AQA AS/A-level Design and Technology:

Product Design
Check your knowledge and understanding answers

Section 1 Technical principles

1.1 Materials and their applications
1 Hardness, toughness, resistance to high temperatures, corrosion resistance.
2 Toughness, close grained, hardness.
3 Standardised test pieces are required to ensure that all tests are carried out under exactly the same
conditions. Uniformity of test results is therefore assured, and manufacturers can rely on them to
maintain quality standards.
N.B. Workshop tests such as those done in college or school are more likely to be simple comparative
tests to give a general idea of materials’ properties compared with one another, so that appropriate
choices can be made for project work.
4 Answers will be dependent on test chosen, but may include:
Rockwell test:
• A preload is applied to the material sample using a diamond indenter.
• An additional load is then applied to the test material and held for a predetermined length of
time (dwell time).
• The load is then released and the distance between the preload and the applied load is
measured, and the hardness of the material calculated.
• The smaller the indentation depth, the harder the material.
Brinell test:
• A hardened standard size steel ball is forced into the material’s surface using a pre-set load.
• The diameter of the indent in the surface is measured.
• The smaller the diameter indent, the harder the material.
Vickers pyramid test:
• A diamond square-based pyramid is used to indent the surface of the material.
• A microscope is used to measure the size of the indent.
• The smaller the indent, the harder the material.
(See pages 15–16 in the textbook for diagrams.)

1.2 Performance characteristics of materials

1
• Thin layers of wood are placed and glued at 90° to each other and compressed to form the
board.
• Provides good strength and stability in all directions, with no grain weakness.
2
• Dust and sap from woods can be a hazard to workers manufacturing with wood, as well as
those in the vicinity.
• Some species of wood have higher toxicity than others – designers and manufacturers should
be aware of the different risks posed by different species.
• Hardwood dust and softwood dust can cause respiratory irritation.
• Hardwood dusts are listed in COSHH as carcinogenic.
• Employers need to ensure that there is adequate personal protective equipment (PPE),
extraction and ventilation systems in place, and that exposure levels for workers do not exceed
the workplace exposure limits.
3 GRP, glass fibres, polyester resin.
Example product: boat hull
(N.B. A GRP boat hull is a useful example, as examination questions will often ask for an explanation of
how the product would be made using the stated composite. It is fairly straightforward to draw a
modified version of Figure 1.4.9 on page 50 in the textbook in the shape of a boat hull, with the addition
of a gel coat layer between the release agent and resin/mat layer. Table 1.2.10 on page 35 in the
textbook gives many further possible examples.)
4
• High tensile strength and toughness to absorb impact.
• Very good strength-to-weight ratio, so it is strong but lightweight.
• Aramid fibres can be woven into textiles and are heat resistant.
5 Broken bones are often mended with Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) plates:
• These plates are attached to both ends of a broken bone.
• The transition temperature, at which the alloy contracts, is the same as body temperature.
• This creates a compression force that holds the bone together securely while it heals, unlike
conventional plates, which are unable to do this.
(Table 1.2.11 on page 36 in the textbook gives many further possible examples.)

1.3 Enhancement of materials

1
• Polymer chains are broken down by sunlight.
• Extended UV exposure attacks polymers and causes them to lose colour and become more
brittle.
• White pigmented items will turn yellow and darker colours such as green and blue take on a
milky effect.
2
• Antioxidants
• UV light stabilisers
3
• Available in long, wide sheets that could not be cut from solid wood.
• Stable and not affected by temperature and humidity as much as solid wood.
• Uniform strength across the board.
• No grain structure, so less prone to defects than natural wood (e.g. splitting and knots).
• Resins can be impregnated with fire retardant additives, giving boards many more uses.
• Veneers can be laminated onto the surface for enhanced aesthetics.
• Structural composite lumber (SCL) and Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) are less prone to
defects such as warping, splitting or shrinking along with greater load bearing properties.
4
• Quenching is the process of rapidly cooling hot metal in water, oil, brine (salt water) or a gas.
• It is an integral part of heat treatment processes such as hardening, tempering and case
hardening.
• The temperature at which quenching is carried out dictates the hardness of the item being heat
treated.
5 Light yellow is normally used for the face of a hammer.
(N.B. The heat treatment of hammers is a complex operation and the core of a hammer head is often
not hardened to the same extent as the surface. This helps to retain the toughness that is required,
whilst providing a very hard surface to withstand the constant wear it receives.)

1.4 Forming, redistribution and addition processes

1 Injection moulding facilitates the incorporation of complex elements such as clip fastenings, screw
posts, battery housing and circuit board holders.
The process is compatible with the large-scale mass production that is required for such products.
2
• Sand casting is mainly used to form high melting point metals into components and products.
Die casting is used to mould lower melting point metals such as aluminium, alloys of aluminium
and zinc-based alloys.
• Sand casting moulds are made from sand and can only be used once; the die casting process
uses tool steel moulds that are reusable.
• Sand casting is typically used for one-off and batch production of products; die casting is only
used in very large batch and mass production.
• Sand casting is relatively cheap, although it is labour intensive; die casting is a more complex
process and dies are more expensive to produce.
• Sand casting does not give a very high-quality surface finish because the molten metal will pick
up the grainy texture of the sand; die casting produces castings with a very high-quality surface
finish.
• Manufacturers use sand casting for railway carriage wheels, wood working clamps and vices,
motor and pump housings as well as bollards, heavy duty park benches, drain covers and post
boxes. Die casting is used for alloy wheels, engine components, toy cars, collectible figures,
door knobs and handles.
3 Extrusion blow moulding:
1. The polymer granules are fed into the hopper.
2. An Archimedean screw forces the polymer through a heated section, melting the polymer.
3. The melted polymer is extruded as a tube (a ‘parison’).
4. The mould sides close around the parison and air is injected into the mould, forcing the
polymer to the sides.
5. The polymer is allowed to cool for a few seconds, the mould opens, and the finished product is
ejected.
(Refer to Figure 1.4.11 on page 51 of the textbook for diagrams.)
4
• Rotational moulding is used to produce heavy duty, seamless hollow objects that need a large
wall thickness (e.g. kayaks, traffic cones, water tanks, children’s play equipment). Blow
moulding is not suitable for these products because the sides or walls of the product would be
stretched too thin in the moulding process.
• Rotational mouldings can be very large for products such as storage tanks. Manufacturing
products on this scale is not feasible with blow moulding.
• The moulds can be changed relatively quickly so that different products can be made on the
same machine.
• Rotational moulding is used for large scale batch or mass production; blow moulding is
normally used for continuous production.
5 For the manufacturer:
• Products that are not assembled can be supplied, reducing manufacturing and assembly costs.
• Reduces the making time.
• Easier to store products.
• Easier to transport products.
For the customer:
• KD fittings are easy to use with a limited number of simple tools
• Unassembled products are often cheaper.
• Flat-pack furniture is often available for customers to buy in a store and take it home with them
straight away, with the additional advantage of fitting more easily in a vehicle.
• Flat-pack furniture is easier to carry through doorways and upstairs than fully assembled items.
• KD fittings are standardised and interchangeable, so it is usually fairly easy to obtain
replacements for any that are lost or broken.
6
(a) Contact adhesive.
(b) PVA.
(c) Tensol 12 (solvent cement).
7 Joining a metal table frame to a glass top.
(N.B. Multiple applications could be provided, but joins metal, glass or polymers. Possible examples
include lighting and stationery holders, glass tables.)
Advantages:
• Any excess adhesive can be wiped away with a cloth prior to being exposed to UV light to give
a solid and clean joint.
• Transparent.
• Fast curing time.
• No need to mix the adhesive with a hardener prior to application.

1.5 The use of finishes

1
(a) A material that has an acceptable finish after processing.
(b) A material that has an acceptable colour after processing.
2 (a)
• Most polymers are produced from finite, non-renewable resources such as crude oil, which do
not break down easily or quickly.
• Polymer degradation occurs when the polymer undergoes a significant change in properties
due to the influence of chemicals, heat or light.
• Photodegradable polymers break down when exposed to UV light (including sunlight).
• Oxydegradable polymers break down into fine powders when exposed to oxygen and are then
degraded by the action of micro-organisms.
• Hydro-degradable polymers break down when exposed to water and then by the action of
micro-organisms.
• Synthetic bio-polymers are made from renewable resources but are synthesised to break down
more quickly.
(b)
• UV light stabilisers can be added to the polymer during manufacture to prevent loss of colour
and increase in brittleness.
• Antioxidant additives can also be used to minimise the deterioration that takes place due to
exposure to oxygen in the atmosphere.
3
(a) Polyurethane varnish could be used, as it would provide a hard, tough, heatproof and waterproof
finish that could cope with hot cups and spills.
(b) Pressure treatment, possibly with a copper-based chemical, would be appropriate as it gives long
term, deep penetrating protection from insect and fungal attack and weathering.
(c) Anodising would be used as it provides a hard and tough finish for aluminium that is available in a
range of colours.
(d) This would be galvanised to provide a protective zinc coating that would not easily scratch off and
would be highly resistant to corrosion.

1.6 Modern and industrial scales of practice

1
Scale of Examples Possible reasons
production
One-off, bespoke Custom-made • It is a highly expensive, individually specified product.
production yacht • Difficult to produce and highly skilled workers are
needed.
• Individual client consultation and design work needed.
• Each manufacturing process has to be set up
individually for each of the unique components.
• Greater time is required for manufacture.
Batch production Wood dining • Manufacturing processes can be carried out
chairs simultaneously on a number of products in order to
make the process more efficient and cost effective.
• Jigs, fixtures and other aids can be used to facilitate
more accurate and faster production.
Mass/line Ford Fiesta car • Product needs to be produced in large quantities,
production using a sequence of stages.
• May require elements of mass customisation through
the use of RFID tags/kanbans.
• Big investment in tooling for presses etc. needs to be
recouped by manufacturing a sufficient quantity.
2
• Division of labour means dividing up the tasks required so that individuals specialise in
particular tasks.
• The line production system is set up so that workers and/or teams are organised in a specific
sequence, with each carrying out a specific task.
• It allows for the manufacture of large numbers of products.
3
• Low carbon steel is cheaper than other materials used to manufacture cars, such as aluminium
and CFRP.
• Low carbon steel is sufficiently malleable to be pressed into a variety of forms.
• Using low carbon steel means the manufacture of economy cars can be highly automated –
low carbon steel parts can be assembled into car bodies by robotic arms programmed to
position panels in a fixture and spot weld them.
• Aluminium is more difficult to spot weld and therefore mechanical fastenings are needed in
assembly – this reduces the level of automation possible and makes the process more labour
intensive.
• CFRP requires high precision moulds – layers of pre-preg usually have to be cut and
positioned in the mould by hand, and air pressure systems have to be manually connected
before curing in an autoclave. Again, this reduces the level of automation and increases the
need for labour.
4.
1. Careful calculations can be carried out to ensure that panels for products made from sheet
materials such as plywood are nested in a way that makes full use of the sheet and minimises
offcuts.
2. The use of blow moulded polymer rather than an injection-moulded design could be considered
for the manufacture of a child’s toy. This could result in a more economical product as fewer
joins and a simpler mould would be required.
3. A structural engineer requiring a supporting beam could consider using a cellular beam. The
web, where forces are not as great, has a deliberately reduced amount of material.
(N.B. A simple diagram could easily be drawn to illustrate each of these three answers.)
More examples can be found on pages 104–5 in the textbook.
5
• Dedicated machines make use of cams, levers and other mechanisms set up to carry out the
same process millions of times.
o Nuts and bolts: these are required in vast quantities and the movement of the cutting
tools on an automated lathe can be set up to produce consistent threads, chamfers
and other features.
o Paper clips: wire would be fed automatically into a bending machine to produce the
same shape and cut off the finished product millions of times.
• CNC machines are used for flexible, automated production when a range of different parts
needs to be programmed and manufactured in a relatively short time, as they can be
reprogrammed easily and can manufacture highly complex designs.
o Moulds for injection moulding: These would be manufactured on a CNC milling
machine as there would only be a limited number required, so setting up a dedicated
machine would not be feasible. The complexity of the form needed for such a product
would also require the sophisticated programming that can be achieved using
computer control.
o A Formula 1 racing team would require the flexibility and precise control of CNC
machines to make a range of highly accurate parts for their cars, such as suspension
components, with the ongoing requirement for making modifications in the search for
improved performance.
6 Robin Day PP chair
The PP shell is injection moulded, which is a highly automated mass production method.
The elements of the tubular, low carbon, steel frame are made using automatic bending machines,
which are often CNC to facilitate manufacturing large numbers of different size frames for the various
sizes that are manufactured.
Robot welding combined with fixtures facilitates the automatic assembly of the frames in large
quantities.
Final assembly of the frame and shell would be the most difficult to automate, but this could also be
carried out by robot arms fitted with appropriate actuators.
(N.B. The Robin Day PP chair is a useful example for answering many different questions, ranging from
this one on mass production to those relating to form and function. If you have access to one of these
chairs in your school or college it is a good idea to carry out a thorough product analysis of all the key
features.)
7
• RFID tags contain a small integrated circuit (IC) that can communicate information when used
with a reader.
• RFID allows information about components and stock to be transferred to and from computer
systems.
• RFID tags can be used to track a product or components progress through an assembly line
during manufacture.
• Products can be tagged at the point of manufacture so more accurate, real-time information is
available about their location when they are transported, or when in a warehouse.
8
• CNC manufacturing cells are set up to combine a number of CNC machines in a group, which
can be programmed to carry out a sequence of operations.
• Loading the material, transferring the work piece between machines and removing the finished
part is carried out by a robotic arm, and automatic guided vehicles are employed to move parts
around the factory.
The driveshaft example in the book includes the role of the AGV, robots and three different CNC
machines. You could, however, devise your own example by adding the role of AGVs and robots to the
manufacture of a straightforward component that could be made in school or college using CNC
machines that you have experience of, for example:
CNC router-machined and laser-etched part for use in a children’s toy:
1. An AGV delivers the MDF sheet to a CNC router
2. A robot loads the MDF into the router
3. The router creates the desired profile for the part
4. A robot removes the part from the router and transfers it to a CNC laser
5. The laser carries out etching of a design on the part
6. A robot removes the finished part from the laser
7. An AGV transfers the finished part to the next stage of manufacture
9
• In JiT production, products are manufactured so they are made to order; in stockpiling
production, products are manufactured and stored until they are bought (often called ‘Just in
Case’).
• Stockpiling has higher storage costs as products are held in warehouses until they are needed;
this makes them vulnerable to damage and theft.
• In stockpiling there is a risk that stock may become redundant – if new models with improved
features are developed stock may be obsolete and hard to sell.
• There are lower levels of waste with JiT production.
• JiT allows a company to react flexibly to customers’ requirements rather than trying to predict
them.
• Manufacturing according to the orders received in JiT can improve the quality of the final
product.
• JiT allows production methods to be continually monitored and improved.
• JiT depends on reliable suppliers and a good transport infrastructure.

10
• Quick Response Manufacturing (QRM) uses CAD and rapid prototyping with 3D printers in the
product development stage, and flexible manufacturing cells and multi-skilled workers in
product manufacture. It also incorporates and builds on JiT, Six Sigma and total quality
management (TQM) strategies.
• This type of production is appropriate for low volume production that incorporates elements of
customisation (e.g. machinery for manufacturing food packaging).
11 Modular/cell production; JiT manufacture; QRM; SMED.
12
• Electronic point of sale (EPOS) systems record sales of products when a barcode is scanned
at a till point.
• This information is fed through to warehouses, so they know when stock levels are low and
restocking is required.
• Limits can be set so replacements are electronically ordered from manufacturers.
13
• Screw threads: when parts are assembled using threaded holes, studs, nuts, bolts, screws and
other fasteners with a screw thread it is an essential requirement that they are standardised so
that all parts are fully interchangeable and worn parts can be replaced. A specific example of
this is the thread used for the screw used to fasten the cover on electrical fittings.
• Lightbulb fittings (e.g. bayonet): when lightbulbs are replaced it is essential that replacements
can be easily found that fit the lighting product. Any variation from the standard would result in
incompatible and unwanted products and could possibly compromise safety.
• Tyres: standardisation of the size of tyres is essential, as they must fit the rim of wheels very
accurately in order to achieve an airtight seal and function safely. Other features of tyres that
have to be standardised are the performance characteristics such as maximum speed, rate of
wear and all-weather capability. These enable drivers to have confidence in their performance.
Further possible examples:
• plumbing fittings
• door locks
• audio connectors
• batteries
• fuses
• fitted kitchen units
• printer cartridges
• biro refills
• memory cards.
14
• The components can be bought in bulk, which reduces the unit cost.
• They do not have to set up their own manufacturing facility, reducing the need for specialist
equipment and expertise, which can be very expensive.
• This is particularly the case with electric motors as they incorporate a number of sub-systems
that are complex in their own right, such as:
o bearings
o armature
o commutator
o coil
o brushes.
• There will be a greater level of consistency in the components.
• Time will be saved.
15
• Gear cassette
• Derailleur gear changing mechanism
• Braking system
• Lighting system
• Mudguards
• Saddle
• Frame
• Chain

1.7 Digital design and manufacture

1
• Highly trained CAD designers can work more quickly than designers using traditional drawing
boards as many elements can be automated and mistakes can be instantly rectified.
• The ability to edit and develop existing, saved drawings.
• Designers teams can work collaboratively across different offices or different countries –
reduces the need to travel.
• Virtual models produced using CAD can be tested using methods such as Computational Fluid
Dynamics (CFD) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA).
• Completed drawings can be downloaded to CAM equipment or sent to 3D printers to make
models or prototypes.
• High quality impressions with full colour rendering, light, tone and texture can be created.
• Drawings can be rotated and viewed from different angles.
• Simulations can be run to highlight any potential problems prior to manufacture.
2
• Models can be made in a range of materials
• A fast way of making realistic 3D models of product designs – less time consuming than
making models by hand
• Skilled model makers not needed
• High levels of accuracy
• Models can be tested so improvements and modifications can be suggested.
3 Parts such as rotating shafts for machinery can be made using a CNC lathe and cast products such
as brackets can be finished to the correct size and profile by a CNC milling machine.
CAM ensures quality for products such as these because:
• CAM equipment uses software to convert CAD drawings into a machining program, consisting
of a sequence of specific codes, which controls the machine to manufacture parts exactly as
the designer intended.
• There is limited operator intervention and issues such as concentration and fatigue don’t cause
problems.
• CNC controls the machine to higher degrees of accuracy than human operators, allowing for
precision.
• Sensors can automatically compensate for wear in cutting tools to maintain tolerances.
4 Master product schedule (MPS) software is central to the planning of production. This includes the
allocation of personnel, communication with suppliers, materials and parts monitoring and the allocation
and control of manufacturing equipment such as robots, AGVs and CNC machines.
This facilitates the use of JiT systems, with the resulting improvements in efficiency and reduction in
inventory levels.
Kanbans and RFID tags supplement the system by facilitating the monitoring of parts, materials and
products.
EPOS is linked to the system to provide fully up-to-date information on stock levels and generate orders
for further manufacture.
5
• Using CAD software to place the component or product in a virtual model of where it will be
used in order to check its appearance and how it interfaces with other elements of the design.
• Specialised software can be used during the later stages of product development to simulate
the manufacturing process, in order to check on the viability and efficiency of potential
machining procedures and to plan production lines and cells.
• Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), uses elements such as virtual wind tunnels and wave
tanks to provide performance information in order to improve the design of vehicles,
aeroplanes and ships.
• A specific form of CFD is known as Mould Flow Analysis (MFA), which simulates the behaviour
of materials, and particularly their temperature and consequent ability to flow, during processes
such as injection moulding and die-casting.
• Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is often part of a suite of programs in a CAD package. It enables
designers to predict the behaviour of structures and mechanisms when they are subjected to
the forces encountered by the components and products they are designing.

1.8 The requirements for product design and development

1 Sketch modelling.
2
• It may be unclear to the user how they use the tools/controls
• May cause the user discomfort or injury when using
• The user may not be able to carry out the intended task effectively
• The user may not be able to use the tools/controls at all because they are too
big/small/heavy/difficult to grip/too much pressure is required etc.
• Their operation may be counter intuitive and conflict with stereotype reactions that normally
occur.
3 Combining colours that are next to each other on the wheel (e.g. blue and blue-green).
4
• To provide an emotional connection with the product
• To add fun or personality to products

1.9 Health and safety

1 Cleaning agent such as a caustic, soda-based, drain cleaning fluid.
2
• Training in safe use of machinery/equipment and safe working practices
• Provision of machine guards
• Maintenance of machinery
• Extraction systems for fumes/dust
• Provision of PPE
• Accident reporting to HSE
• Carry out a risk assessment to identify hazards and put reasonable measures in place to
prevent harm.
3
1. Violent ejection of the work piece from the chuck: the work piece must be set up tightly using
an appropriate chuck key and mounted so that there is the minimum possible amount of work
piece sticking out from the chuck. The chuck should be rotated manually prior to commencing
in order to check that it is mounted centrally, and the clearance is sufficient from the top slide,
tool and tool post. All necessary guards and PPE should be used.
2. Cuts resulting from sharp swarf: bare hands should not be used for swarf removal and care
should be taken to avoid swarf build up around the cutting tool, which might catch on the three-
jaw chuck and be ejected at speed.
3. Irritation to the skin caused by contact with cutting fluid: minimise contact with the fluid and
follow the supplier’s hazard data sheets for specific risks. Wash hands thoroughly after any
contact.
4
• Health and Safety at Work Act
• Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations
• Personal Protective Clothing Regulations
• Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR)
• Globally Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) regulations.

1.10 Protecting designs and intellectual property

1 Intellectual property (IP) is something that has been physically created and did not exist before, such
as a book, a film, a camera lens mounting system, a handbag or a car manufacturer’s name badge.
2 Intellectual property rights protect a designer’s original ideas and prevent the copying or stealing of
original work or identity.
3
• Copyright is a legal right that provides protection for work such as books, photography, drama,
music, films, television programmes, software, etc.
• Copyright in the UK lasts for 70 years after the death of the creator of the work.
• Copyright can be managed in such a way that others can be given permission to make use of it
(e.g. photographs are licensed for use in books or a theatre company pays to stage a musical).
• Unregistered design rights provide protection for designs so that they cannot be copied,
• Unregistered design rights also cover unauthorised dealing in copied designs.
• Unregistered design rights apply for ten years.
• Unregistered design rights cover the appearance of a product, including aspects such as
shape, material and ornamentation. They do not cover how the product works.
4 Patents protect the working elements of a product, such as the gearbox in a car.
5 Registered designs cover the appearance and decoration of a product rather than the working parts
of a product. An example is the exterior casing of a laptop computer, rather than the circuitry inside it
(which would be protected by a patent).
6
• A trademark protects the instantly recognisable combination of words, sounds, colours and
logos used by a company or product that are used for marketing and brand identity.
• A logo is a graphical symbol that produces an instantly identifiable and unique identity to make
a brand stand out from others.
7
Aspect of bike Type of IP applicable
Shape and form of the frame Registered design
Gear change system Patent
Company logo and graphics on the frame Trademark
Instruction booklet Copyright
8
• Open design is an approach to designing and manufacturing that operates outside the
protection of patents and other types of IP.
• People develop physical products, machines and systems that can be freely accessed by
everyone.
• Open designs mean there is no restriction on the development of inventions that are urgently
needed to benefit others.
• Increases collaboration, which can lead to further innovation.
• Can contribute to healthier and safer lives for all (e.g. water pumping and purification systems).
• Ensures compatibility of different systems worldwide (e.g. Shipping containers).
• Open source projects facilitate development in areas such as 3D printing.

1.11 Design for manufacturing, maintenance, repair and

disposal
1 This example shows how this might be approached for one of the products suggested in the question:
Product Wood dining Polymer child’s Shopping centre Bespoke F1 driver’s
chair chair outside bench seat
Materials Oak Polypropylene Cast concrete Carbon fibre
(PP) reinforced polymer
Manufacture Compatible Can be injection Can be cast in batches Individually designed
with batch moulded in a and reinforcement used mould for specific
production range of colours to resist breakage driver, followed by lay
up process and
autoclave
Maintenance Only requires Easy to clean Low maintenance as it Low maintenance due
oil or wax and self is a very hard material, to tough and durable
finished/coloured so it won’t mark too characteristics of the
easily and any graffiti material
etc. can be removed
using appropriate
chemicals
Repair Repairs easily PP resists Repairs are unlikely, but Very unlikely that any
carried out fatigue, so repair patching could be done repairs would be
using should not be with cement carried out as it is a
conventional required safety critical
tools, fixings component and would
and adhesives be replaced if
damaged
Disposal Wood could be PP can be Could be used as hard Difficult to recycle,
re-used for recycled for use core material although shredding
upcycling or in timber- techniques are being
processed into substitute developed to create
manufactured materials small lengths of fibre
boards for use in advanced
composite injection
mouldings. Potential
for re-use or upcycling
as a gaming seat.
2
A

A
A

A
B B

A A

½ sheet size is 1220mm × 1220mm

A = 610 mm
B = 305 mm
(Ignoring cutting allowance.)

3
• Recycle: glass is used to manufacture bottles, so they can be returned to a manufacturer after
use via a bottle bank recycling scheme, thus creating a continuous cycle of material use.
• Reduce: the design for a polymer seat for a child’s sit-on trike is made thinner and lighter, and
uses less material by incorporating strengthening webs rather than using a bulkier, heavy
structure.
• Refuse: a designer stops using difficult to recycle polymer-based textiles in the shade for a
lamp and opts to use an environmentally friendly, bamboo-based material instead.
• Repair: the design of a washing machine is modified so that easy access can be gained to all
the working parts for easy replacement when they fail, and all the parts can be removed/re-
fitted using normal spanners, screwdrivers and hex keys rather than requiring specialist tools.
• Rethink: a designer working for a motor cycle company renowned for its high performance and
relatively fuel-thirsty racing bikes, starts working on the design of a new range of bikes for the
company. This new range will appeal to a completely different customer profile and will
incorporate features such as excellent fuel efficiency, easy maintenance, security and safety.
• Reuse: a company specialising in delivering boxes of fresh vegetables to customers designs
and introduces a re-usable wooden box that is robust enough to withstand being returned and
re-used dozens of times before it needs to be replaced. This replaces the original flimsy
polymer boxes that were discarded after use.
4 Upcycling is the creative reuse of unwanted products and materials to produce a higher quality
outcome or product of greater environmental worth than the original.
Examples: drinks cans to manufacture lampshades; oil drums to make furniture; old records and CDs
made into coasters; water bottle cut into small shapes for making jewellery.
(N.B. There are several alternative ideas in the textbook.)
5 Computer numerically controlled (CNC) machines are capable of producing large numbers of parts,
but the expensive investment involved in buying and running these machines is primarily aimed
towards manufacturing a range of parts. This is mainly due to the flexibility that these machines offer in
easily changing from manufacturing one part to another.
Dedicated automatic machines tend to be used when very large numbers of identical parts, such as
screws and paper clips, are required as these can be set up using mechanical systems such as cams
and levers in order to constantly repeat the movement of elements of the machine that is required to
carry out the manufacturing process. Once set up by a skilled engineer, these machines can be left
working with minimum need for intervention apart from routine maintenance such as tool replacement
and lubrication.
6 Possible examples:
• Battery covers for children’s toys with safety screws that are easily accessible with a standard
screwdriver.
• Central heating boiler with a sliding system that makes it possible for the entire control unit to
be slid forward out of the main housing for easy access to check and replace components or
PCBs as required.
• 13 amp plugs with an access panel underneath to facilitate fuse changing without needing to
remove the cover.
• Quick release bike skewers to facilitate tool-free wheel removal, which is particularly useful
when repairing a flat tyre during a ride.
7
• Modular approach
• Standardised parts and sizes
• Self-finishing materials
• Injection moulding rather than machining
• Wave/reflow soldering rather than manual soldering
• Redistribution techniques that are often more efficient than wastage or fabrication techniques
• Adhesives or snap fittings rather than mechanical fastenings
• Bought-in, pre-made components
• Moulded posts and self-tapping screws
8 Easy disassembly allows discrete parts to be returned for re-processing with no degradation.
Manufacturing methods such as the use of epoxy adhesives and twin shot injection moulding need to
be avoided as it is difficult or impossible to recover the materials for re-use.

1.12 Feasibility studies

1 The use of computer modelling to assess the practicality of producing a design.
2
• To determine whether a product can be produced economically and is worth investing in before
large amounts of money are spent.
• To test efficiency of the production process
• To assess any potential problems likely to arise during manufacture
• To calculate costs (direct and indirect) and to determine profits
3
• A company considering the production of a new type of gas cooking hob produce a prototype
to use for testing that it works correctly with all types of gas supply.
• A company considering expanding into the Scandinavian market with their outdoor clothing
range conduct tests to ensure that they provide the necessary level of insulation in very cold
conditions.
• A snack manufacturer wishes to make its products more appealing to a younger market, so it
conducts consumer research, such as focus groups, to obtain feedback on the suitability of
packaging designs.

1.13 Enterprise and marketing in the development of

products
1
• Sets up a business, project or other venture.
• Takes risk and invests capital into an idea – their own or finance from a bank or other investor.
• Some may have the skills to invent and design their products; most work with designers and
engineers to turn their ideas into reality.
2 Designers often work on highly complex projects which require skills and knowledge that a single
person does not have. Designers might have particular skills and expertise in some areas, but will need
to work with other designers and engineers who have the skills necessary to complete the project.
An example of this is the design of a jet aircraft, which would require the combined skills of designers
working in dozens of specialisms, including ergonomists, aeronautical engineers, electronics experts
and composite specialists.
3
• An integral part of brand identity
• Attracts customer attention
• Makes product aesthetically appealing
• Provides important information about the product.
4
• To help customers identify products
• To establish and maintain customer loyalty to a brand
• To help market a product or range of products.
5 The total cost of its manufacture, including direct costs (labour, materials, overheads such as tools
and equipment), plus indirect costs for running the business (administration, HR, security, maintenance,
electricity).

1.14 Design communication

1
• Two-point perspective – used to explore and communicate design ideas. The use of vanishing
points gives a more realistic ‘artist impression’ of how the product will look. It can be used for
presentation drawings to show to a range of interested parties.
• Isometric – simple drawings to sketch design ideas.
• One-point perspective – to add depth and realism to design ideas and so objects can be
viewed from different angles.
• Thick/thin line technique – used to make drawings stand out.

2
• The position of the plan, front and side views differs.
• In first angle projection the object is placed in the first quadrant (between the observer and the
plane of projection); in third angle projection the object is placed in the third quadrant (the plane
of projection is between the observer and the object).
• First angle projection is commonly used in Europe; third angle projection is used in the USA.
3
Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to understand • Not very accurate
• Quick to read
4
• To enhance drawings
• To provide a base colour on which additional layers of colour or tone can be added
• To make 2D drawings look 3D.
5
• Use of mixed media
• Texture rendering using a fine line pen.

Section 2 Designing and making principles

2.1 Design methods and processes
1
• To obtain opinions about existing products
• To obtain feedback on prototypes
• To identify current level of brand identity
• To create mood boards
• To sketch ideas and logos
• To watch videos and presentations so they can provide their views.
2
• Interviews
• Focus groups
• Questionnaires/surveys
• Analysis/disassembly of existing products
• Material/component/construction method testing
• Observations
3
• Obtain anthropometric data that is relevant to the age group of the target market.
• Focus designs on a specific percentile range of anthropometrics (e.g. 50th percentile when
designing for average male or female consumers).
• An example would be to use an appropriate range of anthropometric data for thumb sizes in
order to design scissors that are comfortable for the maximum practicable number of people.
4 To identify useful materials, components, mechanisms, structures and other useful features that can
be adapted in a new product.
5 It enables designers to gain a real, empathic understanding of the problems users have with
products.
Examples include:
• Carrying out tasks with products when wearing a ‘pregnancy suit’ to understand issues faced
by expectant mothers.
• Wearing frosted goggles or uncomfortable gloves to experience using products with health
issues such as limited vision and arthritis.

2.2 Design theory

1
• The ancient world/ancient civilisations
• Sunburst motifs
• Ziggurat (stepped pyramids)
• Simple geometric forms
2 The end of the First World War and the need to rebuild, along with the machine-based manufacturing
and mass production of weapons and other military equipment.
3 A belief that the use of machinery and factory-based production created products with unnecessarily
ornate decoration, which meant that appreciation of the materials used in their construction was lost.
The loss of skills of traditional craft workers as their roles were taken over by machines.
4 Margaret Calvert
5 Dust extraction systems (in sawmills)

2.3 Technology and cultural changes

1
• Wartime adoption of metal tubing as a replacement for wood – the use of steel tubing for
furniture inspired the Wassily chair.
• The inherent strength and elasticity in tubular steel facilitated mass production through the
utilisation of industrial machinery and modern materials.
• No additional decoration required as form could follow function, as with military hardware.
2
• A severe shortage of timber for furniture manufacture in the Second World War led to rationing.
• Bombing raids and destruction of houses and their contents exacerbated the furniture
shortage.
• The utility furniture scheme was introduced to ensure simply designed products were available
in response to the shortages, and that scarce resources were used in an optimal way.
• Utility furniture was designed to be strong, with no superfluous decoration, borrowing from the
traditions of the Arts and Crafts movement from the beginning of the century.
• The furniture used traditional, vernacular methods and locally sourced materials.
• Its initial target was newlywed couples setting up home and those who suffered in bombing
raids.
3
• Set up in response to Government concern that competition from other countries and the
legacy of wartime utility design would result in Britain being left behind as a designing and
manufacturing nation.
• It introduced a programme of training, assessment and information to improve standards of
design.
• It held two influential exhibitions: the ‘Britain Can Make It’ exhibition in 1946 and the ‘Festival of
Britain’ in 1951.
4
• Streamlined American design (Raymond Loewy and Henry Dreyfuss).
• Teenagers were keen to have access to miniature radios and record players.
• Responding to this demand was accelerated by technological developments such as the
transistor and microelectronics.
• Development of polymers and related moulding techniques (Robin Day’s PP chair).
• Scandinavian design (Aalto’s plywood furniture).
• The development of more affordable and convenient knock-down (self-assembly) furniture
such as Ikea.
5 Development of polymers and related moulding techniques, with injection moulding being particularly
significant in this case.
6 The transistor and other semi-conducting devices.
7
• The vacuum tube (thermionic valve)
• These were large in size, had high levels of energy consumption and were unreliable, which
limited the range and effectiveness of products that could be designed.
• The transistor opened up the world of miniaturisation.
8 Integrated circuits (ICs)
9
• 10 billion transistors can be incorporated in just one device – ‘ultra-large-scale integration’.
• Makes devices more powerful in terms of the processing that they are capable of and the
amount of data that can be stored.
10 Example: Design collaboration and communication
In the 1950s there was a reliance on face-to-face meetings, phone conversations and postal
communication. As a result of this, designers were limited to a linear form of designing, which was often
slow and unable to adapt to changes in demand.
Present-day advances in microelectronics have facilitated the development of technology such as
computers, mobile devices and wireless communications systems. These support email, texting, web
conferencing, file sharing and many other collaboration and communication tools. This makes it
possible to develop designs concurrently (different parts of the process being carried out at the same
time), and thus speed up the process to improve profitability.
(NB Refer to Table 2.3.2 on pages 216–7 of the textbook for more examples.)
11
Product Technological developments
Regency TR1 portable radio • Radio with four transistors
• Carbon zinc battery
Philips EL3300 compact cassette • Ten transistors
• Electro-mechanical speed control
• First successful, standardised compact cassette tape
Sony Walkman • Stereo
• Cassette and LSI IC control and amplification facilitates
revolutionary level of portability
• AA batteries (standard or rechargeable)
Sony Discman • Digital
• Compact disc
• Laser
• Vlsi ic control and amplification
• Rechargeable ni-mh batteries
• Lcd display
Sony MZ1 MiniDisc • Recordable magneto-optical disc (works like a hard
drive)
• Compressed sound files (atrac)
12
• Glulam: composite timber elements in buildings, bridges, etc.
• Kevlar: bullet-proof vests, puncture resistant tyres, modern jet aircraft construction.
• Nanomaterials: advanced electronics, medical drug injection, sunscreen additive, battery
anode.
13
• Machines used in a JiT manufacturing system could be set up to automatically ensure
that there is a prompt supply of parts when they are needed – monitoring stock levels using
RFID scanners and ordering automatically.
• Allows for a dynamic response to anything that changes in the system (e.g. a machine fault
resulting in the need to reorganise schedules).
• Facilitates ‘predictive maintenance’ - sensors collect data to indicate when servicing, repair or
replacement of various parts is needed.
14
• Use of XML for improved file compatibility: there are currently many different filetypes
associated with the various CAD packages. Increasing adoption of XML will help to facilitate
easier transfer of files between designers using different CAD/CAM systems.
• Cloud-based computing: this enables designers to carry out their work on any Internet
connected computer or tablet, rather than being tied to specific desk-based computers or
workplace networks.
• The CAD/CAM software can be accessed from the Cloud, which also facilitates file sharing.
Possible further examples:
• 3D printing/rapid prototyping
• Integrated realisation – use of FEA and CFDMass customisation
• Virtual reality
15
• PillCam® – an internal medical imaging system for early detection of cancer, which was
developed from missile guidance technology.
• Radar – developed and refined for military purposes during the Second World War. Now used
for safety in air travel and led to the development of microwave ovens.
• The EpiPen – used by diabetics and people who suffer from allergic reactions. They were first
developed for soldiers to protect themselves from chemical weapons and nerve agents.
• Global positioning satellite (GPS) navigation systems – developed from 1970 US defence
systems.
• Penicillin – first put into wide-scale use in the Second World War.
• Drones – initially developed during the First World War.
• Jet engines – initially developed during the Second World War.
• Nylon and other synthetic materials – initially developed during the Second World War.
16 Possible examples:
• Metal production – relies on the extraction and processing of ores; this can be very damaging
to the environment due to the large scale of mining and quarrying operations. The work
involved can be dangerous to workers and local people, especially if adequate safety
standards are not implemented (e.g. Minas Gerais region of Brazil in 2015, when a dam burst
in an iron ore mine, killing several workers and local people as well as engulfing the nearby
town in mud).
• Processing of chemicals for pesticide manufacture – leaks can have serious health effects (e.g.
1984 Union Carbide plant methyl isocyanate leak in Bhopal, India resulted in the death of
thousands of people in the plant and local towns, as well as serious health effects for
thousands more).
17 White symbolises misfortune and death in that part of the world.
18
• Accessibility improvements on public transport: buses with floors that lower for pushchair and
wheelchair users; yellow handrails that are more easily seen by people with a visual
impairment.
• Safety measures at pedestrian crossings: includes features such as raised pavement bumps,
ramps and visual, audible and tactile feedback.
• Wider doors for wheelchairs in the design of new houses.
• Oxo ‘good grips’ kitchen utensils.
• Hearing induction loops in theatres.
• Simplified remote controls with larger buttons.
• Key and door handle adapters.
• Modified gardening tools.
19 ‘Gravity light’
• Crowd-funded project (other people are involved and support development of the product)
• Uses stored energy in a weight that can be raised by the user
• Targeted at poor families in Kenya
• They currently spend 30 per cent of their income on kerosene fuel for lamps
• The ‘Gravity Light’ emits more light
• There are no safety issues such as the flammability of kerosene
Further possible examples:
• Trevor Baylis wind-up clockwork radio – can be used by those who can’t access or afford
batteries; allows access to broadcasts on important health issues such as Aids.
• Rainwater harvesting system that uses discarded plastic bottles attached to gutters.
• Homeless shelters.
• Mobile storage units to facilitate educational projects in developing countries.
• Practical Action ‘open-design’ approach, so that IP doesn’t hinder the development of
affordable products (e.g. concrete compost bin to enrich soil using organic waste).
• Practical Action ‘pathways from poverty’ initiative in Bangladesh–pumps, sludge carts and
safety equipment.
20
• Developments in prostheses – using new materials such as advanced composites such as
CFRP, lightweight motors and nerve-linked microelectronic control, which takes advantage of
the latest semiconductor technology.
• Robotic surgical devices – the ‘da Vinci’ robot is a minimally invasive and high precision device
that permits surgeons to carry out complex surgery in a very controlled fashion. This reduces
recovery time and infection risk. Surgeons can carry out procedures that would be impossible
using conventional techniques.
• Telehealth – remote monitoring of a patient’s health status by their doctor, sharing patient
notes, transmission of reminders and holding web-conferenced meetings between health
professionals.
• Medical equipment – MRI and CT scanners have facilitated non-invasive investigation.
• Artificial organs.
• Stem cells technology.
• 3D printing of skin, medical equipment (e.g. umbilical cord clamps), ceramic bone scaffolds,
polymer skull repair implants offers a number of avenues for use in medicine.
21
Ikea Foundation’s flat-pack ‘better shelter’:
• These are emergency housing modules that can be quickly and easily transported to where
they are needed.
• They can be erected without tools, sleep five people, are well insulated and fitted with a solar
panel for charging lighting systems and phones.
• They have been used in Macedonia, Iraq and Ethiopia.
UNFPA ‘hospitainers’ and ‘maternitainers’:
• These are shipping containers that have been adapted to be used as mobile hospitals and
maternity units.
• They can be transported using standard container lorries.
• They can be combined to create larger facilities.
• They have been used in Iraq and Syria.
Further possible examples:
• Trough-style solar cookers – used by refugees in Burkina Faso, where the climate makes it one
of the best parts of the world for using solar energy.
• Solar-powered water distillation equipment – developed by the Israeli company SunDwater to
convert contaminated water into safe drinking water.
• ‘Adiff’ fashion collection by Angela Luna – clothing designed for refugees, such as a cape that
can be used in a small tent.
22
• The Fairtrade movement seeks to give a better deal to people in developing countries when
trading their products.
• The Fairtrade Foundation negotiates a fair minimum price for products plus an added premium,
which is used to make investments to support developmental projects.
• The Fairtrade mark on a product indicates that its standards have been attained.
23
• Stages: introduction, growth, maturity, decline and replacement.
• If manufacturers fail to effectively plan a product’s life cycle, they may have no new
modifications or products ready for introduction to rectify the fall in revenue when sales start to
decline.

2.4 Design processes

1
• Designing and making products often requires the expertise, skills and knowledge of a number
of people.
• One designer may have particular strengths or expertise that another designer does not have.
• Working collaboratively allows each person to focus on their strengths; it allows a designer to
seek specialist advice and help from a person with expertise they do not have themselves.
• Working collaboratively supports creativity.
2
• To support designers with ideas generation
• Help designers think about factors that influence the design
• Can be used as a checklist to ensure the designer has considered all aspects of the design
• To improve creative discussion
• Can help to involve others and share ideas – to develop and generate more ideas.
3
• To communicate the aesthetics of a product
• To demonstrate and check the function of a product before using more expensive materials
• To check the sizes and proportions
• To test ergonomics
• To gain feedback.
4
• A list of requirements that a design must meet
• Can be referred to when evaluating or testing a design or prototype
• Typical elements include function, user requirements, environmental considerations,
sustainability, maintenance, size, weight, ergonomics, aesthetics, cost, quality, safety.
5 Responses dependent on the student’s own project, but possible examples include:
• Comparison against the specification
• Testing in its intended environment
• Obtaining third party feedback
• Obtaining expert opinions
• Suggesting modifications and improvements

2.5 Critical analysis and evaluation

1 It provides a set of requirements that can be checked as part of ongoing analysis and evaluation,
which will reduce the possibility of deficiencies being discovered when final evaluation of the product is
carried out.
2
• Provides valuable opportunities to demonstrate advanced design skills.
• Allows for the creation of a fully justified range of detailed, annotated design ideas for
modifications that address key issues.
• Can allow you to make modifications to address an issue.
• Can help to bring about improvements in future generations of products.
• Can enhance potential for commercial success.
3
• Taking an existing product apart to examine its features and components.
• To identify useful materials, components, mechanisms, structures and other useful features
that can be adapted in a new product.
• Can help you to understand a wide range of design and manufacturing techniques.
4
• May affect product safety and cause injury or harm to manufacturer or customers.
• May be very difficult and expensive to make changes during manufacture; these are likely to be
easier and cheaper at an earlier design stage.
• Product recalls are expensive.
• May result in products being scrapped, which is costly and contributes to waste and
environmental issues.
• May prevent the product from being commercially successful.
5
• United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS) – responsible for checking and monitoring the
work of agencies that certificate testing and inspection of products and their manufacture
• BSI – publishes a range of standards used in the design and manufacture of products to
ensure quality and safety
• Symbols are used on products to show that they comply to standards (e.g. CE mark and BSI
Kitemark)
6
• To obtain feedback on prototypes
• Identifying current level of brand identity
• Creation of mood boards
• Sketching ideas and logos
• Watching videos and presentations to provide their views
• They include members of the public from appropriate demographic groups
• Express their objective views on existing and proposed products, including attitudes to colours,
comfort, ease of use, enjoyment, pricing, strength of brand etc.

2.6 Selecting appropriate tools, equipment and processes

1 Sand casting a part for a vice:
• Risk assessment carried out
• Safety of machinery and equipment – guards in place and in working order, maintenance of
tools and machinery, appropriate tools/equipment for the task, electrical testing and safety
• Minimisation of need for close proximity of workers to the furnace and molten metal
• Fume extraction in place and certificated
• Appropriate molten metal handling systems in place
• Trip hazards minimised
• PPE supplied and worn correctly
• Training provided – safe use of equipment, emergency procedures etc.
• Emergency equipment available – fire extinguishers, first aid kits etc.
2 The checklist would be based on the previous answer.
3
• The scale of manufacture, linked to anticipated demand, would be a crucial element in making
these decisions. If very large quantities of particular parts are required, it may be viable to set
up dedicated machines. If smaller numbers are required, the use of CNC machines may be
considered to be more appropriate.
• For a polymer product, the need for integrated fittings, strengthening ribs and other features
may make it necessary for a designer to opt for injection moulding. This would allow
incorporation of these details, whereas blow moulding would be cheaper due to the lower cost
of mould and the relative simplicity of the process, but it would only facilitate hollow forms and
would not allow complex moulded features.
• A sheet PVC product that has to be cut into a particular profile might be most easily shaped
using a laser, but the dangers posed by the fumes would make it necessary to seek alternative
methods such as a CNC router.
4
• Visual prototype: a sample or model that shows the overall shape and size of the product;
used to test the visual impact that a product form may have and enable designers and clients
to suggest improvements.
• Proof of concept prototype: shows the key functionality and main technical aspects of the
design; allows the design team to test the functions to see if they work as intended, or to trial
with test groups to gain feedback
• Production prototype: gives a representation of how the mass-produced product would look
and shows how the product would function. Used to assess any alterations that may be
required prior to mass production.

2.7 Accuracy in design and manufacture

1
• Internal callipers • Laser level
• Marker pen • Surface plates and gauges
• Steel rule • Angle plates
• Scriber • V-blocks
• Dividers • Try square
• Compasses • Combination square
• Marking knife • Spirit level
• Measuring tape • Protractor
2
• Micrometer
• Vernier calliper
• Profile projector
• Digital test gauge
3
• Accuracy is defined as the level of conformity of a measurement to the required value.
• It is important to ensure that parts fit and products function correctly.
4
• Tolerance is the measure of the level of accuracy appropriate for a particular situation. It is the
specification for the allowable upper and lower accuracy limits of a dimension.
• Tolerances for a very detailed part ensure the product fits together and functions correctly
when assembled, and parts don’t have to be rejected as part of quality control measures.
5
• The G-codes generated by the CAD/CAM software control the co-ordinate of the path of the
cutting tool in relation to the workpiece.
• The CAD file will have been created in strict conformity with the dimensions required for the
component.
6
• They indicate the precise linear movement of the tool or workpiece for each revolution or
fraction of a revolution of the handle, and can achieve an accuracy of 0.01 mm, which is the
linear distance travelled by the slide for one graduation rotation of the dial.
• The dials can be set to zero at the start of the cut to make it easier to gauge the amount of
movement.
7 It reduces the chances of cumulative errors, where a small error occurring when marking out each of
the dimensions can add up to a large error overall.
8
• A jig controls the motion of a tool relative to a workpiece.
• A fixture is a frame with holding points and clamps that are used to hold workpieces firmly in
place.
9 To transfer a design onto a workpiece.
2.8 Responsible design
1
• Reduce: cut down the amount of material and energy used to make and package the product.
• Reuse: at the end of a product’s life, reuse the product for the same or another purpose.
• Recycle: conversion of waste products into new materials for new products.
• Repair: when a product or component fails, fix it rather than throwing it away.
• Refuse: exercise consumer choice as to whether to buy a product or not.
• Rethink: rethink the way products are designed and manufactured so that they carry out the
same function, but more efficiently.
2
• Do I really need the product?
• Has the product been ethically made?
• Is the product sustainable?
3
• Economic
• Social
• Environmental
4
• Deliver products straight from the manufacturing facility to the retail outlet.
• Use the electric train network rather than the road network for transportation of goods.
• Use manufacturing facilities in the country of use.
• Use locally grown, harvested and processed raw materials.
5
• Use renewable energy during manufacture – e.g. factories can be fitted with solar panels and
heat exchangers.
• Design for refurbishment – replaceable batteries, ease of access to working parts and
components so phones can be repaired more easily
• Effective disassembly – ease to be taken apart and re-use components at the end of useful life
• Use of recyclable materials
• Ensure responsible sourcing – knowledge of supply chain and fair and safe working conditions
• Product leasing
• Encourage use of refurbished and second-hand phones
• Take back for recycling at the end of the product’s life
• Design phones with increased lifespan – reduce planned obsolescence
• Use longer-lasting batteries that requires less charging
6 For example, Marks and Spencer updated pizza packaging:
• Removal of previously used polystyrene tray
• Reduction of packaging from a box to a narrow sleeve
• Reduced overall packaging amount by over 60%
• Sleeve is made of recyclable card

2.9 Design for manufacture and project management

1 Less than 3.4.
2
• Only sourcing materials and components from suppliers that hold the ISO 9001 Quality
Management Standard
• Setting specific temperature ranges for product moulding to ensure effective filling of cavities
and speeds of cooling
• Setting rigid maintenance schedules for machinery, e.g. to maintain consistent alignment of
mould parts.
3 The minimum time path to complete the stages of a process such as manufacturing a product.
4
• Material checks (visual, chemical, colour matching)
• Dimensional accuracy checks (using digital measuring device go/no go gauge, coordinate
measuring machinery)
• Surface finish check (a profile projector or microscope may be used to ensure that
unacceptable ridges are not present)
5 Ultrasonic testing is safer than x-ray testing because it uses sound waves rather than radiation.

2.10 National and international standards in product design

1
• Gives consumers an easy method of comparing potential energy consumption when choosing
products and helps them to make purchasing decisions.
• Manufacturers have been forced to develop the efficiency of products because the label is
compulsory and highly visible.
2
• Shows a product meets specific environmental targets.
• Manufacturers are able to provide potential customers with a greater level of information.
3 Outdoor wooden table and chairs set.
Its presence means materials are from FSC certified forests, which are managed in an environmentally
appropriate, socially beneficial, and economically viable manner.
4
• In accordance with the Battery directive (2013/56/EU), RoHS and Waste from Electrical and
Electronic Equipment (WEEE) directives.
• Do not dispose of in normal waste.
• Clear instructions for safe removal and disposal are provided with the product.
• Take to recycling centre or disposal point.
5
• Refers to quality management.
• It is a worldwide standard.
• Many companies only deal with others who conform to the standard.
• Improves safety and reliability.