASE) [9], Greek version [70], consists of 16
sentences that measure global self-esteem in children aged 4 to 16 years. A teacher completes the
questionnaire through direct observation of students’ behaviors in the classroom, by grading how often
the learner behaves in certain ways. For example, items focus on how well the student fits with the
school environment and if he/she displays behaviors that facilitate the learning process (e.g., “This child
cooperates with other children”) as well as if he/she makes decisions, participates, or asks questions
(e.g., “This child is willing to undertake new tasks”). BASE uses a five-point Likert scale (1 = never, 5 =
always); overall self-esteem is calculated as the sum of the scores for each statement. The BASE scale is
hand scored and total scores range from 1 to 80, with higher scores indicating higher self-esteem. In the
current study, the internal consistency of the BASE as assessed by Cronbach’s alpha was 0.941.

Data Analysis

Categorical and scale variables were summarized using frequencies, percentages, mean values, and
standard deviations (SD). Student’s t-test for independent samples was used to assess significance of
differences according to gender. Effect sizes were calculated as Cohen’s d. Pearson correlations were
used to evaluate the relationships between IQ, domain-specific self-concepts, and global self-esteem.
Finally, hierarchical linear regression was used to assess the relationship between the total self-esteem
score and demographic variables, IQ, and self-concept domains. In the first step, gender, age, family
status, paternal and maternal education, and IQ were included in the regression model. In the second
step, perceived scholastic competence was entered. In the final step, after adjusting for
sociodemographic variables, IQ, and perceived scholastic competence, the remaining self-concept
domain variables were included in the model. All statistical analyses were performed using IBM SPSS
Statistics (version 25.0; IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). All statistical tests were two-sided with significance
defined as p < 0.05.

STRENGTHS, LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH

To the best of the author’s knowledge, this is the first study to explore the relationships among cognitive
ability, domain-specific self-concepts, and behaviorally presented self-esteem of gifted children aged 5–
6 years. Further, no extant studies are available of children at this stage of development in which
teachers’ ratings of behaviorally presented self-esteem were associated with the gifted children’s
domain-specific self-concept. The current study’s addition of ratings made by teachers of the gifted
children represents a strength. Although previous studies have used teacher nominations or other non-
formal criteria (e.g., academic performance or school grades) to determine giftedness, participants in
this study were identified as gifted after having taken a formal IQ assessment, which is a globally
acceptable identification process for identifying giftedness in children .

However, this study also has some limitations that must be considered when interpreting the results.
First, this was a cross-sectional study of gifted preschoolers attending mixed-ability classes in the
metropolitan area of Athens. Therefore, the findings may not be easily generalized to schools that offer
gifted services, homogenous classes, or other cultures. Second, domain-specific self-concepts were
assessed using measures that were primarily based on students’ own perceptions. Thus, children may
have provided more positive than negative responses regarding their self-perceived competence and
acceptance by peers and mothers . Third, given that the questionnaires applied in this study have been
widely used for students in general, it was not possible to compare the sample of gifted students with
other gifted samples. The inclusion of a comparable group, such as gifted students who participated in
gifted services or in after-school enrichment programs, would enable better understanding of the self-
perceptions and self-esteem of the gifted. As it has been well established that giftedness varies in terms
of the domain and level of giftedness, as well as the type of talents, future studies should include a
variety of different subpopulations of gifted students. Moreover, further studies could use longitudinal
designs to assess whether gifted children’s domain-specific self-concepts are associated with self-
esteem, particularly their perceptions regarding mother–child interactions, as well as whether this
interaction continues to influence children as they age.

CONCLUSION

The results of this cross-sectional study suggest that increased cognitive ability, male gender, and
domain-specific self-concepts, including perceived scholastic abilities and maternal acceptance, were
related to the behaviorally presented self-esteem of gifted children aged 5–6 years. In addition, this
study revealed gender differences in self-esteem and perceived physical competence in favor of boys,
and maternal acceptance in favor of girls. Early childhood is not too early to begin considering the
development of self-perceptions because these are an essential aspect of the social lives of children that
affect emerging beliefs about the self . Identifying the various factors that influence self-esteem in gifted
populations and understanding how these may interact is critical for the holistic development and
psychosocial adjustment of such persons. However, to better understand the source and stability of
these self-beliefs during childhood, future research is needed to explore the social and emotional
experiences associated with giftedness. After considering the limitations of the current study, some
practical recommendations remain. For example, professionals (licensed child and school psychologists,
as well as educators and school counselors) working with young, gifted children should be able to
recognize early signs of giftedness and create developmentally appropriate environments that support
the different strengths of students, so that such students are successful and creative in tasks that
present a challenge to them . This process could develop students’ talent domains and strengthen their
overall self-esteem. Finally, studies of self-concept and self-esteem involving young, gifted children in
Greece are lacking. Therefore, additional country-level studies are needed to investigate the social and
emotional development of such individuals, given that the socio-cultural context in which children are
educated and interact with others can influence the development of the self.

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