EDT 308- Principles of Instruction

Instruction is the process of teaching and engaging students with content. It is how a teacher
organizes time and activities in implementing the content or subject matter to be learnt. It deals
with how a teacher organizes time and activities in implementing the curriculum content.
The teacher plays a prominent role in the teaching-learning process by providing appropriate
environment that will facilitate proper interaction between the teacher and the learners in order
to achieve the desired ends in terms of acquisition of skills, knowledge, values and attitude by
the learners.
This is done through the use of relevant methods and materials. The role of the teacher in the
process of instructional delivery are:
1. The teacher acilitates the learning of the curriculum content using relevant learning
resources.
2. The teacher should make learning fun and activity-based. Methods and materials that
will make the class interesting and inspire the students to learn should be used.
3. The teacher should serve as a link between the school and the society through making
appropriate connection between what the students learn in the school and the relevance
in the real-life situation.
4. The teacher should motivate the learners. Words of encouragement should be used in the
teaching-learning process. The dignity of the learners must be acknowledged and
appropriate behaviour should be reinforced.
5. The teacher as a nation builder should familiarize the students with basic skills,
knowledge and attitude that will make them relevant in the society.
6. The teacher serves as a parent to the students when they are within his confine. The
teacher is responsible for counselling the students not only in the aspect of academic
activities but also the moral aspect.
7. The teacher also serves as a model to the learners. He must therefore be diligent,
resourceful, responsible and responsive.

Basic Principles for Effective Instruction

1. Begin a lesson with a short review of previous learning. The review of previous learning can
help students recall words, concepts and procedures effortlessly and automatically. This will
also create a link between what the learner has been taught before and the new topic.
2. Present new material in small steps with student practice after each step. The subject matter
should be broken into teachable units with due consideration of the learner’s characteristics..
3. Ask a large number of questions and check the responses of all students. This will allow the
teacher to determine how well the material has been learned and whether there is a need for
clarifications or revision.
4. Providing students with models and worked examples will help them in solving problems
faster. For example, giving examples on how to solve mathematics problems step-by-step will
make learning easy and faster for the learners.
5. The teacher should spend more time guiding students’ practice of new material.
6. The teacher should use relevant assessment techniques in order to determine the level of
comprehension of the content of a lesson by the students. The assessment must be relevant to
the behavioural objectives.

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7. Require and monitor independent practice: Students should be allowed to practice what they
have learnt on their own while the teacher sets necessary mechanism to monitor their practices.
8. Engage students in weekly and monthly review on what they have previously learnt.
9. Review concepts and knowledge that are relevant for a lesson.

Instructional Strategies
Instructional strategies are carefully planned activities carried out by a teacher to deliver the
course content in a way that will enhance the achievement of the learning objectives. An
instructor or a teacher may employ different teaching strategies in the teaching-learning process
with due consideration of the learning objectives, subject matter, characteristics of the learners,
class size etc. Different kinds of instructional strategies are employed to achieve teaching and
learning goals and support different kinds of students

1. Direct Instruction
Direct instruction is teacher-centered. It entails the teacher delivering the learning content with
little or no contribution from the students. It is highly teacher-directed and is among the most
commonly used. This strategy includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, practice
and drill, and demonstrations.

2. Indirect Instruction
Indirect instruction is student-centered. Under this situation, the learners are actively involved in
the teaching-learning activities. The teacher serves as a facilitator while students engage in
various activities that will lead to the achievement of the instructional objectives. Concept
mapping, problem solving, case studies, inquiry and reflective discussion are types of indirect-
instruction activities.

3. Independent Instruction
Independent instruction is student-centered. It is useful in building decision-making abilities. In
independent-study instruction, the student is given the freedom to learn on his own. This
strategy makes use of methods that can promote the development of individual student’s
intuitive, self-reliance and self-improvement. It could involve learning in partnership with
others in a small group. Distance education is a good example of independent-study instruction
because the learner has very little interaction with the teacher. Some independent-study
activities include research project, essay writing, homework, learning activity packages and
learning centres etc.

4. Interactive Instruction
Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. It allows for
a range of groupings and interactive methods. These may include total class discussions, small
group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together. For
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this method to be effective, it is important for the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of
discussion time, the composition and size of the groups, and reporting or sharing techniques.
Jigsaw, Problem Solving, role playing, brainstorming, peer partner learning, debate, panels are
some of the methods that can be employed in interactive instruction.

Benefits of Proper Preparation in Teaching

1. It improves the teaching skills of the teacher in terms of instructional delivery and
classroom management,
2. It promotes students’ performance since learning contents are properly delivered.

3. It promotes effective time management since the teacher would have factored the time to be
spent on each of the aspects to be addressed in the class.

4. It reduces cases of act of indiscipline in the class. Proper planning will allow for proper flow
of the lesson and make the class interesting.

5. It increases the level of teachers’ confidence in instructional delivery. When a teacher creates
lessons or activities before class, he/she can become comfortable performing those activities.

6. It promotes teacher personality and enables him/her to command respect from the students,
parents and school owners.

Philosophical Foundations of Instruction

Philosophy is fundamental to curriculum development. It helps educators in formulating beliefs,
arguments, and assumptions and in making value judgments. Philosophy develops a broad
outlook and also helps in answering what schools are for, what subjects are important, how
students should learn, and what materials and methods should be used. Philosophy provides the
starting point in decision making about education in its totality. The philosophical foundation of
instruction is tied to the different schools of taught such as idealism, realism, pragmatism,
existentialism.

Idealism

Idealism is considered one of the oldest philosophical systems, whose main proponent was the
Greek philosopher, Plato (427-347 BC). Others are Socrates, Immanuel Kant, George Hegel and
George Berkeley. It is based on the belief that nothing exists except as an idea in the mind of
man, God or supernatural realm. Idealism also emphasizes the spiritual component of man, i.e.,
man is a spiritual being.

According to this philosophy, education is the process of development of a person, his/her

conscious and spiritual self. The ultimate responsibility for learning rests with learners. The
school exists to develop character, increase knowledge and cultivate aesthetic taste. The teacher
is expected to be a model, friend and guide to the learners. Idealists posit that knowledge gained

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through the senses of seeing, hearing, feeling, touching and tasting cannot be relied on. It
therefore places importance on knowledge through reasoning. It places importance on subjects
such as religion, moral instruction, logic. Though, subjects such as mathematics, language
skills, sciences, history and geography are also recognized. Idealists recommend methods such
as lecture, Socratic/questioning, memorization, imitation and self-learning.

Realism

The realist’s school of thought is traced back to Aristotle (384-322 BC). Others are Thomas
Aquinas, John Locke, Herbert Spencer and Francis Bacon. According to this philosophy, matter
or objects that we see exist by themselves, i.e., they exist absolutely with or without man. In
other words, matter is not a construct of the human mind. The realists belief that through
knowledge is what explains the world as it is and can be verified using our sense organs. They
belief that human mind is blank but knowledge is acquired as one grows through the various
experiences using the sense organs.

According to them education is for cultural transmission, intellectual development, self-

realisation, inculcation of relevant skills and knowledge of God. They lay emphasis on technical
and scientific studies based on subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and
technical subjects. They posit that teaching should be from known to unknown, simple to
complex. Methods recommended are lecture, play-activity and didactic. They also posit that
children remember what they see and touch but easily forget what they hear. They, therefore
advocate for the use of instructional materials such as pictures, real objects, charts etc.

Pragmatism

Proponents of pragmatism are John Dewey (1859 -1952) William James (1842-1910), Charles
Saude-peiree (1839-1914). The proponents of pragmatism were reacting against what they
considered as failures or shortcomings of the traditional school system, supported by idealism
and realism. Pragmatism is derived from the word ‘Pragma’ meaning ‘work’ or ‘action’. They
belief that solutions to problems come through action. Therefore, man is not expected to
observe but play active part in the ever-changing world. Pragmatism is concerned with
overcoming immediate practical problems of man’s existence. It beliefs that learning is based
on experience and education is seen as life and not mere part of life. Therefore, it should be
useful and serve practical purposes.

It does not divide knowledge into separate subject such as geography, physics, chemistry etc but
advocates for integrated curriculum. It supports activity and learner-centred curriculum.
Teaching should start from immediate and practical, to general and analytical. It advocates
project method, problem-solving, activity-based and group involvement which require the
application of problem-solving skills. The project could be an individual or group. The teacher
is expected to serve as a guide to the students with the students benefiting from his wealth of
experience and knowledge.

The aim of education is to develop learners’ ability to deal with future problems using scientific
process involving;

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 identifying the problem,
 formulating a hypothesis(es),
 gathering or collecting data and tools to solve the problem,
 testing each hypothesis, and
 storing the unity of knowledge for use in some similar situations.

Existentialism

According to Akinpelu (1981), existentialism is defined as “the philosophy of existence.” Sartre

(1957) also states that “man is nothing else but what he makes of himself.” A person is therefore
free to choose the type of life to live and is in control of his/her destiny. An individual is thus
free to make choices and be responsible for them.

Existentialists posit that man owes nothing to the nature except his existence and therefore, man
is not influenced by nature. The essence of education is to assist individual to discover himself.
They advocate that the curriculum should be based on the social and cultural background of the
learners. Subjects recommended cut across social science, science and arts but places more
importance on humanities such as literature, fine arts, history and music because of their
cultural attachment. It recommends methods such as Socratic, role playing, drama,
individualized learning in the teaching-learning process.

The teacher is expected to be open-minded, democratic and friendly to the students. He should
provide challenging task and different experiences that will enable the learner to grow and be
independent.

Naturalism

Naturalism is one of the oldest schools of philosophical though. Proponents include J. J.

Rousseau, Johana Pestalozzi, Frederich Froebel, Maria Montessori amongst others. It is derived
from the world nature and is concerned with the origin, nature and development of the
observable world rather than abstract or perception. They hold the view that direct observation
of nature is the fundamental method through which knowledge can be gained. Therefore, the
purpose of education is to develop the natural power or talent in individual. It beliefs in
individualization of learning from nature through subjects such as nature study, agriculture,
gardening, arts and craft, language and geography.
It advocates learning through direct contact with objects by the learners. It places less
importance on bookwork by children. Doing rather than talking should be the medium of
learning by students. It therefore recommends play way method, direct observation of facts of
nature, activity method and problem-solving methods in the teaching-learning process with the
teacher serving as a guide.

It must be noted that the various philosophical schools of thought are the bedrock for teaching-
learning activities in terms of school subjects, the role of both the teachers and learners, learning
environment, instructional methods and materials for learning.

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Psychological Foundations of Instruction

Psychology according to B. F. Skinner is the science of behaviour and experience. It is

concerned with the understanding of human behaviour. Educational psychology as a branch of
psychology focuses on the study of the behaviour of the learner in relation to his education in
order to suggest ways and means of improving the process and products of education, enabling
the teacher to teach effectively and the learners to learn effectively with the minimum effort.

Psychologists such as Edward Thorndike, B. F. Skinner, Wolf Gang Kohler, Ivan Pavlov etc
have experimented with different animals including human being in order to lay a solid
foundation for learning through an understanding of how human beings learn, the factors that
can promote or inhibit learning, application of materials and methods in the teaching- learning
process, techniques for assessment of the learners and strategies for classroom management and
control.
Therefore, psychologists have contributed to instructional delivery along the following lines.
1. In knowing the learners in terms of their personality thereby influencing the choice of
methods and materials in the teaching-learning process..
2. Enabling the teacher to know their self-strengths, limitations and to acquire essential teaching
skills.
3. Selection and organization of proper learning experiences suited to the individuality and
developmental stages of the learner.
5. Suggesting suitable methods and techniques for providing the desired learning experience.
6. In arranging proper learning situation in a way that meets the needs and interest of the
learners.

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Individualized Instruction

Individualized instructional technique is a technique that tailors instructional delivery in a way

that takes care of the interest, needs, background and goals of each learner. It recognizes the
differences among learners in a teaching-learning setting based on differences in their interest,
needs, goals and socio-economic background. It allows the learners to learn at their own pace
and in their own way. Materials used in individualized instructional method include task cards,
learning kits or learning packages, learning centers etc.

Advantages of Individualized Instructional Technique

1. It enables the learners to learn at their own pace

2. It encourages immediate knowledge of result. Learners can easily know the
correctness of the solution proffered to a problem.

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3. It allows the learner to take responsibility for his/her learning thereby making
him/her to be an active learner.
4. It helps in developing and sustaining the interest of the learner since each of them
can learn at their own pace and in their own way.
5. It enhances the ability of the learners to retain what has been learnt.
6. It develops the spirit of problem-solving and inquiry in learners.

Disadvantages of Individualized Instructional Technique

1. It may be expensive. The initial cost of developing a learning package or kit may be
high.
2. The utilization of instructional kit or package developed may require some facilities in
order to function which may not be readily available.
3. Learners may be discouraged when unable to work successfully through the utilization
of the instructional package or kit.
4. Teacher-student relationship may be reduced or removed. The familiarity that supposed
to exist between the teacher and the learner may not be effective due to the elimination
or reduction in physical contact between the teacher and the learner.
5. Learning may become bored with time due to over reliance on learning package that
continuously expose the learner to the same information without a change in the delivery
mode.

Question and Answer Method

Questioning or Socratic method is a method that cut across all other methods. It involves the
use of questions to facilitate comprehension, clear doubts, clarify values, evaluate performance,
stimulate creativity or inquiry and motivate learners to obtain relevant data appropriate for
problem-solving, challenge opinions or situation, determine the direction of discussion and
enhance further knowledge on issues. It entails students, teachers and resource persons posing
questions in the teaching-learning process so as to facilitate learning

The method allows learners to view issues from a totally new perspective, makes them to
question and guide them to reason their way to a better understanding of issues. The method can
be used to open a lesson, develop it or round it up.

Guidelines for Effectives Questioning

1. The question must be clear and not ambiguous.

2. The question must not give an unintentional clue to answer.
3. It must be relevant to the age, level, interest, experience etc. of the learners.
4. It must be well planned and structured.
5. "Wait-time” must be allowed. That is, students must be given some time to respond.

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6. “Productive time” must be given for the student to respond. This time is for the student
to determine the accuracy or otherwise of the response.
7. The teacher must guide the student towards the correct answer when unable to answer
appropriately.
8. Student should be motivated to ask question and participate actively in the teacher-
learning process.
9. The question should be directed to the whole class or group.

Programmed Instruction

Programmed Instruction is otherwise known as programmed learning. It is a teaching machine

piloted or directed instructional technique in which instructions are broken down into small
segments or bits and arranged in sequential order for the learner to interact with and learn. It
involves the development and utilization of instructional package tailored to the level of the
understanding of the students. Students are expected to go through the package and learn at their
own pace.

The package will contain the content of the lesson based on the stipulated behavioural
objectives and in-built mechanism of evaluation coupled with immediate knowledge of result.

Advantages of Programmed Instruction

1. It allows for presentation of Instruction to the learner in sequential order.

2. It encourages individualized instruction and allows the learners to learn at their own
pace.
3. It encourages the learners to take responsibility for their learning.
4. It reduces the domineering influence of the teacher in the teaching-learning process.
The teacher serves as a facilitator when using this method.
5. The use of teaching machine or computer in programmed Instruction can arouse the
interest of the learners.
6. The method can be used to solve the problem of shortage of teachers.
7. It can induce the spirit of creativity in the learner.

Disadvantages of Programmed Instruction

1. It reduces learner-teacher relationship which could affect overall development

of the learner.
2. Learning may become monotonous thereby discouraging the learners from
learning.
3. It may be expensive to acquire the machine and develop the instructional
package.

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4. Learning through programmed instruction may be frustrating in developing
countries like Nigeria where necessary amenities may not be available.
5. It may not be appropriate in presenting issues that do not have simple clear
answer.
6. It can make the learners to become slaves to automated teaching-learning.

Computer Based Instruction

Computer Based Instruction is a self-learning technique which may be offline or online

involving students interacting with programmed instructional materials on a computer system. It
involves the use of text, graphic, sound, video etc in enhancing learning. It is an Instructional
design technique in which computer system delivers Instruction directly to learners by allowing
them to interact/relate with designed lesson that has been programmed into the system. The use
of computer in education is variously referred to as Computer Aided Instruction (CAI),
Computer Based Education (CBE), Computer Assisted Learning (CAL), Computer Based
Instruction (CBI), Computer Enriched Instruction, Computer Managed Instruction (CMI).

Characteristics of Computer Based Instruction

1. Learner Controlled Instruction: This means that the learners commence learning from
different points based on the ability of each of them.
2. Immediate knowledge of Result (IKOR): Each learner can easily know the correctness
or otherwise of his/her activities in the process of interacting with the package. This is
possible because of the in-built evaluation mechanism in the package.
3. Self-pacing: Each learner can learn at his/her own pace.
4. Adaptability of Instruction: Presentation mode and instructional content are made to
suit the needs and interest of each learner.
5. Multiple user approach: It can be used by different learners at the same time within or
outside the same location.
6. Revision and updating: Initial programme can be reviewed and updated.

Advantages

1. Student can learn at his/her own pace.

2. It enhances active participation of the students in the teaching-learning process. Students
take responsibility for their own learning.
3. It is less expensive to run in the long run. The initial cost maybe high but the number of
users and the durability makes it cost effective.
4. It allows for immediate Feedback. The learner is able to know how correct his or her
response is to a given problem.

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5. Instruction can easily be individualized based on the need and interest of each learner.
Presentation could be done in different ways with due consideration of the differences in
the learners.
6. It can be used to motivate students to learn since they take charge of their own learning.

Problems

1. The initial cost of designing Instruction may be expensive.

2. It requires the use of electric power which may not be available always.
3. Designing an Instruction may take a long process because of the need to involve
different categories of people in the design e.g. subject expert, educational technologist,
computer programmer etc
4. The use requires certain level of computer literacy. Therefore, the successful usage
could depend on the computer literacy level of the user.

Computer Managed Instruction (CMI)

This is an instructional strategy in which the computer is used to provide learning

objectives, learning resources, record keeping, progress tracking and assessment of learner's
performance. It involves the use of computer based tools and applications to assist the
teacher or school administrator in the management of the learner and instructional process.

According to Mbakwem (2001), the activities which are the concern of CMI include;

1. Lesson plan.
2. Teaching time-table.
3. Construction, administration, evaluating and scoring of tests. Computer-Based Test
is an aspect of CMI.
4. Storing test and teaching practice results and retrieving them and any other
information if need be.

Enter-Educate Method

This is an innovation in the teaching-learning process which involves creating awareness or

enlightenment through entertainment. This method has been found to be popular, personal,
persuasive, pervasive and profitable

1. Popular: It is popular because of human likeness for entertainment. Therefore, it is

generally acceptable
2. Personal: It is personal because it is capable of arousing the interest of the individuals
using it.
3. Persuasive: It is persuasive because behaviour can be changed through it.
4. Pervasive: It is pervasive because it cuts across all tribes and ethic boundaries.
5. Profitable: It is profitable because it has economic value. It can be commercialised

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This method can take the following formats:

1. News coverage: This entails passing messages through television, radio, newspaper
etc on social issues that are of public interest.
2. Dissemination of educative information through music e.g. video, CDs etc
3. Documentaries: These entail reporting real life situation to educate people and
reduce mistakes.
4. Mini-drama (variety show): This could be played locally on radio purposely to
educate people. It is a form of brief drama presentation made to educate people on
an issue.
5. Adverts, jingles, poster meant to pass messages to people
6. Dances such as traditional dances aimed at passing information across to people on
social issues and to discourage bad behaviour.
7. Play-let: A short play aimed at educating people on an issue.

Advantages

1. It allows learning to take place in relaxed environment. The usual tension associated
with normal classroom environment is removed.
2. It makes learning fun and interesting.
3. It allows for easy retention of what is presented. Learners can easily recall what is learnt.
4. It makes learning possible outside the four walls of the classroom environment.

Disadvantages

1. Learning may not be taken seriously because of its entertainment nature. The joy derived
from the entertainment may not encourage the learner to see it as a learning activity and
give due attention to the instructional aspect.
2. It does not encourage active participation of majority of the learners in the teaching-
learning process. The learners may not take active part in the learning process
3. It may be time consuming in term of preparation and presentation.
4. It has no achievement performance feedback mechanism therefore allows for
misinterpretation among learners based on personal view. What is expected of the
learners in terms of knowledge, attitude and skills are not usually stated thereby
preventing the learners from having a centre of focus during the presentation

INNOVATIVE INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

1. Project-Based Learning (PBL)

This method falls within the student-centered approach. Student under this method are given
projects to complete. Such projects should stimulate students to acquire knowledge, conduct
research, think critically, evaluate, analyze, make decisions and collaborate. It is an effective
method that helps students drive their own learning journey. In a PB, students identify a real-

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world problem then develop solution aimed at solving it. Project-based learning is an active
method of learning where students gain mastery through the application of their knowledge
rather than rote memorization. The teacher acts as a guide while the students take ownership of
their learning.

2. Montessori

This type of teaching is based on a methodology that’s over 100 years old. Yet, it continues to
offer a novel approach to creating a student-centered classroom. Montessori method is most
popular in preschools, kindergartens, and lower elementary grades. In this method, the teacher
prepares an ideal classroom environment full of activities that children may pick from to work
on. The teacher guides the children to ensure that they choose adequate number of lessons from
all the subject areas.

Montessori method also encourages the use of “materials” or carefully curated objects designed
for learning. For example, there could be trays containing different types of triangles or cards
with definitions explaining the parts of a bird. Furthermore, the Montessori method includes
areas of the curriculum that teach social skills and practical life skills, such as cooking and
cleaning. It also involves multi-age classroom where children of an average of 1-3 years old are
put in the same class. The younger ones are expected to learn from the older ones. There is no
regimented curriculum and each child is allowed to engage in activities that are of his/her
interest.

Advantages

1. It develops strong intrinsic motivation and a sense of responsibility in the learner. Children
are allowed to work independently and make their choice of what to work on and where to work
in the classroom.
2. It creates a positive learning environment. The multi-age learning environment is unique and
a key factor to this educational method. Younger children have a great opportunity to develop
their social, communication, leadership and emotional skills by working with older children.
Older children also benefit from this approach as mentors.
3. It inculcates basic life-skills in children.
Disadvantages

1. It can be expensive to run in terms of facilities and materials needs.

2. Some teachers and students may find it difficult to cope with the method due to the
unstructured nature of the curriculum.

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3. Inquiry-Based Learning

This method engages students by making real-world connections through exploration and high-
level questioning. Students are exposed to real-life problem for them to investigate and suggest
solutions. Inquiry-based learning helps in developing thinking and problem-solving skills in the
learner. The teacher poses questions, scenarios and problems while the students then research
these topics individually or in groups to formulate their answers. They can then present their
findings with supporting evidence to the class along with other students. Students are then able
to further develop their answers by listening to what other students have found as well as
identifying areas that require more attention and detail.

Advantages

1. Teachers guide students to develop critical thinking and problem solving skills. To learn
these skills, the teacher helps students think through their processes, teaches them possible
approaches and encourages them to try various methods.
2. Students are encouraged to fail as a part of the process and then improve their performance
in subsequent activities which could assist in developing the spirit of determination and
perseverance in the learner.
3. Instead of repeating answers students have been taught, students learn to seek their own
answers to questions thereby developing strong research skills in them.

Disadvantages

1. Because students are always encouraged to speak up, participate, and not be afraid to fail,
there is always a risk of embarrassing students who may not be quick thinkers or who suffer
from learning disabilities. This could lead to a higher level of anxiety and loss of motivation.
2. It may result in poorer standardized testing performance. When too much time is dedicated
to student inquiries, there’s always the risk that important “core” topics could be left out.

4. Flipped Classroom

This methods entails exposing students to the content of the instruction before coming to the
class through audio-visual resources. It may be in form of delivering online lectures that
students can view from home to substitute lecturing in the classroom. The letters FLIP represent
the four pillars included in this type of learning: Flexible environment, Learning culture shift,
Intentional content and Professional educator. This technique, in theory, allows for more time in
class to be devoted to active learning rather than instruction.

The students review lecture material at home and work on projects and assignments in the
classroom. Students in the flipped classroom complete coursework typically sent home as
homework in class. The flipped classroom provides a great space for peer-to-peer collaboration.
Students can engage one another to complete group projects, debates and practice. Teachers are
not the center of the flipped classroom. Instead, teachers are more flexible, addressing
personalized help and direction for students and student groups as they complete their work.

Advantages

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1. Students have more control over their learning. When viewing video content or other
materials at home, students have the option of learning at their own pace.
2. It promotes student-centered learning and collaboration.
3. It enhances retention as students are actively involved in the learning process.

Disadvantages

1. It is difficult to implement based on unequal access to technology devices. Unequal access to

technological resources may hinder the effectiveness participation of learners in different
locations.
2. Being based mostly on auditory perception of students, it could lead to less effective
comprehension.
3. It depends highly on students’ compliance. The approach assumes that students will complete
the out-of-class preparation and always be prepared for participation in class which may not be
real.

5. Cooperative Learning

As the name suggests, cooperative learning involves a lot of group work. However, it also
requires a lot of structure and intervention on the part of the teacher to make learning as
effective as possible. Some commonly used cooperative learning strategies include “think-pair-
share” and Discussions in small groups or pairs.

Advantages:

1. It improves social skills through cooperative work, recreating real-world work situations in
which collaboration and cooperation are required.
2. It improves critical thinking: during the group work process, students will express their
opinions or ideas with the other students in the group providing feedback. This feedback to each
student will include critique as well as the interpretation of the opinions or ideas expressed.

Disadvantages:
1. There may be difficulties with distributing social roles among group members. There are
risks of possible conflicts between group members, which demands more attention from the
teacher.
2. Students working in the same group may have different speeds of learning.

6. Personalized Learning

Personalized learning takes the student-centered approach to a new level by, as much as
possible, responding to each individual learner’s unique needs, strengths, and weaknesses. Each
student gets a learning plan that's based on what he or she knows and how he or she learns best.
In personalized learning, instead of selecting a singular method or strategy to teach the whole
class, teachers adapt to the strengths of each student to help them succeed.

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Advantages:
1. Personal attention is given to each child to ensure that every child develops his or her
intellectual and creative talents.
2. Studying in a supportive and caring environment promotes respectful student-teacher
relationships and even teacher partnership with parents.

Disadvantage:
1. It can be time- and organization-demanding: teachers have to modify their pace, do a lot of
preparation, and learn to comprehend and attend to each student's needs.

7. Blended Learning

This method relies heavily on technology, with part of the instruction taking place online and
part in the classroom via a more traditional approach. It involves a combination of virtual
learning and face-to-face interaction. Blended learning combines physical and online learning
experiences that give students more control over the time, place, path, and pace of instruction.
Technology is a key component of blended learning as it is for students in the real world. The
flexibility of blended learning enables students to have more control over their learning
methods. Students can watch online lectures at home and engage in peer groups for
collaborative activities or may prefer to join lecture-based virtual classes and do their homework
independently.

8. Jigsaws

Jigsaw is another active learning method which provides the opportunity for students to teach
other students. Jigsaw is a tried-and-true cooperative learning technique that capitalizes on this
idea of having students teach other students. Students are split into groups, and each group is
given distinct information that they must learn well enough to teach to another group.

When each group has learned their information, they are organized into new groups, each of
which is made up of one member from each of the content groups, much like a jigsaw puzzle of
various pieces coming together to create a whole picture. Each individual member then
discusses what they have learned, bringing the teachings to life and allowing students to build
their learning by interacting with one another and the content. As they teach others, students
become the experts in what they have learned.

The major challenge to this method is when the “expert” in a group misinterprets facts or is not
able to teach others well.

How to go about jigsaw

 Divide the students into small groups.

 Give each group a subtopic or subcategory of the main topic.
 Instruct them to explore the given ones and develop their ideas.
 Each group shares their findings to form a big picture, which is all knowledge on the
topic that they need to know.

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 (Optional) Host a feedback session for your students to evaluate and comment on other
groups’ work.
 If the class has experienced enough teamwork, break down the topic into smaller pieces
of information, assign each piece to a student and let them work individually before
teaching their classmates what they’ve found.

9. Peer Teaching

As we mentioned when discussing jigsaws, students exhibit mastery when they explain or teach
others. Have students choose an area of interest within the scope of the subject being taught.
Provide them with the opportunity to independently research the topic and create a presentation
on it. Set aside class time for students to present to the class to teach their peers about their
topic. With peer teaching, students learn skills such as independent study, presentation skills,
and confidence.

10. Game-Based Learning

Students love games, and considerable progress has been made in the field of game-based
learning, which requires students to be problem solvers as they work on quests to accomplish a
specific goal. For students, this approach blends targeted learning objectives with the fun of
earning points or badges, much like they would in a video game.

Games are used to bring competition, participation, drills and feedback into the learning
experience as a motivator and opportunity for the application of principles. Carefully planned
uses of games in the classroom (e.g., for practicing certain verbs, tenses, questions, locatives,
etc.) add some interest to a classroom activities.

The advantages of game:

a. Actively involves learners;
b. Can add or regenerate motivation;
c. Promotes team learning and collaborative skills;
d. Provides a challenge that can lead to confidence in knowing and expressing the material;
e. Provides feedback; and
f. Can create a “fun” learning environment.

The disadvantageous of game:

a. Can create in-group/out-group feelings;
b. Can demotivate students who are not competitive by nature;
c. Can create feelings of inadequacy in those not as skilled or forceful; and
d. Can discourage creativity if the format is very rigid and the focus is strongly on winning

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