Sociology PYQs 2013 2023 Sleepy Classes

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Contents
Mains 2013 ....................................................................................................................... 4
Section - A ................................................................................................................. 4
Section B .................................................................................................................... 31
Mains 2014 ....................................................................................................................... 58
Section - A ................................................................................................................. 58
Section-B ................................................................................................................... 84
Mains 2015 ....................................................................................................................... 108
Section - A ................................................................................................................. 108
Section B .................................................................................................................... 125
Mains 2016 ....................................................................................................................... 144
Section - A ................................................................................................................. 144
Section -B .................................................................................................................. 166
Mains 2017 ....................................................................................................................... 192
Section - A ................................................................................................................. 192
Section B .................................................................................................................... 228
Mains 2018 ....................................................................................................................... 259
Section - A ................................................................................................................. 259
Section - B ................................................................................................................. 289
Mains 2019 ....................................................................................................................... 318
Section - A ................................................................................................................. 318
Section B .................................................................................................................... 350
Mains 2020 ....................................................................................................................... 376
Section A ................................................................................................................... 376
Section B .................................................................................................................... 409
Mains 2021 ....................................................................................................................... 439
Section - A ................................................................................................................. 439
Section B .................................................................................................................... 470

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Mains 2022........................................................................................................................494
Section - A ..................................................................................................................494
Section B ....................................................................................................................526
Mains 2023 ....................................................................................................................... 559
Section A.......................................................................................................................559
Section B .......................................................................................................................589
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Mains 2013
Section - A
Question 1
(a) "Sociology emerged in Europe and flourished to begin with on social
reformist orientation in the USA" - Comment. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by generally mentioning the background in which sociology was born.
 Talk about the problems in Europe at that time to which sociology sought answers.
 Then mention how sociology spread in America and how it had a social reformist orientation.
 Provide a balanced conclusion.
Solution
 Sociology took birth in a climate of social upheaval. The early sociologists' theories were
influenced by the socioeconomic conditions that were in place in Europe at the time. The
Enlightenment, the French Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution were the important
features of this time period.
Emergence in Europe:
 The late 17th and early 18th century in Europe are referred to as the Enlightenment period
because it was at this time that people began to view the rational thought as a central feature
of human being and the human being as the centre of the universe.
 Europe had entered the age of reason and rationalism by the 18th century. Montesquieu,
Locke, Voltaire, and Rousseau were some of the prominent thinkers whose thoughts affected
the people during the time.
 The political framework of European society was altered by the French Revolution, which
began in 1789. It signalled the end of the feudal era and the beginning of democracy.
 The late 18th and early 19th century Industrial Revolution that started in England had a
significant impact on people's social and economic lives first in England, then in other
European nations, and finally in other continents.
 Some important questions about human survival in the then contemporary society were
posed during this time. These questions provided a fertile ground for the latter sociological
thoughts as well. Many Positivist theorists, like Karl Marx and Max Weber in Germany and
Emile Durkheim in France, were influential in the early sociological work that emerged in
Western Europe.
Reformist orientation:
 By the turn of the 20th century, sociology had made its way from Europe to the United States.
Early American sociologists, like their European predecessors and counterparts, sought to
comprehend and address the issues of the day, such as crime, racial issues, rapid
industrialization, worker exploitation, urbanisation and its attendant social issues, racial
discrimination, etc.
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 However, unlike their European counterparts who were more focused on creating broad
societal theories, American sociologists attempted to create workable answers to particular
issues like child labour.
 As a result, early American sociologists blended their sociological and social reformer roles
when the discipline first arose.
 As a member of the American Sociological Society, Jane Addams worked to close the gap
between the powerful and the weak. She demonstrated how organizations can reduce
hunger, poverty, and oppression. W. E. B. Du Bois worked on the problem of race in America.
Bagehot, work on politics and physics brought the political modification in USA. Albion
Small and Robert Park of the Chicago School made an effort to address urbanization-related
issues.
 As a result, sociology emerged in Europe, but it has matured as a discipline in the United
States due to its social reformist orientations.
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(b) Compare and contrast Sociology with Anthropology? 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce by generally mentioning the background in which the two fields were born.
 Provide the difference between the two fields.
 Mention the similarities or overlap between the two fields.
 Provide a balanced conclusion
Solution
Sociology and anthropology had very different beginnings. While Western intellectuals of sociology
had a ready context closer to home when modernism, the French Revolution, and industrialization
arrived, anthropologists had to create their own. Anthropology also draws on prehistoric
archaeology.
Difference
Sociology Sociology
Anthropology
Emergence In response to the Anthro ology arose from

challenges of modernity, Western scholars'
sociology evolved from interest in primitive
philosophy of history, societies in non-western
political thought, and countries.
positive sciences.
Objectivity Sociologists' methods are Anthropologists

laden with values, and describe and analyse in
thus their conclusions are clinically neutral terms
tinged with ethical so that they can position
considerations. themselves as outsiders
without becoming
entangled in values.
Scope Sociologists quite often Social anthropology

study parts of existing tended to study societies
societies or processes such (particularly simple
as social mobility. societies) in their
entirety. Social
anthropologists
typically study small
societies that are
relatively stable and
generally devoid of
historical records.
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Research Method Sociologists frequently Social anthropologists

rely on statistics and typically live in the
questionnaires, and their communities they study
analysis is frequently in order to observe and
formal and quantitative. document what they
see. Their research is
primarily qualitative.
Subject Matter Sociology is primarily Anthropology also

concerned with cultural investigates physical
and social issues. aspects of evolution and
biology.
Similarities
Despite their differences, the two disciplines have some similarities.
1. An interest in understanding humans is common to both disciplines.
2. History is also important in both Sociology and Anthropology. Although their scope and
focus differ, people who study Sociology and Anthropology both use historical events to
understand how humans came to exist as they do today.
3. Culture is an essential component of both Anthropology and Sociology because they are both
concerned with humans and their lives.
4. Both disciplines place a premium on norms, beliefs, customs, institutions, and all other social
aspects of the cultural context.
5. In modern practise, both Anthropology and Sociology employ a mixture of scientific and
humanistic approaches to the study of humanity.
6. Sociology and Anthropology's methodologies, areas of focus, and practises have become very
similar as they are now pursued.
Thus, despite their distinct areas of specialisation, the union of anthropology and sociology is
regarded as desirable and advantageous.
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(c) Critically examine positivistic approach in sociological studies. 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce answer with definition of Positivism.
 Give key features of positivistic approach of sociological studies.
 Give the criticism of positivistic approach of sociological studies.
Modern sociological study is mostly dominated by the positivistic approach. It is based on the belief
that social realities can be objectively described and explained, and that social phenomena can be
investigated scientifically, much like natural phenomena.
Here Positivism refers to a research approach that emphasizes using empirical, quantitative
methods to discover universal laws and patterns in natural and social phenomena, seeking to
establish causal relationships between variables.
The key features of the positivistic approach include:
1. Empiricism: The conviction that knowledge is acquired by experience and observation and
that the best basis for understanding social reality is provided by scientific evidence.
2. Objectivity: The view that social phenomena may be investigated objectively and that, in
order to draw correct findings, individual prejudices and subjective interpretations should
be kept to a minimum.
3. Generalizability: The idea that general principles and theories that can be applied to
different populations and contexts can be used to describe and explain social patterns.
4. Experimentation: The use of controlled experiments and observational studies to test
hypotheses and validate theories.
5. Quantitative methods: The study of social phenomena using quantitative data from sources
like surveys and statistical analysis.
Numerous sociological areas, such as social stratification, crime and deviance, and demographic
patterns, among others, have seen extensive usage of the positivistic method.
However, some of the key criticisms of this approach include:
1. Reductionism: It is argued that the positivistic approach ignores the subjective feelings and
meanings associated with social events and processes in favour of simplifying complex social
phenomena into quantitative data. Jurgen Habermas said that positivism lose sight of the
actors reducing them to passive entities determined by natural forces.
2. Lack of subjectivity: It is claimed that the emphasis on quantitative procedures and objective
facts ignores people's individual experiences and the influence of culture, values, and beliefs
on social reality. Max Horkheimer said that positivism is engaged in ‘objective anarchism’,
an obsession to study everything objectively.
3. Rigidity: It is said that relying too heavily on fixed categories and tight definitions leaves out
the complexity and fluidity of social phenomena.
4. Lack of cultural sensitivity: The positivistic approach is criticised for disregarding the power
dynamics that determine social reality as well as for failing to take into account the cultural
context and experiences of various groups. Dilthey said that a fact-based approach explores
only one dimension as it ignores cultural and ideological dimensions.
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5. Limitations: It is said that the emphasis on generalizable rules and theories is too limited and
ignores the particular historical, cultural, and contextual aspects that influence social reality.
6. Oversimplification: It is said that using quantitative data and statistical analysis leads to an
imperfect understanding of social reality and oversimplifies complex social phenomena.
7. Interpretivist scholars highlight the limitations of the positivist approach in capturing the
complexity of social phenomena and the subjective nature of human experiences. They argue
for a more holistic and interpretative understanding of social reality, emphasizing the
importance of subjective meanings, social contexts, and the active role of individuals in
shaping their own realities.
Despite these criticisms, the positivistic approach still has a significant impact on sociological study,
especially in the development of quantitative methods and the application of empirical data to
support hypotheses and comprehend social phenomena. However, a growing number of
sociologists today support a more multidimensional and holistic approach that uses both
quantitative and qualitative methods and takes into account the subjective experiences and cultural
environment of both individuals and groups.
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(d) Examine science and technology as agents of social change. 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce answer with definition of social change and mentioning the factors which help
bring social change.
 Mention both positive and negative social changes brought by S&T. (should be the major part
of answer)
 Mention how S&T impacted different societies differently.
Solution
Social change is the gradual transformation of patterns in social institutions, social structure, and
social behaviour. Law, education, and religion are only a few of the many elements that influence
it. However, science and technology are what accelerate this process of social change.
Positive Social Change
1. By enhancing food security and lowering the cost of essentials, science and technology can
help millions of people escape poverty. Connectivity and communication have dramatically
enhanced thanks to science and technology.
2. Technological advancements have had a significant impact on people's lives in India. The
secularisation of life goals is taking place, there is progress toward gender equality as more
women are finding employment, and new educational practices have opened up new worlds
for the younger generation.
3. Marx was the first to emphasise the significance of science and technology in terms of forces
of production that change production relations.
4. According to Leslie White, when a society's consumption per person rises, the techno-
economic component exerts pressure on the organisational component of culture to change.
Negative Social Change
1. However, when this transformation takes place without a corresponding adjustment in the
cultural features of society, it leads to conflict, or what William Ogburn referred to as
"Cultural Lag." It's because any new technology also carries with it a fresh set of values that
must confront with the old ones.
2. Furthermore, Science and technology also have a homogenising tendency. Nowadays, work
is done in more similar ways. Today's globalised industries produce identical goods, clothes,
tastes, and levels of consumption. It is bringing the world together, but at the expense of
diversity.
3. A transition from "adaptation" to "change" of the environment is also being brought about by
an over-reliance on science and technology. Climate change and an increase in natural
disasters are two important effects of this.
4. The alienating features of technology in the workplace were also noted by Robert Blauner in
his paper "Alienation and Freedom 1964." Certain technology, such as automation, cause
workplace monotony. Marxists contend that technology alienates man from his labor.
The effects of similar technologies vary in various societies. While printing led to the standardisation
of manuscripts in China, it facilitated the diversity of literary works in Europe.
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Nuclear energy was used to completely destroy two cities during the Second World War, although
it was later also used for peaceful purposes. Similar to this, information technology may be utilised
for empowerment and social transformation as well as for centralization and espionage.
Social change is a long-term process that affects practically every area of society. No culture can
effectively resist social change, but if these changes are gradual, indigenous, and accepted by
everybody, society will be more peaceful.
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e) Analyse the contemporary trends in family with examples. 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce answer with definition of family.
 Explain the contemporary trends in institution of family. (Should be the major part of answer)
 Also briefly mention the relevance of family as a unit of study.
Solution
The family is a social unit characterised by shared housing, economic cooperation, and sexual
reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes who maintain sexual relationship that is socially
acceptable. It also includes one or more children who are either their biological or adopted offspring.
As a result of societal economic and social changes, various social institutions such as the family are
changing.
Changes in Structure:
1. Parsons and Goode argued that family are changing from extended to nuclear. Parsons told
nuclear family is a structural fit with industrial society. Industrialization also promotes
achievement-based status and strengthens conjugal bonds.
2. Because newlywed couples who are employed must relocate to new areas where their jobs
are situated, patrilocal patterns are being replaced by neolocal patterns.
3. Margaret Obrian discussed the rise of single-parent families, reconstituted families, and dual-
earner families.
4. Metropolitan cities have also seen an increase in live in families, gay and lesbian families, and
families with varying levels of acceptance.
Changes in Relationship:
1. Love marriages are now a common method for individuals to start families. Free choice of
spouse has added a romantic element to the family. Today's husband-wife relationship is
more centred on cooperation than dominance, and women are also taking more active roles
in decision-making.
2. Parsons claims that nuclearization has improved the relationships between husband and
wife.
3. Today's brother-sister relationships are founded on equality and fellowship.
4. Women's and children's situation has improved due to legal issues. Today, women have
more rights. Additionally, people are now freer to move separately.
Changes in Function:
1. Traditional gender roles within families have undergone significant changes. This has
resulted in a reconfiguration of household responsibilities and a move toward more
egalitarian divisions of labor within families.
2. Aging populations and shifting family structures have made caregiving for older family
members more complex, creating a growing need for long-term care and support.
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3. Balancing work and family responsibilities has become challenging due to longer work hours
and demanding careers, leading to discussions on parental leave, flexible work
arrangements, and childcare support.
However, some sociologists argue that family is no longer cornerstone of society for the following
reasons.
1. Countries such as the Netherlands have as many as 80% of single individuals aged 18 to 45.
2. Alternative institutions such as hospitals, play schools, multiplexes, and the media are
assuming some of the functions of the family.
3. Alternatives such as Kibbitzs in Israel raise concerns about the universality of family.
4. As a unit of sociological analysis, the family is being replaced by the household.
In India, extent of change is not as dramatic as it is in western societies. So, emerging trends in family
reflects the adaptive changes with the socio-economic changes as said by Talcott Parsons.
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Question 2.
(a) Analyse the limitations of quantitative methods in social research. 20
marks
Approach
 Introduce by briefly explaining what is quantitative method.
 Mention the inclination of early positivist towards quantitative methods and mention some
of its types
 Give limitations of quantitative research methods. (Should be the major part of answer)
 Conclude by giving some ways to overcome the limitations.
Solution
 Quantitative research makes use of quantitative measurements and statistical analysis.
Natural science's ability to uncover the true nature of reality inspires quantitative methods
in social research. Because positivists believed that the subject matter of social science and
natural science was the same, they advocated quantitative methods for social research.
 Saint Simon, August Comte and Emile Durkheim were its chief proponents. Some of the
important quantitative methods include survey, structured interviews, structured
questionnaire etc.
Limitations of quantitative research methods includes: Improper target
population representation
 Improper representation of the target population may impede the researcher's ability to
achieve its desired goals and objectives. This could result in a calculation error and the
proposition becoming untrue.
Lack of data gathering resources:
 Quantitative research methodologies often call for a high sample size. However, the paucity
of resources makes this extensive investigation impractical.
 In many developing nations, interested parties might not have the necessary knowledge or
means to carry out exhaustive quantitative study.
Being unable to control the environment:
 Researchers may run into issues when trying to control the environment. The responses
provided by the respondents frequently depend on a specific time, which in turn depends on
the circumstances existing at that particular time.
Limited findings from a quantitative study:
 The structured questionnaire used in quantitative research has closed-ended questions. It
results in the limited outcomes outlined in the research proposal. As a result, the results may
not always accurately reflect the situation as it actually occurred.
 Also, the respondents have limited options for responses, based on the selection made by the
researcher.
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Analyzing data can be challenging:
 Extensive statistical analysis is needed for the quantitative investigation, which might be
challenging for researchers without statistical training. Since statistical analysis is based on
scientific methodology, it is challenging for non-mathematicians to perform.
Other limitations of quantitative methods:
 Everything cannot be quantified by numbers it cannot capture the meanings and motives.
They cannot capture subjective or non-empirical dimensions of social reality. Thus,
ethnomethodologist and phenomenologists said that quantitative methods are unsuitable for
sociology.
 Non-Positivists argue that the social reality is value laden, therefore complete separation of
fact and values can't happen which is a must in quantitative research method.
However, there are numerous ways to overcome the limitations of quantitative methods, including
triangulation, methological pluralism, ideal types, etc. It may also be beneficial to combine these
quantitative and qualitative methods.
15
(b) Critically examine the functionalist tradition in sociology. 20 marks

Approach
 Introduce by briefly explaining what is Functionalism.
 Explain the functionalist tradition in sociology.
 Give criticism of functionalist tradition in sociology.
Solution
Functionalism is a tradition in sociology that views society as a complex system of interdependent
parts, each of which performs a specific function to maintain the stability and stability of the whole
system.
1. This tradition is based on the work of Emile Durkheim and Talcott Parsons, who emphasised
the importance of understanding the functions of social institutions such as the family, the
economy, and the state, as well as how they contribute to the overall stability and stability of
society.
2. Functionalism sees social order as the product of shared values and norms that guide
behaviour and direct the actions of both individuals and groups.
3. It places a strong emphasis on upholding social stability and order and sees social issues as
impediments to the system's functioning rather than as a result of systemic defects.
4. Functionalism argues that social norms and institutions are intrinsically stable and fulfil a
defined purpose, such as upholding social order or meeting fundamental needs of people.
According to this viewpoint, social change takes place slowly and gradually through social
structure evolution and adaptation rather than by revolution or abrupt change.
5. The functionalist viewpoint tries to explain social stratification in terms of how it helps to
keep society stable and orderly. They examine social stratification to determine how well it
meets the "functional prerequisites" of society. The 'shared value system' keeps conflict
between hierarchically arranged groups in check.
6. Functionalism has influenced our understanding of social systems and has been applied to a
variety of social issues such as crime, education, health, and the economy.
7. For much of the twentieth century, it was the dominant theoretical perspective in sociology,
but it was also criticised by other sociological perspectives.
Some of the criticisms of functionalism are as follows:
1. Determinism: Functionalists believe that social structures and institutions are determined by
social needs and functions, ignoring individuals' agency and the role of power and conflict
in shaping social structures.
2. Idealized View of Society: Conflict theorists argue that functionalists frequently present an
idealised view of society as a harmonious and orderly system, ignoring the presence of social
problems and conflicts.
3. Inadequate Explanation of Social Issues: Functionality has also been challenged for its
inability to explain social problems and inequalities because it assumes that all parts of
society are working in harmony and fails to consider the sources of social conflict and power
imbalances.
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4. Conservatism: Functionalists have been accused for their conservative tendencies, as they
see social change as disruptive and existing social arrangements as natural and desirable.
Feminist theorists argue that functionalism perpetuates gender inequalities by reinforcing
traditional gender roles and expectations within families and society.
5. Status-Quoist: Critics argue that functionalism may reinforce the dominant ideology and
support the perpetuation of existing power structures, as it often portrays social inequalities
as functional or necessary for the smooth functioning of society.
6. Reductionism: The functionalist viewpoint is frequently admonished for reducing complex
social phenomena to simple functional relationships, thereby ignoring the complexity and
diversity of social life.
7. Micro-Macro Divide: The functionalist tradition has been attacked for its narrow focus on
the macro-level of analysis and for ignoring micro-level social processes and individual
experiences. Symbolic interactionists argue that functionalism neglects the subjective
meanings and interpretations that individuals attach to their actions, which are central to
understanding social phenomena.
8. Ignores Historical Context: Functionalists often treat social structures and institutions as
timeless and universal, oblivious to the historical and cultural contexts in which they emerge
and evolve.
9. Lack of Empirical Evidence: Finally, functionalism has been chastised for its lack of empirical
evidence to back up its claims, as well as its reliance on abstract models and theory rather
than empirical research.
Overall, the functionalist tradition in sociology has been a powerful and influential viewpoint in the
field, but it has also been criticised for its shortcomings and oversights. As a result, other sociological
perspectives that focus on different aspects of social life and offer alternative ways of understanding
the social world have complemented and challenged it.
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(c) Analyse the salient features of historical materialism. 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly what is historic materialism
 Explain the salient features of the historic materialism.
 Conclude by providing relevance of historic materialism.
Solution
 Historical Materialism is essentially a conception of society as it evolves from one stage to
the next. It is an important 'analytical tool' for comprehending the origins and progression of
human society.
 It is considered 'historical' because Karl Marx traced the evolution of human societies from
one stage to another. It is 'materialistic' because the evolution of societies has been interpreted
in terms of their 'material or economic base of society'
 The concept demonstrates how economic infrastructure serves as the foundation for social
change. Also known as 'Dialectical Materialism,' its main focus is on the contradiction
between the interests of the two classes.
Following are some of the salient features of historical materialism:
Idea of Human Progress:
 Historical Materialism examines how human society has advanced from prehistoric times to
the present age with a significant shift in social relationships. As a result, he has identified
the various stages of human history into four "modes of production": primitive communism,
ancient slave society, feudal society, and capitalist society.
Based on the dialectics process:
 This indicates that the process of change is a result of the tension or class conflict caused by
the interaction of two opposing forces. Dialectic refers to a dual existence, such as that of a
master and servant in slave society.
Society seen in form of Structure and Superstructure:
 Production by humans to meet their own need is the
foundation of social existence. The production
process is further based on matter or economy
(structure), which decides the superstructure
(institutions, relations, family pattern etc) in the end.
A new stage of history, or what Karl Marx refers to as
a new "mode of production," is ushered in as a result
of changes in the superstructure brought about by
changes in the structure.
Existence of Contradiction:
 Contradiction is the cornerstone of historical
materialism. In other words, contradiction persists as
a major force in every structure and superstructure,
and as a result, the form of a new social system is
determined. However, there are certain inherent contradictions in this new structure.
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Continual state of change until communism:
 The state of nature is constantly changing. The building of a new social order following social
change is too subject to contradiction and change, just as a thesis has its own antithesis which
brings about a shift in ideas. Marx asserts that this is an ongoing process that will continue
until communism is achieved.
 Historical Materialism remains the cornerstone of Marxian theories which have been used as
methods to study societies & their various processes. For example, historical materialism has
been used to study global stratification after World War 2. The most one being word system
theory by Wallenstein.
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Question 3.
(a) Compare Karl Marx with the Emile Durkheim with reference to the
framework of 'division of labour'. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of division of labour
 Provide the difference between the point of view of Karl Marx and Durkheim on division of
labour.
 Mention the similarities between the two.
Solution
By the phrase of ‘division of labour’ we mean the splitting up of an activity into a number of parts
or smaller processes. These smaller processes are undertaken by different persons or groups of
persons, thereby speeding up the performance of the activity. The division of labour can also be
seen as the separation of tasks in any system so that participants may specialize.
Durkheim and Karl Marx both thought deeply about the division of labour and came to opposing
conclusions.
Points of Difference Durkheim Karl Marx
Work on Division of Division of Labour in Society, Das Capital, 1867

Labour 1893
Basic approach. His theory based is upon His theory is more of conflict
functional nature. nature.
Causes of Division of The division of labour in It is not viewed by Marx as a

Labour industrial society is explained means for cooperation and
by Durkheim as the result of coexistence. He sees it as a
increased material and moral practice that the capitalists
density. And the ability to are forcing on the workforce
specialise allows for peaceful in order to reap profits.
coexistence.
Nature of Division of According to Durkheim, the Marx views the division of

Labour division of labour is useful and labour as a "Unequal
promotes cooperation. relation" that legitimizes the
status quo between the
haves and the have not.
Consequence of Division It leads to integration in society. It leads to dehumanization

of Labour of workers and alienation in
industrial society.
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Solution to the Problems According to Durkheim, Marx argued that the issue
Related to Division of anomie is abnormal and can be with capitalism is capitalism
Labour controlled by educating itself. The division of labour
employees about their place in is a necessary component of
society and making them feel the capitalist society's
organically connected and framework for efficiency and
involved in society's life. scaled-up production, but it
also creates alienation. He
identifies division of labour
as a crucial element in the
alienation of workers from
their work, from their co-
worker's, and ultimately
from themselves. Revolution
can put an end to alienation
issues.
They have many differences in their perspectives on labour division, but they also have some
similarities.
1. Both stated that the division of labour differs in simple and complex societies.
2. Both agreed that division of labour is inevitable.
3. Both recognised the negative aspects of division of labour and proposed solutions.
Emile Durkheim and Karl Marx contributions to the theory of division of labour continues to inspire
scholarship and policies and public discourse.
21
(b) Critically analyse the contribution of G.H. Mead to 'symbolic

interactionism'. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of symbolic interactionism.
 Bring out the major contributions made by G.H. Mead in the field of symbolic interactionism.
 Also provide various criticism on his work in the field of symbolic interactionism.
Solution
 Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective that focuses on how individuals interact
with one another and how they attach meaning to symbols and shared understandings in
their social interactions. It emphasizes the role of symbols, language, and gestures in shaping
social interactions and the construction of social reality. The dynamic patterns of social action
and social relationship are the focus of symbolic interactionism.
G.H. Mead’s Contributions
 George Herbert Mead's theory of 'Self and Identity' has made significant contributions to
'Symbolic Interactionism'. According to Mead, human thought, experience, and behaviour
are ultimately "social." They derive their nature from the fact that humans communicate by
employing "symbols," of which language is the most significant.
 According to Mead, the act of playing a role helps people create their own sense of who they
are. One can think about themselves by putting themselves in other people's shoes.
 He distinguished between "Me" and "I," two facets of the Self. Me is defined by Mead as the
organised set of attitudes of other which one himself assumes. I is the immediate response of
an individual to others. It constitutes something that we all seek, which is the realisation of
self.
 Mead claims that the "Self" is not something that is inborn. There are two basic stages in the
creation of the "Self," which is learned during childhood. The first one is referred to as the
"play stage". Children play out roles that are not their own in this stage. The "game stage" is
the second phase of the self-development process. Children learn to see themselves from the
perspective of the other players or from the standpoint of ′ the generalised other ′ when
engaging in a game stage.
 It is crucial to develop in "consciousness of self" as it serves as both the framework for human
society and the basis for cognition and conduct. Individuals can perceive how others perceive
them when they are self-aware. For "cooperative action" in society, this serves as the
foundation. It is through the ‘generalized other’ that the social process influences the
behaviour of the individuals.
Mead's symbolic interactionism has received the following criticisms:
1. Despite his great insight into the development of society's self-consciousness, Mead's
explanation of the nature of social organisation in society lacked clarity.
2. Reaper claims that Mead disregarded the historical background of the contemporary social
structure.
22
3. Mead falls short of articulating the instances at which an individual interacts with society.
4. It was unclear what Mead meant when he said that the person and the mind create
society. He was unable to cover all facets of interpersonal and societal communication.
5. Mead acknowledges the presence of culture and believes that social roles do influence human
conduct to some extent, but people still have a great deal of "choice" in how they behave.
6. Mead did not go into the issues of social mobility, class, or power dynamics.
Despite criticism, George Herbert Mead's "Self and Identity" theory's integrative orientation
contributed to firmly establishing the microscopic emphasis of Symbolic interactionism.
23
c) Examine the salient features of Weberian bureaucracy? 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce with Weber's general view of Bureaucracy and how it is linked with his Ideal Type.
 Provide the features or characteristics of Bureaucracy as per Weber.
 Conclude with his reservations on the Bureaucracy.
Solution
Like many of Weber's other ideas, bureaucracy is linked to the Ideal Type idea, and Weber
associated it to the growing rationalisation of society. Here, Ideal types refers to conceptual
frameworks that are constructed by highlighting and exaggerating certain characteristics or features
of a social phenomenon while ignoring or simplifying others. Weber asserts that the most "rational"
method of exercising power over people is through bureaucracy.
Weber specified a few typical bureaucracy-related features, which includes:
1. The offices are organized into a ‘hierarchical system.’
2. Authority is derived from position in organizational structure.
3. The incumbent is not allowed to appropriate the position.
4. Positions always remains a part of the organisations.
5. Objective criteria are used to choose the staff.
6. Competence and merit are the main criteria in recruitment.
7. Work is specialised in bureaucracy and staff is trained accordingly. 8. The bureaucracy's work
is a full-time career.
8. Offices are used to organise work, and the tasks that need to be completed are called as
official duties.
9. Decisions are made using a set of abstract and rational rules.
10. Bureaucrats are supposed to carry out executive orders without bias or value addition.
11. Administrative acts, decisions, and rules are written down and recorded.
12. Modern bureaucracy is distinguished by its rationalism and objectivity.
Although this ideal sort of bureaucracy is only approximately realised in practise, Weber contends
that due to this type of organization's technical superiority over other types of organisations,
bureaucracies in contemporary cultures are gradually resembling this pure type.
Weber was also concerned about "red tape" and the suffocation of "individual creativity and liberty"
behind a web of regulations which he called as “iron cage of rationality”. Further he also
differentiated between the ideal-typical bureaucrat and the ideal-typical bureaucracy.
24
Question 4.
(a) How are open and closed systems of stratification undergoing
transformation in the emergence of new hierarchical social order in
societies? 20 marks
Approach
 Begin with a definition of social stratification.
 Explain the open and closed stratification systems in brief.
 How these systems are changing, as well as the factors causing change and the magnitude of
change.
 Give a well-balanced conclusion.
Solution
Social stratification is the process by which social inequalities manifest themselves as structural
hierarchical strata, one above the other. Sutherland and Maxwell define social stratification as a
process of differentiation that elevates some people above others.
Open System:
An open system of stratification is one in which social mobility is encouraged by the norms and
values of a particular society. Individual talent, skill, and effort are prioritised over ascribed
attributes in this situation. An example of an open system is the class-based stratification that exists
in European society.
Closed System:
A closed system is one in which social mobility within the social structure is discouraged by the
norms and values of a particular society. In this situation, ascribed traits take precedence over
personal talent, skill, and effort. Stratification based on caste is an example of a closed system.
Societies are open or closed in theory, but no society is completely open or closed in practise.
In their study of 'Black-coated workers,' Lockwood and Gold Thorpe discovered that the lower class,
despite their economic achievements, does not find easy acceptance in the middle class. They are
rejected by being called Nouveau Riche.
Furthermore, no system can be sufficiently closed to deny its members social mobility, because in
any closed system, some individuals can ensure social mobility through their efforts. Sanskritization
(M. N. Srinivas), Migration (David F. Pocock), and Conversion (Yogendra Singh), for example, were
all methods of social mobility within the caste system.
Both systems are opening up as a result of new forces such as industrialisation, urbanisation,
globalisation, high growth, increased access to education, and democracy. A society becomes more
fluid as it transitions from traditional to modern. However, changes in the open system occur faster
than changes in the closed system.
There is also evidence that in modern societies, the idea of social mobility is exaggerated.
Duncan and Blau concluded in their 1967 book "The American Occupational Structure" that long-
range mobility is uncommon. Brown and Gay conducted a study in Britain on race-based
stratification.
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They sent bogus job applications on behalf of various nationals and discovered that 90% of English
cases received positive responses while only 63% of Asians did receive positive response.
In India, Santosh Goyal discovered that 38% of CEOs were from the Dvija class, which is higher
than their actual population share.
As a result, the open/close system is a relative concept. The closed system offers few opportunities
for social mobility, whereas the open system has fewer barriers. However, no society is completely
open or closed.
26
(b) Is patriarchy a universal phenomenon? Critically examine how does

patriarchy affects sexual division of labour in societies. 20 marks
Approach
 Begin with a definition of Patriarchy.
 Give answer to the question "Is patriarchy a universal phenomenon?"
 Explain how patriarchy and sexual division of labour are related.
 Then talk about the changes in division of labour and patriarchy.
Solution
Patriarchy literally means "rule of the father" in a maledominated family. It is an ideological and
social construct that views men—the patriarchs—as being superior to women. It is "a set of societal
norms and practises in which men rule over, subjugate, and benefit from women."
The foundation of patriarchy is a hierarchy and inequality of power structure in which men have
control over the sexuality, reproduction, and production of women. In society, it enforces notions
of masculinity and femininity that serve to legitimise the unfair power dynamics between men and
women.
Despite being the most dominant ideology and almost universal, patriarchy is not a universal
phenomenon. For instance, the Khasi tribe in India's northeast is renowned for its matriarchal
society.
The idea of motherhood, which limits women's mobility and places the task of caring for and raising
children on them, is promoted by patriarchal society. The biological factor to bear children is linked
to the social obligations of motherhood, which include providing for, educating, and raising
children while devoting one's self to the family.
In patriarchal societies, women's conduct is also regulated. She is forbidden from mixing with
people like males are allowed to do because she represents the honour of the family and society. As
a result of this forcing women into domesticity, patriarchal ideology becomes internalised over time.
But the gender-based distribution of labour is evolving now. Women are getting meaningful
employment and defying the patriarchal mentality. Women are overcoming their biological
limitation with the help of contraception and other technological advancements.
According to a study by Blood and Wolfe, the wife's power within the family tends to vary according
to how closely her pay check matches her husband's.
Further Men today take more interested in child rearing & household management. The
Symmetrical Family (as envisioned by Michael Young and Peer Willmott) has become a reality as a
result, in which the husband and wife considerably share each other's burdens.
However, despite women's increased participation in the labour force, important family decisions
are still made by men, according to Blood and Hamblin. And the motherhousewife role is still the
most important.
In their 1977 article "Women, Work, and Class Structure," Blackburn and Stewart argue that women
going to work does not ensure gender equality, but rather enforces it because women enter only a
specific market that is reserved for females only.
27
The issues of gender pay gap, occupational segregation (pink collared jobs for woman) and glass
ceiling effect reinforces social stratification and patriarchy.
As a result, patriarchy and division of labour have an impact on one another. Previously, patriarchy
was responsible for division of labour but now, changing sexual division of labour is changing
patriarchy.
28
(c) Examine the role of pressure groups in parliamentary democracy? 10

marks
Approach
 Begin with a definition of Pressure Groups and Parliamentary Democracy.
 Positive role of pressure group in parliamentary democracy
 Negative role of pressure group in parliamentary democracy
Solution
A pressure group is any organised association of people with the goal of influencing government
policies and actions or simply changing public opinion. The Trade Unions, Dalit Sangarsh Samities,
Kissan Sabhas, Mahila Samaj etc function as pressure groups.
Parliamentarian democracy is a form of democratic governance in which the executive derives
democratic legitimacy from its ability to command the support of the legislature, usually a
parliament, to which it is accountable.
Pressure groups operate outside of formal decisionmaking processes and are thus not accountable
for any actions. They are not held accountable and are not bound by rules.
Role of Pressure Groups in Parliamentary Democracy
Positive Role:
1. They act as essential links between the government, and society.
2. They do study and inform the government of the issues in society.
3. Through their medium, they promote the voices of the impoverished and the marginalised.
For instance, the Narmada Bachao Andolan helped local residents be heard by the
government and brought attention to their suffering.
4. In a democracy, consultation with impacted groups is a sensible method of decision-making.
5. Pressure groups help new concerns and issues, particularly those affecting the marginalised
and poor, get on the political agenda, promoting social progress and preventing social
stagnation.
6. Pressure groups serve as a "safety valve" for both individual and community grievances,
which promotes social cohesiveness and political stability.
7. They also act as vehicle of mobilization of masses. For example, Indian farmer's protest to
repeal three farm acts.
8. Pressure groups enhance democracy by increasing participation and access to the political
system. For instance, Arvind Kejriwal first belonged to a pressure group but ultimately
decided to create a political party because the cause had gained popular recognition.
Negative Role:
1. Even if pressure groups increase participation, they do so unevenly, favouring the well-
organized. In contrast to the others, they favour "those who shout loudest."
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2. As a result, pressure group occasionally reinforce the current system of class and power.
3. Group opposition can frequently impede or even stop desired changes.
4. Even while protests and dissent are permitted in democracies, certain pressure groups turn
to violence, undermining the institutions of democracy.
5. Additionally, because pressure groups' purview is segmented, frequently certain pressure
groups with "greater influence and authority" may also be "lessening the spirit of democracy."
Regardless of the issue raised above, political parties and pressure groups are the foundation of a
democracy because they have significantly improved parliamentary democracy.
30
Section B
Question 5.
(a) Distinguish between people being socially excluded and people
excluding themselves socially in societies? 10 marks
Approach
 Begin with a definition of social exclusion.
 Talk about people being excluded socially.
 Talk about people excluding themselves socially.
 Conclude with some commonalities between the two kind of exclusion.
Solution
 Social exclusion refers to a state in which people are unable to fully participate in economic,
social, political, and cultural life, as well as the process that leads to and sustains such a state.
 Social exclusion can be seen in two ways: people being socially excluded and people socially
excluding themselves.
People being social excluded:
1. Participation in social life may be hampered when people do not have access to material
resources such as income, employment, land, and housing, as well as services such as
education and health care.
2. However, participation is also limited when people are unable to express themselves or
interact with one another, and when their rights and dignity are not treated with equal
respect and protection.
3. As a result, social exclusion includes not only material deprivation, but also a lack of agency
or control over important decisions, as well as feelings of alienation and inferiority.
4. Age, gender, disability, race, caste, ethnicity, religion, migration status, socioeconomic status,
place of residence (living in a disadvantaged neighbourhood), and sexual orientation and
gender identity have all been grounds for social exclusion in nearly all countries to varying
degrees.
5. The above dimensions may be concentrated in specific groups, such as elderly women who
are ethnic minorities and live in poor neighbourhoods.
6. The various dimensions may interact to reinforce social exclusion. Poor health, for example,
may prevent people from pursuing opportunities to work, learn, and participate in society.
At the same time, class, ethnicity, and gender all have an impact on health inequalities, which
leads to exclusion.
7. According to Anthony Giddens, homelessness is one of the worst forms of social exclusion
because it automatically excludes a person from a variety of other social services.
8. When compared to western nations, India has more severe exclusion issues. This is a result
of the caste system, which is the social structure of Indian society.
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People excluding themselves socially:
1. Not all instances of exclusion include individuals who are weakest and least privileged in
society.
2. People excluding themselves from aspects of mainstream society can also result in social
exclusion.
3. New dynamics of social exclusion at the top have emerged. Because of their wealth, influence,
and connections, a small group of people at the very top of society can choose not to
participate in mainstream institutions.
4. The wealthy may completely withdraw from the domain of public healthcare and education,
choosing instead to pay for private services.
5. Rich residential areas are becoming more and more walled enclaves, cutting them off from
the rest of society.
6. Due to their greater position in terms of popularity, celebrities and businesspeople exclude
themselves. It is their exclusivity that makes them important.
7. Like bureaucrats, politicians isolate themselves from their constituency once they gain
power.
8. Then there are hermits who live in seclusion as a form of religious discipline and come from
various faiths.
9. Other scenarios where people might exclude themselves include delinquency, drug
addiction, school dropout, anomie, and escapist mentality.
The importance of both structural inequality and power imbalances is emphasised by social
exclusion, which is created when people are excluded from society or when people exclude
themselves from society.
Moreover, social exclusion at the top is harmful to an integrated society in the same way that social
exclusion at the bottom weakens social solidarity and cohesion.
32
(b) Define social movement. Elucidate the role of reformist movement in

social change. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of social movement.
 Also briefly describe the reformist movement
 Describe how reformist movement helped in bringing social change with examples. (Should
be the major part of answer)
 Conclude appropriately.
Solution
 A social movement is described as a collection of people acting collectively and persistently
to support or oppose change in the society or group, they are a part of. Some movements
attempt to change specific aspects of the current social order, while others could want to alter
it completely. The first are referred to as reform movements, whereas the second are referred
to as revolutionary movements.
 A reformist movement is one that strives to bring a social or political system closer to the
ideal of the community. It believes that although society is generally good, some traditions
and practices have caused society to become dysfunctional. It therefore attempts to do away
with some of the traditions and practises.
Role of Reformist Movement in Social Change:
 The ideas of a reform movement are often grounded on liberalism, even though they may
also be anchored in socialist or religious concepts.
 Some reformist relies on personal transformation; others rely on small collectives, such as
Mahatma Gandhi's spinning wheel and the self-sustaining village economy, as a mode of
social change.
 Campaigns that are well-organized and persistent can produce dramatic results. For instance,
the 'American civil rights movement' was successful in making racial segregation in schools
and public places illegal.
 Some well-known reform movements in India include the Prarthna Samaj, the Brahmo Samaj,
and the Aligarh Movement.
Brahmo Samaj
The Brahmo Samaj movement was started in Calcutta in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, a leading
social reformer who fought against idol worship, polytheism, caste oppression, superfluous rituals,
and other societal ills like Sati, polygamy, the purdah system, child marriage, etc. In addition, society
fought for women's rights such as widow remarriage and female education. Additionally, it
combated and opposed the prevalent Hindu superstitions.
Prarthana Samaj
The Prarthana Samaj, which was established in 1863 by Keshub Chandra Sen, promoted
monotheism and opposed caste distinctions and priestly hegemony.
33
Aligarh Movement
Sayyid Ahmed Khan established the Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh in 1875 to
provide Muslims with a modern education.
Movements to protect the environment, manage population growth, protecting workers rights,
supporting right to abortion, etc. also comes under reformist movements.
It is important to note that reform movements typically function in democratic societies where
individuals are free to criticise the status quo and possibly effect change. In non-democratic societies
social change takes place either from the top for example the recent changes in Saudi Arabia under
Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman Al Saud or by means of revolution.
34
(c) 'Science has empirical means to logical ends and religion has non-
empirical means to logical ends'. Comment. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining religion and science and highlighting the basic difference.
 Explain how science provides answer to the questions/challenges that human faces through
empiricism.
 Explain how religion provides answer to the questions/challenges that human faces through
non-empirical means.
 Conclude by showing the complementary nature of science and religion in human life.
Solution
Religion is, in its simplest form, a belief in the supernatural. The systematic study of the structure
and behaviour of the physical and natural world is science. Science is based on observations,
experiments, verifications, proofs, and facts, whereas religion is based on faith and rituals.
We now have a better understanding of the causes of natural disasters like earthquakes, volcanoes,
and rain due to science. Better forecasting and management of external events evolved from it.
We discovered with the aid of science that people are remarkably genetically similar, sharing nearly
99.9% of their genetic code with one another, dispelling the myth of the biological basis of race.
We were able to analyse society and its shifting tendencies thanks to technology that is based on
science. It gave explanations for the changes that society was and is currently going through for
example differential effect of climate change on communities.
Thus, science, with its empirical and rational foundations, assists us in explaining various aspects
of human life and assisting mankind in leading a meaningful life.
Without any supporting empirical data, religion has been doing the same thing for thousands of
years of human history.
Religion has evolved into several forms, such as naturism and animism, to assist man in coping with
uncertainty and provide explanations for phenomena whose causes were unknown to people at the
time.
Animism, as argued by Taylor, helped explain the occurrence of death, whereas naturism, as argued
by Max Muller, helped explain phenomena like rain.
Tylor asserted that religion developed to satisfy man's intellectual needs, but Millers believed that
religion developed to satisfy man's emotional needs.
Today, religion is viewed in terms of its contribution to establishing social solidarity, value
consensus, harmony, and integration - the functional requirements or basic necessities of society.
For instance, according to Durkheim and Malinowski, religion promotes social cohesion and
reinforces social norms and values.
The search for explanations for numerous unexplained phenomena, such as the universe's origin, is
currently ongoing in science. In the meantime, religion help fills the gaps left by the questions for
which science cannot provide an answer.
Thus, through assisting in coping with life's uncertainties and dangers, science and religion have
greatly benefited humankind. Thus, we can conclude that while religion uses non-empirical means
to achieve logical purposes, science uses empirical means to do so.
35
(d) Examine the social dimensions of displacement induced by

development. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of Development-induced-displacement.
 Briefly mention the reason for such displacement.
 Provide various social dimensions of such displacement. (Should be the major part of answer)
 Conclude by providing solution to the issue of development induced displacement.
Solution
Development-induced displacement is defined as the permanent relocation of all households within
a geographical area as a result of developmental projects such as building large dams. Over 40,000
people were displaced by the Sardar Sarovar Dam, the largest dam in the Narmada Valley Project.
Compensation and rehabilitation policies aimed at mitigating the effects of displacement are
frequently ineffective. This is largely due to street-level bureaucrat corruption, underestimation of
the value of resources, planners' failure to recognise the complexities of the existing social and
economic systems of the displaced people, and their lack of participation in the planning process.
The social dimensions of such displacements are many:
1. Most of these areas from where people are displaced are tribal dominated. These people have
strong beliefs regarding their forests, land and water. At the same time they are also totally
dependent upon these resources for their survival hood.
2. People's kinship patterns are disrupted, isolating them from their relatives and depriving
them of social bonding. The joint family systems deteriorate.
3. Loss of connection to historical, religious, symbolic, or geographical locations as a result of
forced migration erodes cultural identity.
4. Distress migration to towns and cities has an impact on the demographic and sociocultural
fabric of both the source and destination.
5. Displaced people also struggle to adjust to the new ecology of their new surroundings.
6. People who are displaced from agriculture are converted from self-cultivators to non-
agricultural wage labourers.
7. If they move to cities, massive slums and shantytowns proliferate.
8. Cultural conflict arises when displaced people relocate to other areas.
9. Women are disproportionately affected because the loss of land used by women to generate
economic worth further marginalises their socioeconomic standing by making them more
reliant on their husbands.
10. Girl children are married off at a young age because their displaced parents are unsure of
their future.
11. Landlessness, joblessness, homelessness, marginalisation, food insecurity, increased
morbidity and mortality, loss of access to common property, and social disarticulation are
eight potential risks of displacement, according to sociologist Michael Cernea.
A better policy for land acquisition, compensation, and rehabilitation should be developed with the
help of social scientists, development planners, human rights activists, civil society, and other
stakeholders. Policy implementation should be made more effective by involving those who will be
affected in the planning and decision-making processes.
36
(e) Analyse the gender bias in the present society with examples. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of Gender bias
 Provide the instances of gender bias in various aspects of life in present society with
example/data/studies.
 Provide instances of how gender bias has been overcome in various aspects of life in today's
society.
Solution
Gender bias is the practise of treating people differently based on their real or perceived gender
identity. Gender bias is a socially constructed expectation and role that includes prejudice and
discrimination against both men and women.
Gender bias begins at home, as evidenced by boys being assigned maintenance chores such as
mowing the lawn or painting, while girls are assigned domestic chores such as cooking and
cleaning.
Gender bias can also be seen in the differences in career encouragement that children receive.
According to World Bank data, 18% of girls in tertiary education pursue STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) studies, compared to 35% of boys. According to
UNESCO, India ranks among the bottom, with only 14% of female researchers working in STEM
fields.
Gender bias can also be found in the workplace and in employment. Karuna Ahmad observes four
trends in women's employment: clustering of women in a few occupations, also known as pink
colorization; clustering in low status occupations or the lower rungs of prestigious professions;
women earning lower wages than men; and a high proportion of highly educated and professionally
trained unemployed women.
According to the World Economic Forum, women worldwide earn only 63% of what men earn. It is
also estimated that closing the global wage gap will take 202 years. According to the ILO's Global
Wage Report, India has the highest wage disparity, with women earning 34% less than men.
Diane Pearce discusses the feminisation of poverty, which implies that women make up a
disproportionate share of the world's poor, which is due to a lack of capabilities and gender biases
rather than a lack of income.
Other institutions, such as law and religion, exhibit gender bias. According to senior lawyer and
activist Indira Jai Singh, all entitlement laws are based on patriarchy rather than gender equality.
According to Karen Armstrong, all major religions are male-dominated, with women relegated to
marginal positions.
However, there are also some encouraging developments happening.
Due to the expansion of the service industry, the phenomenon of feminization of the workforce has
been on the rise recently. This has put women on an equal footing with their male counterparts in
both the social and economic spheres.
37
Various schemes such as flexi-hour worktime, re-joining the workforce after an interim break,
sections operated only by women, period-leaves, maternity leaves are introduced in private
enterprises as early as the 1990s with the benefits being reaped now.
Additionally, programmes like SHGs and affirmative action have greatly contributed to the
empowerment of women by providing them with the means to make autonomous choices regarding
their families, their marriages, and their employment.
Women are now regarded as capable in many fields where they were previously underutilised, such
as the permanent commission of women in the navy and the creation of similar option for the rest
of the armed forces.
Further men today take more interested in child rearing & household management. The
Symmetrical Family (as envisioned by Michael Young and Peer Willmott) has become a reality as a
result, in which the husband and wife considerably share each other's burdens.
The emergence of modernity and globalisation has altered the position of women in the political,
social, and economic spheres. However, despite the fact that women's roles are expanding, gender
bias still exists.
38
Question 6.
(a) How do Karl Marx and Max Weber differ in terms of their analysis of
social stratification? 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of social stratification.
 Provide the difference between the analysis of Karl Marx and Max Weber on Social
stratification. (Should be the major part of answer)
 Mention the similarities between the two.
Solution
 Social stratification is the process by which social inequalities manifest themselves as
structural hierarchical strata, one above the other. Stratification is regarded as a social process
as well as a method devised by sociologists to comprehend social inequality.
 A majority of subsequent advancements of the views on stratification have been greatly
influenced by and built on the class theories of Marx and Weber. These are the ways in which
their analyses of social stratification differ from each other:
Karl Marx's analysis of social Max Weber's analysis of social stratification
stratification
Marx viewed society through the lens Whereas Weber's view of stratification was more
of conflict, emphasising its negative positive and acceptable than Marx's view of
consequences. stratification.
Marx considered class to be the only In addition to the class dimension inside the
dimension of stratification based on economic order, Weber adds two non-economic
economic interest. dimensions—status group linked with the social
order and party or power associated with the
political order—that significantly contribute to
the class stratification.
Marx divided society into two classes: According to Weber, there are four different
the "haves" (Bourgeois/Capitalists) classes in modern society: the property-owning
and the "have-nots" upper class, the property-less white-collar
(Proletariat/Workers). workers, the petty bourgeoisie, and the manual
working class.
The means of production and Weber does not limit the definition of class to the
relationships of production are means and relations of production, but also
central to Marx's definition of class takes into account the competitive market
inequality. situation in which class situation is established.
The have-nots, according to Marx, are
exploited by the haves. They work
39
hard but receive a small share of the

produce.
Karl Marx recognised the middle Weber discovered evidence of the middle class
class as the stratum between the growing as a result of social mobilisation.
upper and lower strata. However, he According to Weber, contemporary bureaucratic
argued that there will be a administration and clerical staff are necessary
polarisation of the classes due to the for capitalism, which leads to an expanding
greater use of machinery, disparities white-collar middle class.
in income and the causes of
pauperization, and the competitive
nature of capitalism, which allows a
small number of big capitalists to take
over the petty bourgeoisie. Due to
this, there are now more disparities
between the two main classes.
Marx argued that the Proletariats According to Weber, social bipolarization and
cannot be identified as one class until collective action are difficult to achieve because
and unless they achieve 'class each individual has a distinct position of class,
consciousness. status, and power.
Marx predicted that the proletariat Classes, according to Weber, are not
will unite and lead the revolution. communities and are therefore unlikely to come
together.
Marx therefore only saw class Weber thus viewed class stratification from a
stratification from an economic multidimensional standpoint, with the essential
standpoint, or from a single cause. dimensions being market situation, life chances,
status, and power.
However, there are certain similarities between Weber and Marx's analyses of social stratification,
including the following:
1. Weber agrees with Marx that economic interests form the basis of class.
2. Between upper and lower strata, middle class strata were accepted by both Karl Marx and
Max Weber.
3. Marx and Weber are both criticised by feminists for not taking into account "gender" in their
viewpoints.
4. Both ideas have been crucial and highly influential in the majority of subsequent
advancements of stratification theories.
The theories can be considered complimentary rather than mutually exclusive, despite the fact that
they regularly contradict one another. This is demonstrated by the fact that some researchers, such
as W. G. Runciman, employ both Marx and Weber concepts in their approach.
40
(b) Examine the social impact of globalisation on labour and society. 20

marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of Globalisation.
 Provide the positive and negative social impact of globalisation on Labour.
 Provide the positive and negative social impact of globalisation on Society.
 Give an appropriate conclusion.
Solution
 Globalisation is defined as an ongoing process that involves interconnected changes in the
economic, cultural, social, and political spheres of society. As a process, it involves the ever-
increasing integration of these aspects across nations, regions, communities, and even
seemingly isolated locations.
The following effects of globalisation on the labour market are noticeable:
1. Many segments in numerous industries have grown over the years as a result of globalisation
and the expansion of the consumer market. The rate of demand and supply has significantly
increased as a result of this. For the people, these have created new employment prospects.
2. The service sector now accounts for over 54% of the annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
in nations like India.
2. The service sector now accounts for over 54% of the annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
in nations like India.
3. Additionally, India's exports of IT and software services have grown at an exponential rate.
4. Both in developed and developing nations, it has contributed to a rising feminization of the
workforce.
5. One of the most notable aspects of globalisation around the world is the movement of
workers across borders.
6. In addition, people, especially those from underprivileged and marginalised communities,
now face more hardship as a result of migration from rural to urban regions for employment.
7. Many nations have weakened their labour rules in an effort to attract more foreign
investment, placing workers in a precarious position.
8. More structural unemployment in the formal sector as a result of increased globalisation has
driven employment into the unorganised sector.
9. Sweatshops are becoming more prevalent in developing and poor nations, which has
resulted in the exploitation of their labour forces
10. According to scholars, globalisation in the short term encourages child labour because trade
between nations is based on comparative advantage, but in the long run, as family wealth
rises in low-income households, it decreases child labour.
Globalisation has an impact on society in the following ways:
1. Globalization is transforming us from regionalists to nationalists to global citizens.
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2. With the advent of Globalization, social norms and values are becoming more diffuse and
generalised (Parsons).
3. This phenomenon is causing changes in a variety of social institutions, including the family.
As examples, there has been an increase in live-in relationships and acceptance of gay
relationships.
4. Michael Mann believes globalisation is resulting in an increase in two types of power:
a. Extensive power - the ability to organise large numbers of people over far-flunged
territories in order to engage in minimally stable cooperation. Like Major Religions
do. Example - Online communities of a specific product like Apple.
b. Intensive Power - the ability to organise tightly and command high level of
mobilisation or commitment from the participants. Like Religious sects.
5. Leslie Sklair believes that globalisation has primarily negative consequences, namely class
polarisation and ecological unsustainable development.
6. Globalization brings diverse people together, which can lead to conflict.
7. The forces of social change that Anthony Giddens refers to as "High Modernity and
Globalization" are to blame for the rise of fundamentalism.
8. Terrorism, drug trafficking, and money laundering are examples of world problems.
9. Other societal effects of globalisation include rising homogeneity, cosmopolitan culture, and
the rise of global risk culture - AIDS, Covid.
Held and McGrew advocate a Transformationalist stance in which there is nothing new about
globalisation and it may change direction or be reversed in the future.
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(c) Examine the relevance of Parsonian social system in present society? 10

marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of Social System.
 Give the relevance of Parsonian social system in present society. (Should be the major part of
answer)
 Provide criticism of the Parsonian social system.
 Give a balanced conclusion.
Solution
 A social system, according to Parsons, is a collection of interconnected and interrelated social
institutions and structures that collaborate to maintain social order and stability. He saw the
social system as being made up of various subsystems, including the economic, political, and
legal systems, among others.
 The social system, according to Parsons, is a complex, interdependent system governed by
shared norms, values, and expectations. He emphasised the significance of functional
interdependence among the various subsystems, and he saw the social system as having a
self-regulating mechanism that aids in the maintenance of social stability and order.
The relevance of Talcott Parsons' social system theory in present society is seen as
below:
1. His theory provides a comprehensive framework for comprehending society's structure and
functioning.
2. Its emphasis on the interdependence of social institutions and the role of culture in shaping
social behaviour provides useful insights into contemporary social dynamics.
3. The concept of "functional fit" between various subsystems of society, such as the economy,
politics, and culture, developed by Parsons, remains an important framework for
understanding how these systems interact and influence one another.
4. His emphasis on the significance of cultural and symbolic elements in shaping social systems
and behaviour continues to have an impact, particularly in the fields of cultural sociology
and symbolic interactionism.
5. Parsons' emphasis on system interdependence, the role of norms and values, and the
importance of social institutions is still relevant in discussions of contemporary social and
political issues.
Some of Parsons' prerequisites for a social system are also relevant in the following ways
6. It demonstrates that in order to survive, the social system requires the necessary support
from other systems. For example, educational institutions, law and order, and so on are
required to support a stable economy.
7. It demonstrates that the social system requires adequate participation from its members. For
example, in order for a government to function effectively, all of its bodies, including citizens,
must be involved.
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8. It demonstrates that the system should have the bare minimum of control over potentially
disruptive behaviour. Consider the role of the constitution and the penal code.
Some of the most significant criticisms levelled at Parsons' theory are as follows:
1. Determinism: Some criticise Parsons' theory for being overly deterministic, implying that
individuals have little agency and that social structure determines individual behaviour.
2. Oversimplification: Parsons' theory has also been criticised for oversimplifying society,
reducing it to a collection of interconnected subsystems governed by shared norms and
values.
3. Ignorance of power and conflict: Parsons' theory has been criticised for failing to fully
account for the role of power, conflict, and inequality in shaping social relationships and
institutions.
4. Eurocentric perspective: Parsons' theory has also been criticised for its Eurocentric
perspective, which focuses solely on Western societies and fails to take into account the
diversity of cultures and social systems around the world.
In general, Parsons' theory of the social system continues to be a significant viewpoint in sociology,
but it has also generated considerable discussion and criticism due to its flaws and
oversimplifications.
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Question 7
(a) Evaluate how do civil society and democracy mutually reinforces each
other. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of Civil Society.
 Show how Civil society contributes to the strengthening of democracy.
 Show how Democracy is also essential for civil society.’
Solution
Civil society is a type of umbrella organisation that exists between the family, the market, and the
state. As a result, it is a non-market, non-state, and non-kin-based part of the public domain in which
individuals gather voluntarily to form institutions and organisations. It consists of institutions,
organisations, or associations that were created voluntarily by a group of citizens.
Civil society contributes to the strengthening of democracy in the following ways:
1. Civil society actors monitor how state officials exercise their authority and raise public
concern about any abuse of power.
2. They advocate for information access, including freedom of information laws, as well as rules
and institutions to combat corruption.
3. They expose corrupt public officials and advocate for good governance reforms.
4. They encourage people to get involved in politics. They accomplish this by educating citizens
about their rights and responsibilities as democratic citizens, as well as encouraging them to
listen to election campaigns and vote in elections.
5. They can also assist in the development of citizens' abilities to collaborate with one another
to solve common problems, debate public issues, and express their opinions.
6. They contribute to the development of other democratic values such as tolerance,
moderation, compromise, and respect for opposing viewpoints. Democracy cannot be stable
without this deeper culture of accommodation.
7. They can also strengthen democracy by fostering new forms of interest and solidarity that
transcend traditional tribal, linguistic, religious, and other forms of identity.
8. Democracy cannot be stable if people only associate with people who share their religion or
identity. Civic life becomes richer, more complex, and more tolerant when people of different
religions and ethnic identities come together to pursue common interests.
9. They also serve as a learning environment for future political leaders. This they accomplish
by acting as a forum for debating public policies and disseminating information about issues
before the legislature that affect the interests of various groups or society as a whole.
10. It is extremely difficult to have credible and fair elections in a democracy unless civil society
organisations play role of overseeing the conduct of elections.
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11. A vibrant civil society strengthens citizens' respect for the state and promotes positive
engagement with it by making the state more accountable, responsive, inclusive, and
effective at all levels—and thus more legitimate.
Democracy is also essential for civil society for the following reasons:
1. Decentralisation of power is the basis of the formation of civil society.
2. The basis of formation of civil society is secular. Caste and Kinship linkages, religion or tribal
mobilisation, etc. are not the basis for the formation of civil society and according to Neera
Chandhok, they are counter to civil society.
3. In the absence of a government committed to democratic values, civil society organisations
and their donors are labelled and targeted.
4. There, funds are frozen, intelligence reports are selectively released to paint NGOs in a
negative light, and their activities are placed on a watch list.
5. Civil society organisations promote democratic decentralisation, but are sometimes
dominated by a single individual. Some of them have a lack of leadership and revolve around
a single charismatic leader.
6. Their financial resources are frequently shady, and there is a lack of transparency.
Furthermore, Marxists consider civil society to be an extension of the bourgeoisie.
7. Thus, transparency, accountability, decentralisation, and the rule of law, which form the
foundation of democracy, become critical for ensuring civil society's legitimacy.
Democracy and civil society are inextricably linked to the point where De Tocqueville investigated
the reasons for the existence of democracy in America and its absence in France in terms of the
presence or absence of civil society.
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(b) Examine the emerging trends in marriage and family as a response to the
changes in economic and social order. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by mentioning the changes taking place in economic and social order.
 Show emerging trends in marriage as a response to the changes.
 Show the emerging trends in family as a response to the changes.
Solution
The current economic and social order is undergoing several major changes, which includes-
 Modernity
 Technological advancements
 Globalisation
 Urbanisation
 Individualism
 Shift from manufacturing to service-based economie
 Income Inequality
 Demographic changes, and so on.
Marriage have undergone significant transformations as a result of such changes. Several new
trends in marriage include:
1. Delayed marriage: Due to rising economic pressures and individual career goals, many
people are choosing to postpone marriage. Individuals are postponing marriage age as they
prioritise education and career development.
2. Interfaith and Interracial Marriages are Increasing: As cultural diversity and globalisation
increase, interracial and interfaith marriages are becoming more common.
3. Increase in Same-Sex Marriages: As attitudes toward LGBTQ+ people change, same-sex
marriages are becoming more accepted and legally recognised.
4. Cohabitation Before Marriage: As the stigma associated with premarital cohabitation fades,
more couples are opting to live together before marrying.
5. Open marriage: in which the partners of a dyadic marriage agree that each may engage in
extramarital sexual relationships, without this being regarded by them as infidelity.
6. Marital breakdowns: Divorce rates have risen significantly in recent decades, as have marital
breakdowns.
7. Empty-shell marriage: In which the spouses feel no strong attachment to each other, but
outside pressures keep the marriage together.
8. Plastic sexuality: As per Anthony Giddens the concept of plastic sexuality in which ‘forever
love’ is changing into ‘love till further notice’
Families have also undergone significant transformations as a result of such changes. Several new
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trends in family include:
1. Shift to Nuclear Families: As individualism and urbanisation have increased, the traditional
extended family structure has given way to nuclear families.
2. Symmetrical Family: Further men today take more interested in child rearing & household
management. The Symmetrical Family (as envisioned by Michael Young and Peer Willmott)
has become a reality as a result, in which the husband and wife considerably share each
other's burdens.
3. Transnational family: As people become more mobile and inter-connected, families are
experiencing the effects of globalization, including relationships and multicultural identities.
4. Working women: As more women enter the labour force, the division of labour within
families shifts, posing new challenges and opportunities for families.
5. Increase in Single Parent Households: As more people choose not to marry or postpone
marriage, single parent households have become more common.
6. Filliocentric Family: According to Mowrer, children are increasingly involved in decision
making, and families are becoming more filliocentric. Both parents are now involved in both
instrumental and emotional roles.
7. Brother Sister Relationship: Brother and sister relationships are now based on fellowship
and equality.
8. Decline in fertility rates: With changing economic and social factors, fertility rates have
decreased as couples choose to have fewer children or none at all.
Overall, marriage and families are still changing in reaction to changes in the social and economic
order, and new family structures and dynamics are challenging conventional notions of what it
means to be a family.
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(c) Critically examine the role of civil society in Democracy. 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of Civil Society.
 Show the role of Civil society in democracy.
 Give the criticism of civil society with respect to democracy.
Solution
A civil society is a social organisation that exists independently of the state and is comprised of
individuals and non-profit organisations, advocacy groups, and community-based organisations
that collaborate to address social issues and promote the public good. Jan Aart Scholte has identified
six ways in which civil society contributes to democracy:
1. Representation: Civil society organisations can represent groups and interests that are
underrepresented by formal political institutions.
2. Empowerment: Civil society organisations can empower citizens by providing them with the
skills and resources they need to participate in political life and advocate for their own
interests.
3. Accountability: Civil society organisations can act as government watchdogs, holding
elected officials accountable for their decisions and actions.
4. Socialization: Civil society organisations can help shape public opinion and promote
democratic values like tolerance and diversity.
5. Deliberation: Civil society organisations can provide spaces for citizens to gather and engage
in meaningful deliberation and discussion about pressing public issues.
6. Service provision: Civil society organisations can provide critical services and support to
marginalised communities, acting as a safety net for those in need and promoting social
justice.
However civil society has also been criticised for the following reasons:
1. Elitism: Critics argue that affluent and educated elites often dominate civil society and do
not truly represent the interests and needs of the general population.
2. Centralised leadership: Civil society organisations promote democratic decentralisation, but
are sometimes dominated by a single individual. Some of them lack leadership and are
centred on a single charismatic leader.
3. Transparency is lacking: Their financial resources are frequently shady, and there is a lack
of transparency. In addition, Marxists see civil society as an extension of the bourgeoisie.
4. Fragmentation: Critics argue that civil society is fragmented, with different groups pursuing
narrow and conflicting interests rather than cooperating to advance the common good.
5. Dependence on government funding: Some argue that the reliance on government funding
by many civil society organisations undermines their independence and ability to hold the
government accountable.
6. Government co-optation: Some argue that civil society organisations can be co-opted by the
government, losing their critical edge and becoming a tool of state control.
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7. Western-centric: Civil society is frequently viewed as a Western construct that may not be
applicable or relevant in other cultural and political contexts. This civil society may be
insensitive to local cultural practises.
8. Lack of political influence: Some argue that, despite their potential to advance democracy,
civil society organisations have limited political influence and that their voices are frequently
drowned out by more powerful interest groups.
Despite the criticisms democracy and civil society are inextricably linked to the point where De
Tocqueville investigated the reasons for the existence of democracy in America and its absence in
France in terms of the presence or absence of civil society.
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Question 8
(a) Illustrate the conflicts and tensions experienced by societies undergoing
social change. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of social change.
 Illustrate in detail the conflicts and tensions experienced by societies undergoing social
change. (Examples are must)
 Provide an appropriate conclusion.
Solution
Any major shift in cultural values and norms through time, as well as in behaviour patterns, is
referred to as social change. This can include changes in social institutions, policies, attitudes, and
behaviours. Conflicts and tensions are common in societies undergoing social change because
different groups have competing interests, values, and beliefs about the direction and pace of
change. Here are some examples:
1. Economic inequality: Rapid social and economic change can exacerbate income disparities
and tensions between the haves and have-nots. Extremist political movements seeking to
address economic inequality may rise as a result of unequal wealth and resource distribution.
For example, the rise of the Naxalite movement in India. As individuals and groups perceive
that their interests are not being represented, trust in government and other institutions
declines.
2. Political polarization: Changes in the political landscape can lead to polarisation and
division, with various groups holding opposing viewpoints on critical issues such as
immigration, climate change, and social justice. It has increased social division because
individuals and groups believe that the political system does not represent their views and
values.
It can also lead to violent clashes, protests, and social unrest, especially in societies where
extremist political movements have gained sway. As an example, consider the recent attack
on the United States State Capitol in January 2021.
3. Ethnic and cultural tensions: As different groups compete for recognition and resources,
social change can result in the emergence of new ethnic and cultural identities, which can
lead to tensions and conflicts. As individuals and groups feel threatened by the presence of
outsiders and seek to protect their cultural and ethnic identities, it can lead to an increase in
xenophobia and racism. For example, the rise in racism in Europe and American against
Asian especially after Covid. Certain ethnic and cultural groups, particularly those who are
economically vulnerable, may be displaced and marginalised as a result of social change.
Individuals and groups may feel that the influx of immigrants is disrupting traditional
cultural norms and values as a result of social change. Consider the controversy surrounding
the CAA Act 2019 and NPR.
4. Religious tensions: Rapid social change, such as modernity, can also cause religious tensions
because different religious groups hold different perspectives on social norms, values, and
political issues. For example, the controversy surrounding India's Uniform Civil Code.
Individuals and groups may feel threatened by the presence of different religions and seek
to protect their religious identity as a result of social change.
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It can lead to disagreements over religious practises, especially when certain practises are
perceived as a threat to traditional cultural norms and values. Consider the recent
controversy over the prohibition of burqas in educational institutions in Karnataka.
Individuals and groups may become more entrenched in their beliefs and less willing to
engage in inter-religious dialogue as a result.
5. Generation gaps: Different generations may hold opposing views on social change, with
younger generations frequently pushing for more progressive change and older generations
resisting change. In the case of Brexit, the older generation voted in favour of Brexit, while
the younger generation voted against it.
6. Urban-rural divide: Urbanization and rural-to-urban migration can cause tensions between
urban and rural populations, with each having different priorities, interests, and experiences.
The urban-rural divide can lead to disagreements over resource allocation, as urban areas
seek to retain access to resources while rural areas struggle to secure their share. The urban-
rural divide frequently results in cultural differences, as urban and rural areas have distinct
cultural norms, values, and traditions.
7. Changes in gender roles: Gender equality can lead to clashes between traditional and
modern perspectives on gender roles and responsibilities. Gender roles shifts can lead to an
increase in gender-based violence as individuals and groups use violence to assert traditional
gender roles and power dynamics. Changes in gender roles can lead to resistance to change,
as individuals and groups perceive traditional gender roles as under threat and seek to
preserve them. For example, consider the Twitter trend #MarriageStrike in response to a
court decision on marital rape, or the social media backlash in response to the promotion of
Vim diswash liquid for men only.
8. Environmental degradation at the cost of Economic Growth: Natural resource depletion
and the effects of climate change can lead to environmental degradation and conflicts over
access to and control of resources. Environmental degradation can lead to opposition to
environmental protection because individuals and groups believe that environmental
regulations violate their rights and freedom.
Environmental injustice can result from environmental degradation because marginalised
communities are disproportionately affected by pollution and degradation.
9. Technological disruption: The introduction of new technologies has the potential to result
in worker displacement and the decline of traditional industries, resulting in economic and
social tensions. Individuals and groups may disagree about the extent to which jobs should
be automated and the impact on workers as a result of technological disruption. Individuals
and groups may become resistant to change as a result of technological disruption, believing
that traditional ways of life are under threat and seeking to preserve them.
10. Declining fertility: Fertility rates have decreased as a result of changing economic and social
factors, as couples choose to have fewer children or none at all. As a result, more immigrants
are required to maintain growth, which leads to insider-outsider conflict.
It is crucial for societies undergoing transformation to address these issues and figure out how to
create bridges between various groups in order to prevent these conflicts and tensions from
undermining societal cohesiveness and stability.
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(b) Critically examine the cultural theories of social change with suitable
examples 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by defining social change
 Explain the cultural theories of social change. (Provide examples)
 Provide criticism of the cultural theories of social change
Solution
Any major shift in cultural values and norms through time, as well as in behaviour patterns, is
referred to as social change. This can include changes in social institutions, policies, attitudes, and
behaviours.
Among the most important cultural theories of social change are:
1. Structural functionalism: According to this view, societal change happens gradually as a
result of a society's efforts to preserve balance and stability. It contends that different parts of
a society cooperate to sustain stability and sees social change as a necessary adaptation to
evolving conditions. An illustration of how the functionalist perspective has made
contributions to societal change is the rise of the internet and the emergence of social media,
which have had a significant impact on communication and interpersonal interactions.
2. Conflict theory: According to this theory, conflict and struggle between social groups with
divergent interests lead to social change. Conflict theory holds that oppressed groups attempt
to challenge and alter the current social order while dominant groups in a society utilise their
influence to uphold the status quo and thwart change.
Example: The American civil rights movement, which aimed to eradicate racial
discrimination and segregation, is a prime example of how conflict and struggle between
opposing groups can lead to social change.
3. Symbolic interactionism: According to this theory, interactions between people and the
meanings that they give to their experiences lead to social change. According to symbolic
interactionism, people's perceptions of the world and behaviours are shaped by the symbols
and meanings they assign to them. As an example of how symbolic interactionism has
influenced social change, observe how sentiments about LGBTQ+ rights have changed and
become more welcoming in various regions of the world.
4. Cultural materialism: According to this idea, social development is primarily driven by the
material conditions of a society, with economic and technological advancements having a
vital influence. An example of a societal transformation brought on by cultural materialism
is the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the 19th century, which resulted in enormous
technological and economic advancements.
5. Cultural evolution: According to this theory, social change results from the natural process
of cultural evolution, during which cultures gradually alter over time as a result of trial and
error. An example of societal change brought on by cultural evolution is the progressive shift
in attitudes toward gender equality, with more people now supporting and pushing for equal
rights for women.
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6. Postmodernism: According to this theory, social transformation is characterised by the
rejection of grand narratives and assertions of ultimate truth. Postmodernism contends that
social transformation is a fragmented and chaotic process marked by the coexistence of
multiple and conflicting narratives. One example of how postmodernism has influenced
societal change is the emergence of identity politics and the acknowledgment of marginalised
groups and their experiences.
7. Feminism: According to this theory, social change is required to overcome patriarchal
oppressive structures and attain gender equality. Existing gender norms, institutions, and
power structures are intended to be challenged and transformed by feminism. The women's
suffrage campaign, which fought for women to get the vote, is an example of how feminism
has influenced social change.
8. Cultural ecology: According to this theory, a society's interaction with its environment leads
to social change. The theory of cultural ecology holds that cultural values and practises are
influenced by changes in the physical and natural environment. An illustration of societal
change driven by cultural ecology is the move toward sustainable development and
renewable energy in response to concerns about climate change.
These theories have some limitations, which are as follows:
1. Structural functionalism: Critics claim that this theory oversimplifies the complexity of social
change and ignores the impact of conflict and power on societal structure. It doesn't
completely address the ways in which social institutions might perpetuate inequality and has
a tendency to value stability above change.
2. Conflict theory: Critics claim that this theory tends to ignore the importance of cooperation
and consensus in forming society, focusing instead on how struggle and conflict lead to
change. Additionally, because it sees society as being inherently polarised and conflict-
ridden, it has a tendency to be pessimistic about the likelihood of substantial change.
3. Symbolic interactionism: Critics claim that by emphasising individual behaviour and
meaningmaking too much, this theory ignores the more significant structural factors that
influence society. It may also overlook power imbalances in society, resulting in an
incomplete understanding of how power and social structures shape human behaviour.
4. Cultural materialism: Some critics claim that this theory is overly deterministic, ignoring the
role of cultural and ideological factors in shaping social change. It also overlooks how culture
and ideology can shape economic systems and technological advancements.
5. Cultural evolution: According to critics, this theory oversimplifies the process of cultural
change by ignoring the role of conscious and deliberate action in shaping society. It is also
teleological in nature, suggesting that cultural evolution always leads to a better outcome
while ignoring the possibility of regression or setbacks.
6. Postmodernism: According to critics, this theory can lead to a fragmented and nihilistic view
of social change, ignoring the possibility of universal truth and shared values. It also tends to
reject the concept of progress, making meaningful change difficult to conceptualise.
7. Feminism: Critics argue that this theory oversimplifies gender and ignores the complexities
of intersectionality, resulting in an incomplete understanding of how other factors, such as
race and class, shape oppressive experiences. It may also overlook the subtle and insidious
ways in which power operates, making meaningful change difficult.
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8. Cultural ecology: Critics claim that this theory is often overly deterministic of the
environment and neglects the influence of culture and human activity in influencing social
change. It might also fail to take into account the ways that cultural values and beliefs might
influence how people interact with their surroundings, which could result in an incomplete
understanding of how society and the environment are related.
Despite the drawbacks, each of these cultural theories of social change offers us a distinctive lens
through which to see and comprehend the intricate process of social change. We may acquire a more
complex and thorough understanding of social change by critically analysing and integrating many
theories, which will enable us to anticipate and adapt to changes in society throughout time.
Additionally, by taking into account a variety of viewpoints, we can better comprehend the various
forces and interactions—including cultural, economic, political, and technical factors—that propel
social change.
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(c) Is religion antithetical to science? Comment 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce by giving your opinion on the matter.
 Distinguish between science and religion.
 Show how science and religion are similar and complementary.
Solution
No, there is no intrinsic contradiction between religion and science. Many people can reconcile their
religious views with a scientific understanding of the universe, even if there may be situations where
certain religious beliefs and scientific results clash.
The two knowledge systems differ in the following ways.
1. Religion and science are two distinct fields of knowledge and investigation, and each has its
own methods, assumptions, and limitations.
2. Religion is founded on faith, belief, and revelation, whereas science is based on empirical
facts and the scientific process to evaluate and validate concepts.
3. Religious beliefs and scientific theories have often conflicted, especially when it comes to
evolution, the origins of the world, and human origins.
4. Religion provides a framework for comprehending the meaning and purpose of life, while
science focuses on providing an explanation for natural events using actual data and
observation. A moral, ethical, and spiritual framework for understanding the world and
human existence is another goal of religion.
5. Religion is founded on the authority of religious texts, leaders, and traditions while science
is based on peer-reviewed research and a community of experts to develop knowledge and
understanding.
6. Religion considers truth to be absolute and unalterable, whereas science considers truth to be
provisional and subject to change in light of new evidence.
7. Religion is viewed as imaginative and speculative, whereas science is thought to be
inquisitive and deliberative.
8. While religion encourages man to accept his fate, science encourages him to control his own
destiny.
9. Religion frequently portrays God as being out of reach of regular people whereas science
brings the unknown to the level of observable reality.
10. Religion binds people together and encourages status quo and tradition, but science is
liberating and enlightening and encourages questioning of everything.
11. Religion is built on the notion of the sacred, whereas science is based on reason.
12. Science encourages individual inventions, although it also involves teamwork, whereas
religion is more focused on the group.
13. Religious values are only acceptable inside the society that shares those principles, but
scientific information and methodology are legitimate everywhere.
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Following are some examples of parallels between the two systems of knowledge:
1. According to Durkheim, both science and religion serve as the collective representations of
society. He therefore sees no conflict between the two.
2. Both seek to answer certain questions.
3. Both have dysfunctions as well as latent and visible functions.
4. Both are outcomes of human beings' need for both intellectual and emotional fulfilment.
5. In some ways, religion and science can benefit one another. Religion, for instance, can give
people a moral foundation as well as a sense of direction and meaning, whereas science can
give them a methodical, factual grasp of the natural world.
6. In order to promote sustainability, environmental protection, and other goals that are
consistent with both religious and scientific ideals, there is also a growing trend of religious
leaders and organisations adopting scientific knowledge into their beliefs and practises.
Last but not least, in Einstein's words, "Science without religion is weak and religion without science
is blind." Therefore, even today, both are complementary because so much—including Religion and
Society—remains outside the purview of human knowledge.
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Mains 2014
Section - A
Question 1. Write short answer of the following in about 150 words each:
(a) How is objectivity different from value neutrality? Discuss with
reference to Weber’s views on methodology. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce mentioning Max Weber discussed the distinct concepts of value neutrality and
objectivity in sociology.
 Explain Value Neutrality also mention the Weber's view on it.
 Explain Objectivity is different from Value Neutrality also mention the Weber's view on it.
 Give alternate views on the concepts
Solution
In sociology, value neutrality and objectivity are two related but distinct concepts. Max Weber a
well-known sociologist made significant contributions to the field, particularly in the area of
methodology. He was one of the first sociologists to discuss the importance of value neutrality and
objectivity in research.
Value neutrality refers to the idea that researchers should set aside their personal values and beliefs
when conducting research in order to remain impartial and unbiased. However, values are an
inescapable result of being part of society, and sociologists must acknowledge and overcome their
personal biases when conducting research. According to Max Weber, sociologists should identify
their own values and strive to minimize their impact on the research process. Value neutrality,
therefore, does not mean having no opinions. It just means that sociologists must strive to
‘overcome’ personal biases, when analysing data.
Objectivity, on the other hand, refers to the ability to observe and report on social phenomena in a
manner that is free from personal bias or judgment. While some early sociologists, such as August
Comte and Emile Durkheim, believed that sociology could and should be value-free, Weber
recognized that complete value-freedom was not possible. However, once a topic for research had
been chosen, Weber believed that researchers could strive for objectivity by being transparent about
their values and biases and making their interpretations and assumptions explicit.
Despite these efforts, sociological studies may contain a certain amount of value biases, and
researchers must strive to avoid skewing data to match a predetermined outcome that aligns with
a particular agenda, such as a political or moral point of view. Ways of achieving value neutrality
may be many, but it is highly desirable in sociological research for producing valid data.
However, Postmodernists argue that knowledge reflects the viewpoint and values of different social
groups, and that researchers must be selective and interpret their results as the results do not speak
for themselves. In other words, knowledge is not objective and is instead shaped by social and
historical contexts.
In conclusion, while complete value neutrality and objectivity may not be possible in sociological
research, researchers should strive to minimize their biases and be transparent about their values
and assumptions. This will help to produce valid and reliable data that accurately reflects social
phenomena.
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(b) How did the emergence of industrial society change the family life in
Western Europe? 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by giving the timeline and briefly mentioning the factors that led to emergence of
industrial society in Western Europe
 Explain how was family life in Western Europe before the emergence of industrial society.
 Explain how did the emergence of industrial society brought changes in the family life in
Western Europe.
 Conclude appropriately
Solution
Industrial society emerged in Western Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries due to a combination
of factors, including improvements in technology, increased capital investment, the growth of
international trade, the development of a wage labor system, and changes in social and economic
organization.
Before the emergence of industrial society, family life in Western Europe was primarily rural and
centred on agriculture. Families were typically large and extended, with multiple generations living
and working together on farms or in small villages. The family unit was the basic economic and
social unit, with family members contributing to the household economy through farming, crafts,
or other forms of manual labor. Gender roles were typically rigid, with men responsible for
agricultural labor and women responsible for domestic tasks and child-rearing. Marriages were
often arranged by families for economic or social reasons, rather than for love, and divorce was rare.
The emergence of industrial society brought significant changes to family life in Western Europe.
With the rise of industrialization, the family began to shift from a unit of production to a unit of
consumption, as more people began to work outside the home in factories and other industries. This
led to changes in family dynamics, with the nuclear family becoming more prevalent and extended
families becoming less common. This was due to the migration of people from rural areas to urban
centres, where living quarters were often smaller and families had to adapt to new living
arrangements.
As men increasingly worked outside the home, women and children were left to take care of
domestic chores and child-rearing. The home became more private and separate from work, with a
greater emphasis on domesticity and the need for a separate domestic sphere.
The rise of industrialization also brought about changes in gender roles, as women were
increasingly expected to take on the role of the caregiver and men the role of the breadwinner. This
led to a greater divide between public and private spheres and reinforced traditional gender roles.
However, as time went by the traditional patriarchal family structure, in which the father was the
head of the household and had authority over his wife and children, was challenged by new social
norms that emphasized individualism and equality. This led to a shift towards more egalitarian
family structures, with husbands and wives sharing decision-making responsibilities and parenting
duties more equally.
Overall, the emergence of industrial society brought about significant changes in family life in
Western Europe. And as industrialization spread to other parts of the world, it also brought with it
changes in the family structure, gender roles, and the relationship between work and family in those
parts.
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(c) How is sociological approach to human action different from that of

psychological approach? 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce answer by highlighting the relation between sociology and psychology.
 Explain the difference in approach while studying human action between the two disciplines.
(Should be the major part of answer)
 Explain the similarities and convergence in approach while studying human action between
the two disciplines.
Solution
Sociology and psychology are two separate but related disciplines that offer different approaches to
understanding human action. While both fields aim to understand the behaviours of individuals
and groups, they approach this goal from different perspectives and use different research methods.
When it comes to studying human actions, the approach of sociology and psychology differs in the
following ways:
1. Sociologists study social factors' impact on behaviours, while psychologists examine
individual factors like personality and cognition.
2. Sociology explores how social structures and institutions affect individuals and groups,
while psychology focuses on the internal mental processes of individuals.
3. Sociologists analyze behaviours patterns across groups and societies, while psychologists
concentrate on individual differences.
4. Sociology highlights the role of culture and social norms in shaping behaviours, while
psychology emphasizes innate or biological factors.
5. Sociologists use macro-level analyses, like surveys or historical research, while psychologists
use micro-level analyses, like laboratory experiments or case studies.
6. Sociologists study how social inequality and power relations impact behaviours, while
psychologists focus on individual development and well-being.
7. Sociologists study collective behaviours like social movements, while psychologists’ study
individual behaviours in specific situations.
8. Sociologists employ a comparative perspective, studying different societies or cultures, while
psychologists focus on behaviours within a single cultural context.
9. Sociologists use a conflict perspective, examining power relations and social struggles, while
psychologists use a functionalist perspective, looking at how behaviours contribute to the
functioning of society.
10. Sociology examines social change over time, while psychology focuses on understanding
behaviours in the present moment.
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However, there has also been similarities and convergence between the two fields when it comes to
studying human action, and these can be seen below:
1. Sociological and psychological approaches to human behaviours share similarities such as
interest in understanding behaviours causes, acknowledging multiple influences, using
varied research methods, concern for human diversity, recognition of behaviours shaping by
context, and studying the relationship between individual behaviours and broader social
patterns
2. According to Max Weber sociological explanations can be further enriched if an attempt is
made to understand social behaviour in terms of underlying meaning.
3. According to Gerth and Mills the study of social psychology is interplay between individual
character and social structure as human behaviour is not purely driven by instincts.
4. Social psychology serves as a bridge between psychology and sociology, maintains a primary
interest in the individual but concerns itself with the way in which the individual behaves in
social groups, collectively with other individuals.
In conclusion, while sociology and psychology have different approaches to understanding human
action, they are both important in their own ways. By understanding the unique perspectives and
shared interests of sociology and psychology, we can gain a more comprehensive understanding of
human behaviours and society as a whole.
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(d) In what way biographies could be used to study social life? 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by briefly explaining what is biographies and biographical research.
 Explain different ways in which biographies can be used to study social life.
 Mention some limitations of biographical research
 Give a balanced conclusion
Solution
Biographies refer to written accounts of the life history of an individual, usually told in narrative
form. Biographical research involves collecting and analyzing data from individual life histories to
explore how social and cultural factors have shaped individual's experiences. Thus, Biographical
research is a qualitative research approach that uses life stories to understand social life.
Biographies can be used to study social life in following ways:
Firstly, they provide rich and detailed accounts of individual experiences, perceptions, and
perspectives on social phenomena. Additionally, they can be used to examine social change over
time, as well as how broader social changes shape individual experiences.
Moreover, biographies can shed light on the ways in which social structures and institutions shape
individuals' lives, experiences, and opportunities.They can also be used to explore social
inequalities, such as race, class, gender, and sexuality, and how they intersect and shape individuals'
experiences.
Furthermore, biographies can be used for comparative analysis, where the life experiences of
individuals from different social, economic, or cultural backgrounds can be compared. By
comparing biographies from different contexts, researchers can gain insight into the impact of social
structures on people's lives. Gender studies can also benefit from biographies, as they can examine
gender roles and the impact of gender on people's lives. By studying the life experiences of men and
women from different periods in history, researchers can gain insight into how gender roles have
evolved over time and how they vary across different cultures.
Political history is another area where biographies can be useful. Biographies of political leaders can
provide insight into the political and social context in which they operated and how their decisions
shaped the course of history. Biographies can also be used in migration and diaspora studies, where
they can be used to study the experiences of individuals who have migrated from one country to
another or who belong to diaspora communities. By studying the life experiences of migrants and
members of diaspora communities, researchers can gain insight into the challenges they face in
adapting to new social, economic, and cultural contexts.
Finally, biographies can be used to study the impact of environmental factors on people's lives. By
examining the biographies of individuals who lived in different environments, researchers can gain
insight into the impact of environmental factors on health, well-being, and quality of life.
An example of study that used biographical research method is "The Great Depression: A Diary" by
Benjamin Roth. In "The Great Depression: A Diary," Roth used a personal diary as a source of
biographical data to explore the experiences of an individual during the Great Depression in the
United States. The diary provides a rich account of the economic and social conditions of the time,
as well as the personal struggles and experiences of an individual living through this period.
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Researchers should be aware of the limitations and issues that come with using biographical
research methods. One such issue is the reliability and accuracy of the data collected. The data may
come from sources such as personal diaries or biographical interviews, but memories can be
selective, subjective, and influenced by factors such as age, cultural background, and life
experiences. As a result, it can be challenging to verify the accuracy of the data collected. Another
issue is researcher bias. Researchers may have their own preconceived notions or agendas that could
influence the selection of participants, interpretation of data, and presentation of findings. This bias
could affect the research process and findings. Lastly, ethical considerations need to be taken into
account in biographical research. Researchers must ensure that they protect the privacy and
confidentiality of the participants and that the research is conducted in an ethical manner. It is
essential to take steps to conduct research in an ethical and responsible way.
In conclusion, biographies are a valuable tool for understanding social life in various contexts and
can provide researchers with a rich source of data for analysis.
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(e) How can we use reference group theory to understand fashion in society?
10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by briefly explaining RGT and how it is applicable in fashion.
 Explain the types of reference groups given by Merton and how they are relatable to fashion.
 Explain the Merton concept of anticipatory socialization and the marginal man and how they
are relatable to fashion.
 Discuss the factors decisive in making a reference group as per Merton and how they are
relatable to fashion.
 Conclude by mentioning the dysfunction of Reference Group
Solution
Reference Group Theory is a social theory developed by Robert Merton in the mid-20th century.
The theory proposes that individuals use reference groups as a benchmark to evaluate their own
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. Reference groups are the groups that people use as a standard for
evaluating themselves and their own behaviours, often based on a desire for social acceptance or to
gain a sense of belonging. Fashion trends often emerge from specific reference groups, such as
subcultures, social classes, or celebrity groups, and can be used as a way for individuals to signal
their affiliation with or admiration for these groups.
Merton identified two types of reference groups: primary and secondary. Primary reference groups
would be those individuals that we have direct contact with, such as our friends and family, who
may influence our fashion choices through their own personal style or recommendations. Secondary
reference groups, on the other hand, would be groups that we may not have direct contact with but
still look to for fashion inspiration and as a benchmark for comparison. These could include fashion
icons, celebrities, or social media influencers who may showcase current trends and popular styles.
We may not have a personal relationship with them, but they still have an impact on our fashion
choices and decisions. Individuals may conform to the fashion trends and styles of their reference
groups, such as their friends or favourite celebrities, in order to gain social acceptance and avoid
being judged or rejected for not fitting in with the group's fashion choices.
Robert Merton introduced a concept of Anticipatory socialization, which refers to the process of
learning and adopting the norms, values, and behaviors of a group that one aspires to join in the
future. It involves the adoption of the practices and customs of a group or occupation that one
wishes to join, in anticipation of that membership. An example of anticipatory socialization in
fashion can be observed in high school students who are preparing to enter college. These students
may start to dress and behave in a certain way that is associated with college culture.
Robert Merton also gave the concept of marginal man, which refers to individuals who are caught
between two cultures or social groups and do not fully belong to either. According to Merton, the
experience of being a marginal man can lead to feelings of confusion, conflict, and tension, as
individuals try to reconcile their identity with the expectations of both groups.
For example, a first-generation immigrant who struggles to adapt to the fashion norms of their new
country while also trying to maintain the values and customs of their home country.
According to Robert Merton's Reference Group Theory, certain factors are decisive in making a
group a reference group. These factors include power and prestige, whether the group is open or
closed, the presence of reference individuals or role models in the group, etc.
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Groups with high status and power tend to be more attractive as reference groups, as individuals
may aspire to the social status and privileges associated with these groups. For example, in the
world of fashion, designers and models are often seen as reference groups due to their power and
prestige in the industry.
Besides closed groups, which are difficult to join or exclusive, may be more attractive as reference
groups, as individuals may perceive membership in these groups as a significant achievement. For
example, exclusive fashion clubs or societies can become reference groups for aspiring designers or
models. Finally, Individuals who are seen as successful or admirable within a group can become
reference individuals, and the group itself can become a reference group. In the world of fashion,
for example, designers or models who are perceived as successful and influential may become
reference individuals, and the groups or companies they are associated with can become reference
groups.
However, the Reference Group can also lead to some dysfunctions such as the pressure to conform,
which can lead to groupthink and limit individual creativity and independent thinking. The
pressure to conform can also lead to the rejection of nonconformists, perpetuating discrimination
and social inequalities. Additionally, the reliance on a reference group can limit an individual's
exposure to diverse perspectives and limit personal growth and development.
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Question 2.
(a) Which research technique would be most suitable for the study of
consumer behaviours and its social correlates? Explain. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by briefly explaining what do we mean by consumer behaviours.
 Explain what do we mean by social correlates of consumer behaviours.
 Explain in short various techniques we can use to study consumer behaviours and its social
correlates.
 Mention a research technique that is most suitable for the study of consumer behaviours and
its social correlates with reasons.
 Give a balance conclusion.
Solution
Consumer behaviours refers to the actions and decisions made by individuals and households in
relation to purchasing and using products and services. It involves a range of activities, such as
searching for information, evaluating options, making purchasing decisions, and post-purchase
evaluation. Consumer behaviours is influenced by a variety of factors, including personal and
situational factors, social and cultural factors, and psychological factors.
Social correlates of consumer behaviours are the social factors that influence an individual's
purchasing decisions. These factors include family, friends, reference groups, culture, social class,
and media. Family and friends directly influence consumer behaviours, while reference groups and
social class influence consumer behaviours through aspirational and normative influence.
Culture and media impact consumer behaviours by shaping attitudes, values, and beliefs related to
products and services.
To study consumer behaviours and its social correlates, researchers can use various research
techniques, such as surveys, focus groups, interviews, observational studies, Experimental research,
social media analysis, etc. Surveys involve asking a sample of consumers to answer a set of
standardized questions about their purchasing behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs.
Focus groups bring together a small group of consumers to discuss their opinions and attitudes
about a product or service. Interviews involve one-on-one conversations with consumers to gain
insights into their behaviours and motivations. Observational studies involve watching consumers
in their natural environment to understand their behaviours and decision-making processes.
Experimental research involves manipulating one or more variables to see how they affect consumer
behaviours. This technique can help establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables, but
it can be time-consuming and costly. Social media analysis involves analyzing consumer behaviours
and attitudes as expressed through social media channels, such as Facebook, Twitter, and
Instagram.
Surveys are one of the most suitable techniques for the study of consumer behaviours and its social
correlates because they allow researchers to collect data from a large number of participants in a
cost-effective manner. Surveys can be designed to gather information about various social factors
that may influence consumer behaviours, such as family, friends, reference groups, culture, social
class, and media. Surveys also enable researchers to collect data on the individual's own purchasing
decisions, such as their preferred brands, price range, and frequency of purchase.
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In addition, surveys can be conducted through various methods, including online surveys, phone
surveys, and in-person interviews, making it easier to reach a diverse group of participants. Surveys
can also be designed to include both closed-ended and open-ended questions, allowing researchers
to gather both quantitative and qualitative data. Finally, survey data can be analyzed using
statistical methods to identify patterns and relationships between social factors and consumer
behaviours.
Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages, and the choice of method should be based
on the research objectives, target population, and available resources. Overall, surveys can be a
useful research technique to study consumer behaviours and its social correlates, as they provide a
cost-effective way to collect data from a large number of participants and can provide valuable
insights into consumer behaviours.
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(b) Identify the similarities and differences between Marx’s theory of

‘alienation’ and Durkheim’s theory of ‘anomie’. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce with a definition of alienation and anomie
 Discuss the difference between Marx’s theory of ‘alienation’ and Durkheim’s theory of
‘anomie’
 Discuss the similarities between Marx’s theory of ‘alienation’ and Durkheim’s theory of
‘anomie’
 Conclude with the relevance of the theories in today's time.
Solution
Alienation, as defined by Karl Marx, is a social and economic condition in which a person is
estranged or separated from the product of their own labor. According to Marx, this alienation arises
from the fact that workers are forced to sell their labor power to capitalists in exchange for wages,
and therefore have no control over the means of production or the fruits of their labor. Workers are
thus separated from the things they produce, as well as from the process of production itself, and
are reduced to being mere cogs in a machine.
Anomie is a concept in sociology first introduced by Emile Durkheim, referring to a state of
normlessness or a lack of moral guidance in a society. It occurs when the social norms and values of
a society are weakened or disintegrated, resulting in individuals feeling disconnected and
disoriented. Anomie can lead to feelings of meaninglessness, purposelessness, and a lack of
direction in life, which can manifest in various forms of deviant behaviours, such as crime, drug
use, and suicide.
Marx’s theory of ‘alienation’ and Durkheim’s theory of ‘anomie’ differ in many ways. Marx's theory
focuses on the capitalist system and the exploitation of labor, while Durkheim's theory is concerned
with the breakdown of traditional norms and values. The former emphasizes the individual worker
and their relationship to the means of production, while the latter emphasizes the individual's
relationship to society. Additionally, Marx's theory emphasizes the social and economic context of
work, while Durkheim's theory emphasizes the social context of modern society.
Marx's theory of 'alienation' is rooted in the historical context of industrial capitalism, while
Durkheim's theory of 'anomie' is rooted in the historical context of modernization. Marx sees the
state as a tool of the ruling class to maintain their power, while Durkheim sees it as a means of
regulating social norms and values. Marx's theory is more objective and materialistic, while
Durkheim's is more subjective and cultural.
Alienation leads to dehumanization and estrangement from oneself and others, while anomie leads
to a sense of meaninglessness and disconnection from society. Marx's theory calls for the abolition
of capitalism and the establishment of a socialist society, while Durkheim's theory calls for the
reinforcement of social norms and values. Marx's theory is linked to revolutionary change, while
Durkheim's theory is linked to evolutionary change.
Marx's theory sees labor as a source of value and creativity, while Durkheim's theory sees labor as
a source of social integration. Alienation is a problem specifically related to work, while anomie is
a broader problem related to society as a whole.
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Finally, Marx's theory is rooted in a materialist and dialectical philosophy, while Durkheim's theory
is rooted in a positivist and functionalist philosophy.
Marx's theory of 'alienation' and Durkheim's theory of 'anomie' share a common concern about the
negative consequences of modern society. Both theories critique the effects of capitalism on
individuals and society and emphasize the impact of social and economic factors on the individual.
Both theories also highlight the disconnection between individuals and society, and the negative
consequences of industrialization.
Moreover, both theories suggest that societal changes can lead to alienation and anomie and focus
on the individual's relationship to society. They are concerned with the loss of a sense of purpose
and meaning in life and suggest that social change is necessary to address the problem. Both theories
also acknowledge the importance of social norms and values in shaping individuals' experiences,
and society has a role to play in mitigating the negative effects of modernity.
Both theories critique the individualistic nature of modern society and view the individual as
affected by societal forces beyond their control. They have had a significant impact on the study of
sociology and continue to be influential in contemporary social theory. Therefore, despite
differences in their conceptualization and focus, Marx's theory of 'alienation' and Durkheim's theory
of 'anomie' share several similarities in their approach to the problem of modern society.
Marx's theory of 'alienation' and Durkheim's theory of 'anomie' remain relevant in modern times.
They explain the negative consequences of modern society, including job insecurity, economic
inequality, and social isolation. The COVID-19 pandemic has exposed and exacerbated these issues,
emphasizing the importance of social support and community. These theories provide insight into
how we can address the problems of alienation and anomie through social change and community
building.
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(c) How could one use Merton’s concept of deviance to understand the
traffic problem in urban India? 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce with the concept of Deviance given by Merton.
 Explain how traffic problem in urban India can be understood by Merton’s concept of
deviance.
 Mention some shortcomings of the theory to understand the problem.
Solution
Deviance as per Merton refers to the social and cultural phenomenon where individuals or groups
may engage in behaviours that goes against established norms and values of society. Merton's strain
theory suggests that deviance arises when individuals are unable to achieve culturally prescribed
goals through legitimate means, leading them to resort to deviant behaviours as a way of adapting
to the strain of the gap between cultural goals and the means available to achieve them. Merton's
theory also highlights the role of social structure in shaping patterns of deviant behaviours and how
certain groups may be more likely to engage in deviance based on their position within society.
Merton's typology of deviance proposes five possible responses that individuals may choose when
facing the strain between culturally defined goals and institutional means to achieve them. These
five types of responses can also be applied to understand traffic problems in urban India.
The first response is conformity, which refers to individuals who accept both the culturally defined
goals and institutional means to achieve them. In the context of traffic problems in urban India, this
could be seen in the majority of people who follow traffic rules despite the fact that there are issues
with traffic and general infrastructure. However, as a result of their conformity, they may fail to
provide constructive criticism or demand changes to overhaul the infrastructure.
The second response is innovation, where a person deviates from institutional means to achieve
culturally defined goals. In the context of traffic problems, this could be seen in people who use
minor roads or footpaths to dodge signals on main roads, which can be dangerous and cause
accidents.
The third response is ritualism, where a person accepts institutional means, but fails to understand
or achieve the culturally defined goals. In the context of traffic problems, this could be seen in the
people who are in charge of building roads and flyovers who keep on building them unplanned,
indicating a lack of clarity in their goals, such as making it convenient for people to move from point
A to point B.
The fourth response is retreatism, where a person rejects both the means and goals. In the context
of traffic problems, this could be seen in the indifference shown by the government towards public
transport, particularly road transport, which could be a sign of a retreatist policy.
Finally, the fifth response is rebellion, where people may resort to new means and goals due to
severe constraints in the existing means. In the context of traffic problems, the proposed Hyperloop
in Mumbai can be seen as a rebellious approach to solve the traffic issue by providing an innovative
and futuristic alternative means of transportation.
By applying Merton's typology of deviance to the issue of traffic problems in urban India, we can
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gain a deeper understanding of the various ways in which individuals and institutions respond to
the strain between cultural goals and institutional means, and how these responses can affect the
larger social system.
While Merton's theory of deviance can provide some insights into the traffic problem in urban India,
there are several limitations to its application in this context. Firstly, Merton's theory was developed
to explain deviance in the context of the American dream, which may not necessarily apply to the
cultural and social norms of urban India. Therefore, the theory may not fully capture the
complexities and nuances of deviance in this context. Secondly, the theory does not account for the
role of cultural and societal factors in shaping deviance. In the case of traffic problems in urban
India, cultural factors such as a lack of respect for traffic rules and norms, and societal factors such
as political influence and corruption, may contribute to deviant behaviours. Finally, the theory
assumes a dichotomy between conformity and deviance, which may not accurately reflect the reality
of traffic problems in urban India. In this context, there may be a wide range of behaviors that fall
between conformity and deviance, such as bending traffic rules in certain situations or engaging in
corruption to bypass traffic congestion.
Therefore, while Merton's theory can provide some useful insights, it should be used with caution
and in conjunction with other theories and contextual factors when analyzing traffic problems in
urban India.
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Question 3.
(a) What do you understand by gender? How does it shape ‘male’ identity?
20 marks
Approach
 Introduce answer with your understanding of Gender.
 Explain how gender shape’s male identity in a conventional sense.
 Explain the variation in gender identity/role in different societies.
 Explain the changes taking place with respect to gender identity/roles.
 Give an appropriate conclusion
Solution
Gender, from a sociological perspective, refers to social and cultural differences associated with
being male or female, rather than merely biological distinctions. Gender is a socially constructed
concept, influenced by cultural norms, historical contexts, and other factors. Pierre Bourdieu's
habitus theory posits that cultural norms and values shape gender, which is then internalized and
becomes part of an individual's identity and behaviours. Naila Kabeer further argues that biology
is gendered as well as sexed, and masculinity and femininity become mutually exclusive traits that
define male and female.
Gender plays a crucial role in shaping male identity. Boys are socialized into traditional masculine
roles from a young age, reinforced by family, peers, and society as a whole. Masculine traits like
physical strength, emotional stoicism, and competitiveness are deemed desirable qualities for men
to possess. Men may feel pressure to conform to these gender expectations in order to maintain their
status and identity as "real men." Failure to do so may result in ridicule, ostracism, or other forms
of social punishment.
Michael Kimmel argues that this socialization process can significantly impact men's behaviours
and identity, with men conforming to traditional masculine norms experiencing benefits like social
status, power, and respect. However, conformity can also have negative consequences, such as less
likelihood of seeking help for mental health issues or expressing vulnerability, which can lead to
adverse health outcomes.
Gender roles, however, are not fixed or universal and may vary depending on culture, historical
period, and contextual factors. For instance, Margaret Mead's study on tribal societies revealed
atypical gender relations, like in the Arapesh society, where both men and women were seen as
gentle and nurturing, with no distinction between "masculine" and "feminine" traits. In the
Mundugumor society, both men and women were considered aggressive and competitive, with
little emphasis on nurturing or caring roles. The Tchambuli society had gender roles reversed
compared to Western societies, with women being dominant and assertive, and men being more
passive and emotional.
In addition to the above, it is important to note that gender is not only limited to the binary of male
and female, but can also include non-binary or gender non-conforming individuals who do not
identify with traditional gender roles or expectations. Moreover, gender intersects with other social
identities such as race, class, and sexuality, creating unique experiences and challenges for
individuals.
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For example, men from marginalized racial or ethnic groups may experience different pressures and
expectations around masculinity than white men, while men from lower socioeconomic
backgrounds may face unique challenges in conforming to traditional gender roles.
Further Men's gender roles have changed in recent times as they are now expected to be more
involved in caregiving and household duties, be emotionally expressive, and prioritize work-life
balance. These changes have been driven by factors such as changing cultural attitudes towards
gender roles, the increase in dual-income households, and a greater emphasis on mental health and
well-being.
Thus, gender is seen as a dynamic concept and gender roles and expectations can vary depending
on the culture, historical period, and other contextual factors, and they are subject to change over
time. This view of gender as a dynamic concept allows for a more nuanced and contextual
understanding of gender relations and identities.
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(b) “According to Max Weber, ‘class’ and ‘status’ are two different
dimensions of power”. Discuss 20 marks
Approach
 Define Class and Status as per Max Weber.
 Provide relationship between class and status.
 Provide implications of Weber's theory.
 Provide criticism of Weber's theory of Class and Status.
Solution
Max Weber defined class as a group of individuals who share a similar economic position in society
based on their relationship to the means of production. This means that class is primarily
determined by a person's ownership or lack of ownership of property, including land, factories, and
other productive resources. He recognized that there are different types of classes, such as the
bourgeoisie (capitalist class), the petty bourgeoisie (small business owners), and the proletariat
(working class).
Max Weber defined status as the social honour or prestige that a person receives based on their
position in society, such as their occupation, education, or other factors. Weber believed that status
groups play an important role in shaping social identity and behaviours, as people are often
influenced by the norms and values of their social group.
Max Weber saw class and status as two different but interrelated dimensions of social stratification.
Although they have distinct characteristics, they are not completely independent of each other. The
relationship between class and status can be understood in the following ways: Firstly, Weber
recognized that there is often a strong correlation between a person's class position and their status.
This means that individuals who belong to a higher class, such as the capitalist class, typically have
higher levels of status and prestige than those who belong to a lower class, such as the working
class. However, exceptions to this pattern do exist, as highly educated professionals may have high
status but relatively low income. Secondly, Weber believed that class and status are interdependent,
meaning that they can influence or challenge each other.
Those who have higher levels of economic power may use their resources to enhance their status by
attending prestigious universities or participating in high-status social activities. Conversely, those
who have high status may use their social influence to improve their economic position by
networking with influential individuals or using their status to gain access to lucrative job
opportunities. Finally, Weber recognized that there can be conflicts between different status groups
and classes, as they may have different interests and goals. For example, the interests of the capitalist
class may conflict with those of the working class, and there may be tensions between different
status groups based on factors such as race, ethnicity, or religion.
Weber's theory of class and status has important implications for understanding social inequality
and power relations in society. It suggests that power is not simply a matter of economic wealth,
but also includes social prestige and honour. It also highlights the ways in which economic and
social power are intertwined, and how they can reinforce or challenge each other in various social
contexts.
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There are several criticisms of Weber's theory of class and status. First, some scholars argue that
Weber's theory does not adequately account for the role of race, ethnicity, and gender in shaping
social inequality. These factors can have a significant impact on an individual's social position and
opportunities, yet they are not explicitly included in Weber's framework. Second, Weber's theory
has been criticized for being too abstract and difficult to operationalize. It is not always clear how
one would measure an individual's social status or how to classify different occupational groups
into distinct classes. Third, Weber's theory assumes that individuals have agency and can use their
economic resources or social status to improve their position. However, some scholars argue that
this overlooks the structural barriers and constraints that limit individual mobility and
opportunities. Finally, Weber's theory has been criticized for being Eurocentric and not accounting
for the unique historical and cultural contexts of different societies. Some scholars argue that social
stratification systems may operate differently in non-Western societies and that Weber's theory may
not be applicable in these contexts.
Despite the above-mentioned criticism Weber's theory on class and status is relevant today as it
emphasizes non-economic factors in social stratification, highlights the interdependence of class and
status and recognizes constraints on social mobility. It is a useful framework for understanding
social inequality and power relations in contemporary society.
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(c) Using Merton’s concepts of ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions, explain the
persistence of corruption in Indian society. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce with the concept of ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions given by Merton.
 Explain how persistence of corruption in Indian society can be understood by Merton’s
concept of ‘manifest’ and ‘latent’ functions.
 Mention some shortcomings of the theory to understand the problem.
Solution
The concept of manifest and latent functions was introduced by sociologist Robert Merton in his
book "Social Theory and Social Structure" (1949).
Manifest functions refer to the intended and recognized consequences of social actions or
institutions. These are the positive functions that are consciously and deliberately designed and
intended to serve a specific purpose or goal. For example, the manifest function of education is to
transmit knowledge and skills to students so that they can become productive members of society.
On the other hand, latent functions refer to the unintended and unrecognized consequences of social
actions or institutions. These are the hidden, unintended, or unacknowledged functions that may
not be immediately apparent or obvious. For example, the latent function of education might be to
socialize students into the norms and values of society, or to reinforce social inequalities by
perpetuating the status quo.
Corruption is a significant problem in India, affecting politics, business, and public services. It
impedes economic growth, exacerbates poverty and inequality, and undermines public trust in
government. Merton's concept of manifest and latent functions can help to understand the
persistence of corruption in Indian society. According to Merton's concept of manifest and latent
functions, corruption in Indian society has both intended and unintended consequences.
The manifest function of corruption is that it provides benefits to the individuals involved in corrupt
activities. For example, it can allow them to acquire wealth, power, and influence. This can create a
culture of impunity where corrupt individuals are able to act without fear of punishment.
However, the latent function of corruption in Indian society is that it undermines the social
institutions and norms that are meant to prevent it. Corruption erodes public trust in government
and undermines the rule of law. It can also create a culture of cynicism and resignation, where
individuals believe that corruption is simply a part of everyday life and cannot be eliminated.
Moreover, corruption can create and perpetuate social inequality by favouring those with wealth
and power over those who do not have such resources. This can lead to a concentration of power
and resources in the hands of a few, leading to social and economic disparities.
However, there are several limitations to its application in this context. One of the limitations is that
Merton's concept overemphasizes individual actions and intentions while corruption in Indian
society is often a result of systemic issues such as a lack of transparency, weak enforcement
mechanisms, and inadequate checks and balances.
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Another limitation of Merton's concept is its inability to capture the complexity of corruption in
Indian society. Corruption involves various actors and practices, making it challenging to categorize
its functions as either manifest or latent.
Furthermore, Merton's concept does not give much attention to cultural factors that may influence
the persistence of corruption in Indian society, such as norms and values that prioritize loyalty to
family or community over the public interest.
Additionally, Merton's concept does not provide clear guidance on how to address corruption in
Indian society. Instead, it focuses more on describing the problem rather than providing solutions
or recommendations for change.
Therefore, while Merton's concept can be helpful in analyzing the persistence of corruption in Indian
society, it should be used alongside other frameworks that take into account the systemic and
cultural factors that contribute to the problem and provide actionable solutions for change.
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Question 4.
(a) How does Weber use the notion of ‘ideal types’ in his theory of
bureaucracy? 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce with the concept of Ideal Type given by Weber.
 Define Bureaucracy as per Weber
 Mention the Ideal Types of Bureaucracy as per Weber.
 Mention some shortcoming or criticism of Ideal Types.
Solution
Max Weber's concept of Ideal Type is an abstract model that serves as a standard for comparing and
analyzing social phenomena. Ideal Types are not empirical reality but rather a theoretical construct
that helps to identify the essential features of a social phenomenon. Weber believed that Ideal Types
are constructed through the process of abstraction, where the researcher separates and simplifies
the various components of a social phenomenon and identifies its defining features. Ideal Types are
analytical tools that help to identify patterns and regularities in social phenomena and are often
used in comparative analysis to identify similarities and differences across different societies or
historical periods.
According to Max Weber, bureaucracy is a system of hierarchical organization designed to
accomplish complex tasks efficiently. It is characterized by a clear hierarchy of authority, division
of labor, formal rules and procedures, impersonal relationships, and career opportunities based on
merit.
Like many of Weber's other ideas, bureaucracy is linked to the Ideal Type idea, and Weber
associated it to the growing rationalisation of society. Weber asserts that the most "rational" method
of exercising power over people is through bureaucracy.
Weber specified a few typical bureaucracy-related features or Ideal types, which
includes:
1. The offices are organized into a ‘hierarchical system.’
2. Authority is derived from position in organizational structure.
3. The incumbent is not allowed to appropriate the position.
4. Positions always remains a part of the organisations.
5. Objective criteria are used to choose the staff.
6. Competence and merit are the main criteria in recruitment.
7. Work is specialised in bureaucracy and staff is trained accordingly.
8. The bureaucracy's work is a full-time career.
9. Offices are used to organise work, and the tasks that need to be completed are called as
official duties.
10. Decisions are made using a set of abstract and rational rules.
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11. Bureaucrats are supposed to carry out executive orders without bias or value addition.
12. Administrative acts, decisions, and rules are written down and recorded.
13. Modern bureaucracy is distinguished by its rationalism and objectivity.
By using ideal types, Weber was able to identify patterns and regularities in bureaucratic
organizations that might not have been apparent otherwise. However, he also recognized that no
actual bureaucracy perfectly matched the ideal type, and that variations in bureaucratic structures
and practices could be found in different contexts.
Max Weber's Ideal Types have faced several criticisms from sociologists. The first criticism is the
lack of empirical evidence to support them, as Ideal Types are theoretical constructs not based on
any real-world data. Therefore, their validity in practical situations can be questionable. Secondly,
critics argue that the Ideal Types can oversimplify complex social phenomena, as they break down
a phenomenon into its essential characteristics and may overlook important details and nuances.
Furthermore, some scholars argue that Weber's Ideal Types have a Eurocentric bias, as they are
based on Western bureaucratic models and may not apply to non-Western contexts. Finally, Ideal
Types are static models, limiting their usefulness in understanding how social phenomena evolve
over time and adapt to changing circumstances.
Overall, Weber's use of ideal types in his theory of bureaucracy provided a framework for
understanding the essential characteristics of bureaucratic organizations and comparing them
across different contexts.
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(b) In what way 'Interpretative' method different from 'positivist' approach

in the study of social phenomena. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce with definition of Interpretivism and Positivism.
 Discuss the ways in which 'Interpretative' method is different from 'positivist' approach in
the study of social phenomena. (Should be the major part of answer)
 Discuss the ways in which 'Interpretative' method and 'positivist' approach can complement
each other in the study of social phenomena.
Solution
Interpretivism is a research approach that emphasizes understanding the subjective experiences,
meanings, and interpretations of individuals and groups, using qualitative research methods to
explore social phenomena in their cultural, historical, and social contexts. On the other hand,
Positivism is a research approach that emphasizes using empirical, quantitative methods to discover
universal laws and patterns in natural and social phenomena, seeking to establish causal
relationships between variables.
The interpretive method and positivist approach represent two different paradigms for studying
social phenomena. The interpretive method focuses on understanding the subjective experiences
and meanings of individuals and groups, while the positivist approach emphasizes objective,
measurable social facts.
The interpretive method typically uses qualitative research methods such as interviews,
observations, and case studies to gather data, while the positivist approach uses quantitative
methods such as surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis.
Another key difference between the two approaches is their approach to understanding social
phenomena. The interpretive method seeks to understand social phenomena in their cultural,
historical, and social contexts, while the positivist approach aims to discover universal laws and
patterns that can be applied across different contexts. Additionally, the positivist approach seeks to
establish causal relationships between variables, while the interpretive method focuses on
understanding the complex, interrelated factors that shape social phenomena. In terms of the
researcher's role, the interpretive method encourages the researcher to be actively involved in the
research process and to acknowledge their subjective positionality and biases. In contrast, the
positivist approach aims to remove the researcher's subjectivity and bias as much as possible and
maintain a value-free and objective stance.
The interpretive method often involves developing theory through an iterative process of data
collection and analysis, whereas the positivist approach typically starts with a hypothesis or theory
that is tested through empirical research. Sampling is also approached differently in the two
paradigms. In the interpretive method, sampling is often purposeful and seeks to select participants
who have rich and diverse experiences and perspectives, while in the positivist approach, sampling
is often based on probability and seeks to obtain a representative sample of a population.
Finally, the interpretive method emphasizes ethical considerations such as informed consent,
confidentiality, and protecting the well-being of participants, while the positivist approach may
focus more on the scientific rigor and validity of the research.
In terms of data analysis, the interpretive method often employs interpretive frameworks such as
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thematic analysis or discourse analysis, while the positivist approach often uses statistical
techniques to test hypotheses and establish causal relationships.
However, the interpretive method and positivist approach can also complement each other in
studying social phenomena. The interpretive method can provide a deeper understanding of the
subjective experiences and meanings of individuals and groups, while the positivist approach can
provide a more rigorous and systematic way of testing hypotheses and establishing causal
relationships.
One such example of a sociologists who has used both interpretive and positivist approaches in their
research is Max Weber. In his famous study, "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism,"
Weber used an interpretive approach to explore the relationship between religion and economic
development. He conducted in-depth interviews with individuals from various Protestant
denominations to understand how their religious beliefs influenced their attitudes towards work
and wealth accumulation. At the same time, Weber also used a positivist approach to analyze
statistical data on economic development in Protestant countries compared to Catholic countries.
He found that Protestantism was associated with a higher level of economic development, which
supported his interpretive analysis of the role of religion in shaping economic attitudes.
To sum up, the interpretive method and positivist approach have distinct differences in their
assumptions, methods, and objectives, representing varying viewpoints on how to comprehend and
examine social phenomena. Nevertheless, researchers can obtain a more complete understanding of
social phenomena by merging the interpretive method and positivist approach, considering both
subjective experiences and objective patterns and laws.
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(c) Using Mead’s theory of symbolic interactions, discuss the stages in the
formation of gender identity. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of symbolic interactionism.
 Briefly mention Mead's idea of development of self in stages.
 Explain how it help us understand stages in the formation of gender identity.
Solution
Symbolic interactionism is the interaction of humans through symbols such as words, definitions,
roles, gestures, rituals, and so on. The dynamic patterns of social action and social relationship are
the focus of symbolic interactionism. George Herbert Mead's theory of 'Self and Identity' has made
significant contributions to 'Symbolic Interactionism'.
According to Mead, human thought, experience, and behaviour are ultimately "social." They derive
their nature from the fact that humans communicate by employing "symbols," of which language is
the most significant.
According to Mead, the act of playing a role helps people create their own sense of who they are.
One can think about themselves by putting themselves in other people's shoes.
Mead claims that the "Self" is not something that is inborn. There are two basic stages in the creation
of the "Self," which is learned during childhood. The first one is referred to as the "play stage".
Children play roles that are not their own in this stage. The "game stage" is the second phase of the
self-development process. Children learn to see themselves from the perspective of the other players
or from the standpoint of ′ the generalised other ′ when engaging in a game stage.
Mead’s theory of symbolic interactions can also help us understand stages in the formation of
gender identity.
During the play stage, children engage in imaginative play that involves taking on roles and
identities. They may experiment with gendered behaviors and roles, trying on different gender
identities in their play. For example, a girl may play with dolls or wear dresses, while a boy may
play with trucks or dress up as a superhero. Through these playful interactions, children learn about
gender and explore what it means to be a boy or a girl in their social environment. Play also provides
children with an opportunity to observe and mimic the behaviours of their "significant others" -
such as parents, siblings, peers, and media figures - and to experiment with different social roles
and norms. For example, a boy may play the role of a father and mimic the behaviours of his own
father or other male role models, while a girl may play the role of a mother and mimic the
behaviours of her own mother or other female role models.
During the game stage, children become more aware of the rules and expectations of their social
environment, including gender norms and roles. They learn to internalize these norms and identify
with the gender that aligns with their biological sex. In the game stage, children begin to participate
in more structured and rule-bound activities, such as sports, board games, and other group
activities. These activities require children to take on specific roles and follow specific rules, which
helps to reinforce gender roles and expectations.
For example, in team sports such as soccer or basketball, boys are often encouraged to be more
competitive and assertive, while girls are encouraged to be more cooperative and nurturing.
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These expectations are reinforced through the rules of the game and the behaviours of coaches and
other authority figures.
Although Mead's theory of symbolic interactions has been criticized for neglecting biological factors
and oversimplifying gender roles, which limits its explanatory power in real-world situations, it
remains useful for understanding gender identity formation.
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Section-B
5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each:
(a) For Marx, class divisions are outcomes of ‘exploitation’ Discuss. 10 marks
Approach
 Explain Marx's theory of class divisions.
 Explain Marx's concept of exploitation.
 Discuss how exploitation leads to class divisions.
 Provide some criticism of Marx Theory.
Solution
Marx's theory of class divisions is a central concept in his broader theory of historical materialism.
According to Marx, class divisions are a fundamental feature of capitalist societies and are the result
of the unequal distribution of wealth and power.
Marx identified two main classes in capitalist societies: the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. The
bourgeoisie are the owners of the means of production (such as factories, machinery, and raw
materials) and the ones who control the distribution of goods and services. The proletariat, on the
other hand, are the workers who do not own the means of production and are dependent on selling
their labor to the bourgeoisie in order to earn a living.
As per Marx bourgeoisie exploits the proletariat in order to extract surplus value from their labor
by paying them less than the value they produce. Marx believed that exploitation creates alienation,
as workers become disconnected from the products of their labor and lose control over the process
of production, leading to a sense of powerlessness and estrangement from their own creativity and
labor.
Marx believed that exploitation by the bourgeoisie creates a fundamental conflict of interests
between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, leading to class divisions. This conflict can lead to the
development of distinct class identities and consciousness, with the working class becoming aware
of its exploitation and engaging in collective action to challenge the power of the bourgeoisie. As
class consciousness grows, class divisions become more pronounced, and class-based conflict and
struggle can arise as the working class seeks to improve its own conditions.
According to Marx, class formation has existed in the past, such as in ancient and feudal societies
with slave owners and slaves or landowners and serfs. Nevertheless, Marx believed that ultimately,
the exploitation and resulting class divisions would lead to a revolution that overthrows the
capitalist system, resulting in a society without classes.
Critics argue that Marx's theory oversimplifies social class and ignores other factors such as
education, culture, and lifestyle that contribute to class divisions. Weber and others have
highlighted that apart from economic basis, there are other basis of stratification in society. Critics
also argue that factors such as discrimination and unequal access to resources can create class
divisions, not just exploitation. For example, gender or racial discrimination can create divisions
within the working class where some groups are more marginalized and exploited than others.
Despite not being universally accepted and facing criticism and alternative perspectives, Marx's
theory of class divisions as outcomes of exploitation remains a significant contribution to the study
of social inequality.
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(b) What are the distinctive features of social organization of work in slave
society? 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining the concept of social organization of work.
 Explain distinctive features of social organization of work in slave society.
Solution
Social organization of work refers to how work is structured and carried out in a society, including
relationships, roles, and interactions between individuals in the workplace. It encompasses division
of labor, job roles, and social and cultural values that shape work.
The social organization of work can have significant impacts on individuals and society as a whole,
influencing issues such as income inequality, social mobility, and the distribution of power and
resources.
The organization of work in a primitive slave society is characterized by several distinct features.
1. The major economic activity in primitive slave societies is hunting and food gathering.
Individuals use their skills and knowledge to acquire food and resources for their
communities. These societies do not have advanced methods of production or industries, and
subsistence is the primary focus of their economy.
2. In terms of the mode of production, primitive slave societies typically have an ancient mode
of production where some individuals have mastered the skills and tools of hunting and
gathering, while others are enslaved by them. The enslaved individuals are forced to work
for their masters.
3. Due to limited occupational differentiation primarily based on birth, sex, and age, the
division of labor in such societies is low. There are no specialized economic organizations,
and individuals are expected to perform multiple tasks.
4. Because of poor specialization, productivity is low, resulting in little or no surplus. As a
result, stratification is simpler in such societies, and inequalities are low. Most people are
engaged in similar activities, and social mobility is limited.
5. Private ownership of the means of production is almost non-existent in primitive slave
societies, and religion dominates economic life. The religious beliefs and practices of the
society often influence the organization of work, and the community's economic activities are
often tied to their religious practices.
6. The level of innovation is low in primitive slave societies, with little or no technological
advancements. The lack of access to education and resources, combined with the limited
division of labor, hinders technological progress.
7. The family plays an important role in production, with individuals relying on their families
to produce goods and services. In such societies, work and family life are closely intertwined,
and familial relationships play a significant role in the division of labor.
8. Inanimate sources of power are used in the form of human labor and animal power. There
are no complex machines or industrial processes in primitive slave societies, and individuals
rely on their own physical strength and the strength of domesticated animals to carry out
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work.
9. Alienation from work is low in such societies, as workers enjoy the fruit of their production.
Because individuals are closely connected to the products of their labor, they have a sense of
ownership in their work.
10. Finally, there is no clear separation between domestic economy and community economy,
with individuals participating in both to meet their needs. The household is often the primary
site of production, and the community is dependent on the household's output to meet its
needs.
In conclusion, the organization of work in a primitive slave society is characterized by a unique set
of features that differ from the complex production systems and specialized labor of modern
societies.
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(c) Discuss T. H. Marshall’s views on citizenship. 10 marks

Approach
 Introduce by mentioning TH Marshal's work on citizenship.
 Explain the three types of rights/citizenships as per TH Marshal.
 Provide criticism of TH Marshal's concept of citizenship.
Solution
T.H. Marshall was a British sociologist and historian, best known for his influential work on the
development of citizenship and social rights in modern societies. In his essay "Citizenship and Social
Class," he argued that citizenship is not just a legal status, but a social and cultural one as well.
Marshall identified three main types of rights that are associated with citizenship: civil rights,
political rights, and social rights. Thus, he identified three types of citizenship: civil, political, and
social citizenship. Each type of citizenship is associated with a different set of rights and
responsibilities.
Civil citizenship emerged as a result of the rise of the concept of property ownership as it required
certain mutual obligation to respect each other's property rights. Civil citizenship refers to the
individual's legal rights and protections. These include the right to free speech, freedom of religion,
the right to a fair trial, and protection from discrimination. Civil citizenship is important because it
provides individuals with the legal framework necessary to participate in society as equal citizens.
Without civil citizenship, individuals may not have the legal protections necessary to live their lives
freely and without fear of discrimination or oppression.
Political citizenship emerged when free speech developed and everyone was treated equal by means
like universal adult franchise. Political citizenship refers to the individual's right to participate in
the political process. This includes the right to vote, the right to stand for election, and the right to
form political parties and associations. Political citizenship is important because it provides
individuals with a voice in the decision-making processes that shape their lives. Without political
citizenship, individuals may not have a say in the laws and policies that govern their societies.
Social citizenship refers to the individual's right to access social services and resources. These
include the right to education, healthcare, social welfare, and other public services. Social citizenship
is important because it provides individuals with the basic resources necessary to live their lives
with dignity and security. Without social citizenship, individuals may not have access to the
resources necessary to achieve their full potential and participate fully in society. Marshal regarded
the right to social welfare as an important safeguard against section of the population being
enfranchised in the theory, but in effect, excluded from the society by poverty
Marshall believed that the three components are acquired in the order set out above. He also argued
that the contemporary capitalism is antithetical to citizenship which inherently treats everyone
equally, but capitalism leads to gross inequality.
While T.H. Marshall's ideas about citizenship have been highly influential, they have also been
subject to criticism. Feminist authors have noted that women's acquisition of citizenship
entitlements has not necessarily followed the order given by TH Marshal. For example, voting rights
in many countries were given before they were given full equality before the law or the civic
equality.
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Some critics contend that Marshall's social citizenship overemphasizes state dependency, neglecting
individual responsibility. Marshall's theory is confined to citizenship within the nation-state and
fails to account for global citizenship or the impact of global issues like climate change and
inequality on citizenship rights.
Despite the criticisms of Marshall's theory, its influence can be seen in the development of modern
welfare states and the protection of individual rights within the context of the nation-state.
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(d) Distinguish between Political Parties and Pressure Groups. 10 marks

Approach
 Define the concept of Political Parties and Pressure Groups
 Provide difference between Political Parties and Pressure Groups (Should be the major part of
answer)
 Provide some similarities between Political Parties and Pressure Groups.
Solution
A political party is a group of people who come together to contest elections and hold power in the
government. Political parties generally have a shared set of principles and policies that they
advocate for in order to influence government decision-making and public policy. On the other
hand, a pressure group is a group of people who come together to influence government policies
and decisions without seeking to hold power in the government. Pressure groups typically have a
specific goal or set of goals they are trying to achieve and engage in activities such as lobbying,
demonstrations, and campaigns to bring attention to their cause and put pressure on policymakers
to act in accordance with their interests.
Political parties and pressure groups are two important actors in modern democratic systems, but
they differ in significant ways. Political parties seek to gain power in the government and contest
elections to form a government. In contrast, pressure groups do not field candidates for public office
and are not seeking to hold power in the government. Instead, pressure groups focus on advocating
for specific issues or causes, and they often have a more fluid and informal structure compared to
political parties, which have a hierarchical structure and formal membership. Political parties
typically have a broad range of policy goals, while pressure groups tend to focus on a specific issue
or set of issues. Political parties have a formal relationship with the government and are recognized
as an integral part of the political process, while pressure groups are not. Political parties also have
a formal role in the legislative process, while pressure groups must rely on lobbying and other forms
of indirect influence to affect legislation. Furthermore, political parties are accountable to the
electorate and are subject to periodic elections, whereas pressure groups are not. Political parties
have a public platform and advertise their policies to the electorate, while pressure groups focus on
lobbying and direct action to influence policymakers. Political parties typically have a leader or
leadership structure, while pressure groups are often led by charismatic individuals or coalitions of
groups. Finally, political parties often have the support of the media, while pressure groups may
have to work harder to gain media attention. These differences between political parties and
pressure groups highlight their distinct roles in the political process and demonstrate the
importance of both in modern democratic systems.
Despite their differences, political parties and pressure groups share several similarities. First, both
seek to influence policy and shape public opinion, albeit through different means. Second, both aim
to mobilize public support and engage citizens in political issues. Third, both may be driven by
ideology and seek to advance their own interests or goals. Fourth, both can contribute to democratic
decision-making by offering a range of perspectives and voices. Fifth, both are subject to regulation
and legal restrictions, such as campaign finance disclosure rules and lobbying restrictions.
Ultimately, both political parties and pressure groups are vital components of a pluralistic society,
where diverse interests and perspectives are represented and engaged in the political process.
In conclusion both political parties and pressure groups are important for a democracy as they share
the goal of influencing policy and shaping public opinion, and aim to mobilize public support and
contribute to democratic decision-making.
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(e) “According to Durkheim, the essence of religion in modern society is the

same as religion in primitive society”. Comment. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce with general approach of Durkheim towards religion
 Provide the essence of religion in primitive society as per Durkheim.
 Provide the essence of religion in modern society as per Durkheim.
 Provide the comparison between religion in modern and primitive societies.
 Provide some criticism of Durkheim's theory on religion.
 Provide a balance conclusion.
Solution
Emile Durkheim believed that the fundamental essence of religion, which has persisted throughout
history and in all societies, does not derive from any enigmatic supernatural forces or fear of nature.
Instead, it is rooted in a reality that can be found within society itself. This reality is manifested in
the individual consciousness through the dichotomy of the world into two distinct realms: the
sacred and the profane.
Durkheim's theory of religion is exemplified in his study of the Arunta tribe, where the totem
represents both the object of veneration and the symbol of the clan. The feelings of respect,
obligation, and reverence evoked by the sacred object are equivalent to those stirred up by society,
which is regarded as a superior power. The relationship of dependence and inferiority towards
society is analogous to that with the sacred object. For him an object of worship merely serves as a
symbolic representation of the collective beliefs and sentiments held by the society's members.
Durkheim believed that primitive religion was essentially a form of worship of the collective, with
individuals expressing their devotion to the group through their religious practices.
According to Durkheim, modern societies were characterized by a more individualistic culture, and
religion served to provide a sense of community and social cohesion in this context. He believed
that modern religion was focused on the individual rather than the group, and that it served as a
means of providing individuals with a sense of purpose and meaning in their lives.
Durkheim argued that the essence of religion in modern society was essentially the same as that of
religion in primitive societies, although the nature of this essence was different. He believed that
both types of religion served to provide a sense of community and social cohesion, although the
way in which this was achieved was different. In primitive societies, religion served to reinforce
collective consciousness, while in modern societies, religion served to provide a sense of purpose
and meaning to individuals.
Durkheim's argument regarding the essence of religion in modern and primitive societies has been
the subject of much debate and criticism. Some scholars have argued that Durkheim's view of
primitive society was overly simplistic and romanticized, and that his understanding of modern
society was too limited.
Others have criticized his focus on religion, arguing that other factors, such as economics and
politics, play a more important role in shaping modern society.
Although Durkheim's conception of religion in modern societies has received criticism, the
emergence of new religious movements in contemporary society provides empirical support for his
ideas. These movements vary greatly and include spiritual groups, self-help groups, sects, and cults.
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Question 6.
(a) “Power is not a zero-sum game.” Discuss with reference to Weber’s and
Parsons’ views. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce with a general definition of Power
 Explain Weber's views on Power
 Explain Parsons's views on Power
 Provide some criticism of both the views
Solution
Power is the ability or capacity to influence or control the behaviours of others, either through
coercion or persuasion. It can be exercised through various means, such as physical force, authority,
social status, wealth, knowledge, or charisma.
Weber viewed power as a zero-sum game which means that power is not something that can be
shared equally among individuals or groups in society. Instead, power is a limited resource that one
person or group can only possess at the expense of others. Weber famously defines power in his
work Economy and Society, 1922 as “The chance of men, to realize their own will, in a communal
action, even against the will of others, who are participating in a social action.” This ability to make
others do what they do not want to do is the essence of power. In this sense, power is always
exercised in a context of conflict or competition.
Weber argued that power is concentrated in the hands of those who control the means of
production, such as land, capital, and technology. These power holders are able to use their
resources to influence others and maintain their position of dominance. Weber referred to this as
the "power elite" and believed that they were able to maintain their power through a combination
of economic, political, and cultural means.
In Parsons' view, power is not a zero-sum game. He believed that power can be shared and that the
exercise of power can lead to positive outcomes for society as a whole. According to Parsons, power
is an essential component of any social system. He argued that power is a means by which society
maintains its equilibrium and that it is distributed among different roles and positions within a
society. Since it is very difficult for society to exercise power by itself, social positions are created
which are functionally more important and power is exercised through them.
The whole premise of Talcott Parsons argument is that every social system has to have a value
consensus. When value consensus exists, there is also an agreement on the common goals, which
have to be achieved. That is why Power is the shared resource of the whole community to achieve
goals, a commitment on which has been made through public policy.
Further he argued that power of the community can increase or decrease, for instance when
technology improves ability of community to achieve common goals also increases. So, Power is a
‘variable sum concept’ not a zero some concept.
Parsons' functionalist perspective on power has been criticized for its idealistic view that power is
shared and evenly distributed across various roles and positions in society. Critics argue that this
notion overlooks the actual power dynamics in society.
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On the other hand, Weber's view of power as a zero-sum game has been criticized for its lack of
complexity, as it fails to consider the potential for individuals and groups to work collaboratively
and cooperatively to achieve common goals.
However, both views also complement each other by acknowledging the potential for collaboration
and cooperation, while also recognizing the reality of power dynamics and its concentration in
certain individuals or groups in current times.
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(b) Critically examine the functionalist views on the institution of family.

How do those-help us in understanding family in the present times? 20
marks
Approach
 Introduce answer with general view of Functionalist
 Provide functionalist perspective on the institution of family and its main assumptions.
 Elaborate on the strengths and weaknesses of this perspective.
 Discuss how the functionalist perspective helps us in understanding the family in present
times.
 Provide a balance conclusion
Solution
The functionalist perspective on the institution of family is a sociological approach that views the
family as a fundamental institution in society that performs essential functions. The functionalist
approach to family can be traced back to the work of Emile Durkheim, who argued that the family
is a social institution that contributes to the stability and cohesion of society.
According to functionalists, the family plays a vital role in socializing and educating children,
regulating sexual behaviours, providing emotional support and care, and ensuring economic
stability. The family is seen as a basic unit of society that provides a sense of belonging and identity
to its members, thereby strengthening social bonds. The family also provides a social and economic
safety net for its members, which helps to maintain social stability. One of the main assumptions of
the functionalist perspective on the family is that family is required to perform essential functions
for the benefit of society as a whole. Another key assumption of functionalists is that the family is a
harmonious and cohesive unit. Functionalists also assume that there is a division of labor within the
family. This division of labor is based on gender roles, with men typically assuming the role of
breadwinners and women typically assuming the role of caregivers and homemakers.
Functionalists argue that this division of labor is natural and necessary for the smooth functioning
of the family and society as a whole. According to the functionalists like George Peter Murdock, in
his ‘Social structure, 1949’, family is viewed as a universal social institution as it existed in all kinds
of societies from hunting gathering to industrial societies.
Various thinkers have scrutinized the functional aspect of the family, with some pointing out its
potential drawbacks. For instance, Norman Bell argues in their 1968 article "The Emotionally
Disturbed Child as the Family Scapegoat" that families can be dysfunctional for children, as parents
may use them as scapegoats to release their tensions. Leach notes that "parents and children
huddled together in their loneliness take too much out of each other. Parents fight, children rebel."
Meanwhile, feminist scholars like Margaret Benston argue that families perpetuate unpaid labor,
which can be seen as exploitative. Finally, in his 1975 book "Social Theory and the Family," Morgan
suggests that although the family is often depicted as a remarkably harmonious social institution,
this may not always be the case in reality.
In the current times, the family's functions have undergone changes due to various factors such as
the nuclearization of families, industrialization, and the rise of bureaucratic institutions. For
example Ronald Fletcher views the family as a multi-functional social institution, but its secondary
functions are now being carried out by bureaucratic organizations like schools, old age homes,
hospitals, play-schools etc.
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Moreover, with the rise of modern welfare states, the responsibility of social control has shifted to
law and order maintaining institutions. The family is no longer responsible for the production
function or for providing economic placement in society. The modern division of labor has opened
up numerous employment opportunities. Additionally, the concept of old age homes has led to the
transfer of the responsibility of caring for the elderly from families to institutions.
However, the functionalist perspective still remains relevant in understanding family in the present
times. For example, the family still serves as a primary unit of socialization for children, teaching
them cultural values and norms, as well as providing emotional support and care. In modern times,
this role of the family has become even more important as children are increasingly exposed to
external influences through technology and social media. Moreover, the family provides a source of
stability and support for its members, particularly in times of crisis or economic hardship. During
the COVID-19 pandemic, for instance, families have been relied upon to provide emotional support
and care for sick family members, as well as to navigate the challenges of remote work and virtual
learning. In addition, families have been crucial in providing economic support for their members
who have lost their jobs or businesses during the pandemic.
In conclusion, the functionalist perspective views the family as a fundamental institution in society
that performs essential functions. While it has faced criticism for assumptions about gender roles
and potential drawbacks like exploitation and dysfunction, it remains relevant in understanding the
role of family in socialization, emotional support, and economic stability in modern times.
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(c) What do you understand by institutionalization of ‘live-in relationship’?

10 marks
Approach
 Define the term "live-in relationship".
 Explain what is meant by "institutionalization" of ‘live-in relationship’.
 Discuss the current status of live-in relationships in the world and in India.
 Discuss the impact of "institutionalization" of ‘live-in relationship’.
 Conclude with your comment on institutionalization of ‘live-in relationship’
Solution
The term "live-in relationship" refers to a romantic relationship between two people who live
together in the same household without being legally married.
In recent years, there has been increasing debate about the institutionalization of live-in
relationships, which refers to the process of incorporating this type of relationship into the norms
and values of society, often through legal or formal recognition.
Currently, the status of live-in relationships varies widely around the world. In many countries,
including most Western countries, live-in relationships are relatively common and are generally
socially accepted, although they may not have legal recognition. In some countries, such as India,
live-in relationships are still relatively uncommon, and there may be significant social stigma
attached to them.
In India, there have been recent efforts to provide legal recognition and protection for couples in
live-in relationships. There is no law specifically addressing live-in relationships, but the Indian
judiciary has developed jurisprudence over the years through a series of judgements. According to
the SC judgment in Badri Prasad Vs Dy. Director of Consolidation (1978) live-in relationships in
India are legal but subject to caveats like age of marriage, consent and soundness of mind. In 2010,
the Indian Supreme Court ruled that couples in live-in relationships have the same legal rights as
married couples in terms of property and financial support. However, the legal status of live-in
relationships in India remains somewhat ambiguous, and there is ongoing debate about whether
they should be fully institutionalized. A live-in relationship, although recognised by the judicial
system, lacks cultural approval and remains stigmatised. Proper legal enactment is essential to
safeguard the rights and interests of such parties.
If live-in relationships were to be fully institutionalized, there would likely be both positive and
negative impacts. On the positive side, institutionalization could provide legal protections for
couples and their children, reduce the stigma associated with non-traditional relationship
structures, and promote individual autonomy and freedom. Even Simone de Beauvoir believed that
live-in relationships could offer greater freedom and equality between partners than traditional
marriage. On the negative side, some argue that such institutionalization could erode the institution
of marriage and family, leading to negative social consequences. British sociologist Anthony
Giddens has argued that live-in relationships reflect changes in modern society, including greater
individualization and a weakening of traditional social norms. Whereas Zygmunt Bauman has
described live-in relationships as a form of "liquid love," in which romantic relationships are more
fluid and uncertain than in traditional marriage.
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Men and women have greater chances of succumbing to promiscuousness, with all the associated
medical and social hazards that go along with promiscuity.
Overall, the question of whether to institutionalize live-in relationships is a complex and
controversial one, with arguments on both sides. Ultimately, the decision will depend on a variety
of cultural, social, and political factors, and may differ from country to country.
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Question 7.
(a) How is religious revivalism different from communalism? Elaborate
with suitable examples from the India context. 20 marks
Approach
 Define the concept of religious revivalism and communalism
 Distinguish between the two also elaborate with suitable examples from the Indian context.
(Should be the major part of answer)
 Highlight some overlap or similarities between the two.
Solution
Religious revivalism refers to a renewed interest or enthusiasm for a particular religion or religious
movement, often characterized by an emphasis on personal spiritual experiences, individual piety,
and a return to traditional religious values and practices. It can involve a revival of religious
practices, beliefs, and rituals, and may lead to a growth in the number of adherents to the religion
or movement. Religious revivalism can occur within established religions or as a result of the
emergence of new religious movements.
On the other hand, Communalism refers to a social and political ideology that emphasizes the
importance of the community or group identity over individual interests or identities. It can involve
the promotion and protection of a particular community's religious, ethnic, cultural, or linguistic
identity, often at the expense of others. Communalism can lead to social and political tensions
between different communities and can contribute to conflicts, such as communal violence.
The two concepts differ from each other in following ways:
1. Religious revivalism is a movement that aims to revive and restore traditional religious
practices and values, while communalism is an ideology that seeks to advance the interests
of a particular community. For example, the Arya Samaj movement was a religious revivalist
movement that aimed to reform Hinduism in the late 19th century, while the Hindu
Mahasabha was a communal movement that aimed to promote Hindu interests over other
religious communities in the early 20th century.
2. Religious revivalism often involves a renewed interest in the teachings and practices of a
particular religion, while communalism is characterized by a sense of exclusivity and a belief
in the superiority of one's own community. The Sikh revivalist movement of the 20th century
aimed to renew interest in the teachings of Sikhism, while communal violence between Sikhs
and Hindus in the aftermath of Indira Gandhi's assassination in 1984 was marked by hostility
and exclusivity between the two communities.
3. Religious revivalism often involves a return to a more traditional and conservative
interpretation of religious teachings, while communalism may take a radical and militant
approach towards other communities. The Deobandi movement sought to promote a
puritanical and orthodox interpretation of Islam in the late 19th century, while extremist
groups like those involved in the Babri Masjid demolition in 1992 and Godhra riots in 2002
represent a militant approach towards other communities.
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4. Religious revivalism may involve a rejection of modern values and practices in favour of
traditional religious values, while communalism may be driven by a sense of alienation from
mainstream society. The Ramakrishna Mission rejected modern values and promoted
traditional spiritual values, while the Khalistan movement in the 1980s and 1990s was driven
by a sense of alienation among Sikhs in India.
5. Religious revivalism often arises from a desire to protect and preserve religious traditions
and values, while communalism may be driven by political or economic interests. The Ram
Janmabhoomi movement in the late 1980s and early 1990s aimed to reclaim the birthplace of
Lord Ram for Hindus, while the Gujarat riots in 2002 were sparked by communal tensions
and economic competition between Hindus and Muslims.
6. Religious revivalism may be a response to a perceived decline in the practice or popularity
of a particular religion, while communalism may arise from historical grievances. The Bhakti
movement in medieval India was a response to the perceived decline of Vedic religion and
the rise of Islam, while the partition of India in 1947 was a result of historical grievances
between Hindus and Muslims.
7. Religious revivalism may focus on personal spiritual growth and religious practice, while
communalism may focus on collective identity and interests.
8. Religious revivalism may involve a rejection of colonial influences and a return to pre-
colonial religious traditions, while communalism may arise from the effects of colonialism.
The Swadeshi movement in India rejected British colonialism and called for a return to
indigenous traditions and practices, while communal tensions between Hindus and Muslims
in India were heightened by British colonial policies that favoured one community over the
other.
9. Religious revivalism may reject social reform and progressive values, while communalism
may promote social reform. For example, the Ahl-i Hadith movement seeks to return to the
original teachings of Islam and rejects any innovations or practices that are not based on these
sources, while the Dalit movement, which advocates for the rights of lower castes, has been
supported by various communal organizations.
10. Religious revivalism may reject political power and involvement, while communalism may
seek political power and representation. The Jain community in India traditionally focuses
on spiritual pursuits and avoids politics, while various communal organizations seek
political power and representation.
11. The resurgence of religious beliefs and practices may arise in response to evolving social and
cultural norms, whereas communalism may arise in response to perceived threats to the
dominant community's identity and interests. For instance, the Hare Krishna movement
emerged in the 1960s as a response to the changing social and cultural norms of the time and
aims to encourage devotion to Lord Krishna. On the other hand, various communal
organizations have sought to advance the interests of the dominant community by
responding to perceived threats from other communities.
Despite their contrasting natures, religious revivalism and communalism exhibit some similarities.
Both movements are centred around religion and community. While religious revivalism intends to
revive or restore traditional religious practices and values, communalism aims to promote the
interests of a specific community. Furthermore, both these movements may involve a rejection of
certain values or practices. Religious revivalism may reject modern values in preference for
traditional religious values, whereas communalism may oppose values that are deemed harmful to
the community.
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Both these movements may arise from a feeling of disaffection from mainstream society or culture
and may have political ramifications, attempting to shape or influence political power structures.
In conclusion religious revivalism seeks to revive traditional religious practices and values, while
communalism aims to promote the interests of a specific community. Both movements may involve
a rejection of certain values or practices and may have political ramifications.
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(b) Education is often viewed as an agency of social change. However, in

reality it could also reinforce inequalities and conservatism. Discuss. 20
marks
Approach
 Introduce answer with definition of Education
 Discuss how education can be an agency of social change.
 Discuss how education can reinforce inequalities and conservatism.
 Provide conclusion that offers actionable solutions to the problem.
Solution
Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that enable individuals
to understand the world around them, develop their potential, and lead fulfilling lives. It involves
formal and informal learning experiences, both inside and outside the classroom, and aims to
prepare individuals to participate fully in society and contribute to its development.
Education is often viewed as a powerful agent of social change due to its ability to shape people's
attitudes, beliefs, and values. By providing individuals with knowledge and skills, education can
broaden their understanding of the world and introduce them to new ideas and perspectives that
can promote social change. It can challenge traditional beliefs and encourage critical thinking,
creativity, and innovation. Education can also foster tolerance and acceptance of diversity, which
can promote social cohesion and reduce prejudice and discrimination. In addition to its role in
initiating social change, education also promotes the capacity to welcome and accept social change
easily and happily. Educated individuals are more likely to be open to new ideas and perspectives,
making them more adaptable to change. This adaptability is essential in a rapidly changing world,
where new ideas and technologies emerge at an unprecedented pace. Furthermore, education plays
a crucial role in promoting equality of opportunity. Modern education systems and schools provide
equal opportunities to members of society, regardless of their position in the system of stratification.
Education is an important tool for promoting social mobility and creating a more open society,
where individuals have the chance to succeed based on their abilities and hard work rather than
their social background. Education also has a close linkage with the economic system. Education is
essential to meeting the needs of the labor market and to scaling up industries. Technical education,
for example, played a crucial role in the industrial revolution by producing skilled workers that
could operate complex machinery. Education is thus an important factor in driving economic
growth and development. Finally, education opens up new vistas for deeper investigations and
research, leading to new discoveries and innovations that can bring desirable changes in society.
Education enables individuals to critically evaluate existing theories and knowledge, leading to new
insights and perspectives that can drive social change. By fostering research and innovation,
education can contribute to the creation of a better society.
While education is often viewed as a tool for social change, it can also reinforce existing inequalities
and conservatism. Modern education has come to be associated with formal schooling, and this
narrow focus on classroom learning often neglects other important learning opportunities. Scholars
argue that when education is based on the principle of equality, it can actually perpetuate inequality,
as power, wealth, and other resources play a greater role in determining educational outcomes in
such societies. The commercialization of education has further diluted its potential as a catalyst for
social change, creating unequal access to quality education based on one's social class.
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As a result, children from working-class families often receive an education that is limited in scope,
and that leads to only a limited range of career opportunities. Scholars such as Paul Willis and Pierre
Bourdieu have argued that education can also serve to reproduce cultural values and inequalities,
by providing an education that is suited to one's social class. In unequal societies, schools often
perpetuate cultural reproduction, leading to unequal educational outcomes. Factors such as rote
learning, poor infrastructure, lack of parental care, and a lack of feminine perspectives in education
also contribute to this problem. On the other hand, Marxist scholars like Louis Althusser and Bowles
and Gintis have critiqued education as a tool of the ruling classes to reinforce dominant ideology
and maintain the status quo, rather than promoting real social change. Ivan Illich has similarly
criticized schools for promoting a "hidden curriculum" that promotes existing social relations and
suppresses creativity and critical thinking, leading to a dependence on the capitalist system. To
overcome these challenges, scholars like Ivan Illich have suggested "deschooling" society,
promoting a shift away from traditional formal schooling and towards more creative and
experiential learning opportunities that allow individuals to develop their own unique skills and
knowledge.
In order to transform education into a tool for positive social change, steps such as emphasizing
critical thinking and creativity, promoting diversity and inclusivity, providing equal access to
quality education, fostering partnerships between educators and communities, and encouraging
lifelong learning can be taken. These strategies can help create an open, tolerant, and innovative
society that addresses social problems effectively.
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(c) According to Marx, capitalism transforms even the personal relationships

between men and women. Critically examine with illustrations from the
contemporary Indian context. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by briefly stating the nature of personal relationship between men and women
before capitalism.
 Show how capitalism has negatively transformed the personal relationships between men
and women in Indian context.
 Show how capitalism has positively transformed the personal relationships between men
and women in Indian context.
 Give a balance conclusion
Solution
It is generally accepted that in many pre-capitalist societies, family and kinship ties played a central
role in organizing social and economic life. Gender roles and relationships were often defined by
custom and tradition, rather than economic factors. Patriarchy was a common feature, where men
held more power and authority than women. Marriage and family were often seen as important
institutions for social stability and reproduction.
The way men and women relate to each other in family, work, and leisure has been transformed by
capitalism. In India, this transformation has resulted in changing gender roles, with men generally
expected to work outside the home and women expected to take care of the home and family.
Additionally, capitalism has commercialized personal relationships, including romantic
relationships, with industries such as matchmaking services, online dating, and the wedding
industry growing. The focus on productivity and efficiency in capitalism has also led to a disregard
for women's reproductive rights, with women in low-wage jobs often not having access to paid
maternity leave or other benefits. Furthermore, the traditional Indian family structure, characterized
by strong ties between extended family members, has been impacted, leading to a breakdown of
these ties and increased isolation. The rise of individualism has also led to a rise in domestic and
gender-based violence. Further the growing demand for materialistic aspirations in a relationship
and the inability of one partner to fulfil them often leads to conflict. This issue is frequently reported
in newspapers, highlighting instances where greed has prevailed over the importance of a
relationship. The Sheena Bora murder case is a prime example of a woman who married multiple
times to achieve her goals. Under capitalism, households are no longer just units of production.
Even if both partners are working, they may work in different locations, which reduces the time
spent together and strains the relationship between men and women.
Some argue that capitalism has led to positive changes aswell. It has provided women with greater
opportunities to participate in the workforce, which has helped to challenge traditional gender roles
and power imbalances in personal relationships. Additionally, capitalism has facilitated greater
access to education and information, which has empowered women and given them greater agency
in their personal relationships. Furthermore, capitalism has expanded the range of choices available
to both men and women, enabling them to make their own decisions about who they marry, how
many children they have, and other aspects of their personal lives. Besides, capitalism has helped
to shift societal attitudes towards gender roles, leading to greater acceptance of women in the public
sphere and more equitable treatment in personal relationships.
Finally, under capitalism, the family structure has transformed into a nuclear unit thus conjugal
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bond has become more significant than the consanguine bond, resulting in a positive effect on the
relationship between men and women.
In conclusion, capitalism has brought about significant changes in the way men and women relate
to each other, impacting traditional gender roles and family structures. While it has led to positive
developments in terms of women's empowerment and greater agency in personal relationships, it
has also brought about negative consequences such as increase in domestic violence.
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Question 8.
(a) How is the increasing use of technology changing the status of women
in Indian society? 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce with a definition of Technology.
 Provide the positive impact of use of technology in changing the status of women in Indian
society.
 Provide the positive impact of use of technology in changing the status of women in Indian
society.
 Show the Intersectionality of the impact of technology on women in Indian society.
 Mention the Policy changes needed to deal with negative impact of technology on women in
Indian society.
Solution
Technology can be seen as a set of knowledge, tools, and techniques that are used to create, produce,
and distribute goods and services in society. It is a socially constructed phenomenon that shapes
and is shaped by social and cultural factors. In this sense, technology is not just a product of scientific
advancements, but also reflects the values, beliefs, and priorities of the societies in which it is
developed and used.
Technology has impacted the status of woman in India in both positive and negative way. One of
the positive impacts of technology on the status of women is the increased access to information and
knowledge. Susan B. Barnes in her book "Online Connections: Internet Interpersonal Relationships,"
argues that technologies such as social media and other online platforms can provide new
opportunities for women to network, share information, and build communities. Technology has
facilitated the spread of education, especially to remote areas, and has enabled women to pursue
higher education and skill development. The internet has also created new opportunities for women
to work from home, enabling them to balance work and family responsibilities. Donna Haraway in
her essay "A Cyborg Manifesto," has shown that technology can be used to subvert traditional
gender roles and hierarchies. Technology has also provided women with greater access to
healthcare information and services, improving their health and well-being. Contraceptive
technology has also helped reduce maternal mortality and morbidity by enabling women to space
out their pregnancies and avoid unintended pregnancies.
However, technology has also contributed to the perpetuation of gender-based violence and
harassment. The anonymity of the internet has made it easier for perpetrators to stalk, harass, and
abuse women online.
Women in the tech industry have also faced discrimination and harassment, leading to a lack of
representation in leadership positions. Additionally, technology has led to the automation of jobs
traditionally held by women, resulting in job loss and decreased job security for women. Judy
Wajcman in her book "TechnoFeminism," argues that while technology has the potential to reduce
gender inequalities, it can also reproduce and reinforce them.
The impact of technology on women in Indian society is intersectional, with women from
marginalized communities being disproportionately affected.
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Women from lower socio-economic backgrounds may have limited access to technology and may
not be able to fully benefit from its advantages. Anupama Rao in her book "Caste Question," argues
that technology has been used as a tool to reinforce caste and gender hierarchies, and that Dalit
women have been particularly marginalized and excluded from technological advancements.
Additionally, the lack of representation of women and marginalized communities in the tech
industry has resulted in a lack of consideration for their unique needs and experiences.
Policies need to be put in place to address the negative impact of technology on women in Indian
society. This includes strengthening laws to combat online harassment and violence against women
and ensuring equal opportunities and representation for women in the tech industry. Government
initiatives should also focus on providing greater access to technology and promoting digital
literacy among women from marginalized communities.
While the use of technology has brought about positive changes in the status of women in Indian
society, there are still challenges that need to be addressed. The negative impact of technology on
women cannot be ignored, and policies need to be put in place to mitigate these challenges. It is
important to ensure that the benefits of technology are accessible to all women, regardless of their
socio-economic background, and that the tech industry takes into account the unique needs and
experiences of women and marginalized communities.
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(b) Write a short essay on the Latin American perspective on ‘dependency’.

20 marks
Approach
 Define the concept of dependency.
 Discuss the historical and political factors that contributed to the development of the
dependency theory.
 Provide the key features of the dependency theory.
 Provide criticism of dependency theory.
 Give a balance conclusion
Solution
The Latin American perspective on 'dependency' emerged in the mid-twentieth century as a way to
understand the region's economic and political relationships with developed countries. The concept
of dependency theory argues that underdeveloped countries, such as those in Latin America, are
dependent on the developed world for economic growth and development, which is reinforced by
historical and ongoing patterns of economic and political domination.
Colonization and exploitation by European powers have contributed to the development of
dependency patterns in Latin America. The Great Depression and subsequent economic and
political crises further weakened local economies and reinforced the dominance of foreign powers.
The dependency theory was developed to explain why Latin American countries were unable to
achieve economic development and social progress.
The key features of the dependency theory include the center-periphery relationship in which
wealthy developed countries (the "center") control and exploit underdeveloped countries (the
"periphery") for their benefit. Multinational corporations also play a significant role in reinforcing
dependency relationships by operating in underdeveloped countries and extracting resources and
labor at a low cost. Global economic systems like the World Trade Organization and International
Monetary Fund are also seen as perpetuating dependency relationships by favouring developed
countries and promoting free trade policies.
In the 1960s, Wallerstein argued that there were new activities in the capitalist world economy that
could not be explained by old theories. He argued that the nation-state level of analysis was no
longer useful to explain conditions in underdeveloped countries, but that there were wider forces
in the world that impacted small and underdeveloped nations. He classified the world as a trimodal
system consisting of the core, semi-periphery, and periphery, contradicting earlier dependency
theorists who saw the world as a bimodal system with only center and peripheries.
Critics of the dependency theory argue that it is overly deterministic and ignores the agency of local
actors. They suggest that the theory fails to consider the ways in which local elites and governments
are complicit in maintaining dependency relationships and that it does not provide a clear path to
economic development and progress. The theory is also criticized for not accounting for the
heterogeneity of Latin America and the diversity of its economic and political systems.
Despite criticisms, the dependency theory remains an essential framework for understanding
economic and political relationships in Latin America. It has been used to criticize dominant models
of development and advocate for alternative approaches to economic and social transformation.
In the early 2000s, a wave of "pink tide" governments emerged in Latin America that rejected free
trade policies and embraced more state-led approaches to development, in part inspired by the ideas
of the dependency theory.
While the theory has been criticized for its determinism and lack of nuance, it remains an important
tool for understanding economic and political relations in the region and advocating for alternative
models of development.
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(c) What do you understand by social movement? How has the mobilization
by Scheduled Castes helped them in constructing a new identity? 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce by defining the concept of Social Movement.
 Provide a brief overview of SC's and their status.
 Discuss how SCs mobilized themselves to assert their rights and construct a new identity.
 Discuss the impact of mobilization by SCs on their social, economic, and political status.
Solution
Social movement refers to the collective effort of a group of individuals who share common goals
and ideologies, aimed at bringing about social or political change in society. Typically, such
movements are initiated by groups that have been marginalized or oppressed by dominant groups
in society, seeking to challenge the status quo.
Scheduled Castes (SCs), also known as Dalits, have been historically oppressed and marginalized,
subjected to social, economic, and political exclusion for centuries. Despite constitutional provisions
and affirmative action policies, SCs continue to face discrimination and exclusion from mainstream
society. As a result, over the years, they have mobilized themselves to assert their rights and
construct a new identity.
The mobilization of SCs can be traced back to the colonial period when social reformers such as Jyoti
Rao Phule and BR Ambedkar began advocating for Dalit rights and challenging the caste system.
Following India's Independence, Ambedkar played a significant role in drafting the Indian
Constitution, which included provisions for affirmative action and reserved seats in educational
institutions and government jobs for SCs. Since then, the Dalit movement in India has taken various
forms, including socio-cultural, economic, and political, with significant phases such as the
Republican Party of India and Mahar Movement, the Dalit Panther, and the Bahujan Samaj Party
phase. In recent times, there has also been a surge in mass conversion movements to Buddhism
among Dalits, indicating their desire to assert a distinct identity apart from Hinduism, initially
initiated by Ambedkar in the 1950s.
The mobilization of SCs has significantly impacted their social, economic, and political status.
Socially, it has led to a greater sense of community identity and solidarity, with Dalits being more
vocal in asserting their rights. Scholars like S.M. Michael argued that literature has played a key role
in empowering Dalits and helping them assert their identity. Economically, the mobilization has led
to greater access to education and employment opportunities, with affirmative action policies
ensuring access to reserved seats in educational institutions and government jobs, improving their
economic status. Politically, the mobilization has led to greater representation in government and a
greater say in the political process. The success of political parties such as the BSP has ensured that
the interests of Dalits are represented at the highest levels of government. However, scholars like
Gail Omvedt argue that the Dalit movement is not only about fighting for political rights but also
creating a new cultural identity that is free from the shackles of caste.
In summary, the mobilization of SCs has significantly impacted their social, economic, and political
status, leading to greater social integration, access to education and employment opportunities, and
greater representation in government.
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Mains 2015
Section - A
Question 1. Write short answers of the following in about 150 words each :
(a) Is Sociology a Science? Give reasons for your answer. (10 Marks)
Science is described as "a branch of knowledge or study dealing with a body of facts or truths
systematically arranged and showing the operation of general laws." Science, according to Karl
Popper, is a method of examining and comprehending phenomena rather than a repository of
information.
Sociology evolved in reaction to the challenges presented by modernity. Initially, sociologists like
August Comte, Herbert Spencer, and Emile Durkheim intended to build sociology on natural
science. However, it was discovered that sociology could not withstand all of the parameters of
natural science. As a result, the debate over whether sociology is a science began.
Why sociology is a science
 An investigation can be carried out: Several experiments are carried out indirectly in
sociology, and scientific techniques like as schedules, questionnaires, interviews, and so on
are utilised. Consider Durkheim's research on suicide.
 It is conceivable to compare: Sociologists compare groups, communities, and societies.
 Quantifiability - the ability to observe social events indirectly or directly. Durkheim's social
truths and Weber's Ideal kinds are two examples.
 Theoretical approach - Sociology has generated ideas that aid in the understanding of human
societies, such as Durkheim's theory of religion and Parsons' theory of the social system, both
of which are considered to be universal theories.
 Cause and Effect Relationship: Sociology, like physical science, is fascinated with cause-and-
effect relationships. It looks into the link between divorce and family breakdown, as well as
other aspects like westernisation and divorce.
Why sociology can’t be science
 Weber- Subject matter of sociology is human beings and they have consciousness or Geist.
 Natural science is concerned with factual assertions, whilst social sciences are concerned with
value claims.
 Unlike scientific fields, sociology cannot always make precise predictions. Natural science
forecasts are based on specific data.
 There is a lack of terminological coherence and universality in sociology. Sociology has yet
to generate a comprehensive set of scientific words. Many social concepts are ambiguous and
have diverse meanings for different people. For example, the terms caste and class have yet
to be established.
As a result, in his book The Social Order, Robert Bierstedt determined that sociology is a "social
science," not a natural science. It is mostly abstract science, not actual research. As a consequence,
we conclude that Sociology is defined as the science of society, social institutions, and social
relationships, with a special emphasis on the systematic study of the genesis, structure, interaction,
and collective behaviour of human-organized organisations.
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(b) Discuss the relevance of historical method in the study of society. (10
Marks)
The historical method is a research strategy that entails a methodical examination of past events,
activities, and phenomena in order to obtain insight into the present and future. The historical
method is a useful technique in sociology for analysing the evolution of social structures,
institutions, and cultural practises. The historical method has been employed by sociologists to
investigate a broad range of issues, from the beginnings of capitalism to the history of social
movements.
Use of historical method to study society
 One of the historical method's most important contributions is that it helps to identify the
social and cultural settings in which social phenomena emerge. As the sociologist Max Weber
argued, understanding the historical development of social structures and institutions is
essential for grasping their significance and function in contemporary society. Weber studied
the evolution of capitalism using the historical method, tracing its roots back to the Protestant
Reformation and the advent of modern science.
 Another important application of the historical method in sociology is the study of social
change over time. The sociologist Karl Marx, for example, used the historical method to
analyze the evolution of class relations and the struggle between the bourgeoisie and
proletariat. By studying the historical development of capitalism and its impact on social
class relations, Marx was able to identify the contradictions and tensions that would
eventually lead to revolutionary change.
 The historical method is also useful for studying the role of cultural practices and beliefs
in shaping social behavior. The sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, for example, used the historical
method to analyze the development of cultural capital and its influence on social class
reproduction. Bourdieu argued that cultural practices and beliefs are not just expressions of
individual taste or preference, but are shaped by historical and social structures that define
what is considered valuable and prestigious.
 Another important contribution of the historical method in sociology is its ability to reveal
the contingency and unpredictability of social phenomena. The sociologist Anthony
Giddens, for example, used the historical method to analyze the development of modernity
and its impact on social life. Giddens argued that modernity is characterized by an
unprecedented degree of social and cultural change, driven by technological innovation and
scientific discovery.
Finally, sociologists can employ the historical method to investigate the social and cultural contexts
in which social phenomena originate, evaluate the history of social structures and institutions, and
appreciate the role of cultural practises and beliefs in shaping social conduct. Major sociology
scholars such as Weber, Marx, Bourdieu, and Giddens have demonstrated the historical method's
relevance and usefulness in the study of society, as well as its ongoing contribution to our
understanding of the social world.
109
(c) What are variables? Discuss their role in experimental research. (10
Marks)
Variables are any characteristics, attributes, or factors in research that may be measured, changed,
or controlled in an experimental or observational study. Variables, according to Earl R. Babbie, are
logical groups of qualities. Variables can take several forms, such as quantitative variables (such as
age, income, and height) or qualitative factors (such as gender, ethnicity, and religion). Variables
help formulate hypothesis. In any social experiment, the researcher needs to identify the variables
and then establish which of them are dependent and which are independent.
Role of variable in research
 Variables are critical in experimental research for discovering cause-and-effect linkages
between various elements. While maintaining other variables constant, researchers alter or
control one or more variables to observe how they impact a result of interest. This allows
them to isolate the influence of a certain variable and assess if it has a substantial impact on
the outcome.
 Variables are employed in sociology to examine social phenomena such as attitudes,
behaviours, and institutions. Variables are used by sociologists to better understand the links
between various social elements and how they influence individual and group behaviour.
 For example, the sociologist Emile Durkheim used the variable of social integration to study
suicide rates in different societies. He found that higher levels of social integration, as
measured by variables such as marital status and religious affiliation, were associated with
lower suicide rates.
 Similarly, the sociologist Max Weber used variables such as social class and status to study
power relations in society. He argued that people's social class and status position influenced
their access to resources and opportunities, and thus their ability to exercise power and
influence. This research has informed our understanding of social inequality and its effects
on individuals and society as a whole.
In conclusion, variables are important tools in experimental research because they allow researchers
to create cause-and-effect correlations and test hypotheses. Variables are employed in sociology to
examine social phenomena and understand the complicated interactions between many social
aspects. Variables have been employed by prominent sociologists such as Durkheim and Weber to
make significant contributions to our understanding of society and human behaviour.
110
(d) Which concepts did Weber use to analyse the forms of legitimate
domination? (10 Marks)
Max Weber, a prominent German sociologist, was known for his concept of legitimate domination,
which refers to the exercise of power by an individual or group over others in a manner that is
considered legitimate or acceptable by society.
Weber argued that legitimate domination arises when an individual or group is able to exercise
power over others through the use of authority, which is the ability to influence the actions of others.
According to Weber, there are three ideal types of authority: traditional, charismatic, and rational-
legal.
Types of authority
 Traditional authority is founded on long-standing conventions and traditions. The power of
the leader is regarded as legitimate since it has been passed down from generation to
generation and is acknowledged by society's members.
 Charismatic authority - based on the leader's personal traits such as charisma, inspirational
qualities, or remarkable ability. Because of their ability to inspire and influence others,
leaders' power is regarded as genuine.
 Rational-legal power is founded on a set of norms and regulations enshrined in formal
documents such as laws or constitutions. The authority in this style of domination is derived
from the system of rules and regulations, rather than from the leader's personal traits or
position. The leader's power is regarded as legitimate since they are regarded as the
legitimate authority figure within the context of the set laws and regulations.
Weber's model of legitimate domination
 Rational-legal authority is the most efficient and effective form of authority for the modern
world.
 Rational-legal authority provides a clear set of rules and regulations that guide the behavior
of individuals within the bureaucracy. This helps to ensure that decisions are made in a
consistent and rational manner, and that individuals are held accountable for their actions.
 The use of specialized knowledge and expertise also ensures that decisions are made by
individuals who are best qualified to make them.
In conclusion, Weber's idea of legitimate domination provides a framework for understanding the
exercise of power in society, by identifying the three ideal types of authority - traditional,
charismatic, and rational-legal. Rational-legal authority is seen as the most efficient and effective
form of authority for the modern world, and the bureaucracy is designed to ensure that decisions
are made in a consistent and rational manner.
111
(e) “No society can either be absolutely open or absolutely closed.”

Comment. (10 Marks)
Social mobility is the ability of individuals or groups to move from one social position to another. It
is a crucial aspect of social stratification and can be categorized into various types.
Types of mobility
Sorokin distinguished two types of social mobility: vertical and horizontal social mobility.
 Vertical Social Mobility - Vertical Social Mobility occurs when a person or organisation
moves up or down the social ladder in terms of gain or loss of social standing. Vertical social
mobility is classified into two types:
o Upward Social Mobility - This term refers to "social climbing." As an individual or
organisation obtains money or influence, the preceding one moves higher.
o Downward Social Mobility - It denotes "social lowering." Downward Social Mobility
occurs when an individual or group loses money, power, or privileges from the prior
one.
 Horizontal Social Mobility occurs when an individual moves his or her location,
employment, etc. but does not necessarily affect their social status. For example, an officer
may be transferred from one location to another, or a rickshaw puller may be hired.
Lipset and Benedix established two more forms of Social Mobility: intra-generational Social Mobility
and inter-generational Social Mobility.
 Intra-generational Social Mobility - refers to social mobility within a single generation. It is
calculated by comparing an individual's occupational status at two or more points in time.
 Intergenerational Social Mobility - This refers to intergenerational social mobility. It is
calculated by comparing the occupational position of sons to that of the father.
Mobility in open system
In open societies, such as the United States, there are relatively more opportunities for social
mobility. Education, career advancement, and entrepreneurship are all avenues through which
individuals can move up the social ladder.
In their research of 'Black-coated labourers,' Lockwood and Gold Thorpe discovered that the lower
class, despite their economic gains, does not find easy acceptance among the middle class. They also
discovered that the climate in schools and offices is different and unpleasant, and they felt that they
are not welcomed by the middle class.
Mobility in closed system
 Mobility in closed societies refers to the ability of individuals to move up or down the social
hierarchy. Closed social systems include caste, race, and gender-based social hierarchy. These
societies provide little chance for social mobility to its members.
 No system can be sufficiently closed to deny its member’s social mobility since, in any closed
system; certain individuals may secure social mobility by their efforts. Sankritization (M. N.
Srinivas), migration (David F. Pocock), conversion (Yogendra Singh), and Royal
Proclamation, among other things, were methods of social mobility within the caste system.
 As a result, the open/close system is a relative notion. The closed system offers few prospects
for social mobility, whereas the open system has fewer barriers. Yet, no society is completely
open or closed.
112
Question 2.
(a) Discuss the role of Calvinist ethic in the development of capitalism. (20
Marks)
Max Weber is a prominent social scientist who made substantial contributions to sociological theory.
He looked at the role of religion in a society characterised by the capitalistic system of production.
Capitalism is an economic system in which private firms own and control the means of production.
Typically, capitalists produce for the exchange market. Capitalism is supported through the
interaction of labour, capital, and means of production.
Weber on Capitalism and Religion
 Weber considered the Protestant ethic to be one of the most essential factors in the
development of capitalism. In "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism," Weber does
not deny the importance of economic concerns in the development of rational capitalism, but
he believes that understanding the value system that allows rational capitalism to emerge is
critical to understanding why and how it emerged.
 Weber emphasised the significance of Protestant institutions in their society's economic
change and progress. According to Weber, in protestant countries, hard labour for the
purpose of worldly achievement is regarded God's desire rather than a sin.
 In contrast, in eastern nations, financial wealth is viewed as a byproduct of capitalism, while
spiritual living is recognised as the most valuable. Religion in eastern nations was labelled as
"irrational religious systems" by Weber because it served as an impediment to rationality.
 According to Weber, the primary purpose of capitalists was to amass wealth or profits. Weber
believed that religion or the church aided the capitalist system by disseminating ruling-class
values across society. Prophets, according to Weber, utilised religion to persuade society to
accept their charismatic views.
 According to Weber, religion aided individuals in achieving their goals. He suggested, for
example, that magicians aided people in meeting material needs. Weber saw religion as a
mechanism for effecting social transformation and alleviating societal evils.
Criticism of Weber’s ideas
 Gouldner, Mauller, and Wallerstein disagreed with Weber's findings. They hold colonialism
responsible for the establishment of capitalism in the West. The West, through colonies,
acquired access to large markets in Asia, Africa, and America, as well as inexpensive labour
and raw commodities. This resulted in the accumulation of riches.
 According to Peter Sombart, entrepreneurs were not exclusively Protestant Christians.
Capitalists come from a variety of backgrounds, including peasants, artisans, landlords, and
so on.
 T.C.Hall contends that while the people of the Scottish highlands and hilly portions of South
America are devout Calvinists, they are destitute. It indicates that a person's religious views
do not make him wealthy; rather, it is the result of his circumstances.
Conclusion
Weber believes that capitalism emerged as a result of the drive to amass vast amounts of riches, as
well as technical advancements and changes in governing structures. He contended that capitalism
sprang from the Protestant ethic and saw religion as a tool of solving societal concerns
113
(b) Examine the problems of maintaining objectivity and value neutrality in

Social Science research. (20 Marks)
Sociology, according to early Positivists such as Comte and Durkheim, could and should be
objective or value-free. They argued that scientific methods could achieve objectivity. It is a state of
mind in which personal preconceptions, inclinations, or predilections of social scientists do not taint
data gathering and interpretation. Thus, scientific inquiries should be devoid of preconceptions
based on race, colour, religion, gender, or ideology.
Need of objectivity in sociological research
 According to Durkheim's Rules of Sociological Method, social facts must be viewed as
objects, and all preconceived assumptions about social facts must be abandoned.
 According to Radcliff Brown, while conducting research, the social scientist must relinquish
or transcend his ethnocentric and egotistical preconceptions.
 Similarly, while conducting anthropological fieldwork, Malinowski recommended cultural
relativism to maintain neutrality.
How subjectivity enters in the research?
 Merton argues that the researcher's personal preferences and ideological prejudices impact
the topic choice
 Subjectivity can also enter into the development of hypotheses. Hypotheses are typically
derived from existing bodies of thought. All sociological theories are developed by and
confined to specific groups whose perspectives and interests they reflect.
 Subjectivity also enters in the process of acquisition of empirical data. There is no perfect data
collecting technique. In the case of participant observation, the observer develops a bias in
favour of the group being studied as a result of nativisation. While the sociologist, in non-
participant observation, belongs to a different group than the group under study, he is likely
to impose his beliefs and preconceptions.
Therefore objectivity continues to be an elusive goal at the practical level. Gunnar Myrdal states that
total objectivity is an illusion which can never be achieved. Assigning moral values to social
phenomena is an unavoidable consequence of being a part of society, making genuinely value-free
study impossible; therefore sociologists should strive towards value neutrality.
Value neutrality
Max Weber proposed the notion of value neutrality. It refers to the social researcher's obligation and
responsibility to overcome personal prejudices when doing research.
It seeks to detach reality from emotion and to stigmatise individuals less. It is not just significant in
sociology, but it also explains the fundamental ethics of numerous sciences.
Ideas related to value neutrality
 A sociologist can achieve value neutrality by being conscious of his own values, views, and
moral judgments.
 Sociologists' primary motivation must be to retain as much value neutrality as possible. They
should endeavour to maintain objectivity, but if that proves impossible, their responsibility
is to educate the public about the subjectivity so that the public can comprehend the evidence
correctly.
114
 However, the need to preserve value neutrality does not exclude him from having any
thoughts on the issue. It simply implies that the sociologist should not modify or remove any
facts in order to align the conclusion with his or her personal thoughts or opinions.
 Contemporary researchers prioritise impartiality but realise the folly of attempting to
eliminate value influence entirely from their study. According to Anthony Giddens,
structure, which is mainly seen as objective, and social behaviour, which is perceived as
value-laden, are two sides of the same coin and cannot exist separately.
As facts and values are diametrically opposed, the contradiction of facts and values cannot be
disputed. To reconcile this dichotomy, ‘scientific value relativism' was established, which holds that
facts and values should not be explored in absolute terms, but rather in relative terms. Thus, rather
than rejecting values, we need to neutralise them, to be sensitive to them rather than dismissing
them.
115
(c) “Self and Society are twin-born.” Examine the statement of Mead. (10
Marks)
George Herbert Mead is known for his contributions to the development of symbolic interactionism.
Mead believed that self and society are interconnected and interdependent, and that human beings
develop their sense of self through social interaction. According to Mead, the self is the individual's
sense of identity, which is developed through social interaction. Society, on the other hand, is the
collection of individuals who share a common culture and way of life.
Ideas of Mead
 According to Mead, individuals develop a sense of self through the process of role-taking,
which involves placing oneself in the position of others. The self is composed of the "me,"
which is the definition of oneself in a specific social role, and the "I," which is the opinion of
oneself as a whole based on reactions from others.
 The development of self occurs in two stages: the play stage and the game stage. A
consciousness of self is necessary for thought and action and provides the foundation for
human society.
 The concept of the "generalized other" is the key to understand the relationship between self
and society. The generalized other refers to the collective attitudes and expectations of society
that an individual internalizes and uses to guide their behavior. For example, a person may
learn through social interaction that it is appropriate to greet someone with a handshake, and
this becomes part of their sense of self.
 Mead argued that self and society are not separate entities but are instead intertwined and
mutually constitutive. He believed that individuals are socialized into society and learn to
understand themselves as part of a larger social context. The process of socialization involves
the internalization of social norms, values, and expectations, which shape individuals' sense
of self.
 Mead argued that the development of self is a continuous process that occurs throughout an
individual's life. As individuals interact with others, they develop a more complex and
nuanced understanding of themselves and their place in society. This ongoing process of self-
reflection and adjustment is essential for individuals to navigate their social environment
successfully.
Criticism of Mead’s ideas
 Overemphasis on socialization: Some critics argue that Mead overemphasizes the role of
socialization in shaping individuals' sense of self. They argue that individuals have a degree
of agency and that their sense of self is not solely determined by their social environment.
 Lack of attention to power dynamics: Mead's ideas do not explicitly address power dynamics
in society. Critics argue that individuals' sense of self is not solely shaped by social norms
and expectations, but also by power relations and inequalities.
 Underestimation of the role of biology: Mead's ideas focus on social interaction as the
primary factor in the development of self. Critics argue that biology also plays a role in
shaping individuals' sense of self, including factors such as genetics and neurology.
 Limited applicability to non-Western societies: Mead's ideas are largely based on
observations of Western societies and may not be applicable to non-Western societies with
different cultural norms and social structures.
116
Conclusion:
In conclusion, Mead's statement that "Self and Society are twin-born" highlights the
interconnectedness of self and society and the importance of social interaction in the development
of self. Mead's ideas challenge traditional notions of individual autonomy and suggest that
individuals are always embedded in a larger social context. Mead's ideas face criticism due to
overemphasis on socialization, lack of attention to power dynamics, limited applicability, and lack
of empirical evidence.
117
Question 3.
(a) Why is random sampling said to have more reliability and validity in
research? (20 Marks)
Random sampling is a statistical method of selecting a sample from a larger population in a way
that each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample. It involves
randomly selecting individuals or items from a population, without any specific order or pattern.
Validity in sociology refers to the extent to which a research study measures what it intends to
measure, or the degree to which the findings accurately reflect the social reality being studied. In
other words, validity is the degree to which a study is free from systematic error or bias.
A research method or instrument is considered reliable if it produces consistent and stable results
each time it is used to measure a particular phenomenon. If a method or instrument is unreliable, it
may produce inconsistent or unstable results, which can affect the accuracy and validity of the
research.
How random sampling increase validity and reliability

 Increased representativeness: Random sampling ensures that every member of the
population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, which increases the
representativeness of the sample. This means that the sample is more likely to reflect the
characteristics of the population being studied.
 Reduced bias: Random sampling helps to reduce the potential for sampling bias by ensuring
that every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
This means that the sample is less likely to be biased towards certain characteristics or
subgroups of the population.
 Increased external validity: Random sampling increases the external validity of the research
by ensuring that the findings can be generalized to the population being studied. This means
that the findings are more likely to be applicable to other populations or settings beyond the
sample being studied.
 Statistical accuracy: Random sampling allows for statistical inference, which means that
researchers can use the sample to make inferences about the population being studied. This
can increase the statistical accuracy of the research findings.
 Transparency: Random sampling is a transparent method of sample selection that is easy to
understand and explain to others. This increases the transparency and credibility of the
research.
Overall, random sampling is a reliable and valid method of sample selection that ensures the
representativeness of the sample, reduces bias, and increases the external validity, statistical
accuracy and reliability of the research.
118
(b) Differentiate between Marxian and Weberian theories of Social

Stratification. (20 Marks)
Stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society according
to their social, economic, and political status. It is the systematic way in which a society ranks
individuals and groups in a hierarchy of unequal access to power, wealth, and other resources.
Marxian and Weberian theories are two prominent perspectives on social stratification. While both
theories seek to explain the origins, nature, and consequences of social stratification, they differ in
their approach and emphasis.
Difference between Marxian and Weberian theories
 Definition of class: Marxian theory defines class based on a person's relationship to the
means of production. According to Marx, there are two main classes in society: the
bourgeoisie (owners of the means of production) and the proletariat (workers who sell their
labor to the bourgeoisie). In contrast, Weberian theory defines class based on a person's
market situation, which includes factors such as income, wealth, education, and occupational
prestige. Weber argued that social stratification is a multidimensional concept that cannot be
reduced to a single factor such as the means of production.
 Focus on economic factors: Marxian theory emphasizes the role of economic factors,
specifically the ownership or non-ownership of the means of production, in determining an
individual's class position. Marx saw class as the primary source of social conflict, with the
bourgeoisie exploiting the proletariat through the extraction of surplus value. Weberian
theory, on the other hand, sees economic factors as just one of several dimensions of social
stratification. Weber believed that status and power were also important factors in shaping
an individual's class position.
 Role of social status: While Marxian theory focuses primarily on economic factors, Weberian
theory emphasizes the role of social status in shaping social stratification. Weber argued that
individuals' social status is determined by their lifestyle, education, and occupation, which
are factors that affect their ability to acquire social prestige and influence. Social status is seen
as an important dimension of social stratification, as it can affect an individual's access to
power and resources.
 Relationship between class and power: Marxian theory sees class as the primary source of
power in society, with the bourgeoisie controlling the means of production and therefore
exerting economic power over the proletariat. In contrast, Weberian theory sees power as a
multidimensional concept that can be held by individuals or groups regardless of their class
position. Weber argued that power could be based on factors such as social status,
organizational position, or political authority.
 Emphasis on social change: Marxian theory emphasizes the potential for social change
through class conflict and revolution. Marx believed that the proletariat would eventually
rise up against the bourgeoisie and establish a classless society. In contrast, Weberian theory
emphasizes the role of bureaucracy in maintaining social stratification. Weber argued that
bureaucratic organizations, which are characterized by hierarchical structures and rules,
create a stable system of social stratification that is resistant to change.
In conclusion, Marxian and Weberian theories of social stratification differ in their approach to
defining class, their emphasis on economic and social factors, their view of the relationship between
class and power, and their emphasis on social change.
While both theories offer important insights into the nature of social stratification, they have
different strengths and weaknesses and are often used together to provide a more comprehensive
understanding of social stratification in contemporary societies.
119
(c) How had Enlightenment contributed to the emergence of Sociology? (10

Marks)
The Enlightenment, which was a cultural and intellectual movement in Europe during the 18th
century, played a significant role in the emergence of sociology as a distinct field of study. During
the Enlightenment, there was a great emphasis on rationality, scientific inquiry, and critical
thinking, and this led to the development of a new approach to studying society. Enlightenment
thinkers believed that society could be understood through empirical observation, systematic
inquiry, and the application of reason.
How enlightenment helped in emergence of sociology

 The ‘scientific approach' to the study of society - The intellectuals of the eighteenth century
began to analyse human problems in a scientific fashion utilising "methods of the natural
sciences" earlier than any of their predecessors.
 Intellectuals in the eighteenth century defended 'reason' as a yardstick for assessing social
structures and their fitness for human nature.
The other intellectual forces that affected the birth of sociology in Europe throughout the post-
Enlightenment period were-
 Different phases of History: This philosophy's primary premise was that civilization had to
have grown through a sequence of stages from simple to complex. Its intellectual
contribution to sociology may be found in the concepts of development and progress. In their
sociological writings, August Comte, Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, and others demonstrated
the different stages in human history.
 The use of Biological theories of evolution to articulate generic concepts of 'social evolution’
and drawing parallel between society and organisms. This type of writing is shown in the
works of Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim.
 Use of scientific methods to understand social problems - The first was a rising belief that
natural science approaches should and could be used to the study of human issues. It claims
that by having “knowledge of the social conditions," one may come up with answers to
society's social issues. As a result, scientific approaches have come to be considered as the
most exact and objective.
Overall, the Enlightenment helped to shift the focus of social thought from traditional and religious
perspectives to a more empirical and scientific approach. This paved the way for the emergence of
sociology as a distinct field of study, which continues to play a vital role in understanding and
analyzing society today.
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Question 4.
(a) Non-positivistic methodology is essential for understanding human
behaviour.” Discuss (20 Marks)
Non-positivist methodology refers to a set of approaches and methods in social research that reject
the idea that social phenomena can be studied in the same way as natural phenomena. Non-
positivist methodology is based on the assumption that social reality is constructed and interpreted
by individuals and groups, rather than being objective and independent of human interpretation.
Non-positivist methodologies are characterized by a focus on understanding subjective experiences,
meanings, and perspectives of individuals and groups. These approaches aim to uncover the social
and cultural context of phenomena and emphasize the importance of social interactions and
relationships. For example, a positivist approach may measure poverty based solely on income
levels, while a non-positivist approach may take into account the cultural and social factors that
contribute to poverty, such as discrimination, lack of access to education, and limited job
opportunities.
Types of non - positivistic methodology

 Interpretive sociology, which focuses on understanding social behavior by interpreting the
meanings that individuals attach to their actions and experiences. This approach is associated
with Max Weber, who argued that social phenomena cannot be fully understood through
objective measures alone.
 Ethnomethodology is a sociological approach that focuses on the methods people use to
make sense of their everyday lives. It examines the ways in which people create and maintain
social order through their everyday practices and interactions, rather than taking social order
for granted.
 Phenomenology is a philosophical and methodological approach that emphasizes the study
of subjective experiences, perceptions, and consciousness. It seeks to understand the
meanings and structures of these experiences and how they are shaped by cultural, social,
and historical factors.
Criticism of Non-positivist
 One prominent sociological criticism of non-positivist methodology comes from the
positivist tradition, which argues that non-positivist approaches lack scientific rigor and
objectivity. For example, Auguste Comte, one of the founders of sociology, believed that only
quantitative, empirical research could yield valid and reliable knowledge about society.
 More recent critics, such as Anthony Giddens, have argued that non-positivist methodologies
can be overly subjective and fail to account for the broader social structures and forces that
shape individual experiences. Giddens also suggests that non-positivist approaches can be
too focused on micro-level phenomena, neglecting the larger social contexts that give
meaning to individual actions and behaviors.
Non-positivistic methodologies are essential for understanding human behavior, as they allow for
a more holisticand nuanced understanding of social phenomena. By taking into account the
subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals and groups, as well as the social, cultural,
and historical contexts in which behavior occurs, sociologists can develop more comprehensive
explanations of social behavior and identify ways to address social inequality and oppression.
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(b) How is social equilibrium maintained in Parsonian framework? (20

Marks)
The concept of social equilibrium is a central idea in Talcott Parsons’ theoretical framework. Parsons
argued that social systems, like living organisms, have a tendency to maintain a state of equilibrium
or balance.
Social equilibrium is the state in which the various parts of the social system are working in harmony
to achieve the system’s goals. Social systems are complex and dynamic, and social equilibrium is
not a fixed state, but a dynamic process of adjustment and adaptation.
AGIL system and its link with different subsystems
According to Parsons, every system has specific requirements. Equilibrium is achieved when the
demands of a system are met by the various portions (structural components) of the system.
Function is the contribution of components to the fulfilment of demands, which he outlined in the
AGIL system:
 adaptive (A): whereby a system adapts to its environment;
 goal-attainment (G): how a system defines and achieves its goals
 integrative (I): the regulation of the components of the system; and
 Latency (L) or pattern maintenance: the stimulation of motivation and that of the dimensions
of culture that create and sustain motivation.
As a structural functionalist, Parsons distinguished among four structures, or subsystems, in society
in terms of the functions (AGIL) they perform.
 The economy is a subsystem that allows society to adapt to the environment by utilising
labour, production, and allocation. The economy adjusts the environment to society's
demands and assists society in adapting to these external realities through such activities.
 The polity (or political system) serves as a means of achieving goals by pursuing social goals
and mobilising people and resources to achieve them.
 The sociocultural community (for example, nation and law) organises the many components
of society and performs the integration function.
 Finally, the latency role is handled by the fiduciary system (for example, in schools and the
family) by imparting culture (norms and values) to actors and allowing them to absorb it.
Parsons goes on to say that these societal subsystems are interrelated and interdependent. As a
result, for societal balance, these subsystems must be in harmony with one another. He claimed that
all other systems' conventions and decisions are circumscribed by value orientations - cultural
systems. In other words, while looking at a system, every act and every subsystem is mainly
impacted by value orientations (culture). For Parsons, social order and stability require a general
value consensus among individuals of a particular community as well as subsystem compatibility.
Criticism
 Marxists scholars’ criticised Parson for giving too much emphasis on social consensus and
stability. Parsons failed to recognise the value of conflict and Marxist argued that values
consensus and social cohesion in society is nothing but ‘ruling class ideology’.
 According to interactionist perspective Parson’s theory makes individual as a passive being
and is always constrained by the society or culture.
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However individuals had been able to shape the structure of the society. For e.g. B.R.
Ambedkar was born in lower caste family, got educated, and impacted the constitution
making process of our country.
 Merton questions the idea that any institution or structure is inevitable and provides certain
function. Throughout the world Religion had played certain functions but Communalism,
fundamentalism, religious wars are also by product of religion.
In the Parsonian framework, social equilibrium is maintained through the fulfillment of the four
functional imperatives of adaptation, goal attainment, integration, and latency. This involves
mechanisms such as socialization, social control, and cultural systems, as well as recognizing the
interdependence of the different parts of the social system. However, the Parsonian framework has
been criticized for its functionalist approach, which assumes that all parts of the social system work
together harmoniously and ignores power differentials and conflicts.
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(c) “Anomie is rooted in social structure.” Explain with reference to R.K.

Merton’s contribution. (10 Marks)
Anomie, a term coined by Emile Durkheim, refers to a state of normlessness or a lack of social
regulation that can arise in modern societies. Robert K. Merton expanded on Durkheim’s concept of
anomie and argued that it is as a property of a social system not the state of the mind of this or that
individual within the system.
How anomie is rooted in structure
 Merton argued that anomie is not simply a result of individual pathology or moral decay,
but is instead a product of the structural conditions of modern societies.
 He emphasized the importance of the structure of opportunity in shaping patterns of anomie.
The structure of opportunity refers to the distribution of opportunities and resources in
society, such as access to education, employment, and social networks.
 Those who are unable to achieve their goals through legitimate means may turn to
illegitimate means, such as crime, to achieve their goals. This can lead to a breakdown in
social regulation and a sense of normlessness or anomie.
Responses to this disjunction between goals and means,
 Conformity - accepting the goals of society and using legitimate means to achieve those goals.
 Innovation - accepting the goals of society but using illegitimate means to achieve those goals.
 Ritualism - rejecting the goals of society but continuing to use legitimate means.
 Retreatism - rejecting both the goals of society and the means to achieve those goals.
 Rebellion - rejecting the goals of society and attempting to replace them with new goals and
means.
Criticism
 Howard Becker in his "Labelling Theory," claims that society labels people based on their
actions. A person may not be labelled as deviant by one group yet be labelled as such by
another. Homosexuals, for example, are considered deviants in many traditional
civilizations, yet they enjoy legal rights and status in many nations.
 According to Albert Cohen, Merton's theory may explain deviation motivated by monetary
benefits, such as professional crime, but not non-utilitarian crime. For example, street brawls
and vandalism that has no apparent cause or yields no monetary gain. He sees this type of
crime as the outcome of dissatisfaction stemming from being at the bottom of the social
ladder
In conclusion, Merton’s contribution to the understanding of anomie is rooted in his analysis of
social structure. He argued that anomie arises when there is a disjunction between cultural goals
and the means available to achieve those goals, which is often linked to the unequal distribution of
opportunities and resources in modern societies. Merton’s modes of adaptation provide a
framework for understanding the different ways in which individuals respond to this disjunction,
and his analysis highlights the importance of addressing structural conditions in order to reduce the
prevalence of anomie.
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Section B
Question 5.
(a) Distinguish between the social organization of work in feudal society
and in capitalist society. (10 Marks)
Feudal society was characterized by a hierarchical social structure, where power and wealth were
concentrated in the hands of small elite of nobles and landowners. Work was organized around a
system of feudal obligations, where peasants were obligated to work the land and provide a portion
of their crops and labor to their lords in exchange for protection and access to land.
In contrast, capitalist society is characterized by a system of wage labor, where workers are paid a
wage in exchange for their labor, and the means of production are privately owned and controlled
by capitalists. Work is organized around the principles of efficiency, productivity, and profit-
maximization, and workers are expected to be productive and efficient in order to maintain their
employment.
Features of feudal society
 Hierarchy: The feudal system was organized around a strict hierarchical structure, with lords
and nobles at the top and peasants or serfs at the bottom. Each level had specific rights and
responsibilities, and individuals were expected to obey those above them in the hierarchy.
 Obligations: In the feudal system, obligations and responsibilities were closely tied to one's
position in the social hierarchy. For example, lords were expected to provide protection and
security to their subjects, while peasants were required to pay taxes and provide labor for
their lords.
 Labor relations: Labor relations in the feudal system were largely characterized by unfree
labor. Peasants and serfs were bound to the land and required to provide labor to their lords
in exchange for protection and use of the land.
Features of capitalist society
 According to Marx, capital is important to production under this mode of production, and
society is largely split into the have-nots known as the proletariat and the haves known as
the bourgeoisie.
 Marx claimed that capital generates nothing; it is labour that creates wealth. Capitalists seize
this money, while labourers are paid low wages. This is a key paradox since the
manufacturing process is communal in character, while profit appropriation is private.
 The employer's relationship with the employee is one of dominance, whereas the worker's
relationship with co-workers is one of collaboration
 It will lead to conflict, and workers will band together to form a new way of production - a
socialist mode of production, and finally communism.
In conclusion, the social organization of work in feudal society and capitalist society differ in
significant ways. Feudal society was characterized by a hierarchical social structure, where work
was organized around a system of feudal obligations, while capitalist society is characterized by a
system of wage labor, where work is organized around the principles of efficiency, productivity,
and profit-maximization. These differences have important implications for the distribution of
power, access to resources, and the nature of work itself.
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(b) “Ideology is crucial for social transformation in a democracy.” Discuss

(10 Marks)
Ideology refers to a set of ideas, beliefs, and values that shape our understanding of the world and
our place in it. In democratic societies, ideology plays a crucial role in shaping the political and
social agenda and can be used as a tool for social transformation. Gramsci wrote about the power
of ideology to reproduce the social structure via institutions like religion and education
How ideology shapes democracy
1. Ideology as a source of conflict: According to this view, ideology plays a significant role in
creating conflicts in a democratic society. Scholars like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
believed that ideology served as a means for the ruling class to maintain their power and
control over the working class. Bourdieu suggests that ideology can be a tool for social
critique and resistance, as alternative ideologies can challenge the dominant power structures
and promote social transformation.
2. Ideology as a unifying force: On the other hand, some scholars argue that ideology can serve
as a unifying force in democracy. They argue that shared values and beliefs can bring people
together and help them work towards common goals. This view is based on the assumption
that democracy requires a certain degree of consensus and cooperation to function
effectively. E.g. Secularism as an ideology emphasizes the separation of religion and politics.
It has been enshrined in the Indian Constitution and has been a significant force in Indian
politics,
3. Ideology as a tool for political mobilization: Another view is that ideology can be used as a
tool for political mobilization. Political parties and social movements often use ideology to
mobilize support from the public and create a sense of identity and belonging among their
followers. In this sense, ideology is seen as a means to gain power and influence within a
democratic society.Hindutva is an ideology that emphasizes the primacy of Hindu culture
and identity in Indian society. It has been promoted by the Hindu nationalist Bharatiya Janata
Party (BJP) in India.
4. Ideology as a means to challenge power: Some scholars argue that ideology can be used as
a means to challenge power and promote social change. For example, feminist and anti-racist
ideologies have been used to challenge existing power structures and advocate for greater
equality and justice within democratic societies. According to political scientist Benedict
Anderson, the development of nationalist ideologies in the 19th century helped to create a
sense of shared identity and purpose among members of a nation, leading to the formation
of new social and political structures.
Therefore ideology is critical for social transformation in a democracy because it generates a
common sense of identity and purpose, offers a framework for political activity and social change,
changes our perception of power and social connections, and creates a shared sense of identity and
purpose. While dominant ideologies can help to keep current power structures in place, alternative
ideologies can help to question these systems and promote social reform. As a result, alternative
ideas must be developed and disseminated in order to promote social change and create a more just
and equal society.
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(c) Distinguish between sects and cults with illustrations. (10 Marks)
Max Weber and Troeltsch presented a religious organisation continuum depending on how
"conventional" and "established" they are. Churches are highly institutionalised and conventional
on one end of the spectrum, while cults are unorthodox and unusual on the other. Sects, which falls
somewhere in the centre, have certain qualities in common with churches and some with cults.
Characteristics of Sect
 A sect is a small religious group that is not fully integrated into society and often contradicts
some of its norms and ideals. Ernst Troeltsch, described sects as organizations that split from
the church because of their dissatisfaction with its doctrines and behavior.
 According to Troeltsch sects are typically composed of individuals from underprivileged
populations and are led by a charismatic leader whose death may result in the sect's downfall,
making them short-lived.
 Members of many sects try to recruit new members by proselytizing. If a sect gains a
significant number of new members, it gradually expands, becomes more bureaucratic, and
eventually turns into a denomination.
 Sects exist in almost every religion, including Islam, Judaism, and Hinduism. For example,
the Sunni and Shia sects exist in Islam, the Karaites in Judaism, and the Shiyaism and
Shaktism in Hinduism.
 Sects are generally tolerated by governments and society because they do not pose a
significant threat to the established order.
Characteristics of cult
 A cult is a small religious group that is diametrically opposed to the norms and ideals of
society.
 Cults have a negative connotation and are characterized by the absolute allegiance and
dependence of their members on their leader, as well as their tendency to take things to
extremes.
 Cult members believe that joining the cult is the only way to achieve salvation. Members live
separately from their non-believing families, and this is done deliberately to isolate them and
make them dependent on the cult.
 Members are also subjected to psychological manipulation to make them obedient.
Cults and sects are similar, but they differ in several ways. First, cults often do not develop within
a larger denomination but rather outside the dominant religious tradition. Second, they are often
discreet and do not proliferate as much as sects. Third, they are more likely than sects to rely on
charismatic leadership based on the cult leader's exceptional personal attributes.
Sects and cults in India
India is home to several notable cults, including Dera Sacha Sauda, Rajneeshpuram, and Aghori.
These groups are made up of members from various religions and their beliefs are not necessarily
rooted in religious doctrine. Charismatic leaders often play a significant role in these cults, which
typically lack formal institutional structures.
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In addition to cults, India also has many religious sects, such as Vaishnavism and Shaktism, which
are part of the larger Hindu religion. These sects hold unique beliefs and practices that differ from
the mainstream Hindu tradition. Similarly, within Islam, there are sects like Shia and Sunni that
follow distinct principles while still being grounded in Islamic philosophy.
Conclusion
Both sects and cults are smaller religious groups that differ in their characteristics and beliefs.
Governments and society often tolerate sects because they do not pose a significant threat. Cults, on
the other hand, are typically viewed negatively because they promote an extreme ideology that can
be harmful to individuals and society.
128
(d) Is male authority absent in matrilineal society? (10 Marks)

Matrilineal societies are societies in which descent, inheritance, and social identity are traced
through the mother's side of the family. In contrast, patrilineal societies are those in which the
father's side of the family is more important in these matters. The question of male authority in
matrilineal societies is an interesting one because it challenges our assumptions about gender roles
and power dynamics.
Presence of female authority in matrilineal society
 Women are the primary decision-makers: In some matrilineal societies, women hold more
power and decision-making authority than men. Peggy Reeves argues that property and
inheritance rights are passed down through the maternal line, giving women control over
land and resources. Sanday's work focuses on matrilineal societies in Indonesia and Papua
New Guinea, where she observed women playing important roles in social, economic, and
political life.
 Evelyn Blackwood suggests that matrilineal societies provide a space for women to challenge
traditional gender roles and power dynamics. She argues that matrilineal societies in
southern India offer women greater autonomy and control over their lives than in other parts
of the country, where patriarchal norms are more entrenched. Blackwood's work focuses on
the Nayars, a matrilineal community in Kerala, India.
Presence of male authority in matrilineal society
 Men still hold positions of power: Despite the fact that descent is traced through the female
line in matrilineal societies, men may still hold positions of power and authority. This is
because gender roles and power dynamics are complex and can vary across different
societies. Jankowiak, an anthropologist, argues that in Mosuo, a matrilineal community in
China, men still hold positions of power and that gender relations are complex and
multifaceted.
 In some matrilineal societies, men may still be considered the heads of households or hold
important leadership roles.
 Matrilineality does not necessarily mean gender equality. Women may still face
discrimination and inequality in areas such as education, employment, and politics. Lowe,
an anthropologist, argues that in matrilineal societies in Ghana, women may still face
discrimination and inequality in areas such as education, employment, and politics.
 According to NK Bose in some matrilineal societies, men still hold positions of power and
influence. For example, among the Khasi people of Northeast India, women are the heads of
households and own property, but men still play an important role in public life and
decision-making
In conclusion, it is difficult to make broad generalizations about gender roles and power dynamics
in matrilineal societies. While some argue that these societies challenge traditional patriarchal
systems and give women more power and authority, others argue that men can still hold positions
of power and that matrilineality does not necessarily guarantee gender equality.
129
(e) Explain the relevance of the idea of ‘cultural lag’ in understanding social
change. (10 Marks)
Cultural lag is a term used to describe the delay in which a society's non-material culture adapts to
changes in its material culture. Sociologist William F. Ogburn proposed this concept, which states
that material culture tends to change more rapidly than non-material culture.
Inventions in material culture can be measured against agreed-upon standards of efficiency, making
them appear rapidly and predictably. However, in non-material culture, such as art or government,
there are no generally accepted standards, and styles and systems fluctuate unevenly.
Negative relation between cultural lag and social change
 Ogburn believed that cultural lag led to social problems and conflicts as culture takes time to
catch up with technological advancements. For instance, the typewriter was invented over
fifty years before it was used systematically in offices. Similarly, family systems and
diplomatic attitudes are still better adapted to a farm economy and the nineteenth century,
respectively.
 Ogburn suggested that cultural lag can create resistance to change, as people may be attached
to existing values and beliefs and may be unwilling to change them.
 Cultural lag poses problems for a society in many ways. It is a critical ethical issue because
the failure to develop broad social consensus on appropriate applications of modern
technology may lead to breakdowns in social solidarity and the rise of social conflict. For
example, the advent of stem cell research has raised serious ethical questions about its use in
medicine, despite its potential benefits.
Positive relation between cultural lag and social change
 Cultural lag can also be a catalyst for social change, as it can lead to a period of questioning
and re-evaluating existing beliefs and values, which can ultimately lead to social progress.
 In his work on social change, Robert Nisbet argued that cultural lag is a necessary condition
for social change to occur. He argued that when material culture changes, it creates a period
of cultural lag, during which non-material culture has to catch up. This period of cultural lag
can create tension and conflict, which can lead to the re-evaluation of existing values and
beliefs, and ultimately to social change.
 Similarly, Talcott Parsons argued that cultural lag can facilitate social change by creating a
"crisis of values." He suggested that when material culture changes, it can create a sense of
disorientation and anxiety, which can lead to a re-evaluation of existing values and beliefs.
The relationship between cultural lag and social change is not straightforward, and different
sociologists hold varying perspectives. Some argue that cultural lag can act as a catalyst for social
change, while others believe it can hinder it. The impact of cultural lag on social change is influenced
by several factors, including the nature of the change, the extent of the cultural lag, and the pre-
existing values and beliefs of the society in question. Thus, the relationship between cultural lag and
social change is a complex and multi-dimensional one.
130
Question 6.
(a) “Education helps in perpetuating social and economic inequalities.”
Critically examine the statement. (20 Marks)
The process of raising, directing, and developing individuals into mature, adult members of society
is known as education. Education is nothing more than the learning of societal information.
Education has traditionally been linked to advancement and prosperity. Education, in fact, is seen
as a feasible solution to the challenges of economic decline, hunger, and human poverty.
Sociological views on education
 According to functionalist perspective education has a good impact on both individuals and
society. It fosters social solidarity (value agreement) by teaching the same subjects.
 Karl Marx - He argued that education, as a component of the superstructure, reflected and
reproduced the economic foundation. As a result, it was nothing more than a tool of the
ruling class to recreate the inequalities that existed in economic relations.
 Parsons claims that schools are likened to tiny communities where children acquire the
universalistic ideals essential for social integration.
 Bowles and Gintis argue in 'Schooling in Capitalist America' (1976) that there is a link
between values learned in school and how the workplace functions. They proposed that the
values are taught through the 'Hidden Curriculum,' which comprises of things that students
acquire through their school experience rather than the primary curriculum subjects taught
at the school.
 Scholars such as Paul Willis and Michael Apple argue that education systems reflect and
reinforce the dominant culture and values of society. This can result in a curriculum and
testing system that is biased against certain groups, such as students from lower socio-
economic backgrounds or those from marginalized communities.
How education perpetuate social and economic inequalities
 According to Sengupta and Jha children from lower socio-economic backgrounds in India
are more likely to drop out of school and have limited access to higher education,
perpetuating social and economic inequalities.
 In India, the education system is often criticized for being biased towards the dominant
culture and privileging certain groups, such as upper-caste Hindus, while marginalizing
others, such as Dalits and Adivasis (Jha, 2015). This result in an uneven distribution of
educational resources and opportunities, further perpetuating social and economic
inequalities.
 Access to digital technology is often limited by socio-economic factors such as poverty and
geographical location. This creates a digital divide, where those who have access to digital
technology are more likely to succeed in education and secure high-paying jobs, while those
without access are at a disadvantage
 Children from diverse castes, classes, religions, and ethnicities, with uneven economic, social,
and cultural capital, are all treated the same. Syllabuses, curricular materials, pedagogical
techniques, and assessment practices, for example, are the same for everyone, regardless of
where they originate from. Though it appears to be equal and unbiased, it is actually uneven
and prejudiced.
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 K. Ahmad (1974) disputed education's role in 'ideational' change via transformation of
people's knowledge, attitudes, and values. It cannot bring about drastic changes since
educational methods and practises serve the interests of the status quoists.
 According to 2019-20 UDISE+ data, just 38.5% of schools in the country had computers, and
22.3% had an internet connection. The poor will continue to be deprived of important
information supplied online about academia, and as a result, they will constantly lag, which
may be summed up by unsatisfactory performance.
In conclusion, while education can provide opportunities for social mobility, it can also increase
inequality in society. The unequal distribution of educational resources, access to higher education,
and the structure and curriculum of the education system all play a role in perpetuating social
inequalities.
132
(b) Explain the conditions under which a collective action transforms into a
social movement. (10 Marks)
Collective action is a form of group behavior where individuals come together to work towards a
common goal. A social movement, on the other hand, is a collective effort by a group of people who
are organized around a common goal or objective to bring about social change.
Sociological theories on Social movements
 Resource Mobilization Theory: This theory suggests that successful collective action
requires the mobilization of resources such as money, time, and skills. It emphasizes the role
of organizational structures and leadership in facilitating collective action.
 Political Process Theory: This theory emphasizes the role of political opportunities and
constraints in shaping collective action. It suggests that social movements are more likely to
emerge when there are favorable political conditions, such as changes in the legal or
institutional framework.
 Identity Theory: This theory suggests that collective action is often driven by shared
identities and group affiliations. It emphasizes the role of social identity in shaping
individual behavior and in facilitating cooperation and coordination among group members.
 Structural Strain Theory: This theory suggests that social movements emerge in response to
structural strains or disjuncture in society, such as economic crises, political repression, or
cultural conflicts. It emphasizes the role of grievances and perceived injustices in motivating
collective action.
How collective action transforms into social movements
 Shared sense of identity and purpose - According to Tilly, social movements are often born
out of conflicts over issues of inequality, discrimination, or injustice. The shared identity and
purpose are crucial for sustaining the momentum of the movement over time. Without a
strong sense of identity, the movement risks losing focus and direction, which could lead to
its eventual decline. E.g. civil rights movement in the United States. The movement was
characterized by a strong sense of identity, with activists using the term "black" to refer to
themselves and their struggle.
 Development of a network of organizations and individuals who are committed to the
cause. According to Tilly, social movements are not just about individual actors, but are also
about the networks of organizations and individuals that support the movement. These
networks provide the resources, including funding, expertise, and organizational support,
that are needed to sustain a social movement over time. E.g. the environment movement
emerged in the 1960s and 1970s, with groups like Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth
working together to promote environmental awareness and advocate for policy changes.
 Range of tactics and strategies - This repertoire is important because it allows the movement
to adapt to changing circumstances and to maintain its momentum over time. E.g. women's
suffrage movement in the mid-19th century and was characterized by a range of tactics,
including public lectures, rallies, marches, and civil disobedience.
 Ability to generate and sustain public support. This requires effective communication
strategies that can educate and mobilize the public, as well as a willingness to engage in
dialogue and negotiation
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In conclusion, for a collective action to transform into a social movement there must be a presence
of a shared sense of identity and purpose, a network of organizations and individuals, range of
tactics and the ability to generate and sustain public support. These conditions are not necessarily
exclusive, and social movements can emerge and develop in different ways depending on the social
and political context. However, by understanding these conditions, we can better understand how
social movements emerged in the society.
134
(c) How do the rules of descent and alliance in kinship differ from each
other ? Illustrate. (10 Marks)
In the study of kinship, two fundamental principles are descent and alliance. Descent refers
to the social recognition of a relationship between a person and their ancestors, while
alliance refers to the social recognition of a relationship between a person and their in-laws.
Rules of descent
 Lévi-Strauss argued that descent is a way of organizing social relations by distinguishing
between those who are related and those who are not, particularly in terms of inheritance
and the passing down of social status.
 It can be classified into two main types: unilineal and cognatic descent. Unilineal descent, as
the name suggests, only considers the lineage of one parent, either the mother (matrilineal)
or the father (patrilineal).
 In such societies, inheritance and social status are often traced through this one line, and
individuals are considered part of the same descent group as their parent.
 In contrast, cognatic descent considers both parents' lineages and often places more
importance on the nuclear family.
Rules of alliance
 The rule of alliance, on the other hand, refers to how individuals are related through marriage
or other social connections.
 George Peter Murdock noted that the rules of alliance often dictate who is eligible for
marriage and which families are considered suitable partners.
 Alliance is often a way of creating or strengthening social ties between two groups, and can
take many forms. For example, in some societies, individuals may be required to marry
outside of their own descent group, which can lead to the creation of new alliances between
previously unrelated groups.
 In other cases, alliances may be formed through the exchange of gifts or other forms of
economic or social support.
In conclusion, the rules of descent and alliance in kinship differ significantly from each other.
Descent is based on the biological relationship between parent and child and operates through a
unilineal rule, while alliance is based on social and cultural practices that establish relationships
between different kinship groups and operates through a bilateral rule. Understanding the
differences between these two approaches to kinship is crucial for understanding the ways that
different cultures and societies define and sustain social relationships.
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Question 7.
(a) Define Secularisation. What are its major dimensions in the modern
world? (20 Marks)
Secularization refers to the process through which religion loses its influence and significance in
society. This is often accompanied by the rise of science, rationality, and the growth of secular
institutions. In other words Secularization is the progressive replacement of religious values with
nonreligious values in a cultural change. Religious authorities, such as church leaders, lose power
and influence over society as a result of this process.
Sociological views on Secularization
 Bryan Wilson characterised secularisation as "the process by which religious thoughts,
behaviours, and institutions lose social importance."
 Steve Bruce argues that secularization is a universal process that occurs as societies become
more modern and rational. He suggests that secularization is driven by three factors: social
differentiation, rationalization, and globalization. According to Bruce, as societies become
more complex and diverse, traditional religious beliefs and practices become less relevant
and are replaced by more secular forms of thought.
 Casanova notes that secularization does not necessarily mean the disappearance of religion
but rather its transformation and adaptation to new social and cultural conditions.
How Secularization can be witnessed in modern world
 Participation in institutional religion - Some claim that the decline in Church attendance is a
sign of society's secularisation.
 Disengagement of institutional religion from everyday life - Disengagement of religious
institutions from major life events is also viewed as evidence of societal secularisation.
Religion no longer serves any purpose in education, politics, or social welfare.
 Promoting religious plurality as a sign of secularisation - Some claim that a really religious
community is monotheistic. Competition among religious organisations has weakened
religion's authority. People's religious allegiances have become a matter of convenience.
 Secularization of religious organisations - It is also suggested that religious institutions are
adjusting to changing circumstances. They have acknowledged that traditional ideals such
as belief in the supernatural, the other world, the saviour, and so on no longer seem credible
to believers. In new communities, they would look unreasonable and irrelevant.
 Growing individualism - This viewpoint contends that religion is no more a group act of
worship, and that people nowadays seek their own route to salvation.
 Growth of science and technology: As science and technology advance, they increasingly
replace traditional religious explanations for natural phenomena. For example, the theory of
evolution has challenged religious beliefs about the origins of life.
It is important to note that the process of secularization is not uniform across societies, and there are
many factors that contribute to its emergence and development. Additionally, secularization is not
necessarily a negative or positive development, but rather a complex social phenomenon that has
both advantages and disadvantages.
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(b) The increasing importance of the tertiary sector has weakened the formal
organization of work in recent times. (20 Marks)
The growing significance of the tertiary sector, which includes industries such as finance, education,
healthcare, and hospitality, has led to a decline in formal organization of work. In the formal
organisation of work the whole structure and method are generally specified in their official
documents, which comprise the organization's rules and operations. Each member's tasks,
functions, and obligations are clearly specified in this structure. As a result of the organisation, work
proceeds easily and methodically.
Sociological view on formal/ Informal organization
 Max Weber was the first sociologist to write extensively about formal organisation or
bureaucracy. Everyone in a formal organisation holds an office, and their status and power
are assessed by the office.
 According to Ritzer , increasing rationality produces illogical effects that are demeaning.
 Peter Blau, on the other hand, researched informal ties within formal companies and
discovered that they actually tend to boost worker efficiency rather than decrease it.
 Elton Mayo - GE Hawthorne Works Study in Chicago considered that the classical school
of thought undervalued the socio-psychological dimensions of informal organisation. He
discovered that work happiness was heavily influenced by the informal social patterns of the
work group. Because of them, better collaboration standards were formed.
Weakening of formal organization in tertiary sector
 Flexibility: The growth of the tertiary sector has led to more flexible and adaptable work
arrangements, such as telecommuting, part-time work, and project-based contracts. This has
weakened the rigid structures of formal organizations and allowed for more individual
autonomy and work-life balance.
 Decentralization: With the rise of digital technologies and global networks, many
organizations in the tertiary sector have become more decentralized, with workers and teams
collaborating across different locations and time zones. This has weakened the centralized
control of formal organizations and allowed for more diverse perspectives and innovative
solutions.
 Informal networks: Arne L. Kalleberg argues that the growth of non-standard work
arrangements in the tertiary sector, such as temporary contracts and self-employment, has
weakened the bargaining power of workers and created new forms of inequality and
insecurity.
Presence of Formal organization in tertiary sector
 Regulation and compliance: Formal structures and procedures are necessary for ensuring
compliance with laws, regulations, and standards, as well as for maintaining accountability
and transparency. Richard Hyman, argues that formal organization remains crucial for
regulating and coordinating work activities in the tertiary sector, especially in highly
regulated industries such as finance and healthcare.
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 Professionalization: Kathleen Thelen argues that the growth of the tertiary sector has created
new forms of employment that require higher levels of skill and education, which are often
acquired through formal education and training programs. For example, professional
organizations like the American Medical Association or the Bar Association play a crucial
role in shaping the norms and standards of their respective fields.
 Coordination and efficiency: Formal structures, such as supply chains, hierarchies, and
standard operating procedures, allow for efficient and predictable outcomes. For example,
companies like Walmart or Amazon rely on strict supply chains and logistics networks to
ensure timely and cost-effective delivery of goods to customers
In conclusion, while the growth of the tertiary sector has certainly led to changes in the organization
of work, it is important to recognize that the relationship between the tertiary sector and the formal
organization of work is complex and context-specific. The extent to which the formal organization
of work has been weakened or strengthened in recent times depends on a variety of factors, such as
industry norms, technological developments, regulatory frameworks, and cultural values.
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(c) Caste ideology appears to have strengthened democracy. Comment (10

Marks)
Caste ideology has been a defining feature of Indian society for centuries, and its influence can be
seen in many aspects of political and social life in the country. While caste has often been viewed as
a source of inequality and discrimination, some scholars argue that it has also played a role in
strengthening democracy in India.
How caste ideology strengthen democracy

 Rajni Kothari argued that the Indian political system has been able to accommodate caste
diversity and conflict by providing channels for political participation and representation. In
this sense, caste has helped to broaden the base of democracy and ensure that marginalized
groups have a voice in the political process.
 Yogendra Yadav argued that the caste system has created a complex network of social and
political relationships that has enabled the formation of strong civil society organizations and
social movements. These movements have played a crucial role in promoting democracy and
social justice in India, by mobilizing popular support and pressuring the government to
address social and economic grievances.
 Dipankar Gupta stated that the caste system has created a culture of compromise and
consensus-building in Indian politics. This has enabled different groups to work together to
achieve common goals, even in the face of deep social and economic divisions.
How caste ideology weakens democracy

 M. N. Srinivas argued that caste has often been used as a tool for political manipulation and
domination by dominant groups. In this sense, caste has been a barrier to genuine democracy,
by perpetuating unequal power relations and preventing marginalized groups from gaining
political influence.
 Ambedkar, an Indian social reformer and politician, viewed caste as a fundamental obstacle
to democracy and social justice in India. He argued that the caste system was inherently
hierarchical and discriminatory, and that it needed to be dismantled in order to create a truly
democratic society. In this sense, caste has been a hindrance to democracy, by perpetuating
social inequality and exclusion.
 Partha Chatterjee propogated that the use of caste identity in politics has often led to the
exclusion of marginalized groups from mainstream political processes. He contends that the
use of caste as a basis for political mobilization can reinforce social divisions and undermine
the principles of democratic governance.
The role of caste ideology in democracy is a complex and contested issue. On the one hand, caste
has been seen as a source of social inequality and exclusion, which can undermine the principles of
democratic governance. On the other hand, caste has also been viewed as a means of political
mobilization and representation for marginalized groups, which can help to broaden the base of
democracy and ensure that diverse voices are heard in the political process.
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Question 8.
(a) “Globalization involves deterritorialization.” Examine with reference to
the nation-state. (20 Marks)
According to Baylis and Smith, globalization is the process of increasing interconnectedness
between societies, facilitated by electronic communications, cashless economy, faster travel, and
transnational companies. One of the key features of globalization is the idea of deterritorialization,
which refers to the breaking down of traditional boundaries and the blurring of borders between
different countries and regions.
In the context of the nation-state, deterritorialization can be seen as a threat to the sovereignty and
authority of the state. Traditionally, the nation-state has been defined by its territorial boundaries,
and its authority has been based on the ability to control and regulate what happens within those
boundaries but process of globalisation has challenged the authority of nation-state.
How globalisation is promoting deterritorialization
 The economies of states are more open today than in the past, and a significant event in one
country can affect the economies of other countries. E.g. Ukraine-Russia war had increased
inflation in whole world.
 The state's taxation power has reduced, and transnational corporations are challenging the
power of the nation-state. E.g. misuse of shell companies and offices setup in tax heavens.
 Leslie Sklair argues that transnational corporations spread the ideology of consumerism
through mass media and affect the policies of a nation-state, thus challenging its sovereignty.
 Additionally, the world is moving towards a global culture that reduces the importance of
national culture in nation-states, leading to tensions in the governing state. Moreover, the
political developments of other states are affecting domestic politics too, as seen in the Arab
Spring.
 In this globalized world, a risk culture is emerging, where global risks such as terrorism and
deadly viruses like Corona are difficult for states to deal with.
 According to David Held international NGOs and environmental groups are affecting the
ways in which national governments operate, and the concentration of power in institutions
such as the WTO, World Bank, and regional groups is transforming sovereignty.
How nation state is countering globalisation
 The nation-state still holds importance in the globalized world, despite the challenges to its
sovereign power. This is because it has territorial control, invests in infrastructure, collects
taxes, possesses military power, and provides identity to its people. The nation-state also has
the ability to make laws and regulate the functioning of transnational corporations within its
borders.
 Furthermore, the nation-state represents its people in the international arena and has the
power to raise nationalist sentiments among them. This provides a sense of identity and
belonging to the people, even in the face of globalization and the spread of a global culture.
Globalization involves the breaking down of traditional boundaries and the creation of new forms
of social, economic, and cultural relations. Deterritorialization is seen as a key aspect of this process,
as it enables people and ideas to move across national borders more easily and creates new
opportunities for transnational interactions and governance. The nation-state remains an important
actor in global politics, but its authority and sovereignty are being challenged by the process of
globalization and deterritorialization.
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(b) Examine the dialectical relation between tradition and modernity in the
study of social change. (20 Marks)
Tradition and modernity are two interrelated concepts in the study of social change. Traditions refer
to the customs, beliefs, values, and practices that are passed down from generation to generation,
while modernity refers to the social, economic, and technological changes that have taken place in
the world. The dialectical relation between tradition and modernity can be seen in different areas of
social change.
How tradition impacts modernity
 Max Weber's Theory of Traditional Authority: Traditional authority can impact modernity
by resisting change and creating barriers to innovation. For instance, in many traditional
societies, women are still restricted from participating in certain roles and professions that
are deemed "inappropriate" for them.
 Emile Durkheim's Theory of Social Solidarity: Traditional values and practices can provide a
shared sense of identity and belonging, which can have a positive impact on modernity. For
example, in Japan, traditional values such as respect for elders and a strong work ethic have
contributed to the country's economic success.
 Edward Shils' Theory of Tradition and Innovation: Traditions can inspire innovation by
providing a foundation for creativity and experimentation. For instance, traditional music
and art forms have inspired contemporary artists to create new and innovative works.
 Anthony Giddens' Theory of Reflexive Modernity: Traditional values and practices can act
as a "safety net" in times of uncertainty and social upheaval. For example, in times of
economic crisis, many people may turn to traditional forms of community support and
mutual aid, such as family networks, religious organizations, and voluntary associations.
How modernity impacts tradition
 Ulrich Beck, in his book “Risk Society,” argues that modernity creates new risks and
challenges that traditional ways of living and coping may not be able to handle. The rise of
ecological crises, globalization, and new technologies has created new forms of insecurity
and uncertainty, forcing societies to adapt and change their traditional ways.
 Arjun Appadurai, in his book “Modernity at Large,” argues that modernity has created a
new global cultural economy, where cultural products, meanings, and practices are
exchanged across borders. This globalization of culture has led to a hybridization of cultures,
where traditional practices are being adapted and transformed to fit into modern contexts.
 Peter Berger, in his book “The Sacred Canopy,” argues that modernity creates a crisis of
meaning, where traditional religious beliefs and practices are no longer able to provide a
coherent framework for understanding the world. This crisis of meaning has led to new forms
of religiosity, such as New Age movements or fundamentalism, which attempt to provide
new interpretations of traditional beliefs and practices.
 Foucault saw traditions and social institutions as products of power relations and subject to
the forces of modernization. He argued that modernity fundamentally changed the way
society was organized, leading to a decentralization of power and a greater emphasis on
individual rights and freedoms.
141
 Zygmunt Bauman, in his book “Liquid Modernity,” argues that modernity leads to the
erosion of traditional forms of social cohesion and solidarity. Social relationships have
become more fragmented and flexible, and the individual has become the center of modern
social life.
The dialectical relation between tradition and modernity is a complex and dynamic one, and it has
been the subject of much study in the field of sociology. The tension between tradition and
modernity is rooted in the fact that modernization brings with it many changes that challenge
traditional ways of life, beliefs, and practices. However, it is important to note that tradition and
modernity are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and that they can coexist in different ways.
142
(c) Elaborate the views of Durkheim on “The Elementary Forms, of

Religious Life”. (10 Marks)
Emile Durkheim’s “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life” is a classic work that examines the
nature and role of religion in society. Durkheim considers “the elementary forms of religious life”
to be the most basic and simple forms of religious practice found in tribal societies, arguing that they
provide insight into the nature and function of religion in all societies.
Durkheim’s ideas in “The Elementary Forms of Religious Life”
 Durkheim’s view of religion is that it is a social phenomenon that reflects the collective
consciousness of society. He sees religion as a way for individuals to express and reinforce
their sense of belonging to a community. He argues that religious practices are not just
individual but are social in nature, and function to reaffirm social bonds within a community.
 According to Durkheim, religion plays an important role in the maintenance of social order
and solidarity. Religious beliefs and practices serve to bind individuals together in a common
set of values, symbols, and rituals.
 Durkheim argues that the key to understanding the nature of religious practice lies in the
concept of the sacred and the profane. The sacred refers to those things that are set apart as
special or symbolic, whereas the profane refers to the ordinary, everyday aspects of life.
 In Durkheim’s view, religion also serves as a source of social control. He argues that religious
beliefs and practices provide a framework for regulating behavior and creating social norms.
 Durkheim argues that secularization does not necessarily mean the end of religion. He notes
that as societies become more complex, religious beliefs and practices may change or evolve,
but the fundamental role of religion in society remains.
Criticism of Durkheim’s idea
 Failed to account conflict aspect of Religion- The existence of a diversity of religions
frequently leads to inter-religious conflict, jeopardising rather than strengthening
cooperation. E.g. Various communal riots or rise of religious fundamentalism.
 Ruling class ideology - According to Karl Marx religion is the opium of the masses and it is
just another tool in the hands of ruling class to maintain domination and control over the
majority of the population.
 Weber in his work Protestant ethic and Spirit of Capitalism explains capitalism emerged in
the western world because of protestant values, that was not present in other religions of the
world. Durkheim's emphasis on tribal religion visualises religion's function in sustaining
social order, whereas Weber's approach examines religion's creative role in helping to
develop new ways of thinking and doing.
Overall, Durkheim's views on "The Elementary Forms of Religious Life" emphasize the social and
psychological functions of religion. He sees religion as a way for individuals to connect with society,
and he argues that it plays an important role in maintaining social order and shaping moral values.
Despite criticisms, Durkheim's work on the sociology of religion remains influential today. His
theory has shaped the way scholars think about religion as a social phenomenon and has
contributed to our understanding of the role of religion in society.
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Mains 2016
Section - A
Question 1. Write short answers of the following questions in about 150 words
each: 10x5=50 marks.
(a) "Sociology is pre-eminently study of modern societies." Discuss. 10
marks (10 Marks)
Approach
 Define modern societies and highlight their characteristics.
 Explain why sociology is pre-eminently focused on the study of modern societies.
 Provide some limitations of sociology as the study of modern societies.
The emergence of sociology as a field of study can be best understood in terms of its relationship
with society and ideas. It first emerged in Europe as a response to the social conditions and
intellectual climate prevailing in the eighteenth century.
Modern societies are the ones that have undergone transformations due to industrialization,
urbanization, technological advancements, and globalization. These societies exhibit intricate social
structures, diverse cultural interactions, and the influence of institutions and organizations on
individuals' lives.
How sociology study modern societies
 The challenges posed by modernity led to the growth of new intellectual ideas. Existing
disciplines were unable to address the questions raised, prompting the search for a new
"science of society," which eventually emerged as Sociology.
 Sociology significantly contributes to our understanding of modern societies by providing
theoretical frameworks, perspectives, and research methods that illuminate their
complexities. For example, the conflict theory highlights power struggles and social
inequalities prevalent in modern societies.
 Symbolic interactionism helps us comprehend the meanings individuals attribute to social
phenomena in their daily lives.
 Through empirical research, sociology generates knowledge about social issues, informs
policy-making, and promotes social justice by advocating for marginalized groups and
challenging oppressive structures.
While sociology plays a crucial role in studying modern societies, it is important to recognize its
critiques and limitations. Some argue that sociological theories and perspectives may oversimplify
the intricate nature of social interactions and individual agency in modern societies. Additionally,
the ever-evolving nature of modern societies presents challenges for sociological research to keep
pace with rapid changes and emerging social phenomena.
In conclusion, sociology is pre-eminently focused on the study of modern societies due to its
emphasis on analyzing the social dynamics, structures, and challenges inherent in contemporary
social systems. Despite its limitations, sociology continues to contribute to our understanding of
modern societies and plays a vital role in promoting social progress, justice, and well-being in our
ever-changing world.
144
(b) What is 'value-free sociology"? Clarify. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Define the concept of value-free sociology.
 Briefly discuss the historical development of value-free sociology
 Address the challenges and critiques of value-free sociology.
Solution
Value-free sociology, also known as the Weberian approach, is a theoretical perspective in sociology
that seeks to separate personal values and beliefs from the scientific study of social phenomena.
According to this approach, sociologists should strive for objectivity and impartiality in their
research, and avoid allowing their personal values and biases to influence their analysis.
The value-free perspective was first articulated by the German sociologist Max Weber in the early
20th century. Weber argued that sociology should be based on empirical observation and analysis,
rather than on preconceived assumptions or normative judgments. He believed that social scientists
should strive for a value-neutral perspective, and that personal values and beliefs should not
interfere with the scientific investigation of social phenomena.
In practice, value-free sociology involves a number of methodological strategies and techniques. For
example, sociologists using this approach often use quantitative research methods to collect and
analyze data, and avoid making subjective interpretations or value judgments about the data. They
also strive for objectivity in their research design, data collection, and analysis, and try to eliminate
bias and subjectivity as much as possible.
Max Weber, however, did not think that complete ‘value-freedom’, was possible, but he did believe
that, once a topic for research had been chosen, the researcher could be objective. He recognized
that values would influence the ‘choice of topics. Thus, the idea of Value relevance in sociology
acknowledges that values can shape the choice of research topics and the formulation of research
questions. Researchers would choose to research topics which they thought were, of central
importance of society.
However, according to many ‘contemporary sociologists’, there is, no prospect of a completely value
free sociology. According to them, total objectivity is impossible because values inevitably enter
every stage of the production of ‘sociological knowledge’. Thus Reflexivity, which involves critically
reflecting on one's own values and their potential influence on the research process, is essential in
addressing this challenge.
While there are issues such as recognising the relevance of values and the possible influence of
values, value-free sociology remains an essential idea in sociological research. As a result, reflexivity
and transparency become critical for preserving the integrity and legitimacy of sociological study.
145
(c) Analyze the importance of qualitative method in social research. (10

Marks)
Approach
 Define qualitative methods in the context of social research.
 Importance of qualitative method in social research
 Some limitations of Qualitative Methods.
Solution
Qualitative Methods refer to examination, analysis and interpretation of observations for the
purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationship to gain better
understanding of symbols, motives and meanings. It involves an in-depth exploration of social
phenomena through non-numerical data collection and analysis. Observation method, unstructured
interview, case studies, focus group discussion etc are some of the common qualitative methods.
Advantages of Qualitative methods
 They enable researchers to achieve a depth of understanding that goes beyond surface-level
observations.
 Qualitative methods emphasize the importance of studying social phenomena within their
specific contexts. This contextual understanding adds depth and richness to research
findings, providing a more comprehensive understanding of social phenomena.
 Another advantage of qualitative methods is their flexibility and adaptability. Researchers
can modify their approach, methods, and questions based on emerging insights and
changing circumstances.
 Qualitative methods also acknowledge the importance of subjective experiences and
individuals' perspectives. By allowing participants to share their own viewpoints, values,
and interpretations, qualitative research captures the complexity and diversity of human
lived experiences.
 Furthermore, qualitative research provides valuable insights that can inform policy-making
and practical interventions. By understanding the lived experiences and perspectives of
individuals and communities, researchers can identify social issues, inform the development
of policies, and contribute to evidence-based decision-making.
 Finally, qualitative methods complement quantitative research by providing a deeper
understanding of social phenomena. Qualitative research can help interpret and explain
quantitative findings, offering insights into the underlying reasons, motivations, and
dynamics behind the numbers.
Criticism of qualitative methods
Concerns about subjectivity, low generalizability, and the possibility of researcher bias are some of
the limitations of qualitative methods. In qualitative research, there is continual debate about
validity and reliability. Researchers, on the other hand, overcome these obstacles through rigorous
methodology, reflexivity, and transparency in data collection, analysis, and interpretation.
In sociology, multiple perspectives and truths necessitate the use of diverse research methods. The
superiority or inferiority of these methods is irrelevant; what matters is selecting the appropriate
method for the research question at hand. For determining the prevalence of joint families in India,
a census or survey is suitable, while comparing the status of women in joint and nuclear families
requires interviews, case studies, or participant observation. The focus should be on method
appropriateness rather than debating method superiority.
146
(d) Evaluate Marx's ideas on mode of production. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce with the Marx's work on the concept of Mode of Production
 Describe Marx's concept of mode of production.
 limitations or criticisms of Marx theory.
Solution
Karl Marx's ideas on the mode of production were a cornerstone of his theory of historical
materialism, which argued that the mode of production in a given society determines its social
structure and institutions. Marx identified several distinct modes of production throughout history,
each characterized by a unique combination of "forces of production" and "relations of production"
in a materialistic context. He argued that these modes of production are not static, but rather evolve
over time through a process of class struggle.
Various modes of proudction
 According to Marx, the earliest mode of production was primitive communism, in which
property was held in common and there was no class division.
 Ancient slavery - in which a ruling class held ownership over the labor of slaves.
 The next mode of production was feudalism, in which the ruling class held ownership over
the land and the labor of serfs.
 Capitalism, which emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries, is characterized by private
ownership of the means of production and the exploitation of wage labor.
 Marx argued that capitalism would eventually give way to socialism, in which the means of
production would be owned and controlled by the working class. This would lead to the
establishment of communism, a classless society in which the means of production are held
in common and there is no exploitation.
Some of the strengths of Marx's ideas on the mode of production includes:
 It provides a comprehensive understanding of societal structures.
 It traces the development and transformation of societies over time.
 It highlights the role of social classes and class struggle.
 It provides a critical analysis of capitalism, revealing its contradictions and exploitative
nature.
 It had influence on social theory and movements advocating for social justice and workers'
rights.
However, there were some major criticisms of his ideas on mode of production
such as:
 Marx's communist utopia never materialized, and intellectuals rather than the proletariat
have played a leading role in anti-capitalist movements.
 His mode of production theory is criticized for being narrow and reductionist, ignoring
consumption and feminist dimensions of production.
147
 The Asiatic mode of production also challenges his generalized thesis.
 His futuristic models are viewed as utopian and criticized for his obsession with social justice
and communism.
Marx's ideas on the mode of production were influential in shaping socialist and communist thought
in the 20th century. However, his predictions of the collapse of capitalism and the establishment of
socialism and communism have not been fully realized. Critics argue that Marx underestimated the
ability of capitalism to adapt and evolve, and that his predictions of its demise were premature.
Nonetheless, Marx's ideas remain relevant to contemporary debates about the nature of capitalism
and the potential for social and economic transformation.
148
(e) "Vertical mobility brings structural change even in a closed social

system." Comment. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Define the concept of vertical mobility.
 Explain how structural change can take place through vertical mobility
 Some limitations of vertical mobility bringing structural Change
Solution
Vertical Social Mobility is defined by Pitrim Sorokin as the relationships involved in the transition
of an individual (or social object) from one social stratum to another. There are two sorts of
transitions based on the direction of the transition: ascending (social climbing) and descending
(social sinking). The amount of vertical mobility in a society is a major index of the degree of its
‘openness’, including how far talented individuals born into lower strata can move up the socio –
economic ladder.
Vertical mobility in closed system
 In a closed social system, opportunities for social mobility are often restricted, and
individuals have limited chances to change their social position.
 Vertical mobility, on the other hand, threatens and upsets existing social norms and
hierarchies inside a closed social system.
 Individuals who move up or down the social hierarchy can challenge and modify the existing
power structures by breaking free from established restrictions.
 Access to education and the learning of new skills can give individuals with the tools they
require to navigate a closed system's social hierarchy.
 Social movements and activism have the capacity to demand equal opportunities and rights
for marginalised groups inside closed social institutions.
 Changes in the economic landscape, such as technology developments, economic crises, or
labour market adjustments, might open up new paths for social mobility within a closed
system.
However, vertical mobility may not fully address social inequalities within closed systems.
 Privileged groups and economic disparities can hinder upward mobility, perpetuating
existing advantages and barriers. Closed systems have entrenched power structures that
resist change.
 Cultural norms, social networks, and inheritance systems maintain social stratification,
limiting the transformative impact of vertical mobility.
 The University of Oxford concluded that the relative chances for mobility among different
segments in Britain remained highly unequal because of inequalities of opportunities.
 According to Marshall, more room at the top has not been accompanied by great equality in
the opportunities to get there.
In conclusion, despite the limits of closed social systems, a variety of methods and circumstances
have the potential to effect structural change. Recognising and comprehending social dynamics is
critical for social progress and aiming for a more inclusive society.
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Question 2.
(a) Elucidate the basic premises of Davis' structural-functional theory of
social stratification. How far is it relevant in understanding contemporary
Indian society? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with the concept of social stratification.
 Explain Davis' structural-functional theory of social stratification.
 the limitations and criticisms of Davis' structural-functional theory.
 the relevance of the theory to contemporary Indian society.
Solution
Social stratification is the process by which social inequalities manifest themselves as structural
hierarchical strata, one above the other. Sutherland and Maxwell define social stratification as a
process of differentiation that elevates some people above others. The functionalist viewpoint tries
to explain social stratification in terms of how it helps to keep society stable and orderly. They
examine social stratification to determine how well it meets the "functional prerequisites" of society.
Davis and Moore’s theory of stratification
 The notions of "effective role allocation and performance" serve as the foundation of their
theory. They contend that some roles and positions in society are more significant than
others, and that these roles and positions should be compensated more generously in order
to draw the finest candidates.
 Furthermore, more lucrative tasks require talent and training and demand sacrifices, thus
they should be fully paid in terms of privileges attached. They contend that the uneven
incentives are a source of encouragement for people to work harder and attain the top
positions.
 In light of this, Davis and Moore draw the conclusion that social stratification is a mechanism
used by societies to guarantee that the most important posts are diligently filled by the most
competent individuals.
Melvin M. Tumin criticised Davis and Moore’s view
 Which vocations are more crucial to society? Many professions that provide nothing in the
way of status or financial gain might be considered essential.
 There is no mechanism in place to assess the level of talent in the population.
 Lacks equal opportunity; those with older rank and privileges have greater options.
 Social stratification may be a deterrent to talent attraction and motivation. This is clearly seen
in a tight caste and racial stratification structure.
 A huge section of the population lacks access to training and education, which are necessary
for achieving social positions.
 He contends that rather than fostering integration and stability in society, such an unfair
position exacerbates societal division and antagonism.
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Response by Davis/Moore
 According to them, the distinctiveness of a work and the dependence of other jobs on it
determine its relevance. For instance, a doctor can perform nurse duties but not the reverse
 Presence of stratification in every society clearly illustrates the inevitability and functional
necessity of the institution.
Relevance to Indian society
 Certain jobs in India, such as doctors, engineers, and civil servant, are highly valued and
compensated for their significant contributions to society.
 In India, unequal rewards and incentives are also present. Wealth and resources continue to
be concentrated in the hands of a privileged few, resulting in economic inequities.
 Individuals are motivated to strive for higher social positions and economic success as a
result of the unequal distribution of benefits.
 India has a social structure that is hierarchical based on characteristics such as caste, class,
and religion. Davis and Moore idea more applicable to achievement-based societies (western
world). Ascription based societies like India there is no equal opportunity and stratification
creates barrier for various groups. E.g. the ascribed status of untouchables prevented even
the most talented from entering into education field.
In conclusion, Davis' structural-functional theory provides valuable insights into social hierarchy.
Complementing it with alternative perspectives that consider intersectionality and historical
inequalities is crucial for a comprehensive understanding and the pursuit of a more just and
equitable society.
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(b) Describe the functional prerequisites of social system as given by Talcott

Parsons. Examine in the context of a university as a social system. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the concept of Social System
 Explain the four functional prerequisites proposed by Parsons
 Describe how each functional prerequisite applies to the university
 Provide a criticism or limitations of Talcott Parsons' functional prerequisites
Solution
A social system, according to Parsons, is a collection of interconnected and interrelated social
institutions and structures that collaborate to maintain social order and stability. He saw the social
system as being made up of various subsystems, including the economic, political, and legal
systems, among others.
AGIL model
Parsons AGIL model represents the 4 basic functions that all social systems must perform if they are
to persist.
 Adaptive (A): whereby a system adapts to its environment by acquiring sufficient resources.
 Goal-attainment (G): whereby a system defines and achieves its goals.
 Integrative (I): whereby the problem of maintaining solidarity or coordination among the
sub-units is achieved through regulation of the components of the system.
 Latency (L) or pattern maintenance: whereby the problem of creating, preserving, and
transmitting the systems distinctive culture and values is taken care off
University as a social system
 Adaptation: Universities must adjust their curriculum, teaching methods, and research focus
to remain relevant and meet evolving societal demands and educational trends. This may
involve introducing new programs or updating existing ones to address emerging fields and
technological advancements.
 Goal attainment: Universities strive to achieve their objectives, including providing quality
education, conducting research, and fostering intellectual growth. They establish academic
standards, evaluate student performance, and support faculty research to accomplish these
goals. Creating a conducive learning environment for students' personal and intellectual
development is also a key focus.
 Integration: The university ensures smooth coordination and cooperation among students,
faculty, staff, and administration. This is achieved through the establishment of
administrative structures, committees, and academic departments that facilitate
communication, collaboration, and resource allocation. Building a sense of community and
shared identity among university members is an important aspect of integration.
 Pattern maintenance: Universities uphold their values, academic integrity, and institutional
identity by maintaining norms, rules, and structures. This includes enforcing codes of
conduct, academic regulations, and disciplinary measures.
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Criticism of Parson’s ideas
 Marxists scholars’ criticised Parson for giving too much emphasis on social consensus and
stability. Parsons failed to recognise the value of conflict and Marxist argued that values
consensus and social cohesion in society is nothing but ‘ruling class ideology’.
 According to interactionist perspective Parson’s theory makes individual as a passive being
and is always constrained by the society or culture. However individuals had been able to
shape the structure of the society. For e.g. B.R. Ambedkar was born in lower caste family, got
educated, and impacted the constitution making process of our country.
 Merton questions the idea that any institution or structure is inevitable and provides certain
function. Throughout the world Religion had played certain functions but Communalism,
fundamentalism, religious wars are also by product of religion.
In general, Parsons' theory of the social system continues to be a significant viewpoint in sociology,
but it has also generated considerable discussion and criticism due to its flaws and
oversimplifications.
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(c) Is sociology common sense? Give reasons in support of your argument.

(10 Marks)
Approach
 Define sociology and common sense
 Differentiate between the two concepts, highlighting their distinct characteristics
 Acknowledge the compatibility/overlap of sociology and common sense.
Solution
Sociology is the scientific study of society, human social behavior, and the patterns and structures
that shape social interactions and institutions. Common sense knowledge refers to that knowledge
which is routinely used in the conduct of everyday life. It is the practical and intuitive knowledge,
understanding, and reasoning that individuals acquire through their everyday experiences and
observations.
Sociology is not common sense because of the following reasons:
 Sociological knowledge frequently contradicts "what everyone knows." It is debatable
whether this renders social forms of knowledge "superior" than common-sense types.
However, it has the advantage of being the result of theory creation and testing, whereas
common-sense information is just the result of assumption.
 Human society, culture, and behaviour are the foundations of sociological knowledge. It is
not necessarily "common" or "reasonable" to use common sense. While ostensibly based on
common knowledge, statements like "Birds of a feather flock together" and "Opposites
attract" contradict each other.
 Common sense is sometimes nothing more than a general view based on personal
experiences. For example, people may perceive a huge crime issue based on their own
personal experiences .However, if facts are examined, the rate of crime may have really
decreased.
 Common sense perspectives tend to mirror societal traditions and customs, reinforcing the
status quo and resisting social change. On the other hand, sociological knowledge is
intended to be progressive in nature.
 Common sense ideas are frequently based on pictures that are reinforced by tradition.
Being a saint, for example, assumes a specific sort of image that people accept as real in Indian
society. Sociological perspectives, on the other hand, aggressively challenge preconceptions.
How common sense helps sociology
Sociology has drawn and continues to rely on commonsense knowledge. Sociology, maybe more
than any other discipline of scholarship, maintains a close relationship with common sense.
 Common-sense is a sample of average people's daily experiences and views. Human acts
and interactions, groups and organisations investigated by sociologists have been given
names by the people themselves, and hence are subjects of commonsensical knowledge.
Families, kinship networks, neighbourhoods, cities, and villages are all sociological concepts
with meanings that are heavily impacted by common sense. As a result, sociological
terminologies are packed with connotations derived from common sense.
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 The fundamental element for sociological inquiries is common sense. If sociological
knowledge does not answer commonsensical questions about its theories, observations,
and conclusions, it is deemed incomplete.
 Common sense also contributes to the growth of social knowledge. Common sense
knowledge may critique sociological knowledge and provide alternatives, so improving the
disciplines.
Sociology necessitates extensive investigation, which ensures the validity of the facts presented as
well as the hypotheses proposed. But this does not mean that common sense is useless. Common
sense is really valuable, and it has assisted numerous sociologists in pondering and probing into
them. So, common sense and sociology are distinct yet intertwined.
155
Question 3.
(a) Analyze the manifest and latent functions of security of the tenure of
bureaucrats in the light of Merton's theory. (20 marks)
Approach
 Explain the concept of Manifest and Latent functions.
 Explain the Manifest functions of security of tenure.
 Explain the Latent functions of security of tenure.
Solution
Function, in Merton's view, does not imply intent or desire, but rather the amount to which a
particular action supports or interferes (function or dysfunction) with the system's maintenance.
Merton also introduces the notions of manifest and latent functions and distinguishes between two
types of function.
 Manifest function – The intended purpose of social policies, procedures, or behaviours that
are intentionally and deliberately meant to be helpful to society is referred to as manifest
function. E.g. Schools are obliged to provide youngsters with the necessary information and
skills. The obvious functions are acknowledged and frequently praised.
 Latent functions are one that is not intentionally designed and have unintentional functions.
Schools, for example, not only teach children but also provide mass entertainment.
Merton’s theory and security of tenure
 Here security of tenure refers to the assurance of continued employment or job security that
is granted to individuals within an organization, typically in the context of bureaucratic or
institutional settings.
 The manifest functions of security of tenure
o It provides bureaucrats with the confidence of job security, allowing them to perform
their duties without the fear of arbitrary dismissal.
o This stability promotes continuity in bureaucratic roles, ensuring consistency in
administrative tasks and policies.
o With secure tenure, bureaucrats experience job satisfaction, leading to increased
loyalty and commitment to their organizations.
o This dedication positively impacts their performance, contributing to enhanced
productivity and efficiency.
 The latent functions of security of tenure
o It may inadvertently lead to complacency among bureaucrats.
o The assurance of job security can create a disincentive for innovation and change
within the bureaucratic system, hindering organizational adaptability.
o Prolonged job security may diminish the motivation of bureaucrats to strive for
excellence or professional growth.
o Without the pressure of potential dismissal, there is a risk of stagnation and a lack of
proactive efforts to improve performance.
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Understanding these functions and their implications is crucial for balancing the benefits and
potential drawbacks associated with providing job security in bureaucratic settings. Merton's theory
offers a valuable lens to explore the complexities of social phenomena and their consequences in
organizational contexts.
157
(b) Describe the basic postulates of scientific method. How far are these
followed in sociological research? (20 marks)
Approach
 Briefly introduce the concept of the scientific method.
 Describe the fundamental postulates or principles of the scientific method.
 Discuss the extent to which sociological research adheres to the postulates of the scientific
method.
 some other limitations of scientific methods.
Solution
The Scientific Method, in general, refers to any systematic, rational, and objective set of steps used
to explore the truth, acquire new knowledge, investigate phenomena, or correct and integrate
previous knowledge. It is commonly associated with the natural sciences and the discovery of laws
that govern the behavior of matter, forming the core of the scientific method. Specifically, it involves
a series of steps that begin with defining the research question, building a hypothesis, conducting
experiments or tests, and so on.
The fundamental postulates or principles of the scientific method include:
 Empiricism: This principle holds that knowledge is acquired through experience and
observation, and scientific understanding of social reality is based on empirical and
measurable evidence, guided by specific principles of reasoning.
 Objectivity: This principle recognizes that social phenomena can be investigated objectively,
and to ensure accurate findings, researchers should minimize personal biases and subjective
interpretations.
 Replicability: This refers to the ability to repeat or reproduce a study to test its findings and
validate their reliability.
 Falsifiability: This principle states that scientific hypotheses or theories should be testable
and potentially capable of being disproven, allowing for critical evaluation and refinement.
 Generalizability: This principle emphasizes that general principles and theories should be
applicable to different populations and contexts, providing a basis for understanding and
explaining social patterns.
 Systematic Approach: This involves a structured and organized process of formulating
research questions, developing hypotheses, collecting data, and analyzing results, ensuring
a rigorous and systematic approach to inquiry.
Scientific postulates and sociology
 Many sociological studies do rely on systematically collecting and analyzing empirical data
using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments.
 Researchers also strive to minimize personal biases and employ rigorous methodologies to
enhance objectivity. However, the subjectivity of the researcher and the potential influence
of social context can still impact the research process and findings.
 In sociology, replicability often poses challenges due to the complexity of social phenomena
and the unique nature of social contexts.
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 Nevertheless, researchers aim to ensure transparency and provide detailed methodologies to
facilitate study replication.
 While sociological theories and hypotheses can be tested and potentially falsified, the
complexity of social phenomena and the multitude of influencing factors make it difficult to
fully adhere to this postulate.
 Sociological researchers employ systematic approaches when formulating research
questions, selecting appropriate methodologies, and analyzing data. However, the social
nature of the subject matter often requires flexibility and adaptation in research design.
 Additionally, due to its specific nature, conducting "laboratory experiments" in a controlled
environment is not feasible in sociology. Therefore, establishing cause and effect through
controlled experimentation is not possible, and the discovery of fixed universal laws becomes
impractical.
However, sociology continues to make ongoing efforts to enhance the application of the scientific
method and improve research methodologies. Researchers within the field are constantly exploring
innovative approaches, refining research designs, and incorporating mixed methods to address the
challenges posed by the social realm. These efforts aim to enhance the production of reliable and
valid knowledge, allowing for a deeper understanding of the intricacies of social life.
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(c) "Hypothesis is a statement of the relationship between two or more

variables." Elucidate by giving example of poverty and illiteracy. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly introduce the concept of a hypothesis and its significance in sociological research.
 Define a hypothesis as a statement that proposes a relationship between two or more
variables
 Illustrate the concept of a hypothesis using the relationship between poverty and illiteracy.
Solution
Hypothesis is a 'tentative generalization' that requires testing for validity. Once verified and proven
true, a hypothesis can lead to the formation of a theory. It can be either correct or incorrect, but it
always prompts an empirical test in theory formulation.
Hypothesis is essential for any scientific investigation as it provides guidance and direction. It helps
limit the scope of inquiry to a manageable area and allows for a focused search for relevant facts.
Therefore, hypothesis is necessary at every stage of an investigation in theory formulation.
However, for a hypothesis to be meaningful in theory building, it must be clear, precise, and testable
with empirical referents.
Relationship between poverty and illiteracy
 For instance, let's examine the relationship between poverty and illiteracy. A hypothesis
regarding this relationship could be: "Higher poverty levels are associated with increased
illiteracy rates." In this hypothesis, poverty serves as the independent variable, while
illiteracy is the dependent variable. The hypothesis suggests that as poverty levels rise, so do
the levels of illiteracy.
 Testing the hypothesis on poverty and illiteracy is crucial to evaluate the validity of the
proposed relationship. Researchers employ various methods, such as data collection,
statistical analysis, and comparative studies, to examine the strength and direction of the
association between poverty and illiteracy.
 By gathering empirical evidence, researchers can determine whether the hypothesis holds
true and contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between these variables. If
the data supports the hypothesis, it can be considered a valid explanation for the relationship
between poverty and illiteracy.
In conclusion, hypotheses play a crucial role in sociological research by proposing relationships
between variables. Overall, hypotheses provide a structured framework for conducting rigorous
studies and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in sociology.
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Question 4.
(a) Examine Max Weber's method of maintaining objectivity in social
research. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce highlighting Max Weber's contribution to the problem of objectivity
 Describe Max Weber's method of maintaining objectivity.
 limitations and challenges of maintaining objectivity.
Solution
In his work, Weber emphasized the importance of objectivity and neutrality in social research. He
believed that social scientists should strive to remain detached from their personal biases and
values, and that they should approach their research with a scientific attitude.
To maintain objectivity in social research, Weber proposed several key
methodological principles, including:
 Verstehen: Weber argued that social scientists should seek to understand the subjective
meanings that people attach to their actions and behaviors. This involves using empathy and
imagination to put oneself in the shoes of the people being studied and to understand their
experiences from their perspective.
 Value-free analysis: Weber believed that social scientists should strive to remain neutral and
objective when analyzing social phenomena. This means that researchers should avoid
imposing their personal values or judgments on the data, and should instead let the data
speak for itself.
 Comparative analysis: Weber argued that social scientists should use comparative analysis
to understand the similarities and differences between different social phenomena. This
involves comparing different cases or situations in order to identify patterns and trends.
 Multiple causality: Weber recognized that social phenomena are often complex and have
multiple causes. He believed that social scientists should take a holistic approach to
understanding social phenomena, and should consider multiple factors that might be
contributing to a particular outcome.
 Ideal types: Weber proposed the use of ideal types, which are hypothetical constructs that
represent the purest form of a particular social phenomenon. By using ideal types,
researchers can identify the essential characteristics of a particular social phenomenon and
better understand its underlying dynamics.
While objectivity has long been regarded as an important aspect of social
research, there are scholars who have questioned its feasibility and desirability.
 Alvin Gouldner argued that fact and value cannot be entirely separated in empirical research.
According to him, values and subjectivity inevitably influence the research process and
cannot be completely eliminated.
 Gunnar Myrdal similarly contended that total objectivity is an illusion. He believed that
complete objectivity in studying social phenomena can lead to the falsification of history and
undermine the fundamental purpose of sociology, which is to address social issues and
promote reform.
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 Social phenomena are shaped by cultural values, norms, and historical contexts, making it
essential to consider these factors in research. Taking a purely objective stance can overlook
the nuances and complexities of social issues, hindering the development of meaningful
solutions. Gunnar Myrdal highlighted the need for multiple viewpoints to comprehend the
complexities of social phenomena, emphasizing that chaos cannot organize itself into a
coherent understanding without diverse perspectives.
In light of these perspectives, it becomes evident that achieving complete objectivity in social
research is challenging and may not be desirable. Recognizing the influence of values and
subjectivity can lead to a more nuanced understanding of social phenomena. It allows researchers
to acknowledge the contextual factors that shape social issues and propose solutions that are
sensitive to the needs and values of the society under study.
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(b) "Participant observation is the most effective tool for collecting facts."
Comment. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining the concept of participant observation.
 The advantages of participant observation as a tool for collecting facts.
 The limitations of participant observation as a tool for collecting facts.
Solution
Participant observation entails gathering data through active participation in the daily lives of
informants. The researcher joins the group and aims to study it from within. This method originated
in the field research of social anthropologists, particularly Bronislaw Malinowski, during his study
of the Trobriand Islanders. Its objective is to develop a close and intimate familiarity with a specific
group of individuals, such as occupational or subcultural groups, or a particular community, by
immersing oneself in their cultural environment for an extended period of time.
Strengths of participant observation
 It allows researchers to collect data in a naturalistic setting. By participating in the activities
being studied, researchers can observe social behavior in context and gain a deeper
understanding of the social world they are studying. This can lead to more nuanced and
detailed insights into social phenomena that might not be apparent through other research
methods.
 In this method of data collection, the researcher does not pre-judge the issue and can explore
new avenues of research that may not have occurred to them before their involvement with
a group. The researcher can test hypotheses and potentially redefine preconceptions about
someone's behaviour.
 Additionally, participant observation allows researchers to collect data on both verbal and
nonverbal communication, which can provide valuable information about social norms,
values, and beliefs. Through close observation of social interactions, researchers can also
identify patterns and themes in behavior, which can inform the development of social theory.
Some limitations of participant observation
 One limitation is the potential for researcher bias. Researchers' personal biases and
assumptions can influence their observations and interpretations of social behavior, which
can compromise the accuracy of their findings.
 Another limitation is the potential for ethical issues. In some cases, researchers may have to
engage in behaviors that violate their personal values or ethical standards in order to gain
access to the social group being studied. Additionally, participants may not be fully aware of
the researcher's presence or the nature of the study, which raises questions about informed
consent and privacy.
 Finally, participant observation can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. It may
require significant investments of time and effort to build relationships with the social group
being studied and to gain access to their activities and events.
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 Most participant observation is restricted to small-scale studies carried out over a long
period. Since this method is mostly used in micro settings, the generalizations arrived at
reflect a partial picture.
 Positivists criticize this method as unreliable because the results are not quantified, making
generalization difficult, and lacking standardized replication procedures. Becoming too
immersed as a participant may lead to the problem of "going native" thus losing some of their
objectivity and ability to observe and analyze the group from an outsider's perspective.
To overcome these limitations, it is important to complement participant observation with other
research methods. By combining participant observation with interviews, surveys, and archival
research, researchers can triangulate data and enhance the overall validity and reliability of their
findings. Employing multiple methods allows for cross-validation and helps mitigate the
shortcomings of any single approach.
Overall, while participant observation can be a highly effective tool for collecting facts, it also has
limitations that researchers must consider. It is important for researchers to carefully consider the
ethical implications of their research, to remain aware of their own biases and assumptions, and to
use multiple research methods to triangulate their findings and enhance the validity and reliability
of their data.
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(c) Discuss the relationship between poverty and social exclusion. (10
Marks)
Approach
 Define poverty and social exclusion.
 Discuss the relationship between poverty and social exclusion.
 Conclusion
Solution
Poverty refers to a lack of resources or income necessary to meet one's basic needs, such as food,
shelter, and healthcare. Peter Townsend argued that individuals, families and groups can be said to
be under poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate in the activities,
and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or at least widely encouraged
or approved, in the societies to which they belong.
Social exclusion refers to a state in which people are unable to fully participate in economic, social,
political, and cultural life, as well as the process that leads to and sustains such a state. Social
exclusion can also be considered as the marginalisation of individuals or people from the society,
wherein certain rights, opportunities and resources are not available to them.
Relation between poverty and social exclusion
 Poverty and social exclusion share a close association, as poverty often serves as a significant
catalyst for social exclusion.
 Individuals grappling with poverty encounter limited access to education, healthcare,
housing, and employment prospects. These material deprivations impede their integration
into mainstream society and hinder their social mobility.
 In addition, poverty can lead to social isolation and marginalization, as individuals may be
stigmatized or discriminated against due to their economic status. This can lead to feelings
of shame, low self-esteem, and lack of social support, which can further exacerbate the effects
of poverty and limit individuals' ability to participate fully in social life.
 Conversely, social exclusion perpetuates the cycle of poverty by reinforcing structural
barriers and unequal power dynamics, impeding individuals from breaking free from
poverty traps. For instance, the caste system leads to the social exclusion of Dalits, who are
forced into menial tasks, while women are socially excluded from numerous occupations
reserved primarily for men, making them disproportionately affected by poverty.
 Although social exclusion may not always result in poverty, it significantly increases the
likelihood of an individual or group falling into poverty.
Overall, poverty and social exclusion are deeply intertwined, and addressing these issues requires
a comprehensive and intersectional approach that addresses both individual and systemic factors.
By working to promote greater equality and inclusion, we can help to create a society that is more
just, equitable, and sustainable for all.
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Section -B
each: 10x5=50 marks
(a) Describe the nature of social organization of work in industrial society.
(10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by explaining what we mean by social organization of work.
 Describe the key characteristics of the social organization of work in industrial society.
 Conclusion
Solution
Social organization reflects the normative structure at work place in form of stratified order in
society, power relations, social mobility, and alienation and so on. Traditional societies work is
organized more on normative lines on the other hand Modern or Industrialised societies have
secular or technical component as dominating one. Industrial society is the one that is characterized
by large-scale production of goods and services, facilitated by advanced technology and a division
of labor.
Some sociological thinkers who have contributed to our understanding of the
social organization of work in industrial society include:
 Max Weber: Weber argued that the division of labor in industrial society led to the
development of a bureaucratic form of organization. Bureaucracies are characterized by a
hierarchy of authority, a system of rules and regulations, and a division of labor.
 Emile Durkheim: Durkheim argued that the division of labor in industrial society led to the
development of organic solidarity. Organic solidarity is a type of social cohesion that is based
on interdependence. In an industrial society, people are interdependent on each other for the
goods and services that they need.
 Karl Marx: Marx argued that the division of labor in industrial society led to the development
of class conflict. Marx argued that the capitalist class, who own the means of production,
exploit the working class, who sell their labor power to the capitalist class.
The organization of work in a capitalist or industrial society is characterized by
several distinct features such as:
 Mass production in factories: The primary economic activity revolves around the large-scale
production of goods and services in factory settings. This shift from traditional modes of
production to industrialized processes allows for increased output and efficiency.
 Complex division of labor: As industrialization progresses, the division of labor becomes
more specialized and intricate. Individuals focus on specific tasks, contributing to overall
productivity.
 Emphasis on capital: Capital takes precedence over labor in industrial societies. The
accumulation of capital and the pursuit of profit are central to economic activities.
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 Production for exchange and profit: The primary motive of production in capitalist societies
is to generate goods and services for exchange in the market, with the goal of maximizing
profit.
 Competitive environment: Competition plays a central role in industrial societies. Enterprises
and individuals compete for market share, resources, and customers. This competitive
environment shapes the strategies and behavior of economic actors.
 High levels of alienation: Workers in industrial societies often experience high levels of
alienation. They lose control over the products they create and endure repetitive and
monotonous work.
 Multiplicity of economic institutions: Industrial societies feature a range of economic
institutions, including factories, banks, and markets. These institutions serve different
functions within the economic system and interact to facilitate economic activities.
 Surplus production for the market: The shift from self-consumption to market-oriented
production leads to the generation of surplus goods and services. The focus is on meeting
market demand and achieving economies of scale.
 Money economy and commodification of labor: In industrial societies, a money-based
economy replaces traditional barter systems. Additionally, labor itself becomes
commoditized, treated as a resource to be bought and sold in the labor market.
 Workforce mobility: Improved means of communication and transportation enable high
mobility of the workforce.
 High level of innovation: The industrial society fosters a conducive environment for
innovation and creativity. Individuals have more freedom to explore and develop new ideas,
leading to advancements in technology, processes, and products.
 These characteristics of the social organization of work in industrial society shape the
dynamics of labor, economic relations, and the overall functioning of industrialized societies.
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(b) Discuss the importance of power elite' in democracy. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Define the concept of Power elite
 Negative impact of power elite in a democratic system.
 Positive impact of power elite
Solution
The concept of a "power elite" refers to a small group of individuals who hold disproportionate
power and influence in society, often through their control of key institutions such as government,
corporations, and the media.
C. Wright Mills, a prominent sociologist, argued that the power elite wields significant influence in
American society and that this concentration of power undermines democracy. Mills argued that
the power elite is made up of a small number of wealthy individuals who control the major
economic, political, and military institutions in the United States. He believed that this elite group
operates behind the scenes, often without public scrutiny, and uses its power to shape public policy
in its own interests.
Negatives of power elite in a democratic system
 According to Dahl this concentration of power raises questions about the extent of democratic
participation and whether decisions truly reflect the will of the majority.
 Domhoff argued that the power elite's presence can affect the representation of different
interests and groups in a democratic system, potentially leading to underrepresentation or
marginalization of certain social groups and perpetuating existing social hierarchies.
 Moreover, the power elite's influence can erode democratic values and institutions, creating
disillusionment, apathy, and a decline in citizen engagement .
 It can also pose challenges to accountability mechanisms in democratic systems, leading to
potential conflicts of interest and a lack of oversight (Mills, 1956).
Positives of power elite
 Expertise - The power elite can bring valuable insights to address complex societal challenges
and make informed decisions. For example, the power elite can use their expertise to help
develop policies that address climate change, poverty, and inequality.
 Resources -The power elite can support initiatives that promote democratic values and civic
engagement. For example, the power elite can donate money to organizations that promote
voter education and registration.
 Influence - The power elite can bridge different sectors, allowing for collaboration and
consensus-building among diverse stakeholders. For example, the power elite can bring
together business leaders, government officials, and community activists to work on a
common project.
 Commitment to social responsibility- The power elite can contribute to projects that promote
social justice, equality, and democratic participation. For example, the power elite can donate
money to organizations that support civil rights, women's rights, and environmental
protection.
In conclusion, the power elite has the potential to play a significant role in strengthening democracy.
However, it is important for the power elite to exercise their influence responsibly and ethically,
ensuring that their actions align with democratic principles and serve the best interests of the wider
society.
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(c) Is religion playing an important role in increasing fundamentalism? Give

reasons for your answer. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Define fundamentalism
 Reasons for the role of religion in increasing fundamentalism
 alternate/counter view
Solution
Fundamentalism refers to an ideology where religious or social groups strictly adhere to literal
interpretations of scriptures or doctrines in all aspects of life. Anthropologist Lionel Caplan (1987)
defines fundamentalism as a belief in the timeless relevance of sacred writings and their
applicability to any context.
Fundamentalists apply religious principles to all aspects of life, including family, business, and
leisure, without distinguishing between the sacred and the profane. Fundamentalism is sometimes
linked to violence, particularly terrorism, though this is not always the case.
There are several compelling reasons to believe that religion plays an important
role in increasing fundamentalism.
 Emphasis on absolute truth: Many religious traditions assert the existence of absolute truth,
which is often believed to be divinely revealed and immutable. This emphasis on absolute
truth can create a fertile ground for fundamentalist tendencies, as followers may feel
compelled to defend and promote their beliefs vigorously.
 Single Sacred Text: According the Steve Bruce some religions have more potential for
developing fundamentalist groups than others. Religions which do not have a single sacred
text (such as the Bible or Qur'an) struggle to develop fundamentalist movements. Religion
with single text offer an opportunity for ideological cohesion and hence, mobilise the people
along with common belief.
 Rejection of secular authority: Fundamentalist movements frequently challenge the
authority of secular institutions and promote religious laws and principles as the ultimate
source of guidance. By rejecting secular authority and advocating for the supremacy of
religious teachings, fundamentalism can gain strength and influence within religious
communities.
 Influence of religious leaders: Religious leaders play a crucial role in shaping and reinforcing
fundamentalist ideologies. Their interpretations of religious texts and teachings can reinforce
traditional beliefs and discourage critical thinking or questioning. The charismatic authority
of religious leaders can inspire followers to embrace fundamentalist beliefs and actions. For
example, Abu Bakr al-Bhagdadi, in case of Islamic state, proved such a recruiter
While religion can contribute to fundamentalism, it can also play a role in
discouraging it. Here are some ways in which religion can discourage
fundamentalism:
 According to Mallory religious teachings can emphasize values of tolerance, compassion, and
respect for diversity, promoting an inclusive and pluralistic outlook.
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 Talal Asad argued that religious leaders and institutions can provide guidance and support
to help individuals reconcile their religious beliefs with modern life, reducing the likelihood
of a fundamentalist worldview
 Interfaith dialogue and cooperation can foster understanding and cooperation among
different religious groups, reducing the potential for conflict and violence.
 According to Griffiths religious education can encourage critical thinking and questioning,
leading to a more nuanced and open-minded approach to religious beliefs.
In conclusion, religion indeed plays a crucial role in increasing fundamentalism. However, it is
essential to recognize that not all religious individuals or communities endorse or engage in
fundamentalist behaviors. Besides by acknowledging and addressing the other underlying factors
that contribute to fundamentalism, we can work towards fostering an environment of mutual
respect and understanding.
170
(d) To what extent is patriarchy a cause for the problems of women? Discuss.
(10 Marks)
Approach
 Define patriarchy and explain its core principles and characteristics.
 Identify and discuss a range of problems faced by women due to patriarchy.
 Alternative viewpoints that suggest patriarchy might not be the sole cause of women's
problems.
Solution
Patriarchy, which refers to a system of societal organization in which men hold primary power and
authority, has been implicated as a cause for many of the problems faced by women. It is "a set of
societal norms and practises in which men rule over, subjugate, and benefit from women."
The foundation of patriarchy is a hierarchy and inequality of power structure in which men have
control over the sexuality, reproduction, and production of women. In society, it enforces notions
of masculinity and femininity that serve to legitimise the unfair power dynamics between men and
women.
Arguments for patriarchy as a cause of problems for women:
 According to Connell patriarchy perpetuates gender inequality by limiting women's
opportunities for education, employment, and political participation.
 García-Moreno - Patriarchy promotes gender-based violence and discrimination, including
sexual assault, domestic violence, and reproductive coercion.
 West & Zimmerman argued that atriarchal norms and values can lead to gender-based
stereotypes and biases, which can limit women's self-esteem, confidence, and sense of
agency.
 Gender-based discrimination and violence is one of the most significant impacts of patriarchy
on girls in India. In "Mirrors of Violence," Veena Das argues that violence against women is
a result of culturally constructed boundaries and patriarchal constructs.
 Practices such as female infanticide, child marriage, and female genital mutilation are
prevalent and rooted in patriarchal attitudes that view girls as inferior to boys. As a result,
girls are more likely to experience domestic violence, sexual harassment, and rape compared
to boys.
 According to Indira Jai Singh, in India the laws related to entitlements are influenced by
patriarchy rather than gender equality, as demonstrated by the Hindu Marriage Act. For
example, the grounds for divorce in this act are based on adultery, which must be proven in
court.
Other cause of problems for women:
 Crenshaw argued from the intersectionality perspective. Other forms of oppression, such as
racism, classism, and ableism, can intersect with patriarchy to create unique challenges for
marginalized women.
 Bell hooks - Some women may benefit from patriarchy, particularly those who are members
of the dominant class or race.
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 Women's problems cannot be reduced solely to gender, as other factors such as age, sexual
orientation, and nationality can also shape their experiences.
 Further cultural and religious practices can reinforce gender inequalities and restrict
women's autonomy. Harmful traditional practices like female genital mutilation, forced
marriage, and honor-based violence also adversely affect women's well-being.
 Besides, limited representation of women in positions of power and decision-making roles
hampers efforts to address their issues effectively. When women's voices are marginalized
or excluded from decision-making processes, their concerns may not receive adequate
attention or appropriate policy responses.
 Moreover, inadequate legal protection and enforcement mechanisms can leave women
vulnerable to various forms of discrimination, violence, and exploitation.
In conclusion, patriarchy has a significant impact on the entitlements and opportunities of girls in
India, leading to gender-based discrimination and violence, limited education and employment
opportunities, and restricted personal freedoms. Legal provisions, government schemes, civil
society initiatives, education, economic empowerment, and media and entertainment can all play a
role in combating patriarchy and promoting gender equality.
172
(e) “Social conflict is both a cause and a consequence of social change."

Explain. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly define social conflict and social change
 Role of social conflict in social change
 Discuss role of social change as a catalyst for social conflict
Solution
Social conflict refers to the struggle for power, resources, and recognition among different groups,
while social change denotes the alteration of social structures, institutions, and norms over time.
The relationship between social conflict and social change is complex and multifaceted, and there
are different arguments regarding whether social conflict causes social change or whether social
change causes social conflict.
Role of social conflict in social change
 According to the conflict perspective, society is constantly in conflict over resources, and that
conflict drives social change. For example, conflict theorists might explain the civil rights
movements of the 1960s by studying how activists challenged the racially unequal
distribution of political power and economic resources. As in this example, conflict theorists
generally see social change as abrupt, even revolutionary, rather than incremental.
 George Simmel considered conflict as a permanent feature of society and not just an
occasional or temporary event. He states that it is conflict that binds people together in
interaction. Hence, it is continuous conflict that keeps society dynamic and changing.
 Social conflict can also lead to social change by forcing the dominant groups to negotiate and
compromise with the subordinate groups. This process can result in the development of new
institutions and policies that address social inequalities and conflicts.
 Some scholars argue that social conflict is a necessary condition for social change, as it creates
the conditions for collective action and mobilization, which can lead to transformative social
changes
Social conflict is a consequence of social change:
 Social change can lead to social conflict when the changes disrupt the existing power relations
and social hierarchies. For instance, the shift towards industrialization in the 19th century led
to social conflict as new economic opportunities created new classes and social groups,
challenging the existing social order.
 Since it challenges existing power structures, causing resistance from those benefiting from
the status quo. This clash of interests can escalate into conflict. For example, social reform
movements challenging the caste system in India faced resistance from those benefiting from
the existing hierarchy, leading to social conflict.
 Some scholars argue that social conflict is a byproduct of social change, as changes in society
create new opportunities and resources, which can lead to competition and conflict among
individuals and groups.
 Furthermore, social change may redistribute resources, leading to conflicts as different
groups vie for limited resources and seek to protect their interests.
173
 Additionally, social change challenges cultural norms, causing tensions and conflicts rooted
in clashes between new and established values, beliefs, and identities.
To sum up, social conflict and social change are two interrelated concepts in sociology. Having a
comprehensive understanding of the mutual association between social conflict and social change
is crucial for sociological inquiry and effectively resolving social problems, which can promote fair
and impartial societies.
174
Question 6.
(a) "Globalization has pushed the labour into informal organization of
work." Substantiate your answer with suitable examples. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly define globalization
 Explain the concept of informal organization of work
 Explain how globalization has pushed the labour into informal organization of work
 Discuss the impact of informal organization of work
Solution
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries and
people around the world, driven by advances in technology, communication, and transportation. It
encompasses the exchange of goods, services, information, and ideas on a global scale, as well as
the integration of economies and cultures.
Concept of the informal organization of work
 The economic activities that are not regulated by formal structures, such as government
regulations, labor laws, and official contracts.
 It involves various forms of employment that are not recognized or protected by legal
frameworks and are often characterized by low wages, lack of social security benefits, limited
job security, and minimal or no access to labor rights.
 Peter Blau, researched informal ties within formal companies and discovered that they
actually tend to boost worker efficiency rather than decrease it.
 Elton Mayo - GE Hawthorne Works Study in Chicago discovered that work happiness was
heavily influenced by the informal social patterns of the work group. Because of them, better
collaboration standards were formed
Globalization impact on the labor market, leading to a shift in employment
patterns towards informal organization of work.
 With the globalization of the economy, multinational corporations have shifted their
operations to developing countries where labor is cheaper. In these countries, a large portion
of the labor force works in the informal sector, which includes street vendors, day laborers,
and those engaged in small-scale production. According to the International Labor
Organization, around 60% of the world's workforce is employed in the informal sector.
 the global competition resulting from globalization has put pressure on businesses to cut
costs and increase efficiency. As a result, many formal jobs have been replaced by informal
ones, as they offer employers greater flexibility, lower labor costs, and reduced legal
obligations. In some cases, workers are forced into informal employment due to the lack of
available formal jobs in their regions or industries.
 Guy Standing coined the term "precariat" to describe the growing class of workers in
precarious employment situations. He suggests that the informalization of work is a
consequence of neoliberal policies and the increasing dominance of global markets.
175
 According to Manuel Castells, globalization has facilitated the rise of informal work
arrangements by enabling greater flexibility and decentralization in production processes.
He highlights the role of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in enabling
networked work arrangements, such as telecommuting, freelancing, and gig work.
Impact of the informal organization of work
 It provides a source of income for a significant portion of the global workforce, particularly
in developing countries. It offers employment opportunities to individuals who may
otherwise be unemployed or underemployed. However, the disadvantages associated with
informal work cannot be ignored.
 The growth of informal work arrangements has resulted in the weakening of labor
protections, which has led to the exploitation of workers. Informal workers lack access to
benefits such as social security, health care, and pensions. They are also vulnerable to
exploitation, as they are not covered by labor laws that protect workers in formal
employment.
 The growth of the informal sector has also resulted in the proliferation of informal economies,
which operate outside the regulatory framework of the state. These informal economies can
lead to tax evasion, money laundering, and other forms of criminal activity. Examples: In
India, the informal sector employs around 80% of the workforce, which includes street
vendors, domestic workers, and construction laborers.
In conclusion, the growth of informal work arrangements is both a consequence and a cause of
globalization. While it provides a source of livelihood to millions of people, it also results in the
exploitation of workers and the proliferation of informal economies. Therefore, it is important to
address the challenges of informal work arrangements by improving labor protections, promoting
formal employment, and creating an enabling environment for the growth of the formal economy.
176
(b) "Social change can be brought about through development." Illustrate

from the contemporary situation of India. ( 20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining the concept of social change.
 Explain relationship between development and social change.
 Discuss specific examples of development initiatives or policies implemented in India and its
impact on society.
 Mention the limitations of development leading to social change.
Solution
Social change refers to any significant alteration in social structures, behaviors, or cultural norms
over time. Development, on the other hand, refers to the process of improving the economic, social,
and political conditions of a country through various means such as modernization,
industrialization, and technological advancement.
Relation between development and social change
 August Comte emphasized the intellectual dimension and argued that social change is the
result of intellectual development. He posited that intellectual progress leads to moral
development, thereby bringing about changes in social institutions. Comte formulated his
well-known law of three stages of intellectual development.
 According to Amartya Sen development can bring about economic growth and increased
opportunities, leading to improvements in standards of living and quality of life for
individuals and communities. This can lead to positive social change, such as increased
access to education, healthcare, and basic services
 Giddens argued that development can lead to increased social integration and interaction, as
people come into contact with new ideas, technologies, and ways of life. This can foster new
forms of social organization and social change .
 Escobar argued that development can create opportunities for social and political
participation, as individuals and groups gain greater access to resources, networks, and
information. This can lead to greater empowerment and social change.
Role of Indian state in development
 From a state policy perspective, development initiatives can bring about significant social
change. Economic development has the potential to uplift marginalized communities,
improve living standards, and alleviate poverty. Social development programs can address
issues such as education, healthcare, and gender equality. Technological advancements can
bridge information gaps and promote inclusive growth.
 India's economic development in recent years has led to the expansion of the middle class,
resulting in changing attitudes towards gender, caste, and religion. As more people become
educated and financially secure, traditional norms and values are being challenged, leading
to greater gender equality and social mobility.
177
 Development projects such as the construction of roads, bridges, and other infrastructure
have led to increased connectivity and communication between different regions of the
country. This has helped to reduce regional disparities and promote national integration,
leading to greater social cohesion. Infrastructure development projects, such as the Pradhan
Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana, have connected remote areas with urban centers, enhancing
accessibility and promoting economic development.
 The government's various schemes and initiatives aimed at poverty alleviation, healthcare,
education, and women's empowerment have had a significant impact on the social and
economic conditions of marginalized communities. For instance, the Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala
Yojana, a scheme to provide free LPG connections to poor households, has helped to reduce
indoor air pollution and improve the health of women in rural areas.
 Initiatives like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao have raised awareness about gender inequality and
contributed to changing attitudes towards women's empowerment.
Limitation of Development model of social change
 According to Stiglitz development can lead to social and economic inequalities, as certain
groups and regions benefit more than others. This can exacerbate existing social divisions
and lead to social unrest
 Waters argued that development can lead to cultural homogenization, as local customs and
traditions are replaced by globalized norms and practices. This can erode cultural diversity
and lead to social tensions
 Despite India's economic development, social inequalities and injustices still persist. For
example, despite legal protections, discrimination and violence against women, Dalits, and
religious minorities continue to occur, reflecting deeply entrenched social hierarchies.
 Development projects have often been accompanied by displacement and environmental
degradation, leading to protests and social conflict. For example, the construction of dams
and other large-scale infrastructure projects has led to the displacement of indigenous
communities, who have protested against their loss of land and livelihoods
Development can bring about positive social change, but it can also result in negative consequences
that perpetuate social inequalities and injustices. It is therefore crucial to consider the broader social,
cultural, and political implications of development strategies and work towards more inclusive and
sustainable forms of social change. To achieve sustainable and inclusive development, India should
focus on addressing challenges of inequality and sustainability through equitable approaches that
foster a prosperous and just society.
178
(c) Examine the role of protest movements in changing the status of Dalits
in India. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Define the concept of protest.
 Discuss how the movement helped in changing the status of Dalits for good.
 Issues of the movement.
Solution
Protest is a societal response aimed at opposing individuals, groups, or broader social structures.
Opposition lies at the core of protest; therefore, protest typically arises in response to preceding
events or circumstances.
Dalits are a group of people in India who are considered to be "untouchable" by the Hindu caste
system. Protest movements have played a significant role in changing the status of Dalits in India.
These movements have raised awareness of the discrimination faced by Dalits, and have put
pressure on the government to take action. Protest was the main apparatus of all Dalit movement
which includes Satyashodhak Samaj, SNDP Movement, Mahar Movement, Temple Entry
Movement, Dalit Panthers and 'Dalit Sangharsha Samiti.' Etc.
How protest movements helped Dalits
 The Dalit movement in India was able to achieve legal protection through the enactment of
several laws that criminalize caste-based discrimination and violence.
 The Dalit protest movements have been effective in raising awareness about the plight of
Dalits and highlighting the structural discrimination they face. According to sociologist
Satish Deshpande, "Dalit protests are an assertion of dignity and equality, a way of making
the powerful acknowledge that there is a problem"
 The Dalit movement has helped to create a sense of solidarity and identity among Dalits,
empowering them to challenge the status quo and demand their rights. Dalit activist and
writer Kancha Ilaiah Shepherd argues that the Dalit movement is "a quest for self-respect, a
search for dignity, and a journey towards emancipation" .
 The movement has successfully secured land rights for Dalits, improved their access to
education and employment opportunities, challenged traditional caste-based hierarchy.
 The movement has had a global impact, inspiring similar movements for social justice and
human rights in other parts of the world, for example the recent resolution passed in Seattle
in America that bans caste discrimination.
Issues related to the movement
 Despite its positive impacts some scholars argue that the movement has remained confined
to the political sphere, and has failed to address the structural and cultural aspects of caste
discrimination.
 It is also criticized for its narrow focus on reservations and protective discrimination, rather
than addressing the root causes of caste oppression.
179
 According to Gail Omvedt, although the "post-Ambedkar Dalit movement" challenged some
of the most profound forms of oppression and exploitation faced by Dalits, it ultimately failed
to pave the way for long-term social transformation and mobility.
 Dipankar Gupta in his work also pointed out that the Dalit movement has struggled to
achieve its goals in the face of resistance from dominant castes and the limited resources
available to it.
 Some argue that Dalits have become a mere pressure group in mainstream politics, leading
to a decline in their revolutionary impact. There are debates surrounding their strategies,
tactics, alliances, and even goals, indicating a stalemate in the movement's progress.
In conclusion, the Dalit movement in India is a diverse and complex movement that has evolved
over time. It has made significant strides in raising awareness about Dalit rights, eradicating caste-
based discrimination and violence, and promoting greater consciousness and solidarity among
Dalits. Though Dalit movement has been criticized for failing to address the root causes of caste
oppression and being confined to the political sphere, it has had a global impact and continues to
adapt to new challenges in striving towards its goals of social transformation and mobility.
180
Question 7.
(a) "Religious pluralism is the order of present-day societies." Explain by
giving suitable examples. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define and explain the concept of religious pluralism.
 Establish the prevalence of religious pluralism in present-day societies.
 Mention the benefits and challenges of religious pluralism.
 Conclusion
Solution
Religious pluralism refers to the coexistence of multiple religious groups and diverse religious
organizations within a society. It encompasses groups following various religious tenets, including
both conventional and non-conventional beliefs. Religious pluralism arises primarily from two
sources: the presence of diverse ethnic groups with their distinct religious traditions and the
emergence of new sects and cults.
Presence of religious pluralism in modern societies
 Religious pluralism is prevalent in present-day societies, as exemplified by diverse religious
landscapes and peaceful coexistence of different faith traditions. The United States, India,
Canada, and European countries celebrate religious diversity and respect the freedom to
practice religion without interference.
 Despite occasional conflicts and tensions, American society has managed to accommodate a
wide range of religious beliefs and practices, allowing individuals to freely practice their
religion and coexist with others of different faiths.
 Similarly, India has a rich tradition of religious pluralism, with Hinduism, Islam,
Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and other religions coexisting for centuries.
o While there have been occasional conflicts and tensions between different religious
groups, India's constitution guarantees freedom of religion and prohibits
discrimination on the basis of religion.
o The country has also made significant strides in promoting interfaith dialogue and
fostering a culture of tolerance and understanding among different religious
communities.
 According to Steve Bruce, modernization and industrialization lead to the social
fragmentation of society into a plurality of cultural and religious groups. Bruce believes that
as a consequence, the state cannot support a single religion without causing conflict
 Besides, migration and globalization have led to increased cultural exchange and the
movement of people across borders. This has resulted in the presence of diverse religious
communities in many countries, contributing to religious pluralism.
 Further, the separation of religion from state governance, commonly found in secular
societies, allows for the coexistence of multiple religious groups without favoring one over
the others.
181
 Religious pluralism is also evident in the popularity of New Religious Movements. Rodney
Stark and William Bainbridge argue that the rise of these movements is a result of
conventional religions weakening
 Also, religious pluralism, similar to capitalism in advanced industrial nations, has led to a
consumeristic attitude. People treat religion like any other commodity, and religious groups
successfully market themselves as providers of social and psychological fulfilment.
Religious pluralism brings several benefits to societies. It fosters tolerance, mutual understanding,
and respect among different religious communities. Cultural exchange and dialogue thrive,
enriching society through diverse perspectives.
Challenges related to religious pluralism
 One of the main issues related to religious pluralism is the challenge of accommodating
diverse religious practices and beliefs within a single society. As sociologist Peter L. Berger
notes, "The problem is how to keep different religious communities living in the same society
without violent conflict".
 Tension between religious beliefs and secular values. In many societies, religious traditions
and practices conflict with secular values such as human rights, gender equality, and freedom
of expression. This tension can lead to clashes between religious groups and secular
institutions, as seen in debates over issues such as abortion rights, same-sex marriage, and
the role of religion in public life.
 Moreover, religious pluralism can also lead to the rise of religious fundamentalism and
extremism. In some cases, extremist religious groups use violence and terrorism to promote
their beliefs and impose their values on others. This can result in social unrest, political
instability, and human rights abuses. As sociologist Robert N. Bellah observes, "Religious
pluralism has not always brought peace and harmony, but has often led to violent conflict
and even war".
In conclusion, religious pluralism is indeed the order of present-day societies, as societies around
the world become more diverse and interconnected. While it can lead to conflicts and challenges,
religious pluralism also offers opportunities for acceptance, dialogue, and mutual respect among
different religious groups. By recognizing the challenges of religious pluralism and promoting
inclusive and equitable approaches, societies can harness its potential to promote social harmony
and cooperation.
182
(b) Discuss the contemporary trends in family as a response to social change

in modern society. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define family
 Sociological perspectives of family
 Reasons for change in family
 Contemporary trends in family
Solution
Sociological explanation of Family:
The family is the fundamental unit of society. Language, behavioural tendencies, and social
conventions are all learned in the family during childhood. The family is, in some ways, the
universal group. It exists in tribal, rural, and urban communities, as well as among adherents of
various religions and civilizations.
Various perspectives on family are-
 Functionalist -According to Murdock (1949), the family serves four basic functions in all
societies: sexual, reproductive, economic, and educational (socialization). Parsons argues that
every family in every society serves two 'fundamental and irreducible' functions: primary
socialisation of children and adult personality stabilisation.
 Marxist - According to Engels, the necessity for the family originated when civilizations
began to respect private property. Family promotes the economy's objectives — in this case,
the creation of property ownership – while subjecting women to uneven power dynamics at
home.
 Feminist - According to Marxist feminists, the nuclear family satisfies capitalism's needs for
the reproduction and preservation of class and patriarchal inequalities. It favours the wealthy
at the expense of the working class and women. Delphy and Leonard regard the family as a
patriarchal structure in which women do the majority of the work while males reap the
majority of the benefits. Furthermore, this patriarchal ideology emphasises the significance
of the mother-housewife position for women and the breadwinner role for the family as
justification for violence against women.
Reasons for change in family
 According to Parsons (1949), industrialization and modernization brought about changes in
the family's structure and functions.
 The rise of individualism, gender equality, and women's empowerment also contributed to
the changes in family dynamics (Cherlin, 2010).
 Moreover, globalization and migration have brought about cultural diversity and new family
forms, such as transnational families (Bryceson & Vuorela, 2002).
 Additionally, changes in laws and policies, such as same-sex marriage legalization, have
challenged traditional notions of family and contributed to its diversification (Kalmijn, 2018).
183
Contemporary trends in family
 Giddens - One of the most significant trends in the contemporary family is the increasing
diversity of family forms. The traditional nuclear family, consisting of a married couple and
their children, is no longer the dominant family form. Instead, families today take many
different forms, including single-parent families, blended families, same-sex families, and
cohabiting couples. The diversity of family forms is a response to social changes such as
increased divorce rates, declining marriage rates, and changing attitudes towards gender and
sexuality.
 Changing role of women in family and society - Women's increased participation in the
workforce and their increasing access to education and healthcare have led to significant
changes in the family dynamics. Women's economic independence has led to a shift in gender
roles and expectations, with men taking on more caregiving responsibilities and women
contributing more to the family income. These changes are also reflected in the increasing
number of dual-earner families and the declining gender pay gap.
 Increasing emphasis on individualism. Modern societies place a high value on individualism,
self-expression, and personal autonomy. This has led to changes in family norms, with
individuals placing more emphasis on personal satisfaction and fulfillment rather than
familial obligations and responsibilities. This trend is reflected in the increasing prevalence
of non-traditional family forms and the decline of traditional gender roles (Beck & Beck-
Gernsheim, 2002).
 Changing patterns of parenting and child-rearing. Modern societies place a high value on
child development and education, and parents are increasingly involved in their children's
lives. This trend is reflected in the increasing prevalence of helicopter parenting, in which
parents are highly involved in their children's lives, often to the point of over-parenting. This
trend is also reflected in the increasing importance of early childhood education and the
increasing prevalence of child care services (Garey, 1999).
 Increasing prevalence of technology and its impact on family dynamics. Technology has
revolutionized the way we communicate and interact with one another, and it has also
transformed family dynamics.
 Marriage breakup has gotten simpler with the passage of divorce legislation. Scholars believe
that allowing divorce has not harmed the integrity of marriage since divorce is only utilised
as a last option. According to K.M.Kapadia, "marriage remains a sacrament; only it has been
elevated to an ethical plane."
 Same-sex "marriage" separates divorce from its procreative function. The traditional
expectation of parental commitment is also diminished by same-sex "marriage."
In conclusion, the contemporary trends in family reflect the changing dynamics of modern societies.
The increasing diversity of family forms, changing roles of women in family and society, increasing
emphasis on individualism, changing patterns of parenting and child-rearing, and the impact of
technology are all responses to social change in modern society. These trends have both positive
and negative implications for families and society as a whole. It is essential to understand and
address these trends to foster sustainable and equitable families and societies.
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(c) To what extent revolution replaces the existing order of society? Discuss.
(10 Marks)
Approach
 Define and explain the concepts of revolution.
 Explain how and to what extent can revolution replace the existing order of society.
 Explain the limitations and constraints
Solution
Revolution is defined as a sudden, usually violent change in which the entire social and political
order is overturned and reconstructed on new principles with new leaders. Revolutions are
typically used to force a government or ruling body to implement considerable change or to
fundamentally alter who leads. They are frequently used as a platform for individuals to reset
society and reform the fundamental manner in which the structure operates.
Arguments for Revolution Replacing the Existing Order of Society:
 Revolutionary movements often seek to fundamentally transform existing social, economic,
and political structures, and in doing so, replace the existing order of society. (Giddens, 2018)
 Revolutions often involve the overthrow of existing power structures and the establishment
of new ones, which can lead to significant changes in society. (Tilly, 2004)
 Revolutions can be seen as a form of social upheaval that fundamentally alters the course of
history, with significant consequences for the societies in which they occur. (Skocpol, 1979)
Arguments against Revolution Replacing the Existing Order of Society:
 Revolutions may not always succeed in completely replacing the existing order of society. In
some cases, they may result in new elite replacing the old one, while leaving the underlying
social and economic structures largely intact. (Hobsbawm, 1962)
 Revolutions often face significant opposition from existing power structures and may only
lead to incremental changes in society, rather than a complete overhaul. (McAdam, Tarrow,
& Tilly, 2001)
 Even when a revolution does lead to significant changes in society, it may not always result
in the creation of a completely new order. Rather, it may lead to the emergence of a new
hybrid order that combines elements of the old and the new. (Halliday, 1999)
Overall, it is clear that the extent to which a revolution replaces the existing order of society is
complex and depends on a variety of factors. While some revolutions may fundamentally transform
society, others may only lead to incremental changes or the emergence of a new hybrid order.
185
Question 8.
(a) "Education is a major source of social mobility in contemporary society."
Explain. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define and explain the concepts of social mobility and education
 Explain how education acts as a source of mobility in contemporary societies
 Counterview or alternate view.
 Conclusion
Solution
Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes that enable individuals
to understand the world around them, develop their potential, and lead fulfilling lives. It involves
formal and informal learning experiences, both inside and outside the classroom. Education is
considered by many as a major source of mobility in contemporary societies. Here mobility refers
to social mobility which is the ability of individuals or groups to move from one social position to
another.
Education acts as a major source of social mobility in contemporary society
through its multifaceted impact on individuals and communities.
 Education provides individuals with knowledge and skills that can improve their job
opportunities and increase their earning potential, which in turn can lead to upward social
mobility (Hout, 2012).
 In many societies, access to better-paying jobs and positions of power is closely linked to
educational attainment (Goldthorpe, 2016).
 Education also helps individuals develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills, which
can lead to better decision-making and greater success in various areas of life (Breen &
Jonsson, 2011).
 Through education, individuals can acquire social and cultural capital that can facilitate their
upward mobility. Social capital refers to networks of relationships that can provide access to
resources, while cultural capital refers to knowledge and skills that are valued in society
(Bourdieu, 1986).
 Eduction can also provide individuals with a sense of empowerment and confidence,
enabling them to challenge social barriers and inequalities that limit their mobility (Collins,
1979).
 Education can promote social integration and mobility by breaking down social and cultural
barriers between different groups and facilitating inter-group communication and
cooperation (Giddens, 1991).
 Education can also contribute to the development of a meritocratic society, where individuals
are rewarded for their abilities and achievements rather than their social background or other
factors (Tumin, 1953).
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How education is not enough for social mobility
 However, some scholars argue that education alone is not sufficient to ensure social mobility,
as factors such as social class, race, and gender continue to play a significant role in
determining one's social position (Collins, 1979; McLeod & Reynolds, 2007).
 Additionally, the quality and type of education can also impact social mobility. For example,
attending a poorly funded school or having limited access to educational resources can
hinder one's chances of upward mobility.
 Discrimination and bias in the job market can limit the opportunities available to individuals
from disadvantaged backgrounds, even with a high level of education. This can lead to
underemployment or unemployment, which can hinder social mobility.
 Conflict theorists argue that education reflects and reinforces the existing power dynamics
within society. They contend that the educational system is designed to maintain the status
quo and reproduce social hierarchies.
 Feminist theorists argue that the education system is patriarchal, with syllabi and stories
heavily biased towards men. This reinforces their domination and limits opportunities for
women. Moreover, girls are often steered towards non-science disciplines, further
perpetuating gender disparities in the workforce.
 Gail Omvedt argues that education is heavily biased towards the upper caste. The attitudes
of teachers worsen this bias. As a result, there is an increase in dropouts and further
marginalization.
Overall, while education is a major source of social mobility, its impact on an individual's social
position is dependent on various factors such as social class, race, gender, and the quality and type
of education one receives. By addressing these challenges, education can fulfil its potential as a
catalyst for social mobility, contributing to a more equitable and inclusive society.
187
(b) How is Durkheim's theory of religion different from Max Weber's theory
of religion? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce the answer by mentioning the work done by the two on religion.
 Distinguish between the theories on religion given by the two thinkers.
 Explain the relevance of the theories given by the two thinkers.
 Conclusion
Solution
Religion has long been a central focus of study in sociology, with prominent theorists like Emile
Durkheim and Max Weber offering distinct perspectives in their works "The Elementary Forms of
the Religious Life" and "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism," respectively. While both
theorists acknowledge the significance of religion in shaping social behavior and institutions, they
differ in their conceptualizations of the nature and functions of religion.
Difference between Durkheim’s and Weber’s theory
 Approach to Interpretation:
o Durkheim adopts a positivist approach in studying religion, focusing on observable
social facts and their external influence on individuals. He seeks to explain religious
phenomena through sociological analysis and the study of collective representations.
o Weber employs an interpretive approach, emphasizing the subjective meanings and
motivations behind religious beliefs and actions. He aims to understand the subjective
experiences of individuals and the role of values, ideas, and beliefs in shaping social
behaviour.
 Units of Analysis:
o Durkheim focuses on studying religion in its most elementary form within tribal
societies, where collective life and shared ideas are prominent. He sees religion as a
collective phenomenon that strengthens social bonds.
o Weber, on the other hand, examines major world religions and their historical roots.
He explores how religions respond to prevailing social situations and shape economic
activity.
 The Role of Religion:
o Durkheim views religion as an expression of the collective conscience, where
worshiping the totem is essentially worshiping the clan itself. Religious beliefs become
part of individuals' conscience through shared ideas and rituals, reinforcing social
cohesion.
o Weber analyzes religion in relation to economic, political, and historical factors. He
investigates how religion interacts with other institutions in society and shapes
individuals' worldviews, particularly in relation to capitalism and rationality.
 Gods, Spirits, and Prophets:
o Durkheim argues that religion is not primarily concerned with gods and spirits but
rather with worshiping society itself through symbolic objects. The totem symbolizes
the clan, and rituals bring collective enthusiasm, emphasizing the power of society.
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o Weber acknowledges the importance of gods and spirits in relatively recent religions.
He recognizes the symbolic activity and abstraction involved in religious practices. He
also highlights the role of charismatic prophets in religious beliefs, such as Abraham,
Moses, Jesus, and Mohammed, who captivate people's imagination and serve as
representatives of God.
 Science and religion:
o Durkheim viewed both religion and science as providing society with its collective
representation. So, he didn't see any conflict in the two.
o Weber's comparative studies showed that how religions across the world advocate
values that differ and are sometimes in opposition to rationality. Science on the other
hand is empirical. So, he sees an opposition between the two.
 Social change: Weber’s writings on religion differ from those of Durkheim in that they
concentrate on the connection between religion and social change, something which
Durkheim gave little attention.
Criticism of both the theories
 Durkheim criticism
o Failed to account conflict aspect of Religion- Eg. Various communal riots or rise of
religious fundamentalism.
o Ruling class ideology - According to Karl Marx religion is the opium of the masses
and it is just another tool in the hands of ruling class to maintain domination and
control over the majority of the population.
o Ascetic Religion and lack of societal aspect - Some critics contend that religion does
not have to be social. Ascetic traditions, for example, that value seclusion and solitude
would not match Durkheim's idea.
 Weber’s criticism
o Weber's conclusion was not shared by Gouldner, Mauller, or Wallerstein. They believe
that colonialism is to blame for the emergence of capitalism in the West. The West, in
the form of colonies, gained access to vast markets in Asia, Africa, and America while
also gaining access to cheap labour and raw materials. This led to the accumulation of
wealth.
o According to Peter Sombart, it is not true that capitalists were solely Protestant
Christians. Capitalists came from many walks of life, including peasants, artisans,
landlords, and so on
o Scholars have argued that Weber selected that element which fits his analysis. E.g.
Milton singer argues in the study of Hinduism weber focused on this aspect which
were not related to capitalism. But there are communities like chettiars of Madras who
have similar value system like Calvinists, but weber did not study the particular
aspect.
Durkheim and Weber's theories on religion continue to be relevant in understanding the role of
religion in society. Durkheim emphasized the social functions of religion, while Weber focused on
the cultural and historical factors. Their theories provide insight into the impact of religion on
society, including its ability to unite or divide, influence behavior and values, and be a source of
power and control. A comprehensive understanding of religion can be achieved through various
sociological perspectives.
189
(c) Distinguish between family and household as sociological concepts. (10

Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by mentioning the common perception around the concept of family and
household
 Mention the difference between family and household
 Discuss the changes in conceptualisation of the concept in changing times
Solution
Households and families are the fundamental units of analysis in demography. They are frequently
used interchangeably; however there is a distinction between the two. It is critical to understand
that families and households are not the same thing, with a household merely referring to one or
more people living in the same dwelling. A family, on the other hand, is defined as at least two or
more people related by ceremonial and/or biological ties, living together or in frequent contact.
According to Murdock (1949), the family serves four basic functions in all societies: sexual,
reproductive, economic, and educational (socialization).
A.M. Shah in his famous work The Household Dimension of Family emphasizes on the study of the
household dimension of the family. Shah describes household as a strictly commensal (eat together)
and co-resident group. For Shah, ‘family’ is a concept and ‘household’ is an empirically experienced
entity. Shah talks about phases of household development - A household may experience
progression and or regression on the basis of birth, adoption, marriage, death etc.
Sociological explanation of Family and household
 A family refers to a group of people consisting of two or more members who are connected
through marriage, blood relations, or adoption and live together, either in the same house or
in different houses. On the other hand, a household refers to a group of individuals who live
in the same dwelling, such as a house, apartment, or annex.
 In a family, all members are related to each other through kinship ties, such as parent-child,
sibling, or spousal relationships. In contrast, members of a household are not necessarily
related to each other. They may be friends, roommates, or individuals sharing a living space
without any familial connection.
 While members of a family may live together in the same dwelling, such as a house or
apartment, they can also live in separate dwellings, such as in the case of adult children living
on their own or elderly parents residing in assisted living facilities. In contrast, members of a
household reside in the same dwelling.
 In a family, members have certain obligations, duties, and responsibilities towards each
other, often based on social norms and cultural expectations. For example, parents are
responsible for the well-being and upbringing of their children, and spouses have mutual
obligations to support and care for each other. In non-family households, such as shared
housing or cohabiting arrangements, the members do not necessarily have duties or
responsibilities towards each other beyond shared expenses or basic household chores.
 Families encompass various types, including nuclear families (parents and their children),
extended families (multiple generations living together), and single-parent families (one
parent and their children).
190
On the other hand, households can be classified into two types: family households, which
consist of a family and may include additional non-family members, and non-family
households, which consist of individuals who are not related to each other. Furthermore, in
his field study in Gujarat, A. M. Shah classified households into two groups: simple and
compound.
 The composition of households can be influenced by economic and social changes. For
example, in liberal societies, there may be an increase in unmarried couples living together
without formal marriage. Higher divorce rates could result in more single-person
households. Economic crises may lead to adult individuals returning to live with their
parents. These changes highlight how living arrangements within households can shift due
to various factors. Sociologist argue that due to various factors like population growth,
increasing longevity, greater pressure on land and housing, the average size of household
has actually been increasing.
Contemporary trends in household and family
 Size of household is declining due to space constraints and high cost of living
 Institutional household are on the rise especially old age homes, PGs etc.
 Single family also have multiple households as both partners are living in different cities.
There may be different families in same households as in case of different families living in a
single house as tenants and landlord
 Nuclear households predominates the urban area but in rural areas joint households are still
the norm
In conclusion, while family and household are often used interchangeably in everyday language,
they refer to different concepts in sociology. Understanding the differences between family and
household is important for understanding social trends and patterns, as well as for designing
policies and interventions that address the needs of different social groups. By examining family
and household structures through a sociological lens, we can gain a deeper understanding of the
complex and dynamic nature of social life.
191
Mains 2017
Section - A
Question 1.
a) Explain how sociology has emerged as a distinct discipline based on
rationality and scientific temper. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Introduce with the emergence of sociology as a distinct discipline.
 Discuss the nature of sociology based on rationality and scientific temper.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The emergence of sociology as a distinct discipline stemmed from the need to systematically study
and comprehend society's complexities and dynamics. Thinkers like Auguste Comte, Emile
Durkheim, and Max Weber laid the groundwork by advocating for empirical methods and scientific
analysis in understanding social phenomena.
Recent examples like social media's impact on identity formation, the gig economy's influence on
labor relationships, and the evolving structures of family units due to urbanization and
globalization. These recent sociological studies highlight the ongoing relevance of sociology in
interpreting and navigating the rapidly changing social landscape.
Nature of sociology based on rationality and scientific temper:
1. Empirical Study and Scientific Method: Sociological inquiry involves empirical study and
scientific methods to understand social phenomena. Max Weber advocated for Verstehen,
the empathetic understanding of social behavior. Examples include studies using surveys
and experiments to analyze the impact of social media on mental health, reflecting a
Weberian approach.
2. Positivism and Quantitative Analysis: Auguste Comte emphasized the application of
positivist methods to study society. Modern sociologists use quantitative analysis to measure
social trends, such as the use of statistical data to analyze income inequality trends in
different social groups.
3. Objectivity and Systematic Observation: Emile Durkheim stressed objectivity in studying
social facts. Sociological studies employ systematic observation to remain objective, for
instance, research on the impact of immigration on urban communities, reflecting
Durkheim's emphasis on social facts.
4. Hypothesis Testing and Theory Construction: Sociology involves hypothesis testing and
theory construction to explain social phenomena. Karl Marx's theory of class struggle
remains influential. Recent examples include studies on income disparity and its relation to
social tensions, contributing to contemporary theories on social conflict.
5. Critical Thinking and Rational Analysis: Critical thinking and rational analysis form the
core of sociological inquiry. Georg Simmel highlighted the importance of analyzing social
interactions. Recent research examining the impact of technology on human relationships
reflects Simmel's focus on social interactions and their dynamics.
192
6. Qualitative Research and Interpretive Analysis: Interpretive analysis, as advocated by Max
Weber, involves understanding the subjective meanings individuals attach to their actions.
Recent qualitative research on workplace culture or identity formation, using interviews and
observations, reflects Weber's interpretive approach.
7. Complexity and Interdisciplinary Approach: Sociology addresses the complexity of societal
issues through an interdisciplinary approach. Recent studies involving sociology,
psychology, and economics to analyze consumer behavior in the digital age reflect the
multifaceted nature of sociological inquiry.
In conclusion, sociology has evolved as a distinct discipline grounded in rationality and scientific
temper by adopting empirical research, systematic observation, and critical analysis.
The scientific rigor inherent in sociology has facilitated a nuanced comprehension of societal
structures, human behavior, and cultural dynamics, enabling the discipline to continuously evolve,
analyze, and interpret the multifaceted nature of society with empirical evidence and logical
reasoning.
193
b) Examine ethnomethodological and phenomenological perspective as

critique of positivism. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define ethnomethodological and phenomenological perspective.
 Explain how ethnomethodology and phenomenology share a critique of positivism.
 Conclude
Solution:
Ethnomethodology seeks to understand the method by which individuals construct, negotiate and
agree upon reality. It questions the possibility of an objective science of the subjective human
condition. People are seen as accomplishing their everyday lives through a variety of artful
practices. It is the study of the everyday practices used by ordinary members of society in order to
deal with their day-to-day lives.
Heritage, Linstead define it as the study of “the body of common-sense knowledge and the range
of procedures and considerations by means of which the ordinary members of society make sense
of, find their way about in, and act on the circumstances in which they find themselves”.
Ethnomethodology is certainly not a macrosociology in the sense intended by Durkheim with his
concept of a social fact, but its adherents do not see it as a microsociology either.
Ethnomethodologists are interested in neither micro structures nor macro structures.
They are concerned with the artful practices that produce both types of structures. Hilbert argues
that ethnomethodology “transcends” the micro-macro issue because it is concerned “with social
practices” [membership practices].
Phenomenology is a research approach aimed at the study of the variability of human experience
of social phenomenon. A key concern of the phenomenologist is to capture a subject’s immediate
pre-reflexive experience of a phenomenon that is before it is conceptualized, theorized, categorized,
or reflected upon. The objective of phenomenology is to describe the barest contents of human
experience, “the things themselves.” Phenomenology can provide social researchers with a deeper
understanding of the meaning of social phenomena. Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), a German
mathematician, founded the philosophical movement of phenomenology. Husserl believed that
phenomenology suspended all suppositions, was related to consciousness, and was based on the
meaning of the individual’s experience. It involves the systematic investigation of consciousness.
Ethnomethodology and phenomenology share a critique of positivism
1. Critique of Objective Reality: Both ethnomethodology and phenomenology challenge the
positivist view of an objective reality. Ethnomethodology, influenced by Harold Garfinkel,
argues that people create and maintain their social reality through everyday interactions.
Recent studies examining social media use or online communities reveal how individuals
construct different realities, challenging a singular objective truth.
2. Emphasis on Subjective Experience: Phenomenology, inspired by Edmund Husserl, focuses
on subjective experiences and meanings. It criticizes positivism's neglect of individual
experiences. Recent research in mental health or cultural studies often uses
phenomenological approaches to understand individual experiences, feelings, and
perceptions.
3. Rejection of External Social Forces: Ethnomethodology and phenomenology critique
positivism by rejecting the emphasis on external social forces determining behavior.
194
Erving Goffman's dramaturgical analysis in ethnomethodology explores how individuals
actively manage impressions in social settings, shaping their behavior irrespective of external
social structures.
4. Importance of Social Context and Interaction: Both approaches highlight the significance of
social context and interactions. Phenomenologist Alfred Schutz stressed the importance of
social context in shaping individual perceptions. Ethnographic studies, such as those
examining workplace dynamics or community interactions, use these perspectives to
understand social life within specific contexts.
5. Emphasis on Human Agency: Ethnomethodology and phenomenology underscore the role
of human agency in shaping social reality. Herbert Blumer's symbolic interactionism within
ethnomethodology focuses on how individuals assign meaning to symbols in their
interactions, showcasing human agency. Contemporary research on social movements or
cultural changes often employs these frameworks to study how individuals actively
influence societal changes.
6. Rejection of Value Neutrality: Ethnomethodology and phenomenology challenge the
positivist notion of value neutrality in research. They advocate for acknowledging
researchers' subjective involvement in the research process. Recent feminist and critical race
theory studies often adopt these perspectives, emphasizing the researcher's positionality and
its impact on knowledge production.
7. Focus on Everyday Life and Practical Action: Both ethnomethodology and phenomenology
emphasize the significance of understanding everyday life and practical action in shaping
social reality. Recent studies examining mundane activities, such as mealtime interactions or
leisure activities, utilize these perspectives to understand the social order inherent in routine
practices.
In essence, the ethnomethodological and phenomenological perspectives provide compelling
critiques of positivism in sociology. Both perspectives challenge the positivist emphasis on an
objective, external reality by highlighting the subjective, experiential, and context-bound nature of
human social interactions.
Rejecting the belief in a singular, objective truth, these perspectives emphasize the significance of
everyday life, individual agency, and the construction of social reality through shared meanings
and interactions. By foregrounding subjective experiences and the intricacies of social life,
ethnomethodology and phenomenology offer insightful criticisms that prompt a reexamination of
traditional positivist assumptions in understanding and studying the complexities of human
societies.
195
c) Illustrate with example the significance of variables in sociological

Structure:
 Define variables in sociological research.
 Emphasize the crucial role of variables in sociological research.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Variables are specific characteristics or attributes of the more general concepts, or more specifically
the attributes of events, objects and things that are observed and controlled by the researcher.
They are empirical properties which take up one value or another. Earl R. Babbie- Variable is a
logical set of attributes. Use- Variables help formulate hypothesis. In any social experiment, the
researcher needs to identify the variables and then establish which of them are dependent and which
are independent.
Durkheim’s study of suicide-used multivariate or variable analysis. He studied the effect of
independent variables like religion, gender and marital status on dependent variable viz suicide.
Types of variables.
Dependent & Independent Variables
Dependent Variables: The variable that depends on other factors that are measured. These
variables are expected to change as a result of an experimental manipulation of the independent
variable or variables. It is the presumed effect.
Independent Variables: The variable that is stable and unaffected by the other variables you are
trying to measure. It refers to the condition of an experiment that is systematically manipulated by
the investigator. It is the presumed cause.
Qualitative and Quantitative
Qualitative- These are variables which take non-numerical value. Example- Gender, Religion
Quantitative- These are variables that take up a numerical value. Example-Age, Income
Continuous and Discreet variables
Discreet variables have a definite value.
Continuous Variables can’t be expressed as a particular value. Example: Studying in which class
will elicit a number whereas the level of learning will have limitations in being expressed as a
number, though attempts are made to make continuous variables discreet.
1. Quantification and Measurement: Variables play a pivotal role in enabling quantification
and measurement in sociological research. Max Weber's emphasis on understanding social
actions led to the application of quantitative measures. For instance, recent studies analyzing
the relationship between socioeconomic status (variable) and political participation
(dependent variable) use statistical methods to measure these factors, illustrating their crucial
role in empirical research.
2. Identification of Patterns and Correlations: Variables aid in identifying patterns and
correlations in social phenomena, a principle recognized by Emile Durkheim. Contemporary
studies investigating the correlation between educational attainment (variable) and income
196
levels (dependent variable) often reveal patterns demonstrating how education impacts
earning potential, contributing to Durkheim's emphasis on social order and structural-
functional analysis.
3. Causal Relationships and Hypothesis Testing: Herbert Blumer and his symbolic
interactionism theory highlight how variables facilitate the testing of hypotheses and the
exploration of causal relationships. Recent research examining variables such as racial
diversity (independent variable) and workplace productivity (dependent variable) utilizes
causal analysis to understand the impact of diversity on organizational effectiveness.
4. Exploration of Social Structures and Change: Variables aid in the exploration of social
structures and societal changes, aligning with Karl Marx's theory of social conflict.
Sociologists analyzing variables like class (variable) and power distribution (dependent
variable) reveal insights into social disparities, reflecting Marx's focus on social inequalities
and the dynamics of power within societies.
5. Multivariate Analysis and Complex Interrelationships: Sociological studies using
multivariate analysis, influenced by Talcott Parsons' structural functionalism, examine
complex interrelationships among variables. For example, research investigating variables
like family structure (variable) and children's academic performance (dependent variable)
considers various factors within family dynamics, reflecting Parsons' systems approach to
society.
6. Comparative Analysis and Cross-Cultural Studies: Variables facilitate comparative analysis
and cross-cultural studies, reflecting the work of Pitirim Sorokin. Sociological studies
examining variables such as cultural values (variable) and political ideologies (dependent
variable) across different societies provide insights into cultural differences and societal
values, resonating with Sorokin's interest in cultural dynamics.
7. Theorization and Conceptual Frameworks: Variables contribute to the theorization and
development of conceptual frameworks within sociology. George Herbert Mead
emphasized the role of individual agency and the symbolic nature of interactions. Recent
studies focusing on variables like self-identity (variable) and social interactions (dependent
variable) contribute to the theoretical understanding of identity formation and symbolic
interactions within society, aligning with Mead's perspectives.
Variables serve as the cornerstone of sociological research, playing a vital role in comprehending,
analyzing, and explaining complex social phenomena. They allow for empirical investigation,
measurement, and the identification of patterns and correlations within society, enabling
sociologists to formulate and test hypotheses, ultimately contributing to the development of
sociological theories and understandings.
Through the study of variables such as social statuses, behaviors, or demographic characteristics,
sociologists can elucidate social structures, causal relationships, and societal changes. Their
significance lies in providing a systematic framework to explore multifaceted aspects of society,
ensuring a nuanced and structured approach to understanding the dynamic nature of social life.
197
d) Critically analyze Talcott Parsons conception of pattern variable’. (10

Marks)
Structure:
 Introduce and elaborate with the Parsons concept of "pattern variable".
 Analyze the limitations or criticisms of Parsons' concept of pattern variable.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Pattern variables, as conceptualized by Talcott Parsons in his structural functionalist theory, denote
the diverse modes of behavior or action that individuals may adopt within social situations. These
patterns are observable and recurring, representing normative expectations guiding individual
conduct in various social contexts. Parsons emphasized the existence of predictable and structured
behavioral orientations that individuals choose to follow within societal norms, highlighting the
flexibility and adaptability of behavior in maintaining social order.
In relation to motivational orientation and value orientation, in the performance of roles, each actor
faces dilemmas. These dilemmas emanate from strains in an individual’s choice of or preference
within a range of orientations both related to needs and to values. The actor must choose between
the options, before she or he can act with respect to the situation.
(ADAPCO)
 Affectivity versus Affective Neutrality: Affectivity versus affective neutrality concerns the
dilemma of role performance where evaluation is involved in relation to a situation. How
much should a situation be evaluated in emotional terms or with a degree of emotional
neutrality? This poses a difficult choice in most roles that we are expected to perform in
society. For example: the mother-child relationship. It has high degree of affective
orientation, but discipline is also required. So on many occasions a mother would have to
exercise affective-neutral role in relation to her child’s socialization. But mother-child
relationship is essentially dominated by affectivity. In comparison, doctor-patient
relationship brings out the aspect of affective neutrality that characterizes a doctor’s role. But
according to Parsons in all role performance situations the dilemma of choice and its degree
of expression or commitment remains.
 Self-orientation versus Collectivity Orientation: Similarly, in this case pattern variable the
main issue is that of moral standard in the procedure of evaluation. The moral standard
arises from the fact that actor has to make a choice between his or her own gratification and
its deferment for the good of a larger number of people, a collectivity. Some form of altruism
and self-sacrifice is involved. The dilemma of this pattern variable has always been present
in human life from primitive mode of economy and society to modern civilization. But as
Parsons has rightly pointed out, institutionalization of such values is always fragile. This is
because the response to the situation by the actor is always in the form of a dilemma.
 Universalism versus Particularism: This is a pattern variable which defines the role situation
where the actor’s dilemma is between the cognitive versus the cathective (or emotional
standards) evaluation. A very good example of roles adhering to universalistic standards of
human behavior are role performances which go strictly by legal norms and legal sanctions.
If one abides by the rule of law irrespective of personal, kinship or friendship considerations,
then that would be an example of the universalistic mode of role performance.
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If one violates legal norms only because the person involved is kin or a friend, then
particularistic considerations would be said to be operating. Parsons says that in societies
where the role of the bureaucracy of formal organizations and modern institutions have
become widespread there the dilemmas of Universalism and particularism have become a
matter of choice in everyday life.
 Ascription versus Achievement: The actor’s dilemma in the ascription versus achievement
pattern variable is based on whether or not the actor defines the objects of his or her role
either in terms of quality or performance. In India a very good example of this pattern
variable is the role performance governed by the caste system. In the caste system, the
statuses of persons are determined not on the basis of their personal achievement or personal
skills or knowledge but on the basis of their birth. Ascription is based on assigning certain
quality to a person either by birth, or age, or sex or kinship or race. Achievement is based on
personal acquisition of skills and levels of performance in society.
 Specificity versus Diffuseness: Here, pattern variable concerns the scope of the object of role
performance. Scope, in this case, is to be understood in terms of the nature of social
interaction. Some social interactions, such as between doctors and patients or between buyers
and sellers of goods in the market, have a very specific scope. A doctor does not have to
understand the social, financial or political background of his or her patients in order to treat
them and to give them a prescription. So is the case of sellers of commodities in the market,
who do not have to know the general details of the life of their customers. Such roles are
specific in terms of the standards of response between actors. On the contrary, some role
relationships are very general and encompassing in nature. Such roles involve several
aspects of the object of interaction. Some examples of such role relationships are friendship,
conjugal relationship between husband and wife, relationships between kin of various
degrees.
Criticisms of Parsons' concept of pattern variable:
1. Rigidity and Overemphasis on Social Order: Critiques argue that Parsons' concept assumes a
rigid social order and overlooks the dynamism and diversity within societies. Michel Foucault's
work on power dynamics critiques the fixed nature of norms. Recent studies exploring gender
fluidity or non-binary identities challenge rigid social norms, reflecting the limitations of
Parsons' theory in accounting for diverse social expressions.
2. Assumption of Universal Norms: Parsons' concept assumes universal norms, which may not
apply to all social contexts. Edward Said's work challenges universalized norms, especially in
Western theories. Example in postcolonial studies or indigenous rights movements highlight the
limitations of applying universal norms across diverse cultural contexts, criticizing Parsons'
assumption of universally applicable norms.
3. Neglect of Individual Agency: Critics argue that Parsons' focus on pattern variables neglects
individual agency in shaping behavior. Symbolic interactionist Herbert Blumer's theory
emphasizes individual interpretation and agency in social interactions.
Recent research on micro-level interactions or identity formation emphasizes the active role of
individuals, critiquing Parsons' neglect of individual agency in his theory.
4. Exclusion of Conflict and Change: Parsons' concept minimizes the role of conflict and social
change. Conflict theorists like Karl Marx or contemporary Manuel Castells highlight the
importance of conflict in societal development. Recent sociological studies on social movements
or labor unrest critique Parsons' concept for neglecting conflict dynamics and the inevitability of
social change.
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5. Limited Adaptability to Diverse Social Realities: Critics argue that Parsons' concept may not
adequately adapt to diverse social realities. Judith Butler critique fixed gender norms. Recent
studies in feminist sociology or LGBTQ+ rights movements challenge traditional gender norms,
revealing the limitations of Parsons' theory in accommodating diverse and evolving social
realities.
Talcott Parsons' conception of "pattern variable" presents a framework that captures normative
behavioral patterns within social systems, emphasizing predictability and stability in societal
structures. However, a critical analysis reveals inherent limitations in its applicability to dynamic
and diverse social realities. The rigid assumption of universal norms and the neglect of individual
agency and social change pose challenges to the model's comprehensiveness.
Despite its contributions in understanding social order and the role of norms in societal cohesion,
criticisms regarding its static nature and exclusion of conflict dynamics highlight the need for a more
adaptable and nuanced theoretical framework that can account for the complexities of evolving
social landscapes, individual agency, and varied cultural contexts.
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e) Can we equate ‘poverty’ with ‘poor living’? Elaborate your answer. (10
Marks)
Structure:
 Define 'poverty' and 'poor living'.
 Compare and contrast 'poverty' and 'poor living.'
 Conclusion.
Solution:
'Poverty' refers to a state of deprivation characterized by the lack of essential resources and
economic means required for a decent standard of living. Karl Marx, emphasize poverty as a social
condition stemming from unequal distribution of resources within capitalist societies.
'Poor living' extends beyond economic deprivation, encompassing inadequate living conditions,
limited access to services, and social exclusion. Amartya Sen's capabilities approach highlights how
'poor living' isn't solely about income, but about the inability to access education, healthcare, and
participation in societal activities.
For instance, poverty, represented by income below a certain threshold, can lead to 'poor living'
conditions like inadequate housing or lack of access to quality education, illustrating the
multidimensional nature of social deprivation beyond financial constraints.
Compare and contrast 'poverty' and 'poor living.'
1. Economic Deprivation vs. Multidimensional Deprivation: 'Poverty' primarily addresses
economic deprivation, focusing on income levels below a specified threshold. 'Poor living'
extends beyond financial constraints, encompassing multidimensional deprivation such as
inadequate housing, limited access to healthcare, education, and societal exclusion. Amartya
Sen's capabilities approach emphasizes the multifaceted nature of deprivation beyond
income levels.
2. Social Exclusion vs. Societal Marginalization: 'Poverty' can lead to social exclusion due to
limited resources, impacting participation in society. Max Weber's concept of social
stratification highlights economic disparity leading to social divisions. 'Poor living' often
signifies societal marginalization, encompassing exclusion from social and cultural
participation due to inadequate living conditions. Emile Durkheim's theory on social
integration and cohesion underscores the importance of societal inclusion in well-being.
3. Economic Measures vs. Quality of Life Indicators: 'Poverty' is often measured through
economic indicators like income levels or GDP per capita. 'Poor living' focuses on quality of
life indicators encompassing health, education, housing, and social participation beyond
economic measures. For instance, the Human Development Index (HDI), developed by
economist Mahbub ul Haq, measures overall well-being beyond income.
4. Universal Measure vs. Contextual Understanding: 'Poverty' is often measured using
universal thresholds, but the experience varies across cultural and geographical contexts.
Sociologist Karl Marx's theory of alienation highlights the varying experiences of economic
deprivation in different societies. 'Poor living' emphasizes the importance of understanding
contextual factors that shape individuals' experiences of deprivation. Recent sociological
research on urban poverty or rural disparities demonstrates how the experience of 'poor
living' varies based on local context and culture.
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5. Policy Implications: 'Poverty' often informs policies focusing on economic assistance and
income redistribution to alleviate financial hardships. 'Poor living' prompts policies
addressing comprehensive social welfare, including education, healthcare, housing, and
community development. William Julius Wilson's work on urban poverty emphasizes the
need for multifaceted policies to address social disparities beyond income support.
6. Challenges in Measurement and Identification: 'Poverty' has clearer and standardized
measurements based on income thresholds, enabling easier identification and comparison
across populations. 'Poor living' faces challenges in quantification due to the subjective
nature of quality of life indicators. It necessitates a more nuanced and qualitative approach
in measurement, making direct comparison and identification complex across diverse
contexts.
7. Root Causes and Systemic Issues: 'Poverty' is often seen as a result of unequal distribution
of resources within economic systems, reflecting Karl Marx's focus on economic inequalities.
'Poor living' can be attributed to systemic issues such as inadequate public services, housing
disparities, and educational inequalities, as highlighted in studies on education or healthcare
disparities by sociologists like Pierre Bourdieu or Paulo Freire.
8. Dynamic Interrelation and Mutual Impact: 'Poverty' and 'poor living' share a dynamic
interrelation where poverty can lead to poor living conditions, and inadequate living
conditions can perpetuate poverty cycles. Herbert Spencer's concept of interdependence
within society emphasizes how these aspects mutually influence each other, contributing to
social challenges and disparities.
In conclusion, the distinction between 'poverty' and 'poor living' lies in their varying dimensions
of social deprivation. While 'poverty' primarily refers to economic insufficiency, 'poor living'
encompasses a broader spectrum of multidimensional inadequacies including inadequate housing,
limited access to services, social exclusion, and quality of life indicators. The interconnection
between these concepts is undeniable. However, equating them overlooks the multifaceted nature
of social deprivation.
Understanding the differences between 'poverty' and 'poor living' is vital for the formulation of
effective policies and interventions aimed at alleviating societal disparities and improving the
overall well-being of individuals within diverse social contexts.
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Question 2.
a) Discuss the changing equations of discipline of sociology with other
social sciences. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Highlight foundational development of sociology as an independent discipline.
 Explain distinctiveness and specialization of Sociology as a discipline.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Sociology emerged as an independent discipline in the 19th century amidst the significant social
changes triggered by the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment period. The discipline
originated from the works of Auguste Comte, who coined the term 'sociology' and emphasized the
scientific study of society. Scholars like Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Karl Marx further
contributed to the foundational development of sociology by introducing theories on social order,
rationalization, and social conflict. These pioneers focused on empirical research and the systematic
study of social interactions, social structures, and cultural phenomena, laying the groundwork for
sociology as an independent field distinct from philosophy and the natural sciences, and solidifying
its status as a discipline aimed at understanding the complexities of human society.
Sociology, while distinct in its approach, shares a symbiotic relationship with other social sciences,
fostering interdisciplinary connections that enrich our understanding of societal dynamics. This
cross-pollination is evident in the works of Émile Durkheim, who emphasized the collective
conscience and social integration, influencing fields like anthropology and psychology, notably in
studies on social cohesion and collective mentalities.
Additionally, the amalgamation of sociological principles with economics, as demonstrated by Karl
Marx's analyses of capitalism and social inequality, exemplifies the interconnectedness of sociology
with other disciplines. For instance, the examination of labor markets and class struggles reveals
how economic structures intersect with social relations, reflecting the intrinsic ties between
sociology and economics.
Distinctiveness and specialization of Sociology as a discipline.
 Social Structures and Institutions: Sociology specializes in the study of social structures and
institutions, examining their impact on individuals and societies. Example include Manuel
Castells' Network Society theory, analyzing how digital communication shapes social
interactions, and the study of family structures by Talcott Parsons, which highlights the roles
and functions within the family unit, particularly amidst changing family dynamics due to
globalization and technological advancements.
 Social Inequality and Stratification: Sociology uniquely focuses on social inequality,
encompassing economic, racial, and gender disparities. Pierre Bourdieu's theory of cultural
capital elucidates how societal privileges and advantages are unequally distributed among
social classes, exemplified in contemporary discussions on income inequality, access to
education, and disparities in healthcare, as seen in the Gini coefficient studies of income
inequality across different nations.
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 Social Change and Dynamics: The discipline centers on understanding social change and
dynamics. Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration highlights the interplay between social
structures and individual agency, evident in movements like #MeToo, exploring how social
media empowers individuals to challenge entrenched power dynamics and societal norms.
 Globalization and Societal Impacts: Sociology investigates the effects of globalization on
societies worldwide. Arjun Appadurai's theory of global cultural flows examines the
transnational movement of ideas and cultures, reflected in studies on cultural hybridization
and the impact of global consumerism on local traditions and identities.
 Urban Sociology: Sociologists like Georg Simmel and Louis Wirth have contributed to the
study of urban life and its impact on social behavior and communities. Example: involve
Richard Florida's concept of the creative class and urban gentrification, illustrating how
urban areas attract and retain talent, contributing to economic growth but also accentuating
socio-economic disparities.
 Environmental Sociology: Specializing in the interplay between society and the
environment, this field studies human impact on the ecosystem. Ulrich Beck's theory of the
risk society addresses environmental concerns, as seen in studies on climate change and
societal responses, exploring the social and cultural implications of environmental
degradation.
 Medical Sociology: Sociological perspectives on health and illness, as advocated by Talcott
Parsons, focus on the social determinants of health. Recent examples include studies on the
social determinants of mental health, illustrating how social and economic factors influence
mental well-being and access to mental health services.
 Sociology of Knowledge: Investigating how society shapes knowledge and vice versa, this
area of study, influenced by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann's work, examines the
construction of reality and social perceptions. Examples: include studies on the impact of
social media on knowledge dissemination and the formation of public opinion, exploring the
role of online platforms in shaping collective knowledge and beliefs.
The discipline of sociology has been witnessing evolving relationships with other social sciences,
marked by increasing interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge exchange.
The rise of interdisciplinary studies, such as socioeconomics, social psychology, and sociolinguistics,
indicates the growing convergence of disciplines. Sociologists are integrating diverse methodologies
and theoretical frameworks from these fields to enrich their analyses, creating a more
comprehensive understanding of complex social phenomena. This shift signifies a progressive
departure from disciplinary silos toward a more integrated and holistic approach to studying
human societies, acknowledging the interconnections among various social sciences for a more
nuanced comprehension of societal complexities.
204
b) Examine the basic postulates of positivism and post-positivism. (20

Marks)
Structure:
 Define positivism and post-positivism.
 Highlight the differences between the two paradigms.
 Discuss critiques of both positivism and post-positivism.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The word positivism is derived from the French word positivisme, in turn, derived from positif. In
its philosophical sense, it means ‘Imposed on the mind by experience’. Positivism asserts that all
authentic knowledge allows verification and that all authentic knowledge assumes that the only
valid knowledge is scientific.
Auguste Comte argued that, much as the physical world operates according to gravity and other
absolute laws, so does society, and further developed positivism into a Religion of Humanity.
His View of Positivism, therefore, set out to define the empirical goals of sociological method. The
most important thing to determine was the natural order in which the sciences stand—not how they
can be made to stand, but how they must stand, irrespective of the wishes of anyone
Post-Positivism: It accepts that reality is independent of our thinking about it, and that observation
and measurement are at the core of a scientific endeavor. It also accepts that observation is laden
with theory, beliefs and values.
It recognizes that observation can contain error and observation is fallible and theory revisable. It
says that researchers are inherently biased by their cultural and social/political positioning and
experience.
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Aspect Positivism Post- Positivism
Nature of Belief in an objective, external Acknowledges the subjective nature of

Reality reality that exists independently of reality, influenced by cultural, social, and
human perception. individual perspectives.
Example A positivist might study crime rates A post-positivist may study crime by
by focusing on statistical data and considering societal factors, cultural
trends to understand criminal norms, and individual experiences that
behavior. shape criminal behavior.
Research Emphasis on quantitative, Recognizes the limitations of solely

Approach empirical methods and the objective observations, acknowledges
scientific approach to gather data. the role of human subjectivity, and may
use mixed methods approaches.
Example Positivists might use surveys or Post-positivists could combine surveys

experiments to measure social with in-depth interviews to understand
phenomena like the impact of how individual perceptions about
education on income levels. education and income influence each
other.
Role of the Objective and detached, aiming for Acknowledges the influence of the
Researcher value-free research and researcher’s perspective and considers
maintaining distance from the their impact on the research process.
subject.
Example A positivist studying economic A post-positivist examining economic

inequality might focus solely on inequality may consider the subjective
economic indicators without experiences of individuals affected by
considering the subjective policies and societal structures,
experiences of individuals. understanding the personal impact.
Knowledge Belief in empirical evidence and Recognizes the subjectivity in

and Truth facts, aiming for universal truths knowledge, focusing on multiple truths
and generalizations. and context-specific understanding.
Example Positivists might seek to establish Post-positivists might focus on

general laws explaining human understanding context-specific truths,
behavior based on quantitative acknowledging different experiences of
data. individuals that may not fit within
universal generalizations.
Concept of Objective observation without Accepts the existence of subjectivity and

Objectivity acknowledging the influence of individual perspectives, aiming for a
personal biases or perspectives. more reflexive understanding of
research.
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Example Positivists might conduct a study Post-positivists might include personal

on poverty rates purely through reflections on how their biases or
statistical data, aiming for an background affect their interpretation of
objective view. poverty rates, leading to a more reflexive
approach.
Role of The emphasis on theory to predict Acknowledges the limitations of theory

Theory and explain phenomena based on to completely capture the complexity of
empirical observations. social reality and encourages multiple
perspectives.
Example Positivists might use theory to Post-positivists might use theory as a

predict human behavior based on framework but allow flexibility to
observed patterns. incorporate various perspectives,
recognizing the limitations of any single
theory.
Critiques of Positivism:
 Neglect of Subjectivity and Context: Positivism's emphasis on objectivity and quantifiable
data overlooks subjective experiences and the influence of context on social phenomena. The
critique is that this approach oversimplifies complex social realities. Example: In the study of
poverty, while quantitative measures like income levels are important, positivism might
overlook the subjective experiences and cultural contexts that influence how individuals
experience poverty.
 Inadequate Understanding of Social Complexity: Positivism tends to focus on observable,
measurable variables, often oversimplifying complex social issues. Critics argue that social
phenomena are multifaceted and cannot be fully comprehended through quantitative
measures alone. Example: Émile Durkheim critiqued positivism by arguing that social facts
cannot be reduced to individual-level explanations.
 Assumption of Value Neutrality: Positivism claims to maintain complete objectivity and
value-neutrality in research, but critics argue that all research is inherently influenced by the
values and biases of researchers, impacting data collection and analysis. Example: Max
Weber critiqued this aspect by suggesting that researchers cannot be completely value-free,
as their personal values influence their choice of research topics and methodologies.
 Overemphasis on Empirical Data: Critics argue that the positivist approach's over-reliance
on empirical data limits the understanding of social phenomena, as certain aspects of social
life cannot be quantified or measured. Example: Michel Foucault's work critiques the
reliance on quantitative data in understanding power dynamics and discourses within
society, suggesting that power operates in more subtle and qualitative ways beyond what
can be quantified.
Critiques of Post-Positivism:
 Subjectivity Overshadowing Objectivity: Post-positivism's recognition of subjectivity
sometimes results in an overemphasis on individual perspectives, neglecting the importance
of objective, empirical evidence and generalizability. Example: Post-positivist approaches in
gender studies, while acknowledging subjective experiences, might overlook broader
statistical trends that could help identify systematic issues.
207
Feminist theorists like Judith Butler critique the overemphasis on individual subjectivity
over broader social structures.
 Inadequate Methodological Rigor: Critics argue that the flexibility in methods within post-
positivism can lead to methodological inconsistency, making it difficult to establish reliable
and replicable research standards. Example: Post-structuralist thinkers like Jacques Derrida
have been critiqued for the lack of consistency in their methodologies, making it challenging
to establish a cohesive framework for research.
 Neglect of the Role of Theory: Some critiques suggest that post-positivism's reluctance to
adhere to overarching theories might limit its ability to provide a comprehensive
understanding of social phenomena. Example: Post-positivist approaches may disregard the
utility of broader social theories, impacting the depth and breadth of understanding. The
work of Anthony Giddens critiques the lack of integration of theory in certain post-positivist
approaches.
 Challenge in Establishing Objective Reality: While acknowledging subjectivity, post-
positivism faces challenges in establishing shared or objective realities, which could lead to
difficulties in establishing a unified understanding of social phenomena. Example:
Postmodernist thinkers like Jean-François Lyotard critique the idea of a unified truth,
suggesting that multiple truths exist, making it challenging to reach a consensus.
In conclusion, the examination of the basic postulates of positivism and post-positivism reveals their
distinct philosophical foundations and methodological approaches. While positivism underscores
empirical observation, objectivity, and the pursuit of universal laws, post-positivism challenges the
notion of pure objectivity, recognizing the role of subjectivity, context, and multiple perspectives in
understanding complex social phenomena.
Understanding these paradigms is crucial in sociology, as it allows for a critical appraisal of research
methods and the appreciation of diverse perspectives, ultimately contributing to a more nuanced
and comprehensive sociological analysis of the intricate fabric of society.
208
c) Elaborate the main tenets of interpretative perspective in sociology. (10

Marks)
Structure:
 Define the interpretative perspective in sociology.
 Explain the main tenets of interpretative perspective in sociology.
 Highlight potential criticisms of the interpretative perspective.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The interpretative perspective in sociology, also known as the interpretative or hermeneutic
approach, is a theoretical framework that focuses on understanding and interpreting the subjective
meanings and social contexts individuals assign to their actions and interactions within society. This
perspective places significance on the subjective understanding of human behavior and social
phenomena, emphasizing the importance of social meanings, context, and cultural nuances in
shaping social interactions.
Key concepts within this perspective include 'Verstehen' (understanding) as introduced by Max
Weber, which involves empathetically comprehending the motives and meanings underlying
human actions. Overall, the interpretative perspective offers a nuanced and rich understanding of
human behavior within diverse social contexts.
1. Subjective Understanding: Emphasizes the significance of subjective understanding in
interpreting social phenomena. It focuses on the meanings individuals attribute to their
actions and interactions. Example: Ethnographic studies by Erving Goffman, such as "The
Presentation of Self in Everyday Life," examine how individuals construct social identities
through dramaturgical performances, emphasizing the subjective nature of social
interactions and self-presentation.
2. Social Context and Meaning: Stresses the importance of social context and the meanings
attached to actions within specific social settings. Example: Howard Becker's work on
labeling theory examines how societal reactions create deviance, highlighting the social
context and the subjective meanings attached to labeling certain behaviors as deviant or
normal.
3. Verstehen (Understanding): Based on Max Weber's concept, it involves empathetically
understanding the motives and meanings underlying human actions and behaviors.
Example: Recent studies on online communities, like Alice Marwick and danah boyd's
research on social media platforms, use Verstehen to understand how individuals interpret
and construct identities within digital spaces.
4. Qualitative Methods: Prefers qualitative research methods such as in-depth interviews,
participant observation, and ethnography to capture the depth and nuances of social
interactions and meanings. Example: Ethnographic research by sociologist Arlie Hochschild
on emotional labor explores the qualitative aspects of emotions in the workplace, focusing
on the nuanced experiences and meanings attached to emotions within specific job roles.
5. Role of Researcher and Validity: Acknowledges the role of the researcher as an active
participant in understanding and interpreting the social world. Validity is achieved through
rich, qualitative data.
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Example: Annette Lareau's research on parenting styles and social class used participant
observation and in-depth interviews to understand how cultural and economic factors
influence child-rearing practices, highlighting the significance of the researcher's engagement
and qualitative data.
6. Contextual Understanding and Multiple Realities: Acknowledges the contextual nature of
social phenomena and the existence of multiple subjective realities. Example: The work of
sociologist Patricia Hill Collins on intersectionality demonstrates how social categories such
as race, gender, and class intersect to shape multiple and context-dependent experiences of
oppression and privilege.
Criticisms of the interpretative perspective:
1. Subjective Understanding: Emphasizes the significance of subjective understanding in
interpreting social phenomena. It focuses on the meaning’s individuals attribute to their
actions and interactions. Example: Ethnographic studies by Erving Goffman, such as "The
Presentation of Self in Everyday Life," examine how individuals construct social identities
through dramaturgical performances, emphasizing the subjective nature of social
interactions and self-presentation.
2. Social Context and Meaning: Stresses the importance of social context and the meanings
attached to actions within specific social settings. Example: Howard Becker's work on
labeling theory examines how societal reactions create deviance, highlighting the social
context and the subjective meanings attached to labeling certain behaviors as deviant or
normal.
3. Verstehen (Understanding): Based on Max Weber's concept, it involves empathetically
understanding the motives and meanings underlying human actions and behaviors.
Example: Recent studies on online communities, like Alice Marwick and danah boyd's
research on social media platforms, use Verstehen to understand how individuals interpret
and construct identities within digital spaces.
4. Qualitative Methods: Prefers qualitative research methods such as in-depth interviews,
participant observation, and ethnography to capture the depth and nuances of social
interactions and meanings. Example: Ethnographic research by Arlie Hochschild on
emotional labor explores the qualitative aspects of emotions in the workplace, focusing on
the nuanced experiences and meanings attached to emotions within specific job roles.
5. Role of Researcher and Validity: Acknowledges the role of the researcher as an active
participant in understanding and interpreting the social world. Validity is achieved through
rich, qualitative data. Example: Annette Lareau's research on parenting styles and social class
used participant observation and in-depth interviews to understand how cultural and
economic factors influence child-rearing practices, highlighting the significance of the
researcher's engagement and qualitative data.
6. Contextual Understanding and Multiple Realities: Acknowledges the contextual nature of
social phenomena and the existence of multiple subjective realities. Example: Patricia Hill
Collins on intersectionality demonstrates how social categories such as race, gender, and
class intersect to shape multiple and context-dependent experiences of oppression and
privilege.
In conclusion, the interpretative perspective in sociology stands as a foundational approach that
emphasizes the subjective understanding of human behavior within social contexts.
The interpretative perspective significantly contributes to a richer understanding of human
behaviors, acknowledging the complexities of diverse social realities, and highlighting the pivotal
role of subjective experiences in shaping social phenomena. Its focus on the intricate tapestry of
human meanings and interactions remains invaluable in comprehending the multifaceted nature of
societal life.
210
Question 3.
Discuss distinct sociological method adopted by Emile Durkheim in his
study of ‘suicide’. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Briefly introduce Emile Durkheim’s work "Suicide".
 Explain distinct sociological method adopted by Emile Durkheim.
 Limitations of his theory of suicide.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Defining Suicide:
“Any death caused directly/indirectly, by a positive/negative action of the victim himself which he
knows will produce this result”. Durkheim used scientific methods, multivariate analysis,
concomitant variables, surveys, etc. Durkheim drew certain conclusions about Suicide Rate:
• It is not a psychological phenomenon.
• There are wide range of variables impacting it.
• Rate of suicide in different societies is fairly constant.
Distinct sociological method adopted by Emile Durkheim:

1. Quantitative and Comparative Analysis: Durkheim employed a quantitative approach by
using statistical data and comparative analysis in his study of social phenomena. For
example, in his work "Suicide," he used official statistics to compare suicide rates across
different groups, such as religious denominations and marital status, to establish patterns
and correlations.
2. Classification of Suicides: Durkheim introduced a typology of suicides based on social
integration and regulation, categorizing them into egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic
types. For instance, he examined how varying levels of social integration led to different
suicide rates within specific social groups, illustrating his method's focus on social factors
impacting individual behavior.
211
3. Focus on Social Integration and Regulation: His distinct method revolved around the
examination of the degree of social integration within a society and its relationship to suicide
rates. Durkheim argued that societies with low integration or excessive integration
experienced higher suicide rates. For instance, he observed higher suicide rates among
unmarried individuals, indicating lower social integration.
4. Use of Official Statistics and Empirical Data: Durkheim relied on empirical data, using
official statistics to identify and measure social phenomena. In "Suicide," he employed data
from official records to quantitatively analyze suicide rates, leading to the identification of
sociological patterns in different social contexts.
5. Concept of Social Facts: Durkheim introduced the concept of social facts, considering them
as external, objective, and coercive forces influencing individual behavior. His approach
involved treating suicide as a social fact, emphasizing that it is not just an individual act but
influenced by social structures and norms.
6. Application of Scientific Principles to Social Phenomena: Durkheim applied scientific
principles to the study of social life, treating society as an object of scientific investigation. He
sought to establish sociology as a discipline by using empirical evidence and systematic
analysis. His methodological approach emphasized the scientific study of social phenomena.
Limitations of his theory of suicide.
1. Neglect of Individual Factors: Durkheim's theory overlooks individual psychological factors
contributing to suicide, focusing predominantly on social causes. This neglects the
psychological complexities and personal experiences that might lead to suicide. Example:
Erving Goffman's dramaturgical theory highlights how individual perceptions and
experiences, such as stigma and self-presentation, play a significant role in shaping behavior
and might impact suicide rates within specific groups.
2. Simplification of Complex Social Phenomenon: Durkheim's classification of suicide into
four types oversimplifies the multifaceted nature of suicidal behavior, reducing it to distinct
categories without considering overlaps or intersections between different types. Example:
Thomas J. Scheff's work on the labeling theory of mental illness critiques the
oversimplification of complex social behaviors, emphasizing the importance of
understanding interactions between different factors contributing to suicide.
3. Methodological Critiques - Reliance on Official Statistics: Durkheim heavily relied on
official statistics to understand suicide rates, which might be affected by the biases of
reporting systems or legal definitions. This could lead to inaccuracies in the recorded data.
Example: Howard Becker's "Outsiders" questions the reliability of official statistics, arguing
that such data might reflect societal definitions of what constitutes suicide rather than the
complete reality of suicidal behaviors.
4. Underestimation of Psychological and Emotional Factors: Durkheim's emphasis on social
integration understates the influence of emotional and psychological factors on suicidal
behavior. This narrow focus disregards the role of emotions and mental health in suicide.
Example: The work of Richard S. Lazarus on stress and coping mechanisms emphasizes the
impact of emotional experiences and coping strategies in understanding suicidal behavior.
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5. Failure to Address Intersectional Factors: Durkheim's theory neglects the intersections of
various social factors like race, gender, and socioeconomic status in understanding suicide
rates. It doesn’t address how these factors intersect and influence suicidal behavior. Example:
Patricia Hill Collins' intersectionality theory critiques the overlooking of various social
categories' intersections, arguing that these intersections significantly shape individuals'
experiences, including suicidal tendencies.
6. Theoretical Rigidity and Lack of Updating: Durkheim's theory of suicide lacks adaptability
and has not been updated to incorporate contemporary insights and changes in societal
structures, resulting in a lack of relevance in modern contexts. Example: Anthony Giddens'
critique of outdated social theories highlights the need for theories to evolve and adapt to
changing social landscapes to remain relevant and applicable.
In conclusion, Emile Durkheim's distinct sociological method in studying 'Suicide' revolutionized
the field of sociology by pioneering a quantitative and comparative approach. His method involved
the systematic use of statistical data and an analytical examination of social phenomena. By
categorizing suicides into distinct types and correlating them with levels of social integration and
regulation, Durkheim demonstrated the impact of social structures on individual behavior.
Durkheim's method not only highlighted the influence of social factors on suicidal behaviors but
also established a framework for empirical analysis that contributed significantly to the
development of sociological methodology.
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b) Analyze Marxian conception of historical materialism as a critique of

Hegelian dialectics. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Introduce the key concepts: Historical Materialism and Hegelian Dialectics.
 Explain Marxian conception of historical materialism as a critique of Hegelian dialectics.
 Explain Differences in Focus of both.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Historical materialism, pioneered by Karl Marx, constitutes a foundational concept in sociological
thought, positing that the development of human societies is fundamentally shaped by material
conditions and economic factors. Marx asserted that the mode of production, the economic base of
society, drives historical change.
According to Marx, historical materialism emphasizes the role of class struggle and the evolving
relations of production, marking different historical epochs, such as feudalism, capitalism, and
communism. This concept was central to Marx's critique of capitalism and became a cornerstone of
Marxist sociological theory, elucidating how economic factors shape societal structures and
historical progression, influencing the distribution of power and resources within societies.
Hegelian dialectics, developed by philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, elucidates a
philosophical method focused on the progression of history through a triadic process of thesis,
antithesis, and synthesis. Hegel proposed that historical change evolves through the clash and
resolution of opposing ideas or concepts.
He perceived history as the unfolding of the Absolute Spirit, progressing toward self-realization
and culminating in a synthesis that resolves conflicting ideas, leading to progress. Hegel's dialectical
method primarily concerned itself with the realm of ideas and the development of the mind or spirit
as the driving force behind historical evolution.
Marxian conception of historical materialism as a critique of Hegelian dialectics
 Material Conditions and Historical Change: Karl Marx critiqued Hegelian dialectics,
arguing that Hegel's approach focused on the realm of ideas and spiritual development,
neglecting material conditions as the driving force of historical change. Marx proposed
historical materialism, emphasizing that economic factors and the mode of production shape
societal structures and historical progress. Karl Marx's "Capital" exemplifies this perspective,
emphasizing how economic relationships and class struggles drive historical development,
distinguishing different historical epochs based on modes of production, such as feudalism
and capitalism.
 Economic Determinism vs. Idealism: Marx criticized Hegel's idealistic view of history,
arguing that Hegel overlooked the materialistic basis of societal structures. Marx's historical
materialism stressed economic determinism and the significance of class conflict in shaping
historical progress. Antonio Gramsci's "Prison Notebooks" explores the dominance of
economic structures and the relationship between the economic base and the ideological
superstructure, contributing to an understanding of hegemony and social control.
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 Role of Class Struggle in History: Marx underscored the centrality of class struggle in
driving historical change, a concept overlooked in Hegelian dialectics. He highlighted the
conflict between social classes, particularly the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, as a primary
force in historical development. Erik Olin Wright's "Classes" and his work on contradictory
class locations build upon Marx's focus on class struggle, emphasizing the significance of
class relationships in social transformation.
 Empirical Material Conditions vs. Idealistic Development: Marx emphasized the empirical
material conditions of society, highlighting how these conditions influence the development
of ideas and ideologies, a factor downplayed in Hegelian dialectics. Raymond Williams'
"Culture and Society" examines the relationship between material conditions and cultural
development, emphasizing how economic forces shape cultural and ideological changes.
 Societal Transformation and Historical Progress: Marxian historical materialism focuses on
societal transformation driven by changes in material conditions and the struggle between
social classes, in contrast to Hegel's dialectics, which highlights the evolution of ideas.
Herbert Marcuse's "One-Dimensional Man" examines how societal transformation and
progress are hindered by the existing capitalist structures, aligning with Marx's emphasis on
societal transformation through economic change.
 Historical Examples of Materialist Transformation: Marx's theory is exemplified through
historical examples of societal transformations driven by shifts in material conditions and
class struggles, such as the transition from feudalism to capitalism. Example: The industrial
revolution and the resulting shift from feudalism to capitalism depict a materialist
transformation where changes in the means of production led to significant social, economic,
and political shifts, supporting Marx's historical materialism.
Differences in Focus of both.
Material Conditions vs. Ideas:
 Historical Materialism (Marx): Focuses on the primacy of material conditions, emphasizing
economic determinism and the role of class struggle in driving historical change. It posits
that social structures and changes are primarily influenced by material and economic factors.
 Hegelian Dialectics (Hegel): Focuses on the progression of historical change through the
clash and synthesis of ideas or concepts. It emphasizes the development of ideas and the
evolution of the Absolute Spirit as the driving force of history.
Example: In Marx's "Capital," the transition from feudalism to capitalism is attributed to changes in
the mode of production, illustrating the materialist shift. In contrast, Hegel's "Phenomenology of
Spirit" examines historical progress through the evolution of philosophical ideas and dialectical
synthesis.
Empirical Material Conditions vs. Idealistic Development:
 Historical Materialism (Marx): Stresses empirical material conditions, asserting that social
development is rooted in economic realities, such as modes of production and class conflicts,
influencing societal structures and transformations.
 Hegelian Dialectics (Hegel): Emphasizes the evolution of ideas and concepts as the driving
force behind historical development. It focuses on the development of consciousness and the
clash of ideas leading to historical progress.
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Example: Marx's historical materialism highlights how changes in means of production during the
industrial revolution led to a transformation in societal structures. Meanwhile, Hegel's dialectics
focus on the clash and synthesis of ideas and the development of the Absolute Spirit.
Class Struggle vs. Conceptual Evolution:
 Historical Materialism (Marx): Emphasizes class struggle as a central force in societal change
and historical progression. It highlights the conflict between social classes, particularly the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
 Hegelian Dialectics (Hegel): Focuses on the evolution of ideas and the clash between
opposing concepts as the primary mover of historical development.
Example: Marx's work on the struggles between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie leading to social
transformations contrasts with Hegel's focus on the progression of ideas and their resolution
through synthesis.
Economic Determinism vs. Idealistic Progress:
 Historical Materialism (Marx): Asserts economic determinism as the driving force behind
societal structures and transformations. It considers economic factors as the primary
determinants of social change.
 Hegelian Dialectics (Hegel): Emphasizes the progression of ideas and the resolution of
conflicts between these ideas as the key to historical development.
Example: Marx's historical materialism highlights the role of economic forces and class conflicts in
societal transformation, while Hegel's dialectics focus on the evolution of consciousness and ideas.
Societal Transformation through Material Conditions vs. Conceptual Evolution:
 Historical Materialism (Marx): Centrally focuses on societal transformations driven by shifts
in material conditions, such as economic structures and modes of production.
 Hegelian Dialectics (Hegel): Emphasizes the progression of ideas and conceptual evolution
as the primary driving force behind societal changes.
Example: The transition from feudalism to capitalism as expounded in Marx's theory and Hegel's
philosophical discussions highlighting the evolution of the Absolute Spirit demonstrate these
differing foci.
Historical Examples of Materialist Transformation vs. Idealistic Progress:
 Historical Materialism (Marx): Backed by historical examples demonstrating societal
transformations resulting from changes in material conditions and class struggles.
 Hegelian Dialectics (Hegel): Focuses on the historical progress of ideas and the resolution of
opposing concepts.
Example: Marx's work on the transition from feudalism to capitalism shows how changes in
economic structures drove societal change. In contrast, Hegel's dialectics focus on the evolution of
philosophical ideas for historical progress.
Conclusion,
Hegelian dialectics by shifting the focus from the realm of ideas and spiritual development to the
material conditions and economic determinants shaping historical progress. Karl Marx challenged
Hegel's idealistic approach, asserting that historical development isn't primarily driven by the clash
and resolution of ideas but by the concrete material conditions of society.
By emphasizing the role of material conditions in societal evolution, Marx's historical materialism
established a foundation for understanding historical change grounded in tangible economic
realities, thereby offering a substantial departure from Hegelian idealism and dialectical
philosophy.
216
c) Examine epistemological foundations of qualitative methods of social

Structure:
 Begin with defining qualitative research methods.
 Explain Epistemological Foundations of qualitative methods.
 Advantages of qualitative research methods.
 Disadvantages of qualitative research methods.
 Conclude.
Solution:
These research methods have an emphasis on the qualities of entities and on processes and
meanings that are not experimentally examined or measured in terms of quantity, amount, intensity,
or frequency.
Qualitative researchers stress the:
 Socially constructed nature of reality
 The intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied
 The situational constraints that shape inquiry.
It seeks to answer questions that stress how social experience is created and given meaning. In
general, qualitative researchers attempt to describe and interpret human behavior based primarily
on the words of selected individuals. Such individuals are called “informants” or “respondents”
and/or through the interpretation of their material culture or occupied space. There is a reflexive
process underpinning every stage of a qualitative study to ensure that researcher biases,
presuppositions, and interpretations are clearly evident, thus ensuring that the reader is better able
to interpret the overall validity of the research. In contrast, quantitative studies emphasize the
measurement and analysis of causal relationships between variables. Subjectivity and
Interpretivism: Max Weber emphasized verstehen, or understanding, which focuses on interpreting
the subjective meanings and intentions of individuals within their social context.
Example: Studies employing interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) in psychology and
sociology, understanding lived experiences of marginalized groups, such as LGBTQ+ individuals,
by focusing on their subjective interpretations of social interactions and identities.
Epistemological Foundations of qualitative methods:
 Contextual Understanding: Harold Garfinkel stresses the importance of understanding
social actions and behaviors within their specific social contexts. Example: Research in
workplace dynamics, utilizing ethnographic methods to comprehend how organizational
culture influences employee behavior, decision-making, and social interactions.
 Social Construction of Reality: Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann explored how
individuals collectively create and maintain reality through shared meanings, language, and
social interactions. Example: Studies on the impact of social media in constructing and
disseminating collective perceptions, where digital platforms influence the construction of
social reality and public discourse.
217
 Qualitative Data Collection and Analysis: Anselm Strauss and Barney Glaser’s Grounded
theory emphasizes inductive reasoning and systematic data collection to construct theories
grounded in empirical data. Example: Utilization of grounded theory in healthcare research,
analyzing patient experiences to develop theories on coping mechanisms in chronic illness
management.
 Reflexivity and Researcher Positionality: Dorothy Smith highlighted the importance of the
researcher's positionality in the research process, emphasizing reflexivity and recognizing
the influence of one's social location on knowledge production. Example: Studies in sociology
examining the role of researcher subjectivity and positionality in understanding power
dynamics within social institutions like healthcare or education.
 Hermeneutics and Interpretation: Hans-Georg Gadamer’s hermeneutic philosophy focuses
on the interpretive process and the fusion of horizons between the researcher and the
researched. Example: Research in cultural studies analyzing literature or art, employing
hermeneutic approaches to interpret the multiple meanings and historical contexts
embedded in cultural artifacts.
 Emic Perspectives and Participant Observation: Bronisław Malinowski emphasized the
significance of understanding a culture from an insider's (emic) perspective through
immersive observation and participation. Example: Anthropological studies exploring
indigenous communities, using participant observation to understand their cultural practices
and social structures from an emic viewpoint.
Advantages of Qualitative Research:
 Obtain a more realistic view of the lived world that cannot be understood or experienced in
numerical data and statistical analysis.
 Provide the researcher with the perspective of the participants of the study through
immersion in a culture or situation and as a result of direct interaction with them.
 Develop flexible ways to perform data collection, subsequent analysis, and interpretation of
collected information.
 Yield results that can be helpful in pioneering new ways of understanding.
 Respond to changes that occur while conducting the study and offer the flexibility to shift the
focus of the research as a result.
 Provide a holistic view of the phenomena under investigation.
 Respond to local situations, conditions, and needs of participants.
 Interact with the research subjects in their own language and on their own terms.
 Create a descriptive capability based on primary and unstructured data.
Disadvantages of Qualitative Research:
 Drifting away from the original objectives of the study in response to the changing nature of
the context under which the research is conducted.
 Arriving at different conclusions based on the same information depending on the personal
characteristics of the researcher.
 Replication of a study is very difficult.
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 Research using human subjects increases the chance of ethical dilemmas that undermine the
overall validity of the study.
 An inability to investigate causality between different research phenomena.
 Difficulty in explaining differences in the quality and quantity of information obtained from
different respondents and arriving at different, non-consistent conclusions.
 Data gathering and analysis is often time consuming and/or expensive.
 Requires a high level of experience from the researcher to obtain the targeted information
from the respondent.
 May lack consistency and reliability because the researcher can employ different probing
techniques and the respondent can choose to tell some particular stories and ignore others.
 Generation of a significant amount of data that cannot be randomized into manageable parts
for analysis.
In conclusion, the epistemological foundations of qualitative methods in social research significantly
influence the understanding and interpretation of social phenomena. These foundations, rooted in
interpretivism, constructivism, and the acknowledgment of multiple realities, emphasize the
subjective nature of knowledge and the importance of context in comprehending social realities.
By recognizing and embracing these epistemological underpinnings, qualitative methods provide a
robust framework for delving into the complex layers of human behavior and societal dynamics,
contributing significantly to the multifaceted understanding of the social world.
219
Question 4.
a) What is Weberian critique of Marxist notion of social stratification. (20
Marks)
Structure:
 Briefly introduce the concepts of social stratification.
 Explain Marxist Notion of Social Stratification.
 Explain Weberian Critique of Marx's Notion.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups within a society
based on various social attributes that grant different levels of power, prestige, and access to
resources. It involves the division of society into distinct layers or strata, where individuals are
placed in different social positions according to criteria like wealth, income, education, occupation,
race, gender, and social status.
This arrangement creates unequal opportunities and privileges, shaping the distribution of
resources, influencing life chances, and determining one's social mobility within a given society.
Social stratification highlights the presence of social inequalities and the dynamics of power and
status that impact individuals' lives and opportunities in different ways. Understanding and
analyzing social stratification is crucial for comprehending the structure and functioning of
societies.
Marxist theory of social stratification by Karl Marx, revolves around the concept of class division
within a capitalist society. Marx delineated society into two primary classes: the bourgeoisie, who
own and control the means of production, and the proletariat, the working class who sell their labor.
He emphasized the exploitative nature of capitalism, where the bourgeoisie extract surplus value
from the labor of the proletariat, perpetuating class conflict and social inequality. Marx argued that
this class struggle would lead to the eventual overthrow of the capitalist system, resulting in a
classless society, thereby eliminating social stratification and the inherent conflicts arising from it.
His theories formed the basis of understanding the inherent contradictions within capitalist societies
and the central role of economic factors in shaping social structures.
Weberian Critique of Marx's Notion:
 Multidimensional Approach to Social Stratification: Weber challenged Marx's singular
focus on economic class as the sole determinant of social hierarchy. He introduced a multi-
dimensional approach to social stratification, incorporating class, status, and power as
distinct but interrelated components of social structure. Example: Pierre Bourdieu's theory of
cultural capital elaborates on how non-economic resources (cultural knowledge, skills, and
education) contribute to social stratification. Bourdieu argues that these non-economic
factors, akin to Weber's concept of status, significantly influence an individual's position in
society.
 Status and Prestige as Stratification Factors: Weber highlighted that social status (prestige,
honor) is an influential aspect of social stratification, distinct from economic class. He
emphasized that an individual's social standing could be shaped by factors beyond economic
wealth.
220
Example: Erving Goffman's dramaturgical theory illustrates how individuals' performances
in different social settings (like workplaces or social events) contribute to their perceived
status and prestige, impacting their positions within societal hierarchies.
 Power as a Dimension of Social Hierarchy: Weber introduced the concept of power as a
crucial element of social stratification, independent of economic class, indicating that
authority and influence can be separate sources of dominance. Example: Steven Lukes' theory
of three-dimensional power explores power not just as direct coercion but also as shaping
preferences and agendas, demonstrating how power operates beyond mere economic realms,
as recognized by Weber.
 Life Chances and Opportunities: Weber emphasized that an individual's life chances—
opportunities and potential achievements—are influenced not only by economic class but
also by their status and power positions in society. Example: Studies on social mobility and
access to education by researchers like Raj Chetty illustrate how an individual's life chances
and opportunities are impacted by a combination of economic background, social status, and
available resources, aligning with Weber's multidimensional view.
 Differences in Classifications: While Marx's classification was based primarily on the
relationship to the means of production, Weber's typology was more intricate, considering
multiple factors such as property, skills, education, and status. Example: The work of Thomas
Piketty on income and wealth inequality suggests that economic class divisions alone are
insufficient to explain the complexities of contemporary stratification, aligning with Weber's
multifaceted classification.
 Bureaucracy and Rationalization: Weber highlighted the role of bureaucracy and
rationalization in the modern world, indicating that organizational structures influence social
stratification by creating new forms of power and status. Example: Studies on the impact of
bureaucratic structures in workplaces, like those by Michel Foucault, explore how such
structures influence power dynamics and create hierarchies distinct from economic classes,
validating Weber's viewpoint.
 Implications on Social Analysis: The differences in Marx and Weber's approaches have
implications for understanding social inequality, mobility, and the dynamics of power and
prestige in modern societies. Example: Research on intersectionality by Kimberlé Crenshaw
demonstrates how the multifaceted nature of social stratification aligns more with Weber's
multidimensional approach than with Marx's singular focus on economic class in
understanding contemporary societal dynamics.
In conclusion, Max Weber's critique of the Marxist notion of social stratification is pivotal in
expanding our understanding of societal hierarchies.
Weber's critique challenges the singular emphasis on economic class as the sole determinant of
social hierarchy, advocating for a multidimensional approach. By introducing the elements of status,
power, and prestige alongside economic factors, Weber provides a more nuanced perspective on
social stratification. This critique enriches sociological discourse by acknowledging the complexities
of social structures and emphasizing the broader influences beyond purely economic relations.
Understanding the intricacies of social stratification through Weber's multidimensional lens allows
for a more comprehensive analysis of the diverse factors that shape individuals' positions in society,
contributing significantly to the depth and richness of sociological understanding.
221
b) Examine gender, ethnicity and race as major dimensions of social

stratification. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Define social stratification.
 Explain gender, ethnicity and race as major dimensions of social stratification.
 Highlight recent challenges related to gender, ethnicity, and race.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups within a society
based on various social attributes such as wealth, income, education, occupation, race, gender, and
social status. It represents the structured inequalities that result in the division of society into distinct
layers or strata, where individuals are placed in different social positions, each offering varying
levels of power, privilege, and access to resources.
Social stratification elucidates the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities, shaping and
perpetuating social hierarchies within a given community or society. Understanding social
stratification is essential in analyzing societal structures, power dynamics, and patterns of
inequality.
Gender, ethnicity and race as major dimensions of social stratification:
 Gender as a Dimension of Social Stratification: Gender stratification is rooted in societal
norms and expectations that define roles and behaviors for individuals based on their
perceived gender. De Beauvoir's work emphasized that women have historically been
defined in relation to men, leading to inequalities and oppression. Example: The #MeToo
movement and research on the gender pay gap demonstrate how societal norms and
expectations have perpetuated gender inequalities, affecting women's access to leadership
positions and economic resources.
 Ethnicity as a Dimension of Social Stratification: W.E.B. Du Bois highlighted the concept
of double consciousness, where individuals from ethnic minority groups develop a dual
identity due to the dominant culture's perspectives. This dual identity affects access to
opportunities and resources. Example: Studies on racial profiling and the Black Lives Matter
movement exemplify how racial and ethnic backgrounds continue to impact an individual's
interactions with institutions like law enforcement, highlighting unequal treatment based on
ethnicity.
 Race as a Dimension of Social Stratification: Oliver Cox's theory of racial capitalism
emphasizes the role of racial categories in shaping economic and social structures,
perpetuating inequalities by exploiting racial differences. Example: Research on redlining in
housing markets and systemic racial discrimination in criminal justice systems demonstrates
the enduring impact of race-based stratification, leading to disparities in housing,
employment, and incarceration rates among racial groups.
 Intersectionality and Compounded Inequalities: Kimberlé Crenshaw's concept of
intersectionality underscores how different dimensions of stratification intersect and create
compounded effects, leading to unique experiences of discrimination.
222
Intersectionality recognizes that an individual's social position is shaped by multiple aspects,
such as race, gender, and class. Example: Studies examining the experiences of LGBTQ+
people of color, focusing on how the intersection of race and sexual orientation results in
distinct challenges and discrimination that are not explained by either dimension in isolation.
 Globalization and Transnational Identities: Saskia Sassen's work on globalization
highlights how global economic and political forces affect social stratification. People's
transnational identities, shaped by their ethnicity and race, impact their access to
opportunities in an interconnected world. Example: Research on the migration and
employment experiences of immigrant communities demonstrates how global forces,
intertwined with ethnicity and race, influence access to work, legal status, and social
integration.
 Policy Interventions and Social Movements: Frances Fox Piven and Richard Cloward's
theory underscores the role of collective action in addressing social inequalities. Social
movements and policy interventions can challenge and reshape stratification by advocating
for change. Example: The success of social movements like Black Lives Matter and
#Oscarssowhite, along with policies like affirmative action, highlights the potential for
collective action and policy changes to address issues of racial and ethnic stratification and
social justice.
Challenges:
 Gender Pay Gap and Workplace Inequality: Despite efforts towards gender equality, the
gender pay gap persists, with women earning less than men for similar work across various
industries and professions. This disparity is attributed to structural issues within the
workplace and societal norms. Arlie Hochschild's theory of the "second shift" highlights how
women often perform additional unpaid domestic work after their paid employment,
contributing to their time poverty and impacting their career advancements and earning
potential.
 Racial Inequities in Healthcare Access and Outcomes: Racial and ethnic minorities often
face disparities in healthcare access and outcomes. Studies reveal how factors like systemic
bias, limited access to quality healthcare, and socio-economic disparities contribute to
differential health outcomes between racial and ethnic groups. W. E. B. Du Bois's concept of
"double consciousness" sheds light on how ethnic minorities navigate health systems that
may not fully understand or address their cultural and social needs, affecting their health
outcomes.
 Ethnic Discrimination and Immigration Policies: Increasingly stringent immigration
policies and discriminatory attitudes towards ethnic minorities in various countries have
created challenges for integration and inclusion. Such policies impact the opportunities and
well-being of immigrants and ethnic minority populations.
Example: Saskia Sassen's work on global migration emphasizes how policies and
exclusionary practices affect the integration of immigrants into host societies, influencing
their economic and social participation.
 Intersectional Challenges and Violence Against Marginalized Groups: Intersectional
identities, particularly for individuals who belong to multiple marginalized groups, face
compounded challenges, including higher rates of violence, discrimination, and social
exclusion. Such individuals often face unique barriers that are not adequately addressed by
policies or societal structures.
223
Kimberlé Crenshaw's concept of intersectionality highlights how policies and social
structures often fail to address the compounded discrimination faced by individuals who
belong to multiple marginalized groups, leading to disproportionate rates of violence and
exclusion.
In conclusion, gender, ethnicity, and race stand as pivotal dimensions within the framework of
social stratification, shaping individuals' access to resources, opportunities, and societal positions.
These dimensions reflect entrenched structural inequalities that persist across various societies,
leading to differential treatment and life chances. The continuous examination and
acknowledgment of these dimensions are imperative in advancing social justice and promoting a
fairer, more egalitarian society.
224
c) How can one resolve the issue of reliability and validity in the context
of sociological research on inequality? (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define inequality.
 Explain issue of reliability and validity in the context of sociological research.
 Explore the challenges and strategies related to validity in research on inequality.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Inequality refers to the existence of disparities, uneven distributions, or differences in access to
resources, opportunities, rights, and privileges among individuals or groups within a society. It
encompasses various forms such as economic inequality, social stratification, and disparities in
power, education, health, and living conditions.
Inequality highlights the imbalance in opportunities, access to resources, and societal benefits,
creating social divisions and perpetuating disparities within a community or across societies.
Issue of reliability and validity in the context of sociological research.
 Reliability in Sociological Research: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of
research findings over time and across different conditions. Ensuring consistency in data
collection methods and analysis is crucial. Max Weber, a foundational sociologist,
emphasized the significance of reliability in research to maintain consistency. Recent
examples include studies analyzing income inequality trends over decades using
standardized measures and methodologies, ensuring consistent data collection and
maintaining reliability in longitudinal research.
 Validity in Sociological Research: Validity concerns the accuracy and authenticity of the
research findings. Ensuring that the study accurately measures the intended concepts and
reflects the reality being studied is vital. Symbolic interactionism, as proposed by George
Herbert Mead, emphasizes understanding the subjective meanings and interpretations of
individuals to ensure validity. Recent examples encompass studies in qualitative research
using member checking and triangulation methods to ensure the credibility and authenticity
of research findings.
 Challenges in Quantitative Research: Quantitative research faces challenges regarding the
reliability and validity of data collection instruments and measurements. Sociologist Emile
Durkheim's work on suicide rates illustrated the challenge of ensuring consistent and
accurate data collection in statistical analysis. Sociological research using surveys to gauge
public opinion faces challenges of ensuring reliability and validity due to question wording,
survey format, and respondent bias, affecting the accuracy of data collected.
 Qualitative Research and Authenticity: Qualitative research emphasizes validity through
the depth and authenticity of data collected. Grounded Theory, as proposed by sociologists
Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss, focuses on generating theory based on rich, authentic
data. Recent sociological studies employing in-depth interviews and participant observation
in understanding marginalized communities demonstrate the importance of ensuring the
authenticity of collected data to ensure validity in qualitative research.
225
 The Role of Reflexivity in Ensuring Validity: Dorothy Smith emphasized the significance
of researcher reflexivity and positionality to ensure the validity of research findings. Recent
sociological studies, particularly in feminist research, have highlighted the importance of
acknowledging and addressing the researcher's biases and perspectives to ensure the
credibility and authenticity of the study's outcomes.
 Addressing Reliability and Validity through Peer Review and Methodological
Transparency: Robert K. Merton highlighted the importance of peer review in ensuring the
reliability and validity of research. Recent sociological research often relies on peer-reviewed
publication and methodological transparency to ensure the credibility and authenticity of the
study's findings, where rigorous scrutiny and review contribute to improving research
reliability and validity.
Challenges and strategies related to validity in research on inequality:
 Intersectionality and Validity Challenges: Intersectionality presents challenges to validity
in inequality research due to the complexity of multiple, intersecting social identities. It's
challenging to capture the compounded effects of various forms of inequality accurately.
Kimberlé Crenshaw's concept of intersectionality highlights the simultaneous and interactive
effects of social categorizations. Recent studies examining the experiences of minority women
facing compounded challenges due to race, gender, and social class exemplify the
complexities involved.
 Cultural Context and Validity: Ensuring validity requires accounting for cultural nuances
and context, which can be complex and challenging to incorporate in research methodologies
on inequality. Pierre Bourdieu's theory on cultural capital emphasizes the significance of
cultural context in social stratification. Recent studies examining educational disparities
among diverse cultural groups illustrate the challenges in accurately measuring the impact
of cultural backgrounds on educational outcomes.
 Biases and Research Validity: Researchers' biases and preconceptions can impact the
validity of their findings, influencing data collection, interpretation, and analysis in studies
on inequality. Max Weber's concept of value-neutrality underscores the importance of
researchers maintaining objectivity. Recent studies investigating biases in sentencing within
the criminal justice system, influenced by racial or gender stereotypes, highlight challenges
to research validity.
 Methodological Approaches and Validity: Different methodological approaches can
influence the validity of research on inequality. Choosing appropriate methodologies that
accurately capture and represent the complex nature of inequalities is crucial. Dorothy E.
Smith's feminist standpoint theory emphasizes the significance of lived experiences in
research. Recent qualitative studies using participant observation to understand gender
dynamics in workplaces highlight the importance of selecting appropriate methodologies for
a more valid interpretation of inequality.
 Temporal Validity Challenges: The temporal aspect of validity poses challenges, as social
structures and inequalities evolve over time. What might be valid today might not hold true
in the future due to social changes. Anthony Giddens' theory of structuration emphasizes the
relationship between agency and structure, suggesting that social structures change due to
human actions. Recent longitudinal studies examining changes in income inequality or
gender roles over time showcase the challenges in ensuring the temporal validity of research
on inequality.
 Subjectivity and Validity: Subjectivity and individual interpretations might influence the
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validity of research findings, especially in qualitative studies on inequality. Example:
Symbolic interactionism, by George Herbert Mead, focuses on individual interactions and
subjective meanings. Recent qualitative studies exploring the lived experiences of
immigrants or marginalized communities highlight the challenge of ensuring validity while
respecting subjectivity in research on inequality.
In conclusion, addressing the complexities of reliability and validity in sociological research on
inequality necessitates a comprehensive approach that integrates methodological rigor, reflexivity,
and triangulation. By implementing standardized measures, ensuring consistency in data collection,
and triangulating multiple methods, researchers can enhance the reliability of their findings.
Embracing diverse methodological approaches and engaging in critical self-reflection leads to a
more robust and nuanced understanding of complex social inequalities, fostering more accurate,
credible, and insightful research outcomes in the study of societal disparities and their remedies.
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Section B
Question 5.
a) What do you understand by ‘informalization of labor‘? Write your
answer with special reference to India. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define informalization of labor.
 Explain the global shift towards informalization.
 Highlight the prevalence of informal labor in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The informalization of labor refers to the growing prominence of non-standard, unregulated, and
often precarious forms of employment within the labor market. It characterizes a shift away from
traditional, formal employment structures, leading to a significant increase in irregular, temporary,
and contract-based work arrangements. In these informal settings, workers typically face a lack of
legal protections, job security, social benefits, and stable wages, often operating in sectors such as
small-scale enterprises, domestic work, agriculture, and the gig economy.
The global shift towards informalization signifies a transformation in labor dynamics,
predominantly influenced by economic restructuring, globalization, and evolving market demands.
This shift manifests in the rise of non-standard, precarious work arrangements, characterized by
temporary, part-time, or contract-based employment.
Factors such as technological advancements, increased competition, and cost-cutting measures
drive this trend, compelling employers to favor flexible and cheaper labor. Globalization has further
accelerated informalization by expanding the gig economy, outsourcing practices, and increasing
labor market flexibility, resulting in reduced job security, weakened labor rights, and diminished
social protections for workers, thereby reshaping the traditional formal employment structures
prevalent in societies across the world.
Prevalence of informal labor in India:
 Rise of the Gig Economy: The gig economy, characterized by short-term or freelance jobs,
exemplifies the prevalence of informalization. Workers engaged in platforms like Uber,
TaskRabbit, and Upwork lack job security, benefits, and often operate in non-standard
working conditions. Guy Standing's 'precariat' theory highlights the rise of a precarious class
in the gig economy. Recent studies on gig workers' experiences, such as Alex Rosenblat's
'Uberland,' illustrate the challenges and insecurities faced by workers in the gig economy,
underlining the prevalence of informalized labor.
 Informal Labor in Agriculture: In many countries, including India, a significant portion of
the workforce is engaged in the informal agricultural sector. These workers often face
uncertainties in employment, lack of social security benefits, and fluctuating income. Arlie
Hochschild's concept of the "second shift" is relevant in agricultural settings, highlighting
how workers, particularly women, often perform unpaid work after their formal
employment hours, demonstrating the prevalence of informal labor in agriculture.
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 Expansion of Unregulated Small Businesses: The growth of small-scale unregulated
businesses characterizes the informalization trend. Small businesses often operate without
formal contracts or job security, resulting in vulnerable employment conditions. Richard
Sennett's theory of the "hidden injuries of class" highlights the struggles and vulnerabilities
of individuals working in low-paid, insecure jobs, reflecting the prevalent challenges within
unregulated small businesses.
 Informal Domestic Work and Care Economy: Informal domestic work, often performed by
women, remains prevalent. Domestic workers lack legal protections, face irregular work
hours, and generally operate without formal employment agreements. The work of feminist
economist Nancy Folbre, focusing on the care economy, underscores the undervaluation of
domestic work. Recent research on domestic workers' conditions emphasizes the prevalent
challenges they encounter in informal labor, resonating with Folbre's theories.
 Precarious Labor in Construction Industry: The construction industry globally harbors
significant informal labor, characterized by temporary, contract-based work with limited job
security and safety concerns. Saskia Sassen's concept of 'expulsions' highlights the
dispossession of labor in certain sectors. Recent reports on the conditions of migrant
construction workers, like those in the Middle East, exemplify the prevalence of precarious
labor in this industry.
 Vulnerable Informal Labor in Informal Markets: Street vendors and workers in informal
markets worldwide operate in precarious conditions, often without legal protections, subject
to exploitation, and lacking access to social benefits. Keith Hart's work on informal economies
in Africa demonstrates how individuals operating in these settings experience vulnerabilities
due to the absence of formal employment structures, reflecting the prevalence of
informalized labor in such markets.
The "informalization of labor" refers to the increasing prevalence of non-standard, unregulated, and
often precarious forms of employment within the labor market. Workers in these sectors experience
a lack of job security, social benefits, legal protections, and operate in non-standard working
conditions. This trend has deepened socioeconomic disparities and posed significant challenges in
ensuring labor rights and social protections for workers. For instance, Amartya Sen and Martha
Nussbaum on capabilities and rights emphasize the importance of securing social and economic
entitlements for workers in informal sectors.
Empirical studies on the conditions of informal workers in India, such as the National Sample
Survey Organization (NSSO) reports, underscore the magnitude and complexities of informal labor,
highlighting the urgency to address the vulnerabilities of workers operating within this system.
Addressing the informalization of labor in India requires policy interventions aimed at protecting
the rights and improving the conditions of informal workers to create a more equitable and inclusive
labor landscape.
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b) Discuss the changing interface between state and civil society in post-
independent India. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Brief introduction to the historical context of India's independence.
 Discuss the changing interface between state and civil society in post-independent India
 Highlight the key issues and challenges in the state-civil society interface.
 Conclude.
Solution:
India's independence in 1947 marked a significant transition in sociopolitical dynamics, influenced
by various sociological factors. Emile Durkheim, would argue that the collective conscience of
Indian society, comprising diverse cultures, religions, and traditions, played a pivotal role in the
struggle for independence.
This historical phase marked a sociological turning point, intertwining the collective
consciousness, struggles against oppression, and the quest for social justice and egalitarianism.
The role of the state in shaping civil society is a pivotal aspect in sociological discourse. Alexis de
Tocqueville highlighted the interconnectedness between state and civil society, emphasizing that
the state's policies and governance structure significantly influence the vibrancy and autonomy of
civil society. Max Weber's concept of rational-legal authority underscores the state's ability to
create legal frameworks that either enable or inhibit civil society's functions and organizations. For
instance, the regulatory measures or legal structures formulated by the state can either foster an
environment conducive to the growth of non-governmental organizations, advocacy groups, and
social movements or limit their autonomy and activities.
Changing interface between state and civil society:
1. State-Civil Society Interface: Dynamics & Public Sphere - Habermas' public sphere concept
reflects the demand for state accountability by civil society, seen in movements like the anti-
corruption drive led by activists like Anna Hazare. These actions demand transparency,
exhibiting a shifting power balance and evolving roles in the state-civil society relationship.
2. State Policies & Civil Society Participation - Illustrated by the Chipko movement, civil
society's environmental activism has influenced state policies, indicating a dynamic
interaction shaping policy decisions regarding forest conservation and community rights.
3. Legislation Impact and Civil Society - Legislation such as the Right to Education Act and
NREGA showcased the state's responsiveness to societal needs and the active involvement
of civil society organizations like Pratham and SEWA in addressing marginalized
communities' concerns.
4. Challenges and Conflicts - Instances like the Kudankulam anti-nuclear protests demonstrate
civil society's resistance against state-driven policies, emphasizing the struggle for
participatory decision-making processes and dissent within the state-civil society dynamics.
5. Role of Technology in Activism - The emergence of digital tools transformed civil society's
engagement with the state, seen in movements like the Save Sharmila Campaign, using social
media for challenging state policies and mobilizing support.
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6. Changing Dynamics & Future Prospects - Ongoing events, like the farmers' protests,
highlight the complex negotiations between the state and diverse societal voices, indicating
potential collaborations and conflicts in shaping future policies and social change.
Challenges:
1. Power Dynamics and Accountability: Post-independence India grapples with power
asymmetry and accountability issues in the state-civil society relationship. The Bhopal Gas
Tragedy stands as an example where corporate influence and a centralized state hindered
accountability, exposing the power imbalances affecting justice and redressal mechanisms in
Michel Foucault’s context of power dynamics.
2. Dependency and Autonomy: The reliance of civil society organizations on state funding
limits their autonomy. Raul Prebisch's theory on dependency illuminates this, where
conditional funding under government programs restricts independent advocacy, reducing
the capacity to address critical social issues, compromising autonomy and organizational
objectives.
3. Implementation Gap and Effectiveness: Challenges in policy execution, as per Max Weber's
bureaucratic theory, manifest in initiatives like the Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS). Administrative hurdles, inadequate resources, and corruption lead to inefficiencies,
hindering the program’s impact, particularly in marginalized communities.
4. Marginalization and Representation: Ensuring adequate representation of marginalized
communities in the state-civil society interface remains challenging. Amartya Sen's social
exclusion theory is evident in issues faced by groups like the Dalit community, experiencing
discrimination and restricted resource access despite constitutional safeguards, revealing the
struggle in integrating their voices into policymaking.
5. Conflict and Dissent: Conflicts and dissent between the state and civil society arise due to
differing interests and ideologies. Karl Marx’s concept of class struggle echoes in movements
such as the Naxalite movements, representing dissent against inequitable resource
distribution, highlighting the challenges in reconciling conflicting interests between the state
and civil society.
6. Legal and Regulatory Challenges: Legal pluralism complicates state-civil society
interactions, seen in conflicts like the Adivasi struggles in Niyamgiri Hills. Disputes over land
rights and forest conservation reveal challenges in navigating conflicting legal interpretations
and interests, impacting resource distribution and relationships between the state and civil
society.
In conclusion, the evolving interface between the state and civil society in post-independent India
reflects a dynamic relationship characterized by power shifts, conflicting interests, and the struggle
for accountability and representation.
As the state-civil society dynamic continues to evolve, influenced by theoretical insights from
sociologists like Michel Foucault, Karl Marx, and Amartya Sen, the future of this relationship hinges
on the ongoing negotiations, collaborations, and challenges in shaping policies and social change,
emphasizing the need for a balanced power-sharing framework and effective participatory
structures to address societal issues.
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c) Give an assessment of Durkheimian notion of ‘sacred’ and ‘profane’ in

sociology of religion. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define the concepts of the 'sacred' and the 'profane' according to Durkheim.
 Discuss Durkheim's perspective on how the sacred and the profane serve societal
functions.
 Explain Critique of Durkheim's notions of the sacred and the profane.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Emile Durkheim, defined the concepts of the 'sacred' and the 'profane' as fundamental elements
in understanding religious life and social cohesion. The 'sacred,' according to Durkheim,
represents elements within society that are regarded as extraordinary, set apart, and held with
reverence, carrying a special and significant meaning beyond the ordinary. In contrast, the
'profane' refers to the mundane and everyday aspects of life that lack this special significance or
ritualized value.
They establish the boundaries and norms that govern social life. He illustrated these concepts
through his study of totemic rituals in Australian Aboriginal tribes, emphasizing how these rituals
reinforced social solidarity and the shared beliefs among community members, thereby
contributing to the maintenance of social order and cohesion within a society.
Durkheim's perspective on how the sacred and the profane serve societal functions.
1. Social Cohesion and Collective Consciousness: According to Emile Durkheim, the
distinction between the sacred and the profane is vital for establishing and maintaining social
cohesion. Durkheim argued that rituals surrounding the sacred, as seen in various religious
practices, serve to unify members of a society. For instance, Durkheim's study of the totemic
rituals of Australian Aboriginal tribes highlighted how these rituals reinforced a collective
identity and the shared beliefs of the community, thus promoting social solidarity and
cohesion. This notion aligns with Durkheim's theory on collective consciousness, where the
shared beliefs and moral values of a society bind individuals together, ensuring social order
and stability.
2. Reinforcement of Norms and Values: The sacred and profane dichotomy serves to reinforce
societal norms and values. Durkheim believed that the sacred elements are symbolic
representations of collective values and ideals, while the profane represents the ordinary,
everyday aspects of life. For example, religious rituals in various cultures often emphasize
moral codes and ethical behavior, thereby reinforcing and perpetuating societal norms and
values. This resonates with Durkheim's concept of moral integration, where shared rituals
and beliefs contribute to a cohesive and morally aligned society.
3. Social Solidarity and Integration: The sacred elements, according to Durkheim, promote
social solidarity by uniting individuals around common symbols and beliefs. The Catholic
Mass or Hindu rituals, for instance, represent the collective identity of believers and create a
sense of togetherness and shared purpose. Durkheim's theory on mechanical solidarity
underlines this phenomenon where individuals are bound by shared experiences and
similarities, fostering social integration.
4. Creation of Collective Identity: The sacred serves as a mechanism for creating a collective
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identity among members of a society. For example, the Hajj in Islam or the Kumbh Mela in
Hinduism are massive gatherings of believers that reinforce a collective sense of identity and
belonging. Durkheim's theory on the division of labor and collective consciousness
emphasizes how collective beliefs and rituals create a shared identity, ensuring social
coherence.
5. Promotion of Social Order and Stability: The distinction between the sacred and the profane
contributes to social order and stability. Sacred rituals and symbols often provide a sense of
order and predictability in societal life. These rituals mark important events, seasons, or
transitions, thereby establishing a social rhythm and predictability, supporting Durkheim's
idea of maintaining social stability through collective beliefs and practices.
6. Role in Rituals and Symbolism: Sacred rituals and symbols play a crucial role in
establishing social order and societal functions. For instance, religious ceremonies, such as
baptism or marriage rituals, symbolize key life transitions and social roles. Durkheim's
theory of the role of symbols in society underlines how these rituals reinforce shared
meanings and reinforce social norms and functions.
Critique of Durkheim's notions of the sacred and the profane.
1. Neglect of Diversity and Complexity: Durkheim's binary classification of the sacred and the
profane oversimplifies the intricate nature of religious and cultural practices. The rigid
categorization overlooks the diversity within religious systems and the complexity of their
meanings. For instance, Marcel Mauss and Henri Hubert's study of sacrifice among different
cultures highlighted how rituals and their meanings differ widely across societies,
undermining the oversimplified dichotomy proposed by Durkheim.
2. Limited Focus on Individual Agency: Durkheim's emphasis on collective consciousness and
shared beliefs diminishes the agency of individuals within society. Critics argue that his
approach neglects individual experiences, interpretations, and variations in religious
practices. Max Weber's theory on the individual's role in shaping society's religious and
economic life offers a contrasting view, emphasizing the significance of individual action and
interpretation in societal structures.
3. Neglect of Conflict and Change: Durkheim's framework does not adequately address
conflict and change within religious and social structures. The static view of the sacred and
the profane fails to account for the dynamic nature of society and its evolution over time. Karl
Marx's theory on social change highlights the role of conflict and societal transformation,
which Durkheim's approach somewhat neglects, limiting its explanatory power in
understanding societal shifts.
4. Underestimation of Material and Economic Factors: Durkheim's focus on the symbolic and
moral aspects of religion sidelines the influence of material and economic factors in shaping
societal dynamics. The economic base of society, as highlighted by Marx's theory, plays a
crucial role in determining social relations and structures, which Durkheim's framework
tends to underplay.
5. Applicability in Diverse Societies: Durkheim's framework, developed based on Western
industrial societies, might not be universally applicable to diverse cultural and social
contexts. For instance, the sacred and profane distinction might differ significantly in non-
Western or indigenous cultures, challenging the generalizability of Durkheim's theories
across varied societal contexts and traditions.
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Philippe Descola's work on the diversity of ontologies across different societies brings to light
the limitations in applying Durkheim's concepts universally.
Emile Durkheim's conceptualization of the 'sacred' and the 'profane' within the sociology of religion
presents a foundational framework that illuminates the significance of collective beliefs and rituals
in societal cohesion. His distinction between sacred and profane elements underscores their pivotal
role in fostering social integration and order through shared symbols and values.
While Durkheim's theories remain influential in understanding collective consciousness and
societal cohesion, a critical assessment warrants acknowledging the need for a more nuanced and
adaptable framework that considers the diverse, dynamic, and multi-layered aspects of religious
phenomena within various cultural contexts.
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d) Examine ‘patriarchal bargain‘as gendered division of work in

contemporary India. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Introduce the concept of the 'patriarchal bargain'
 Discuss the prevalent gendered division of labor in contemporary Indian society.
 Discuss the challenges of the patriarchal bargain within the gendered division of work
in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The concept of the 'patriarchal bargain', describes a strategic negotiation undertaken by women
within patriarchal societies to navigate and mitigate oppressive structures for personal gains.
Deniz Kandiyoti with this theory posits that women, particularly in traditional and conservative
societies, often make calculated choices, trading certain compliance with patriarchal norms and
expectations for increased personal agency or limited power within familial or societal realms.
This negotiation could involve conforming to traditional gender roles or accepting constraints on
autonomy in exchange for safety, financial security, or relative freedom within given parameters.
The 'bargain' illustrates a strategic compromise to attain some level of power or autonomy within
the confines of a patriarchal system, shedding light on the complex ways women navigate
oppressive societal structures to secure limited agency or advantages within constrained
circumstances.
Gendered division of labor in contemporary Indian society:
1. Traditional Gendered Roles: In contemporary India, traditional gendered labor roles persist,
aligning with Talcott Parsons' 'separate spheres' concept, with men associated with
breadwinning and women predominantly responsible for domestic duties. This perpetuates
unequal labor distribution, limiting women's workforce participation and reinforcing gender-
based expectations.
2. Patriarchal Norms and Stereotypes: Persistent patriarchal norms shape the division of labor,
reflecting Sylvia Walby's theory on patriarchy. Despite women's increasing workforce
engagement, societal expectations often compel them to handle the bulk of household
responsibilities, leading to Arlie Hochschild's concept of the 'second shift' where women juggle
paid work and additional domestic duties.
3. Economic and Societal Influences: The gendered division of labor is influenced by economic
factors and societal norms. Heidi Hartmann's 'dual-systems theory' emphasizes the intersection
of capitalism with patriarchy, contributing to unequal labor roles. Economic constraints and
societal gender norms linking masculinity to paid work and femininity to caregiving perpetuate
this division.
4. Educational and Occupational Dynamics: Despite advancements in education and career
opportunities, gendered labor segregation remains. Pierre Bourdieu's cultural capital theory
highlights how socialization in families and institutions reinforces traditional gender roles.
Women, despite educational gains, are often concentrated in lower-paying, service-oriented jobs,
contributing to occupational segregation and the gender pay gap.
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5. Shifting Paradigms and Activism: Sociological movements and policy interventions challenge
traditional gender roles. Initiatives like 'Take Back the Night' campaigns and 'Me Too'
movements advocate for gender equality, while changing societal attitudes and policies such as
maternity leave regulations aim to address and transform the gendered division of labor,
although progress is gradual.
Challenges
1. Reinforcement of Inequality: The patriarchal bargain perpetuates traditional gender roles,
leading women to predominantly manage domestic responsibilities even while engaging in
the workforce, sustaining gender inequality and societal expectations.
2. Limited Empowerment: Conforming to existing gender norms restricts women's
empowerment, offering limited autonomy within the household while hindering their ability
to challenge or transform societal structures.
3. Constraints on Occupational Opportunities: Women encounter barriers in accessing diverse
professions due to societal stereotypes, reinforcing gendered labor roles and leading to
occupational segregation.
4. Impact on Work-Life Balance: Societal expectations for women to manage both paid work
and domestic duties create a dual burden, challenging the balance between professional
careers and household responsibilities, affecting women's well-being and career progression.
5. Resistance and Changing Dynamics: Societal movements like the 'Pinjra Tod' campaign
and evolving policies advocating shared household responsibilities reflect growing
resistance to traditional gender roles, endeavoring to challenge and change the patriarchal
bargain's impact on the gendered division of labor in India.
The 'patriarchal bargain' as a framework for understanding the gendered division of work in
contemporary India illustrates the complex negotiation undertaken by women within a patriarchal
system to secure limited agency while adhering to traditional gender roles.
This bargaining strategy restricts their empowerment and impacts their career choices, resulting in
occupational segregation. Despite its challenges, there's an ongoing resistance to these traditional
roles, evidenced by sociological movements and evolving policies, signifying a gradual but
growing shift towards challenging and altering the patriarchal bargain's impact on the gendered
division of labor in India.
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e) Assess the role of mass media as an agent of social change. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define mass media as a powerful means of communication.
 Highlight the role of mass media in raising awareness and educating the public about
social issues, disparities, and injustices.
 Address the challenges associated with the role of mass media as an agent of social
change.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Mass media represents a potent and far-reaching communication tool that encompasses various
platforms such as television, radio, newspapers, and the internet. Serving as a primary channel for
transmitting information, ideas, and entertainment to a large audience, it holds the power to shape
public opinion, influence societal perceptions, and disseminate cultural norms and values.
Mass media not only acts as a source of news and knowledge but also influences public discourse,
setting agendas, and often reflecting or shaping social, political, and economic narratives, making it
a significant force in contemporary society's information and communication landscape.
1. Agenda Setting and Framing: Mass media, as per the Agenda Setting Theory proposed by
Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, plays a pivotal role in determining the public's focus
on specific social issues. Through deliberate selection and emphasis on particular topics,
media outlets can raise awareness about prevalent social disparities or injustices. For
instance, coverage of issues like income inequality, gender discrimination, or racial
disparities in education highlights how media framing can bring attention to these societal
concerns.
2. Social Construction of Reality: Drawing from Berger and Luckmann's theory of the social
construction of reality, mass media contributes to shaping societal perceptions and
understandings of social issues. For example, media coverage of poverty or healthcare
disparities can influence public perceptions, contributing to collective views on the causes
and potential solutions to these problems.
3. Advocacy and Activism: Mass media serves as a platform for advocacy and activism,
providing space for marginalized voices and grassroots movements to raise awareness about
social issues.
Examples include the coverage of environmental activism like Greta Thunberg's climate
change movement or the #BlackLivesMatter movement, which gained widespread attention
through media coverage, elevating awareness and support for these causes.
4. Social Learning and Opinion Formation: Social learning theories, particularly Bandura's
Social Learning Theory, highlight how individuals learn by observing others. Media
portrayal of social issues, injustices, and disparities serves as a source of learning, shaping
public opinion and potentially fostering societal change. Coverage of racial discrimination or
LGBTQ+ rights issues, for instance, can influence public perceptions and attitudes towards
these social disparities.
5. Critical Discourse and Debate: Mass media acts as a forum for critical discourse and debate
on social issues. Sociologist Jurgen Habermas's concept of the public sphere illustrates how
media platforms facilitate discussions, allowing the public to deliberate on injustices and
disparities.
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This leads to a better understanding and collective examination of social problems. Instances include
televised debates on poverty alleviation programs or discussions about gender pay gaps, fostering
a deeper societal understanding of these issues.
6. Policy Impact and Social Change: Media coverage often influences policy-making and social
change. Sociologist Charles Tilly's concept of social movements impacting policies
exemplifies how media attention on various social issues can prompt legislative action and
societal reforms. For example, media coverage of healthcare disparities might stimulate
policy debates on public health initiatives or coverage of income inequality could lead to
discussions about economic policy changes aimed at reducing disparities.
Challenges:
1. Selective Representation and Bias: The mass media's portrayal of social issues is often
influenced by selective representation and bias, where certain issues gain more attention than
others. Sociologist Herbert Gans' work on media bias illustrates how media outlets tend to
highlight stories that align with their audience's preferences or interests. For instance, certain
social issues, such as poverty or inequality, might not receive adequate coverage, leading to
a skewed understanding of prevalent societal problems.
2. Commercialization and Corporate Influence: The commercial nature of media often
prioritizes profitability over socially impactful content. This leads to a concentration on
entertainment and sensationalized news rather than in-depth coverage of crucial social
issues. Sociologist Jurgen Habermas's theory on the colonization of the public sphere
highlights how corporate interests in media can detract from its role in fostering critical
public discourse. For example, in the pursuit of ratings and revenue, media outlets might
overlook substantial social issues in favor of more commercially viable content.
3. Stereotyping and Misrepresentation: Mass media can perpetuate stereotypes and
misrepresent certain social groups or issues. Sociologist Stuart Hall's theory of media
representation underscores how media content shapes public perceptions. For instance, the
portrayal of marginalized communities or minority groups may reinforce negative
stereotypes or depict them inaccurately, hindering social change and perpetuating existing
inequalities and prejudices.
4. Agenda Setting and Manipulation: Media outlets have the power to set agendas and
manipulate public opinions on social issues.
The Agenda Setting Theory, proposed by Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw, highlights
how media coverage can influence public focus and priorities. However, the deliberate
shaping of narratives or selective reporting can lead to misinformation or biased views on
specific issues, manipulating public perceptions and hindering constructive social change.
5. Resistance and Dominant Ideologies: Mass media is also a conduit for dominant ideologies,
often reinforcing existing power structures and societal norms. Sociologist Antonio Gramsci's
theory of cultural hegemony elucidates how media perpetuates dominant ideologies. For
example, media coverage might favor the status quo, discouraging challenging views or
alternative social narratives that aim to bring about substantial change, thereby hindering
progress in addressing social injustices.
The role of mass media as an agent of social change remains intricate and influential, leveraging its
power to disseminate information, shape opinions, and mobilize movements for societal
transformation.
While it has the potential to raise awareness, instigate discourse, and catalyze change on
numerous social issues, its efficacy is challenged by biases, commercial interests, and selective
representation, hindering a holistic transformation.
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Question 6.
a) Trace the changing nature of organisation of work in capitalist society
over the years. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Introduce the concept of work organization in capitalist societies.
 Analyze the impact of post-industrial and technological advancements on work
organization.
 Discuss the evolving nature of labor relations and regulations in response to the
changing organization of work.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Work organization in capitalist societies embodies a structured arrangement where labor is
organized to maximize productivity and profit within a capitalist economic framework. It involves
hierarchical structures, division of labor, and managerial control to efficiently produce goods and
services. Karl Marx's theory, work organization in capitalism often features alienation, where
workers become estranged from the products of their labor and experience a loss of autonomy and
control. Additionally, Max Weber's concept of bureaucracy illustrates the presence of formalized
rules and rational-legal authority in organizing labor within capitalist enterprises, emphasizing
efficiency, predictability, and the pursuit of economic goals as central facets in the organization of
work.
Impact of post-industrial and technological advancements on work organization.
1. Shift in Work Dynamics: Post-industrial advancements and technological progress have led to
a shift in work dynamics, moving from labor-intensive manufacturing to knowledge-based
services. Sociologist Daniel Bell's theory on the post-industrial society emphasizes the rise of
information technology, leading to a knowledge-based economy. Current examples include the
growth of IT and service sectors where the demand for specialized skills and knowledge
supersedes traditional manual labor.
2. Flexible Work Arrangements: Advancements in technology have facilitated flexible work
arrangements, allowing for telecommuting, freelancing, and remote work. Sociologist Arlie
Hochschild's concept of the "time bind" exemplifies the blurring boundaries between work and
personal life due to increased connectivity through technology. Current examples include
remote work trends during the COVID-19 pandemic, showcasing the adaptability and
prevalence of technology in transforming work structures.
3. Automation and Job Displacement: Technological advancements, particularly automation,
have resulted in job displacement and changes in labor requirements. Sociologist Karl Marx's
theory on automation's impact on labor highlights how it can lead to the redundancy of certain
jobs. Examples include manufacturing processes increasingly using robotics and artificial
intelligence, displacing workers and altering the labor market.
4. Rise of the Gig Economy: Post-industrial advancements have given rise to the gig economy,
characterized by short-term contracts and freelance work. Sociologist Guy Standing's theory on
the precariat highlights the unstable and insecure nature of work in the gig economy. Current
examples include platforms like Uber, TaskRabbit, and freelance platforms where workers have
short-term contracts without the benefits of traditional employment.
239
5. Surveillance and Control: Technology in the workplace has introduced increased surveillance
and control mechanisms. Sociologist Michel Foucault's theory on panopticism illustrates how
surveillance shapes behavior. Examples include employee monitoring software and digital
surveillance tools used in workplaces, impacting worker autonomy and privacy.
6. Skill Upgradation and Education: Post-industrial changes have accentuated the need for
continuous skill development and education. Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu's theory on cultural
capital emphasizes how educational qualifications affect one's employability. Current
examples include the emphasis on upskilling and lifelong learning to adapt to changing job
requirements in technology-driven sectors.
Evolving nature of labor relations and regulations in response to the changing organization of
work.
1. Collective Bargaining and Unionization: The changing nature of work has influenced collective
bargaining and unionization efforts. Sociologist John Commons' theory on collective action
emphasizes the role of unions in securing labor rights. Current examples include renewed efforts
by unions to represent workers in tech companies or gig economy platforms, striving to
negotiate better terms and conditions for workers in response to evolving labor structures.
2. Policy Interventions: Policymakers have responded to the changing organization of work by
implementing new policies. Sociologist Erik Olin Wright's theory on contradictory class
locations highlights how policy responses can reflect diverse class interests. Examples include
legislative discussions on minimum wage adjustments or the rights of remote workers,
indicating a response to the changing landscape of work.
3. Adapting Employment Contracts: Labor relations have adapted to accommodate flexible work
arrangements. Sociologist Richard Sennett's theory on flexible capitalism addresses the need for
adaptable employment contracts. For instance, policy discussions on flexitime or alternative
work arrangements have emerged to suit the needs of both employers and employees in the
modern work environment.
4. Ensuring Worker Protections: The changing nature of work has prompted discussions on
ensuring worker protections. Sociologist Harry Braverman's theory on the degradation of work
emphasizes the need for protecting workers in evolving job structures. For instance, ongoing
debates on regulating the rights and benefits of gig workers or independent contractors reflect
efforts to safeguard these individuals' labor rights.
5. Globalization and Labor Mobility: Globalization has impacted labor relations and regulations,
leading to discussions on labor mobility and international regulations. Sociologist Saskia
Sassen's theory on global cities addresses the effects of globalization on labor markets. For
example, debates on migrant workers' rights and international labor standards reflect efforts to
address labor mobility and protect workers in a globalized economy.
The evolution of work organization in capitalist society reflects a transition from labor-intensive
manufacturing to a more knowledge-based, technology-driven economy.
This journey has witnessed a shift towards flexible work arrangements, automation, and the rise of
the gig economy.
While technological advancements have reshaped labor dynamics, leading to job displacement and
altering traditional labor structures, they have also brought forth new employment opportunities
and the need for continuous skill development. This evolving landscape has not only influenced
labor relations and regulations but has also prompted discussions on safeguarding worker rights
within this changing paradigm, signaling the need for adaptive policies to address the complexities
arising from the evolving nature of work in capitalist societies.
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b) What is new in ‘new social movement’? Elaborate your answer with

special reference to India. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define new social movement.
 Explain Characteristics of New Social Movements.
 Explain evolution of New Social Movements in India
 Evaluate the impact of these movements in India
 Conclude.
Solution:
New Social Movements (NSMs) are a distinct form of collective action characterized by their focus
on cultural, environmental, and identity-based issues rather than traditional economic or class-
based concerns.
These movements often employ decentralized structures, utilizing modern communication
technologies and emphasizing participatory democracy. NSMs challenge established norms,
seeking societal transformation and change, addressing a wide array of global concerns and often
transcending national boundaries, advocating for social justice and inclusivity.
These are characterized by distinct features such as their decentralized and networked structure,
focusing on post-materialistic concerns, employing non-traditional forms of activism, and
emphasizing identity politics. These movements often revolve around issues beyond class-based
struggles, encompassing gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, environmentalism, and cultural
diversity.
Evolution of New Social Movements in India:
1. Shift to Identity-Based Concerns: Indian social movements have moved beyond class-based
struggles to address identity-based issues such as women's rights, LGBTQ+ rights,
environmental conservation, and indigenous people's rights, exemplified by the Chipko
Movement's focus on local communities' rights led by Sunderlal Bahuguna.
2. Tech-Enabled Non-traditional Activism: New Social Movements in India leverage
technology, notably social media and digital tools, for widespread mobilization, as seen in
the anti-corruption protests led by Anna Hazare in 2011.
3. Emphasis on Identity Politics: Movements advocating for Dalit rights, inspired by
Ambedkar's ideology, confront caste-based discrimination and inequalities, emphasizing the
assertion of marginalized identities, rooted in the theories of Jyotiba Phule and Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar.
4. Participatory Grassroots Approach: Movements like the Narmada Bachao Andolan,
spearheaded by Medha Patkar, exhibit a decentralized, participatory model, focusing on
the rights of affected communities and their involvement in decision-making processes.
5. Intersectionality and Multi-issue Movements: Indian social movements, like the Pink
Chaddi Campaign, address multiple interconnected issues, such as gender rights and
freedom of expression, aligning with sociologist Kimberlé Crenshaw's concept of
intersectionality.
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6. Global Connections and Transnational Solidarity: Indian movements have global
affiliations, demonstrated by active participation in global movements like the climate
strikes inspired by Greta Thunberg, illustrating the interconnectedness and solidarity
within global activism networks.
Impacts:
1. Legal and Cultural Reforms: New Social Movements in India, particularly those
advocating LGBTQ+ rights, spurred legal changes exemplified by the decriminalization of
homosexuality in the Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India case, reshaping societal
attitudes and challenging discriminatory laws. These shifts align with sociologist Michel
Foucault's theories on power, sexuality, and societal norms.
2. Political Accountability: Movements like the anti-corruption protests led by Anna Hazare
prompted the government to address corruption issues, leading to the introduction of the
Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act in 2013, reflecting demands for transparency and accountability
within the political system, drawing from sociologist Max Weber's theories on bureaucracy
and authority.
3. Empowerment of Marginalized Groups: Movements focusing on Dalit rights, influenced
by the ideologies of Jyotiba Phule and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, empowered marginalized
communities to demand social justice and assert their rights, notably seen in movements
like the Dalit Panthers, contributing to socio-political changes.
4. Environmental Consciousness: Movements advocating for environmental conservation,
such as the Chipko Movement and contemporary movements like Fridays for Future, have
raised awareness and influenced policies on environmental protection. The impact can be
analyzed using environmental philosopher Arne Naess's deep ecology philosophy and
environmental ethics theories.
5. Women's Rights and Gender Equality: Movements like the #MeToo movement in India
have highlighted gender-based violence, fostering societal dialogue and legal actions
against perpetrators. These movements align with feminist philosopher Simone de
Beauvoir's theories on gender, oppression, and liberation.
6. Challenges and Unintended Consequences: Despite positive impacts, movements often
face challenges such as co-option by political interests or internal fragmentation. For
example, environmental movements might encounter resistance from vested economic
interests, necessitating nuanced approaches. Sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf's theories on
societal conflict and change aid in understanding the complexities and challenges faced by
these movements in India.
In conclusion, the concept of 'new social movements' in India signifies a shift from conventional
class-based struggles to movements focusing on identity, rights, and global issues. These
movements leverage technology, stress participatory democracy, emphasize intersectionality, and
forge transnational connections, influencing cultural, legal, and political landscapes.
India's new social movements, exemplified by LGBTQ+ rights activism, environmental movements,
Dalit empowerment, and women's rights campaigns like #MeToo, mark a transformative phase in
societal activism and diverse society, reflecting the evolving dynamics and aspirations of
contemporary Indian society.
242
c) Examine the dynamics of pressure groups in multi-party-political

system. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define pressure groups.
 Explain how pressure groups interact with multiple political parties.
 Evaluate the negative aspects of pressure group involvement in multi-party politics.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Pressure groups, also known as interest groups or lobby groups, are organized entities or
associations that operate outside the government but seek to influence governmental decisions and
policies. These groups represent specific interests, ideologies, or causes, aiming to shape public
opinion and influence decision-makers by employing various strategies such as lobbying, advocacy,
and campaigning.
Pressure groups and their interaction with multiple political parties:
1. Pluralist Theory and Interparty Interaction: According to Robert Dahl's pluralist theory,
pressure groups in a democracy align with various parties to influence policies, reflecting a
diverse and open governance model where groups advocate for their interests, offering
resources and support in exchange for policy considerations.
2. Strategic Alliances and Coalitions: Pressure groups form strategic coalitions with parties
sharing similar ideologies or policy goals, enhancing their collective impact. For instance,
environmental groups may collaborate with parties emphasizing green policies, amplifying
their influence on relevant legislation.
3. Elite Theory and Dominant Groups: Elite theorists argue that influential pressure groups,
representing corporate interests, transcend party lines, leveraging their economic power to
shape policies favorable to their interests, indicating the influence of powerful elites across
different political parties.
4. Issue-Based Engagement: Pressure groups engage with various parties based on specific
issues, allowing flexibility in supporting or opposing parties according to their stance on
particular policies, irrespective of broader political affiliations.
5. Negotiation and Lobbying Strategies: Pressure groups use negotiation and lobbying
strategies across party lines to persuade policymakers on their concerns and preferences.
They engage in dialogues and negotiations, attempting to influence decision-making.
6. Fragmentation and Diverse Alignments: In a diverse political landscape, pressure groups
representing multifaceted issues may align with different parties, resulting in fragmented
alliances across the political spectrum, influenced by conflicting interests and ideologies,
showcasing the complexities of the pressure group system.
Negative aspects of pressure group:
1. Undermining Democratic Principles: Pressure groups, often representing elite interests, can
concentrate power within a small influential group, sidelining the majority, as per Robert
Michels' Iron Law of Oligarchy.
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2. Entrenching Inequality: Certain pressure groups aligned with specific interests can reinforce
societal inequalities, exacerbating disparities, and marginalizing underprivileged sections,
aligning with Pierre Bourdieu's theories on the reproduction of social inequalities.
3. Capture of State Institutions: Pressure groups with resources can manipulate state
mechanisms, leading to policies favoring their interests, potentially undermining the
democratic process, in line with Max Weber's bureaucracy and authority theory.
4. Conflict and Polarization: Conflicting pressure groups can create societal divisions, leading
to political gridlock and social conflicts, aligning with Ralf Dahrendorf's conflict theory.
5. Erosion of Public Trust: Excessive influence of certain pressure groups can erode public trust
in democratic institutions, potentially leading to skepticism about the fairness of the process,
reflecting Alexis de Tocqueville's concerns about despotism in democracies.
6. Lack of Accountability: Pressure groups operating non-transparently may lack
accountability, compromising democratic principles, as noted in Jürgen Habermas's theory
on the importance of transparency in democracy.
In a multi-party-political system, the dynamics of pressure groups play a crucial role in shaping the
policy landscape. These groups, representing diverse interests, strategically align themselves with
multiple political parties based on their agendas, leveraging resources, expertise, and support to
influence policy decisions.
Their interactions range from forming strategic alliances to issue-based engagements, reflecting a
complex interplay that often impacts governance and policy outcomes. However, while these
interactions can enrich the democratic process by providing a platform for diverse voices, there
exists the risk of elite domination, potential inequalities, and the erosion of democratic values if not
carefully managed. The efficacy and legitimacy of these pressure group dynamics in a multi-party
system ultimately depend on maintaining a balance between representation, transparency, and
accountability.
244
Question 7.
a) Examine the relationship between the contemporary trends in marriage
and changing forms of family. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Discuss the modern trends in marriage.
 Examine how these contemporary marriage trends impact the structure and forms of
families.
 Consider the potential challenges associated with these changes in family forms and
marriage trends.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Modern trends in marriage depict notable changes in how people approach relationships. One
significant change is people waiting longer before getting married due to focusing on education and
careers. Living together before marriage, known as cohabitation, has become more common. Society
is more accepting of marriages between people from different races or faiths. Same-sex marriages
are now legal and accepted in many countries, like in the India and United States after the Supreme
Court's decision in 2015. Also, there's a growing trend of people choosing to remain single or not
having children. These trends show that how people view relationships, families, and personal
choices is changing.
Marriage trends impact the structure and forms of families.
1. Delayed Marriage and Changing Family Structures: The delay in marriage, influenced by
Anthony Giddens' concept of the 'pure relationship,' alters family dynamics, leading to
smaller nuclear families as individuals in Western societies marry later in life, reducing the
prevalence of extended family structures.
2. Cohabitation and Shifting Domestic Arrangements: Cohabitation, guided by Erving
Goffman's "dramaturgy," results in diverse family arrangements, challenging traditional
family structures.
Arlie Hochschild's "second shift" theory illustrates how cohabiting couples negotiate
household responsibilities differently, reshaping family dynamics and gender roles.
3. Interfaith and Interracial Marriages Impacting Family Cohesion: The rise in interfaith and
interracial marriages, drawing from Pierre Bourdieu's theory on cultural capital, leads to a
fusion of cultural practices within families, fostering social diversity. For instance, in
countries like India, interfaith marriages showcase a blend of diverse cultural traditions
within families.
4. Legalization of Same-Sex Marriages Redefining Family Definitions: Judith Stacey's
theories on queer families show how same-sex marriages redefine traditional family
structures, expanding the concept of family to include diverse forms. The legalization in
countries like Canada or the Netherlands validates varied family models, challenging
conventional family norms.
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5. Rising Trend of Child-Free or Singlehood Choices: Influenced by Simone de Beauvoir's
feminist theories, the trend of individuals choosing child-free or singlehood options
challenges the traditional focus on parenthood. In countries like Japan, more individuals are
choosing not to marry or have children, impacting family demographics.
6. Diverse Family Forms and Changing Roles: The cumulative effect of contemporary
marriage trends results in diverse family structures and altered roles. Reflecting Talcott
Parsons' structural functionalism, policies promoting gender equality in societies like
Sweden contribute to changed family roles, fostering shared responsibilities and evolving
family dynamics.
Potential challenges
1. Social Inequalities and Marginalization: Changes in family forms, like single-parent
households, may exacerbate existing social inequalities, leading to potential economic challenges
and marginalization in low-income communities due to limited support systems and higher
risks of poverty, as discussed in Pierre Bourdieu's theory on social reproduction.
2. Fragmentation of Community and Social Support: Evolving family structures could fragment
community ties, affecting support systems. The rise of smaller nuclear families may diminish the
traditional extended family support networks, impacting emotional and practical support,
aligning with Emile Durkheim's theory on social integration.
3. Strain on Institutional Support Systems: Diverse family structures may strain institutional
systems such as education and healthcare, challenging traditional norms unaccustomed to
varied family dynamics, according to Talcott Parsons' structural functionalism, which
emphasizes the dependence of societal institutions on stable family structures.
4. Challenges to Gender Roles and Identity: Changing family structures might challenge
established gender roles and identities, potentially affecting the understanding and performance
of gender norms within non-traditional families, as highlighted in Simone de Beauvoir's feminist
theories on societal norms and gender identity.
5. Legal and Policy Implications: Legal frameworks may face challenges in recognizing and
supporting diverse family forms, such as cohabiting couples or same-sex families. Sociologist
Judith Stacey's work on queer families emphasizes the legal and policy hurdles in
accommodating these structures, indicating potential issues in providing adequate rights and
support for diverse family arrangements.
6. Psychological Impact and Emotional Well-being: Changing family dynamics could impact
individual identity and self-perception within evolving family structures, potentially leading to
issues regarding identity and acceptance among family members, echoing Erving Goffman's
theories on self-presentation in social interactions and its potential psychological impacts.
The dynamic interplay between contemporary trends in marriage and the evolving forms of family
reflects a profound societal shift. The delay in marriage, the rise in cohabitation, the acceptance of
diverse unions, and the choice for child-free or singlehood options mark significant changes in
marriage patterns. These trends lead to the emergence of diverse family structures, challenging
traditional concepts.
The evolving trends in marriage significantly impact the structure, roles, and understanding of
families, highlighting the need for adaptable societal norms and supportive policies to
accommodate these changing dynamics.
246
b) Discuss the regional variations of kinship system in Indian society. (20

Marks)
 Define Kinship.
 Discuss the variations in kinship systems prevalent in different regions of India.
 Discuss the challenges posed by the coexistence of diverse kinship systems in a rapidly
changing society.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Kinship is a fundamental social concept representing a network of relationships and connections
based on blood, marriage, or adoption that binds individuals into various family units. It
encompasses the system of social organization, defining roles, responsibilities, and expectations
within families and communities.
Kinship establishes the framework for understanding lineage, descent, and the distribution of rights
and obligations among relatives, shaping the structure and dynamics of societies. It includes
biological ties (consanguinity) and legal or ceremonial connections (affinity), influencing societal
norms, customs, rituals, and inheritance patterns within different cultures and societies.
Variations in kinship systems prevalent in different regions of India:
1. Matrilineal and Patrilineal Systems: India presents diverse kinship systems; for instance,
Kerala demonstrates a matrilineal system while North India adopts a prevalent patrilineal
one. This regional variation is informed by anthropologist David Schneider's study of kinship
systems, emphasizing their influence on social organization and gender roles.
2. Joint and Nuclear Family Structures: Northern regions favor joint families, while some
urban areas embrace nuclear families, reflecting shifts influenced by modernization.
Sociologist Talcott Parsons' structural functionalism theory aids in comprehending this
transition, seen in joint families prevalent in Rajasthan compared to the rise of nuclear
families in urban centers.
3. Marriage Patterns and Practices: Marriage customs differ regionally, like patrilocal residence
in Haryana versus matrilocal residence in certain southern regions. Sociologist Claude Lévi-
Strauss' structuralist approach clarifies these variations and their cultural significance within
differing regions.
4. Kinship Terminology and Structures: Various Indian regions employ unique kinship
terminologies such as Dravidian or Aryan systems. Sociologist Louis Dumont's work on
kinship and caste systems illuminates these complexities, evident in the specific terms used
to define relationships.
5. Cultural Practices and Rituals: Regional practices and rituals tied to kinship, such as
matriarchal practices in Meghalaya or patrilineal communities, differ significantly.
Anthropologist Radcliffe-Brown's study highlights these variations in cultural practices and
rituals across different regions.
6. Regional Case Studies: Examining specific regional communities, such as the matrilineal
Nayar community in Kerala and the patrilineal Marwari community in Rajasthan, illustrates
intricate variations in kinship practices and their cultural implications.
247
Challenges
1. Social Cohesion and Identity Crisis: Diverse kinship systems in rapidly changing societies can
cause an identity crisis and disrupt social cohesion, challenging individuals' sense of belonging,
notably seen in urban centers due to migration and varied kinship structures.
2. Conflict and Fragmentation: Coexisting diverse kinship systems may trigger conflicts within
families or communities, leading to social fragmentation, especially in rapidly developing cities
with joint and nuclear family dynamics.
3. Legal and Policy Challenges: Integrating diverse family structures into legal frameworks
presents significant challenges, influencing property rights and inheritance laws in various
kinship systems across regions.
4. Erosion of Traditions and Cultural Practices: The rapid societal changes driven by
modernization and globalization can erode traditional kinship customs and marriage practices,
potentially challenging cultural continuity, notably observed in urban areas.
5. Generational Conflict and Adaptation: Different values between generations within varied
kinship structures may cause conflicts, particularly between traditional joint family values and
younger generations aspiring for nuclear family setups in evolving societies.
6. Economic Disparities and Social Stratification: The diverse kinship systems may widen
economic disparities and affect social mobility, contributing to unequal access to resources and
opportunities, especially between urban and rural areas.
In conclusion, the rich tapestry of kinship systems across various regions in India showcases a
remarkable diversity that reflects the nation's cultural complexity and historical evolution. These
regional variations encompass a spectrum of practices, from matrilineal systems in Kerala to
patrilineal structures in the North, joint and nuclear family dynamics, diverse marriage customs,
varied kinship terminologies, and unique rituals and traditions.
Understanding these regional distinctions is not only crucial for comprehending the social fabric of
India but also for appreciating the intricate layers that contribute to the country's social, cultural,
and familial diversity.
The coexistence of these diverse kinship systems serves as a testament to the dynamic and evolving
nature of Indian society, embodying the fusion of tradition and modernity in an ever-changing
landscape
248
c) Problematize the concept of secularism in the present context. (10 Marks)

Approach.
 Explain Historical development of secularism in the context of India.
 Discuss the challenges faced by the concept of secularism.
 Explore how the global discourse on secularism affects the notion of secularism in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The historical development of secularism in India is rooted in its unique socio-political landscape.
Post-independence, India adopted a secular framework, aiming for a state that maintains
equidistance from all religions. This principle evolved from a historical context deeply ingrained in
religious diversity and interfaith harmony.
Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi advocated for religious pluralism and coexistence, envisioning a
nation where every religion was respected and given equal freedom. The Indian Constitution,
promulgated in 1950, reinforced secular ideals, assuring freedom of religion and prohibiting
discrimination based on faith. However, the development of secularism has encountered challenges
due to religious tensions, communal conflicts, and political exploitation of religious sentiments,
shaping the complex landscape of secularism in contemporary India.
Challenges faced by the concept of secularism:
1. Rising Communalism and Polarization: Max Weber's theories on social action can be applied
to understand how religious communalism and polarization lead to challenges in upholding
secularism. Contemporary examples include communal conflicts, like the Ayodhya dispute,
which have intensified religious divisions and affected the nation's secular fabric.
2. Politicization of Religion: The politicization of religious identity for electoral gains poses a
significant challenge to secularism. Emile Durkheim's theory of functionalism suggests that this
politicization influences social structure. Recent instances like the use of religious rhetoric during
political campaigns highlight the impact of religious identity on political discourse and electoral
outcomes, potentially undermining secular principles.
3. Legal and Constitutional Interpretations: Lon Fuller can aid in understanding the complexities
within the legal framework concerning secularism. The interpretation of laws, such as debates
around personal laws based on religion, reveal challenges in achieving a truly secular legal
system, leading to disparities and debates over individual rights versus religious laws.
4. Rise of Religious Intolerance: The rise in religious intolerance challenges the essence of
secularism. Sociologist Karl Marx's theories on conflict and inequality can elucidate the social
disparities emerging due to religious intolerance.
Instances of mob violence or discrimination against religious minorities illustrate the challenges
in preserving a secular environment for all religious communities.
5. Gender and Religious Practices: Simone de Beauvoir's feminist theories help in understanding
the challenges posed by religious practices on gender equality. Practices like triple talaq or
certain restrictions within temples exemplify the challenges of balancing religious freedom with
gender equality within a secular framework.
6. Global Influences and Geopolitical Dynamics: The global context and influences of geopolitics
present challenges to secularism in India. Sociologist Anthony Giddens' theory of modernity
emphasizes the impact of globalization on traditional structures.
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Global religious movements and transnational interactions might affect domestic secular policies
and practices, influencing the country's secular framework.
Global discourse on secularism affects the notion of secularism in India:
1. Impact of Globalization on Secular Values: Anthony Giddens' theory on modernity and
globalization highlights the influence of global discourse on local values. Global connectivity
and exchanges through technology and media can either reinforce secular values or challenge
them. For instance, exposure to diverse global ideologies through media platforms can shape the
perception of secularism in Indian society.
2. Transnational Religious Movements: The proliferation of transnational religious movements,
Peter Berger in his theory on religious pluralism, influences local interpretations of secularism.
The presence and activities of international religious organizations or movements in India might
challenge or support the nation's secular principles, impacting religious practices and social
norms.
3. Human Rights and Secular Principles: Jürgen Habermas advocate for universal human rights
and secular values. The global discourse on human rights and secular principles influences
India's stance on religious freedom and tolerance. International agreements like the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights contribute to the discourse on secular values in Indian legislation
and policymaking.
4. Geopolitical Conflicts and Secularism: The geopolitics of certain regions globally can affect the
secular fabric of India. Immanuel Wallerstein's world-system theory sheds light on how global
geopolitical conflicts influence local dynamics. For instance, conflicts in regions like the Middle
East might impact communal harmony in India due to the global spread of ideologies.
5. Impact of International Law and Norms: Max Weber's legal theories about the impact of law
on society can be applied to understand how international laws and norms influence India's
secular policies. International legal frameworks and norms on religious freedoms and secular
governance can shape India's approach to secularism.
6. Cultural Exchange and Identity Formation: Stuart Hall's theories on cultural identity and
representation can explain how global discourse on secularism shapes cultural identity in India.
The exchange of ideas and the influence of global debates on secularism can impact how
individuals and communities in India perceive and practice their cultural and religious
identities.
In conclusion, the challenges faced by the idea of secularism today show that India's social and
political situation is quite complex. Even though secularism is a fundamental principle in our
Constitution, it deals with many difficulties.
These include growing tensions between different communities, the use of religion for political
purposes, legal complications, increased intolerance towards different religions, issues related to
gender in religious practices, and how global influences affect local values.
Keeping India's secular values intact in such a diverse society needs a careful and balanced approach
that respects everyone's freedom, encourages peace between communities, and uses fair laws. It's
essential to adapt and address these challenges to ensure a truly secular environment where
everyone, no matter their faith, can live together in a peaceful and welcoming society.
250
Question 8.
a) Examine any two theories of social change in detail. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define Social change.
 Explain theories of social change.
 Challenges faced for social change.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Social change refers to the transformation over time in the societal structure, institutions, behaviors,
and cultural patterns that characterize a community or society. It involves alterations in the way
individuals and groups interact, the values and norms they uphold, and the overall organization of
social life. Social change can manifest in various forms, such as technological advancements,
economic shifts, political reforms, cultural evolution, and demographic transitions. Sociologists
analyze social change to understand its causes, consequences, and implications for individuals and
societies, offering insights into the processes that shape the fabric of human communities.
1. Modernization Theory: Modernization theory posits that societies undergo a predictable
process of development from traditional to modern forms, marked by industrialization,
urbanization, and increased education. This theory suggests that as societies modernize, they
experience improvements in social institutions, economic prosperity, and overall well-being.
Criticisms:
a. Eurocentrism: Critics argue that modernization theory is Eurocentric, as it assumes that Western
models of development are universally applicable.
b. Linear Progression: Critics contend that the theory oversimplifies social change by presenting it
as a linear progression, ignoring diverse paths to development.
c. Neglect of Cultural Factors: Modernization theory tends to downplay the role of cultural factors
in shaping societal changes, leading to oversights in understanding unique cultural contexts.
Walt Rostow: Developed the "Stages of Economic Growth," emphasizing the linear progression of
societies through stages of development.
Talcott Parsons: Contributed to the structural-functional perspective, aligning with modernization
theory's focus on societal adaptation and integration.
Example: The modernization of Japan during the Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) is often cited as an
example. Japan transformed from a feudal society to an industrialized nation, adopting Western
technologies and institutions.
2. Dependency Theory: Dependency theory challenges modernization theory by asserting that
global inequalities are perpetuated by the economic relationships between developed and
underdeveloped nations. It argues that underdeveloped nations are structurally dependent on
developed ones, leading to a perpetuation of social and economic disparities.
Criticisms:
 Simplification of Power Dynamics: Critics argue that dependency theory oversimplifies
power dynamics and does not adequately consider internal factors within underdeveloped
nations.
251
 Neglect of Agency: Some critics contend that the theory portrays underdeveloped nations as
passive victims, overlooking the agency and potential for self-development.
 Evolutionary Bias: Dependency theory tends to view underdeveloped nations as static
entities, lacking recognition of internal dynamics and potential for change.
Raúl Prebisch: Developed the idea of the "unequal exchange" between developed and
underdeveloped nations.
Andre Gunder Frank: Emphasized the role of global capitalism in perpetuating underdevelopment
and dependency.
Example: The relationship between former colonies and colonial powers, where the extraction of
resources and economic control left lasting imbalances, is often cited as an illustration of
dependency theory.
Challenges:
1. Cultural Inertia: Societal traditions, values, and cultural norms can resist change, leading to
cultural inertia. William Fielding Ogburn introduced the concept of cultural lag, suggesting that
material culture changes more rapidly than non-material culture, causing a lag and resistance to
adaptation. Example: Resistance to same-sex marriage in conservative societies reflects cultural
inertia, where traditional beliefs hinder acceptance of changing social norms.
2. Institutional Rigidity: Institutions, like government structures and legal systems, may resist
change due to established practices and vested interests. Sociologist Max Weber's theory of
bureaucracy highlights how formalized structures can impede flexibility and adaptation.
Example: Bureaucratic red tape and resistance to policy reforms in governmental organizations
can impede social change by hindering efficient decision-making.
3. Structural Inequality: Social structures and inequalities, often perpetuated by power dynamics,
can act as barriers to change. Pierre Bourdieu's theory of social reproduction emphasizes how
existing structures maintain privilege and disadvantage, hindering equal opportunities.
Example: Gender inequality persists in many societies, with patriarchal structures impeding
efforts to achieve gender parity and social change.
4. Resistance from Dominant Groups: Dominant groups may resist social change that threatens
their position of power and privilege. Sociologist Robert K. Merton's theory of structural
functionalism suggests that powerful groups maintain the status quo to preserve their
advantages. Example: Opposition from wealthy elites to progressive tax reforms illustrates how
dominant groups resist changes that may challenge their economic interests.
5. Globalization Challenges: While globalization can facilitate social change, it also brings
challenges such as cultural homogenization and economic disparities. Sociologist Anthony
Giddens' theory of structuration explores the complex interplay between global and local forces.
Example: The spread of Western cultural norms through globalization may face resistance in
non-Western societies, leading to tensions and challenges for social change.
6. Technological Disruptions: Rapid technological advancements can create social disruptions
and challenges. Joseph Schumpeter's theory of creative destruction suggests that technological
innovations can render existing industries obsolete, causing economic and social upheaval.
Example: The rise of automation and artificial intelligence poses challenges to existing
employment structures, requiring societies to adapt through education and policy changes.
252
Modernization Theory and Dependency Theory, underscores the divergent perspectives on the
mechanisms driving societal transformations. Modernization Theory, rooted in an evolutionary
paradigm, posits a linear progression toward modernity through stages of economic development,
technological advancement, and cultural change.
While it offers insights into the transformative processes, criticisms arise from its Eurocentrism,
oversimplified linear model, and neglect of cultural factors. On the other hand, Dependency Theory
challenges the optimistic assumptions of Modernization Theory by highlighting the structural
inequalities perpetuated through global economic relationships.
Both theories contribute valuable perspectives to the sociological understanding of social change,
emphasizing the need for a nuanced approach that considers diverse contextual factors and
acknowledges the complexities inherent in the dynamics of societal transformation.
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b) Critically analyze the role of science and technology in bringing about

social change. (20 Marks)
 Define Social change.
 Explain the role of science and technology in bringing about social change.
 Explain challenges faced in the field of science and technology in bringing social change.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Emile Durkheim, defined social change as the alteration of the structure and functions of social
institutions over time. Social change is an inherent and necessary aspect of societal evolution, driven
by shifts in values, norms, and the division of labor. He emphasized that societal cohesion and
integration adapt to changing circumstances, leading to the emergence of new social forms.
Durkheim's perspective emphasizes the dynamic nature of societies, where changes in one aspect
trigger adjustments in others, highlighting the interconnectedness of social phenomena.
Role of science and technology in bringing about social change.
1. Technological Determinism: Technological determinism, as proposed by Marshall McLuhan,
posits that technological advancements drive social change by reshaping communication patterns
and societal structures. McLuhan's "medium is the message" concept highlights how innovations in
communication technology, such as the printing press or the internet, can fundamentally alter the
way societies organize and interact.
2. Social Construction of Technology (SCOT): The SCOT theory, developed by Trevor Pinch and
Wiebe Bijker, argues that technology is not predetermined but shaped by social processes. SCOT
emphasizes the role of social actors, their values, and power dynamics in influencing the
development and impact of technology. For instance, the adoption of certain medical technologies
may be influenced by the preferences of medical professionals, policymakers, and patients.
3. Diffusion of Innovations: Everett Rogers' Diffusion of Innovations theory explores how new
technologies spread within a society. It categorizes individuals into innovators, early adopters, early
majority, late majority, and laggards, illustrating the varying speeds and patterns of technology
adoption. For example, the rapid adoption of smartphones in some societies reflects the influence
of early adopters and the diffusion process.
4. Social Shaping of Technology: Sheila Jasanoff's social shaping of technology perspective
contends that technology and society co-evolve through mutual influence. It emphasizes the
reciprocal relationship between technological development and societal values, norms, and
institutions. The regulation of genetic engineering technologies, for instance, reflects ongoing
negotiations between scientific progress and ethical considerations.
5. Cultural Lag: William Fielding Ogburn introduced the concept of cultural lag, suggesting that
cultural elements (values, norms) take time to catch up with technological advancements. For
instance, the ethical implications of artificial intelligence may lag behind the rapid development of
AI technologies, creating social tensions and debates.
6. Network Society: Manuel Castells' theory of the network society explores how information and
communication technologies create a new social structure. He argues that technology facilitates the
formation of global networks, influencing social interactions, economic processes, and power
structures.
Example: The rise of social media platforms and their impact on communication and activism.
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Challenges:
1. Inequality in Access to Technology: Manuel Castells highlights the concept of the "digital
divide," indicating disparities in access to information and communication technologies. The
unequal distribution of technological resources can exacerbate existing social inequalities, limiting
opportunities for education, employment, and civic participation. For instance, the gap in internet
access between urban and rural areas or between developed and developing countries illustrates
this challenge.
2. Social Stratification and Technological Exclusion: Pierre Bourdieu's theory of social
stratification emphasizes the role of cultural capital in reproducing social hierarchies. In the context
of technology, individuals with limited access to education and cultural resources may face barriers
in adopting and adapting to new technologies, contributing to digital exclusion. This exclusion can
perpetuate existing social inequalities.
3. Ethical Dilemmas in Technological Development: The ethical implications of technological
advancements pose challenges for social change. Langdon Winner discusses how technologies can
have inherent political and social values embedded in their design. Issues like privacy concerns with
surveillance technologies or ethical considerations in genetic engineering exemplify the complex
ethical dilemmas that accompany technological progress.
4. Resistance to Change: Everett Rogers, known for the Diffusion of Innovations theory, highlights
the resistance that can accompany the introduction of new technologies. Societal norms, values, and
cultural traditions may clash with technological innovations, leading to skepticism or outright
opposition. For instance, debates around the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in
agriculture reflect resistance to technological changes in the face of perceived risks.
5. Environmental Consequences: The ecological impacts of technological advancements pose
significant challenges. Ulrich Beck's theory of the "risk society" emphasizes the unintended
consequences and risks associated with technological progress.
Issues such as environmental degradation due to industrialization and climate change caused by
reliance on fossil fuels exemplify the complex relationship between technology and environmental
challenges.
6. Technological Unemployment: The advent of automation and artificial intelligence, discussed
by Jeremy Rifkin, raises concerns about technological unemployment. As machines take over
certain tasks, there is a potential for job displacement, contributing to social and economic
disruptions. The contemporary example of the impact of automation on employment in various
industries underscores the challenges of balancing technological progress with societal well-being.
In critical analysis, the role of science and technology in bringing about social change is intricate and
multifaceted. On one hand, technological advancements have the potential to revolutionize societies
by fostering economic development, enhancing communication, and addressing pressing global
challenges. However, the impact is not uniformly positive, as it can exacerbate existing inequalities,
create ethical dilemmas, and generate resistance to change. The unequal distribution of
technological resources, ethical concerns in areas like biotechnology, and the risk of technological
unemployment underscore the complexities involved.
Balancing innovation with ethical considerations and addressing the disparities in technological
access is essential for harnessing the full potential of science and technology in shaping a more
inclusive and just society.
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c) Elaborate on various types of religious practices prevalent in India

society. (10 Marks)
 Explain what are religious practices.
 Explain various types of religious practices prevalent in Indian society.
 Explain impact of religious practices prevalent in Indian Society.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Religious practices encompass a diverse array of rituals, beliefs, ceremonies, and behaviors that
constitute the lived expressions of a religious tradition within a community. These practices serve
as the tangible manifestations of religious beliefs, fostering a sense of identity, community, and
connection to the sacred.
The significance of religious practices extends beyond individual spirituality, playing a pivotal role
in shaping social cohesion, moral frameworks, and cultural norms within a given society.
Emile Durkheim, have explored the role of religious practices in reinforcing social solidarity and
providing a shared sense of purpose among community members. Understanding religious
practices is crucial for sociological inquiry as they contribute to the formation and maintenance of
social order, cohesion, and cultural continuity within diverse societies.
Various types of religious practices prevalent in Indian society.
1. Rituals and Worship: In Indian society, religious practices often involve elaborate rituals and
worship ceremonies. Max Weber's concept of the "routinization of charisma" helps understand how
charismatic religious leaders establish rituals that become integral to daily life. For example, the
Aarti performed in Hindu temples or the daily prayers in various religious traditions illustrate the
significance of ritualistic practices.
2. Pilgrimages: Victor Turner's theory of "communitas" can be applied to understand the communal
and transformative aspects of pilgrimages in India. Pilgrimages to sacred sites such as the Kumbh
Mela or the Amarnath Yatra provide opportunities for individuals to experience a sense of collective
identity and spiritual renewal.
3. Festivals and Celebrations: Émile Durkheim's theory on the role of rituals in reinforcing social
cohesion is relevant to the celebration of religious festivals in India. Festivals like Diwali, Eid, and
Holi not only hold religious significance but also contribute to community bonding and the
reaffirmation of shared values.
4. Caste-based Practices: The caste system in India has deep-rooted religious implications. B.R.
Ambedkar's analysis of caste as a social institution highlights how religious beliefs have historically
justified and perpetuated caste-based practices. Practices like untouchability and caste-specific
rituals reflect the intertwining of religion and social hierarchy.
5. Bhakti and Sufi Movements: The Bhakti and Sufi movements in Indian history are examples of
religious practices that emphasize direct, personal devotion to God. M.N. Srinivas's concept of
"Sanskritization" helps understand how these movements have influenced and transformed
traditional religious practices, fostering a more inclusive and egalitarian approach to spirituality.
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6. Syncretic Practices: India has a rich tradition of syncretic religious practices, where elements from
different faiths coexist harmoniously. The concept of "composite culture," as discussed by historians
and sociologists, exemplifies how syncretism is evident in practices like the Urs festival at Ajmer
Sharif, where people from various religious backgrounds participate in a shared spiritual
experience.
7. Rituals of Life-cycle Events: The performance of religious rituals during life-cycle events such as
birth, marriage, and death is a common practice in Indian society. Arnold van Gennep's theory of
rites of passage helps understand the symbolic significance of these rituals in marking transitions
and reinforcing cultural norms. For instance, Hindu wedding ceremonies involve intricate rituals
symbolizing the union of two individuals and their families.
Impact:
1. Social Cohesion and Integration: Émile Durkheim's functionalist perspective helps understand
the impact of religious practices in fostering social cohesion. Religious rituals and festivals in India
play a crucial role in bringing communities together, creating a sense of belonging, and reinforcing
shared values. For example, festivals like Diwali or Eid provide opportunities for social interaction
and collective celebration, contributing to the integration of diverse religious communities.
2. Social Stratification and Inequality: The impact of religious practices on social stratification can
be analyzed through the lens of Max Weber's theory of the Protestant Ethic. In the context of Indian
society, the caste system, often intertwined with religious beliefs, has perpetuated social hierarchies
and inequalities. Practices like untouchability and caste-specific rituals contribute to the
maintenance of social distinctions.
3. Gender Roles and Patriarchy: Sylvia Walby, emphasize the examination of religious practices in
relation to gender roles and patriarchy. In India, certain religious practices and customs can
reinforce traditional gender norms. For instance, restrictions on women's entry into certain religious
spaces or gender-specific rituals reflect the intersection of religious beliefs with patriarchal
structures.
4. Cultural Identity and Nationalism: Benedict Anderson's theory of imagined communities can
be applied to understand how religious practices contribute to the construction of cultural identity
and nationalism in India. Religious symbols, rituals, and narratives are often used to reinforce a
sense of shared heritage and belonging. For instance, the promotion of cultural and religious
practices during national events or festivals contributes to the formation of a collective national
identity.
5. Social Change and Reform Movements: The impact of religious practices on social change can
be explored through the lens of reform movements. M.N. Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization"
helps analyze how movements like the Arya Samaj or the Bhakti and Sufi movements have
challenged traditional practices, promoting social reform and inclusivity.
6. Communalism and Conflict: The impact of religious practices on communal tensions and
conflicts in India can be analyzed using conflict theory, such as that proposed by Karl Marx.
Religious differences are often manipulated for political gains, leading to communal tensions.
Examples include conflicts around religious sites like Ayodhya, where religious practices become
focal points for identity-based political mobilization.
In conclusion, the religious practices prevalent in Indian society embody a rich tapestry of
traditions, rituals, and ceremonies that contribute significantly to the cultural and social fabric of the
nation.
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From elaborate worship ceremonies and festivals that foster communal bonds to caste-based
practices that reflect historical social stratification, and from syncretic traditions that showcase
cultural amalgamation to rites of passage marking life-cycle events, religious practices in India are
diverse and dynamic.
The impact of these practices extends beyond the realm of spirituality, influencing social cohesion,
reinforcing cultural identities, and occasionally contributing to social inequalities. A nuanced
understanding of these practices is essential for sociological inquiry, as they offer insights into the
complex interplay between religion, tradition, and societal structures in the multifaceted landscape
of India.
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Mains 2018
Section - A
Question 1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each:
(a) The focal point of sociology rests on interaction. How do you distinguish
it from common sense? (10 Marks)
Answer:
Social interaction is a dynamic sequence of social actions between individuals (or groups) who
modify their actions and reactions due to actions by their interaction partners.
 Dawson and Gettyes – Social Interaction is a process by which men interpenetrate the minds
of each other".
 Merrill, "Social interaction is the general process whereby two or more persons are in a
meaningful contact, as a result of which their behavior is modified however slightly."
 Corkiness. "Social interaction is such a process which influences the overt behavior or state
of mind of the individuals."
Unlike matter, man has consciousness – thoughts, feelings, meanings, intentions and an awareness
of being. Because of this, his actions are meaningful; he defines situations and gives meaning to his
actions and those of others. As a result, he does not merely react to external stimuli, he does not
simply behave, he acts.
Phenomenologists, Symbolic Interactionists and Weberian approach – all focus on understanding
these meanings to make sense of the social reality. It is these meanings which are constantly formed,
reformed during an interaction and influence all the social processes, structure, social groups and
functions. These interactions form the basis of the whole social order. Hence, they act as the gate of
knowledge in sociology and are rightly the focal point of sociology.
The interactions can exist at following levels-
 Between individual and individual
 Between individual and group
 Between group and group
 Between individuals and culture
Further society’s interaction with its environment is also a crucial factor in determining social order.
For example-depending upon the advancement on technology, societies can be categorized as -
industrial, Pre-industrial, post-industrial societies.
Common Sense:
Common sense is the routine knowledge that we have of our everyday world and activities
Alfred schutz- organized ‘typified’ stocks of taken-for-granted knowledge, upon which our
activities are based, and which, in the ‘natural attitude’, we do not question.
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It is the collectively shared knowledge on the basis of which we evaluate others, self and situations.
It is not objective, scrutinized or universally valid. It is particular and localized and highly variable
across time and space.
Distinguishing factors
For the positivists, the beginning of a social science of society was a self-conscious break from the
common sense perception of reality. But it was argued that by anti-positivists that central aim of
sociology is to understand and elaborate on people’s conception of the social world, which is based
on shared meanings or common-sense knowledge. While the meanings may be based on common
sense, it DOES NOT mean that sociological knowledge is the same as common sense.
Its relation with sociology and its focus on interaction can be seen with the following lens.
Approach of both is different

 While common sense relies on perceptions formed on basis of superficial resemblances.
Sociology follows a rational enquiry with a scientific spirit and givers importance to
underlying causality. Example- Researcher has to leave his bias and determine the causes of
poverty – subculture theory and crime – labeling theory but common sense calls poverty –
will of God and crime – result of poverty respectively (Merton’s deviance theory explores
why absence of means is not the only criteria leading to deviance).
 While common sense is taken for granted knowledge, assumptive but sociology is sceptical.
It is open to scrutiny, debate and discussion. Symbolic interactionists like Mead explain with
concept of self – I and ME where he enquires what makes individual act the way he does.
Common sense- follows a simple belief that individual acts the way he wants to.
 Common sense is often vague, oversimplified but sociology aims to be specific and proves
its assertions. It has a body of concepts, methods and data, no matter how loosely held
together, for which common sense of even the most acute and well-informed kind cannot be
a substitute. Example-Weber explains which three criteria of stratification: power, prestige,
wealth. Common sense- some are more blessed than others.
 Common sense is paradoxical and contradictory, sociology is self – corrective, verified e.g.
“absence make the heart grow fonder” when “out of sight, out of mind”? The results of a
social research may be applicable to a particular context but are highly valid and reliable as
compare to common sense knowledge.
 Common sense is prescriptive. Sociology is value- neutral. Common sense expects individual
and social forces to act in a certain manner. Sociology studies what is, not what ought to be?
Though Reflexive sociology widens the scope of the subject.
 Common sense is particular and localized, Sociological knowledge aims to be general if not
universal.
Andre Beteille- Educated, middleclass Bengalis, like other educated or uneducated people
anywhere, tacitly assume that their common sense is common sense as such or the common
sense of mankind. An important contribution of sociology has been to show that common
sense is in fact highly variable, subject to the constraints of time and place as well as other,
more specifically social constraints.
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Relevance in domain of study:
Weberian interpretative sociology which brought the focus on social actions saw individual as an
active being who interprets the situations and driving knowledge from history and culture, acts
giving rise to a social pattern and further structure. His methods are inspired by works of Wilhelm
Dilthey and George Simmel who focus on different factors guiding behavior. So the meanings given
by actors are not confined with common sense.
Symbolic interactionism states that society makes self and self makes society. The individual learns
to communicate with the use of significant symbols. The flow of information from society to self
may have common sense as a major part of it. But the individual is seen as an active agent rather
than simple acting on given norms. The meanings are continuously reconstructed during an
interaction.
For ethnomethodologists, commonsense (or, as it is frequently termed, ‘tacit’) knowledge is a
constant achievement, in which people draw on implicit rules of ‘how to carry on’, which produce
a sense of organization and coherence the social interactions have to be interpreted in terms of
common sense meaning. An effort is made to understand and record meanings but also to enquire
how these meanings were generated in the first place which is out of the scope of common-sense
knowledge.
Conclusion
Anthon Giddens-Sociological investigation often becomes common sense. Example- Marriage is a
risky business.
Thus, sociology has to steer an uneasy course between two equally unfruitful alternatives;
submergence in the common sense of the scholar's own environment, and absorption in a narrow
and self-satisfied technical virtuosity unconnected with the substance of social enquiry. Nothing
will be gained by abandoning cither common sense or the cultivation of technical skills. Just as
common sense is full of snares and pitfalls for the unwary sociologist, so too technical virtuosity
becomes a distraction when pursued as an end in itself.
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(b) Distinguish between fact and value in Weber's Protestant Ethic ad Spirit
of Capitalism. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly talk about his work on PE&SC.
 Define Facts and discuss its role in Weber's analysis.
 Define Value and discuss its role in Weber's analysis.
 Compare and contrast between facts and values.
Solution
Max Weber's book, "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism," explores how religious
beliefs, specifically Protestantism, are connected to the rise of capitalism. To understand Weber's
analysis, it's important to distinguish between facts and values in his work.
Facts:
Facts are objective and observable data that can be measured and verified. In his analysis, Weber
uses various factual elements to support his arguments:
1. He looks at historical events and circumstances that influenced the emergence of
Protestantism and its impact on the economy.
2. Weber examines economic patterns, social structures, and things like capital and resources.
He considers the conditions and systems that accompanied the Protestant Ethic and the
growth of capitalism.
3. Weber also conducts research, collecting and analyzing factual data. He creates Ideal Types,
which are conceptual ideas based on observed facts, to explain his theories.
Values:
Values, on the other hand, are subjective judgments, beliefs, or principles that influence how people
behave. In Weber's analysis:
1. He explores the beliefs and values held by Protestants, which he calls the Protestant Ethic.
These include ideas like working hard, saving money, and having a sense of purpose. These
values influenced how people acted and contributed to the development of capitalism.
2. Weber provides his own understanding of these values. He looks at how they shaped
economic behavior and led to the "spirit of capitalism." He emphasizes the importance of
Protestant values in promoting a strong work ethic and the accumulation of wealth.
3. Weber focuses more on certain religious values, like those of Protestants, and gives less
importance to values in other traditions, like the Catholic idea of a calling. His personal
judgment and prioritization of values influence his analysis of the Protestant Ethic and its
connection to capitalism.
The distinction between facts and values in Weber's work can be summarized as follows:
1. Facts are objective and can be proven, while values are subjective and reflect personal beliefs.
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2. Facts provide evidence for Weber's arguments, allowing him to study historical events,
material factors, and conduct research.
3. Values shape the cultural, psychological, and ethical aspects of Weber's analysis. They
involve personal judgments and moral beliefs, particularly in relation to the Protestant Ethic
and its impact on capitalism.
Distinguishing between facts and values in Weber's "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism" is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of his work. Facts provide the empirical
foundation for his analysis, while values play a significant role in shaping the cultural and moral
dimensions of the Protestant Ethic.
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(c) Do you think ‘I’ and ‘Me’ are central terms in Mead’s work? (10 Marks)
Answer: -
George Herbert Mead was an American philosopher, sociologist, and psychologist, primarily
affiliated with the University of Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished pragmatists.
He is regarded as one of the founders of social psychology and the American sociological tradition
in general.
The two most important roots of Mead’s work, and of symbolic interactionism in general, are the
philosophy of pragmatism and social behaviorism.
One of his most influential ideas was the emergence of mind and self from the communication
process between organisms, discussed in the book, Mind, Self and Society, also known as social
behaviorism. For Mead, mind arises out of the social act of communication.
The "I" part is the part of you that's out there, acting, being spontaneous, doing things in the world.
It's the subject of action. It's what you would probably commonly think of as yourself. The "me" is
an object. It's the aggregated combined image of yourself that has been given to you from interacting
with society. When society reflects a self-image back on you, this external object, this conceptual
object, this image of yourself is the "me."
Mead calls these two aspects (or facets) of the self the ‘I’ and the ‘me’ – the ‘I’ is that phase of the self
that remembers while the ‘me’ is the remembered self-image.
From this very simple and intuitive beginning, Mead developed a sophisticated account of the inner
workings of the human mind.
In short, for Mead, the ‘I’ is a source of novelty and creativity, indispensable for the assertion of
individuality, while the ‘me’ refers to the set of organized social attitudes within one’s self.
The rigid distinction between inner, subjective life and external, objective reality is thus ruled out
by Mead; on the contrary, he conceives of the self as a process through which social experiences are
permanently being incorporated into the self (through the ‘me’) and reconstructed by the ‘I’. Selves
are thus natural, evolving social products.
IMPORTANT POINTS
 First, some argue that it effectively eliminates all biological influences on the development of
the self, when it is clear from biology and neuroscience that there is a biological basis to the
human self. However, this criticism appears not to recognize that Mead's notion of the 'I'
represents the 'unsocialized infant'.
 Second, Mead's theory seems to rely on the 'I' and the 'me' working cooperatively to ensure
the smooth functioning of the self. But critics argue that this downplays the internal tensions
and conflicts that people experience deeply and which Freud and Chodorow's theories seem
better able to explain
 Mead also has little to say about the effects of unbalanced power relationships on the
socialization of children.
 Finally, and again unlike Freud, Mead's explanation has no room for the unconscious mind
as a motive force in human behaviour and consequently lacks the concept of 'repression',
which has proved essential to psychoanalytic practice.
 Did not take into account micro level realities like need, motive.
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Conclusion
Mead's work was very important for the development of sociology.
 His was the first genuinely sociological theory of self-formation and development, which
insisted that if we are properly to understand ourselves, then we must start with the social
process of human interaction.
 In this way he showed that the self is not an innate part of our biology nor does it emerge
simply with the developing human brain.
 What Mead demonstrated is that the study of the individual's self cannot be divorced from
the study of society - and that requires a sociological perspective.
Although Freud's approach to the human psyche has perhaps overshadowed Mead's during the
twentieth century at least in relation to psychological practice and the treatment of mental
disorders, symbolic interactionism continues to produce insightful findings from a perspective
rooted in Mead's sociological theories.
And in this sense, Mead's ideas still have much to offer new generations of sociological researchers
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(d) What is the difference between natural and social inequality. Give
examples from caste and class dimensions. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly highlight the significance of distinguishing the natural inequality from social
inequality.
 Provide difference between natural and social inequality.
 Discuss caste and class dimensions.
Solution
Distinguishing between natural and social inequality is important to understand the origins and
dynamics of different forms of inequality. It helps identify areas where societal structures contribute
to unfair advantages or disadvantages, enabling us to work towards a more inclusive and equitable
society.
Some of the differences between them are as follows:
Natural Inequality Social Inequality

Definition Natural inequality is characterized by Social inequality refers to
differences that exist inherently among disparities in society that result
individuals, such as physical abilities or from social structures, norms, and
talents. institutions
Types Types of Natural inequalities includes - Types of Social inequalities
1. Biological Inequalities: Differences includes -
in physical attributes, genetic traits, 1. Economic: Disparities in
and cognitive abilities among income, wealth, and
individuals. opportunities.
2. Environmental Inequalities: 2. Gender: Discrimination
Disparities in access to resources and unequal treatment
and living conditions due to based on gender.
geographical factors and habitat 3. Racial, Caste and Ethnic:
differences. Systemic discrimination
3. Age-related Inequalities: Varied and disparities based on
needs, vulnerabilities based on race or ethnicity.
different stages of life. 4. Social Class: Hierarchical
4. Disability Inequalities: Differences divisions based on
in physical, sensory, cognitive, or socioeconomic status.
intellectual abilities leading to 5. etc
disparities in access and inclusion.
5. etc
Role of Limited role in natural inequalities, which Society plays a critical role in
Society are not subject to significant social perpetuating and shaping social
influence.
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inequalities through norms,

customs, and institutions.
Mobility Natural inequalities may limit upward Social inequalities often restrict
mobility. social mobility and opportunities
for individuals.
Caste Dimension:
The assignment of caste based on birth is a social construct that is not inherently tied to biological
or natural factors. This social categorization creates a hierarchical structure where certain castes
are considered superior and others inferior. The hierarchical nature of the caste system is
perpetuated through social norms, beliefs, and practices that dictate the roles, privileges, and
disadvantages associated with each caste. Individuals born into lower castes often face
discrimination, restricted access to resources, and limited opportunities for education, employment,
and social mobility.
Class Dimension:
In the context of social class inequalities, natural factors can have some influence, although social
factors play a significant role as well. Geographical location, for example, can impact economic
conditions, with certain regions having more resources and opportunities compared to others. Age
can also limit opportunities, such as younger individuals having limited work experience or older
individuals facing age discrimination in employment.
However, class-based inequalities are primarily influenced by social factors. Wealth distribution
plays a crucial role, as individuals from higher socioeconomic classes tend to have greater access to
resources, financial stability, and opportunities. Educational access is often unequal, with
individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds facing barriers to quality education,
perpetuating the cycle of inequality. Employment opportunities can also be influenced by social
networks, social capital, and discrimination based on socioeconomic status.
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(e) What are the new forms of family in developed societies? Discuss. (10
Marks)
Approach
 Explain family in its traditional sense.
 Discuss the new forms of family in developed societies.
 Discuss major reasons for development of new forms of family in developed societies.
Solution
Family is traditionally defined as a social institution that consists of individuals who are related by
blood, marriage, or adoption and who share a common residence. It encompasses a set of social
relationships and roles characterized by emotional bonds, mutual support, and interdependence.
In contemporary developed societies, the concept of family has undergone significant
transformations. Traditional notions of family have expanded to include a diverse range of family
structures.
Some of the new forms of families include -

1. Nuclear Families: Industrialization and urbanization have led to a shift from extended or
joint families to nuclear families. As individuals migrate to urban areas for employment
opportunities, they often form smaller family units consisting of parents and their dependent
children.
2. Symmetrical Family: Modernization has contributed to a more egalitarian family structure
known as the symmetrical family. In this type of family, both spouses share household
responsibilities and contribute to the economic well-being of the family.
3. Transnational Family: Global migration has resulted in the formation of transnational
families. These families are characterized by members living in different countries or regions
due to work or educational opportunities, creating new dynamics and challenges for family
relationships.
4. Rise of Cohabitation: Urbanization, individualisation and anonymity has led to an increase
in cohabitation, where couples live together in a committed relationship without formal
marriage.
This trend is influenced by changing attitudes towards marriage, increased focus on personal
autonomy, and the desire to test compatibility before formalizing a long-term commitment.
5. Single-Parent Family: These families are headed by one parent, either due to divorce,
separation, or the choice to raise a child independently. The increase in single-parent families
can be attributed to factors such as changing social norms, greater gender equality, and
improved support systems for single parents.
6. Same-Sex Families: Developed societies have made strides in legalizing same-sex marriage
and extending adoption and parenting rights to LGBTQ+ individuals and couples.
Legalization of same-sex marriage and increased societal support have allowed same-sex
couples to form committed partnerships and raise children.
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7. Foster Families: Foster care involves providing a temporary home and care for children who
cannot live with their biological parents due to various reasons, such as abuse, neglect, or
parental incapacity. Foster families are trained and licensed to provide a nurturing and
supportive environment for these children until they can be reunited with their biological
families or find a permanent placement through adoption or guardianship.
8. Filliocentric Family: It has shifted the focus of the family from being centred around the
authority of the husband and father (patriarchy) to being centred around the welfare and
needs of the children (fillocentrism).
Major Reasons:
These new forms of family reflect changing social dynamics and the evolving needs and preferences
of individuals in modern society. Some of the major reasons for the formation of new forms of
families in developed societies includes changing social norms, legal and policy changes, increased
individual autonomy, higher divorce and separation rates, advances in reproductive technologies,
social and economic factors, and increased awareness and visibility.
Understanding and recognizing these diverse structures is vital for inclusive policies, support
systems, and the well-being of individuals and families in modern society.
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Question 2.
(a) Is non-positivistic methodology scientific? Illustrate. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly mention the central difference between Positivistic and Non-Positivistic
methodology.
 Explain of Non-Positivistic Methodology.
 Explain the relationship between Non-Positivistic Methodology and Scientific Criteria.
 Discuss the Issue of Objectivity and Subjectivity in Non-Positivistic Methodology.
 Mention the challenges or limitations of Non-Positivist Methodologies.
Solution
The issue of whether non-positivistic methodology can be regarded as scientific has sparked
considerable discussion within the field of sociology. Positivism, with its emphasis on scientific
methods and objective laws, has been contrasted with non-positivism, which presents itself as an
alternative perspective acknowledging the intricate nature of social phenomena and the importance
of subjective interpretation.
Non-Positivistic Methodology:
Non-positivistic methodology presents a critique to the positivist notion of society as a fixed
system and individuals as passive actors within it. In contrast, non-positivists acknowledge
individuals as an independent thinker capable of impacting society. Their focus lies in examining
internal dynamics, including emotions, motivations, and an individual's subjective understanding
of the social reality. For instance,
1. Ethnomethodology explores the everyday methods and strategies used by individuals, along
with their narratives, to understand social behaviors.
2. Phenomenology delves into the subjective experiences and meanings that individuals
attribute to social phenomena.
3. Symbolic interactionism highlights the influence of symbols, meanings, and social
interactions on shaping individual behavior and the broader social reality.
Relationship between Non-Positivistic Methodology and Scientific Criteria:
Non-positivistic approaches frequently deviate from conventional scientific criteria, placing greater
emphasis on qualitative methods rather than adhering to the positivist inclination towards
quantitative research. Although earlier non-positivists such as Weber and Mead incorporated
scientific methods, subsequent scholars like Alfred Schutz and Garfinkel challenged their
application. This shift reflects an acknowledgment that the intricacies of social life cannot always be
adequately grasped through standardized scientific methodologies.
Non-positivist methodologies also prioritize comprehension of social reality over the prediction of
events or the formulation of universal theories. While Weber and Mead recognized the presence of
cause-and-effect relationships, Schutz dismissed this possibility, favoring an interpretive approach
to understanding social phenomena.
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By centering on individual experiences and interpretations, non-positivistic methodologies seek to
capture the multifaceted richness and complexity of social life.
Issue of Objectivity Vs Subjectivity:

Non-positivist methodologies acknowledge the unattainability of complete objectivity and
embrace the inclusion of subjectivity in research. They acknowledge that researchers cannot be
entirely neutral observers but rather active participants who bring their own biases and
perspectives. For instance, human perceptions are influenced by emotions, common sense, and
stereotypes, which are shaped by subjective notions rather than concrete data or empirical
observation. By recognizing the role of subjectivity, non-positivist methodologies strive to offer a
more nuanced comprehension of social phenomena
Limitations of Non-Positivist Methodologies:

Non-positivist methodologies encounter a challenge when it comes to navigating the delicate
balance between objectivity and subjectivity. Even esteemed scholars such as Weber and Mead
recognized the significance of objectivity and the need for rigorous research methods. Furthermore,
non-positivist methodologies lack a unified methodological framework, leading to a wide range
of research approaches. In fact, some non-positivists even emphasize the utilization of quantitative
methods, further complicating the notion of a distinct non-positivist methodology.
Moreover, non-positivist methods heavily rely on the capabilities and interpretations of
individual researchers, resulting in varying explanations for the same phenomenon. This reliance
on personal interpretation poses a challenge in attaining consistency and reliability in research
findings. Additionally, there is a potential risk of non-positivists overlooking the independent
existence of social phenomena, as they tend to place greater emphasis on the role of the individual
and subjective experiences, potentially neglecting the broader structural factors that shape society.
Despite deviating from traditional scientific criteria, non-positive methodology aims to understand
social reality and generate insights. Therefore, it is essential to recognize the strengths and
limitations of non-positivistic methodologies and embrace diverse approaches.
271
(b) Explain Durkheim's basic arguments on suicide. Can you analyse high
suicide rates of contemporary Indian society with Durkheim's theory? (20
Marks)
Structure:
 Explain important tenets of Durkheim's Theory of suicide
 Exemplify
 Relate them with contemporary issues in India
 Criticism
Emile Durkheim's Theory of suicide
Emile Durkheim defines suicide as:
"Suicide is any case of death, caused by directly or indirectly, from positive
or negative act of the victim himself, which he knows will produce this result."
Positive - act of commission (going to market to buy poison)
Negative - act of omission (refusing to take medicine)
His methodology:
 Durkheim used statistical data to study the theory of Suicide.
 Durkheim was more focussed on studying the suicide rates among different groups rather
than just studying individuals.
 Durkheim conducted statistical analysis on various populations and cohorts divided by
various social factors (religious affiliation, marriage status, socioeconomic status, etc.).
 He compared the suicide rates between these populations in order to determine the health of
that population.
 And this empirical inquiry led Durkheim to develop a four-part typology of
 suicidal social forces:
Egoistic, Altruistic, Anomic, and Fatalistic.
1. The types of suicide as a result of integration- both high and low.
 Egoistic suicide- low integration with the society.
o Which means rate of suicide is indirectly proportional to social solidarity. Common
characteristic was unity.
o For example - In India rate of suicide of men is twice than female. Rate of the suicide
of protestants were more than Catholics everywhere in Europe.
 Altruistic Suicide- High integration with the society.
o When social integration is too high the individual is forced to commit suicide for
betterment or sake of all.
o Life is seen as hindrance to the goal of society.
o For example- Sati, LTTE warriors, terrorists.
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2. Types of suicide due to over or under regulation.
 Anomic suicide- Low Regulations within the society.
o Suicide because the assumed expectations are not met.
o Examples: Sudden changes, sudden enrichment, sudden poverty ( i.e. from rich to
poor) in the society cause suicide.
o Fatalistic suicide- within the society.
o In the words of Durkheim: "Persons with futures pitilessly blocked and passions
violently choked by oppressive discipline", in such conditions people commit suicide
blaming the fate.
o Example: Slaves in the past.
Important observations by Durkheim:
 Within social structure there are emerging social currents which are known as suicidogenic
forces.
 Constancy of suicide rate shows it is a social fact.
 Durkheim established suicide to be a social phenomenon and not an individual one.
 His study demonstrates that what is thought to be a highly individual act is actually socially
patterned and has social, not only psychological, causes.
 An example includes his discussion of the impact of marriage on the suicide rate of males:
Marriage provides a level of social regulation, integrating the individual into the family
institution, therefore resulting in lower suicide rates in this population.
Suicides and India
According to the World Health Organization's (WHO) 2019-report:
 India has the highest suicide rate in the South-East Asian region with one person dying every
40 seconds from suÄäRGiiKÄ6SGG7cides per people.
Analysing High suicide rates in contemporary India in relation to Durkheim's theory
Durkheim's theory of suicide could be seen as valid in contemporary Indian society as the cases of
suicides have been very high from the last two decades.
Farmer Suicides:
Using Durkheimian analysis, there could be several reasons for farmer suicides in India:
 According to government it could be considered as anomic suicide. Farmers failing to follow
the norms of expenditures that are within the reach of their incomes and instead following
the tide of consumerism as well as going for agrarian practices that are risky and untenable
according to the geographical forces of the region.
 It might be stagnation in agricultural income and failure of loan repayment.
 According to farmers it will be considered egoistic suicides as they feel they're left alone by
the society highlighting lesser integration in the society.
 According to the farming community it could be considered as altruistic suicide for
highlighting the plight of the farming community.
 It can also be considered as fatalistic suicide upholding the fact that loan has to be paid and
that there is no escape from the loan payment.
273
Ramchandra Guha uses Durkheim's ideas in context of India and writes:
 Role of Industrialisation: In industrializing societies in particular, the rate of suicide tends to
rise. And as India is industrializing, the causes are various: the dissolution of social bonds as
individuals move away from their family and community; the faster pace of life; and the
growth of overweening ambition. This leads to lower integration with the society (egoistic
suicides).
 Role of Anomic rise in Incomes: A rapid rise in incomes has led to a still more rapid rise in
desires causing the rapid rise of anomic suicides as the young want a great deal more success
than did their parents; and they want it more quickly.
 Role of Media: The ambitions are stoked by the press, which gives disproportionate coverage
to men and women who are young and yet famous and rich — or rather, famous because
they are rich.
 Role of Parents: Prejudice among Indian families against education in the humanities. Kids
are told that science related subjects are the only worthwhile subjects. With rise of working
women, now women too are mandated to join an engineering college.
The mere denial of admission makes the future seem bleak (fatalistic suicide) and is then
provocation enough to end their lives.
Criticism of the theory
Gibbs and Martin (1964) argued that Durkheim's concept of social integration is too vague and
unclear and he did not properly define the concept of integration.
Alex Inkeles (1959) and Johnson (1965) criticized that Durkheim only anticipated explaining the
factors behind suicide sociologically where he focused on suicide as a variation among social
environments rather than individual actions.
J M Atkinson questions the data collected for the research by Durkheim.
Breault criticised that theory of suicide actually has not been empirically supported given the lack
of psychological variables included in sociological research on suicide rates.
According to Buechner: As a shift from traditional society to modern society there are multiple
types of suicides available at this time. There can be escapist suicide, aggressive suicide, oblative
suicide, ludic suicide.
According to "Suggestibility" can be a suicide as well. Leaders followed by followers.
Conclusion
The social and psychological costs of failure have never been higher, either.
In pre-modern India, the bonds of family and community provided succour in times of distress. This
was true in the city as well as the country.
Middle class families always had room for failures: for the boy who could not pass his exams, yet
was treated with affection, and even indulgence, by those around him.
And while rural indebtedness has been endemic in Indian history, prior to the last two decades one
did not hear of farmers killing themselves on that account alone.
Though Durkheim's study seems partial, it covers the social aspects of suicide not a complete form
of suicide.
Durkheim's analysis of suicide shows the manner in which the social as opposed to the
psychological and biological can be emphasized, and how it results in some useful ways of analysing
the actions of individuals.
Suicide rates as expressions of social currents are social facts that affect societies and individuals
within those societies.
274
(c) Evaluate if social stratification is functional for society. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce answer by defining social stratification
 Provide Functional Benefits of Social Stratification.
 Provide critique and dysfunctions of Social Stratification
Solution
Social stratification refers to the division of society into different hierarchical layers based on various
social factors such as wealth, occupation, and social status.
Functional Benefits of Social Stratification:
Functionalists, such as Talcott Parsons, posit that stratification systems emerge from shared values
that contribute to societal order, stability, and cooperation. They assert that some form of
stratification is indispensable and justified, as it serves as a mechanism for resolving conflicts
between various hierarchical groups. According to the functionalist perspective, value consensus is
crucial, and stratification plays a vital role in maintaining social equilibrium.
Similarly, functionalists like Kingsley Davis and Wilbert E. Moore argue that social stratification
fulfills fundamental functional prerequisites of society. They contend that individuals possess
inherent abilities and talents, and different positions within society vary in terms of their functional
significance for society's survival and functioning. Davis and Moore suggest that stratification
enables effective allocation of roles by matching the most capable individuals with positions that
hold functional importance. Consequently, stratification incentivizes individuals through the
provision of substantial rewards, motivating them to fulfill their roles proficiently.
Critiques of Social Stratification:
Critics raise objections to the functionalist perspective and draw attention to the drawbacks
associated with social stratification. Marxist viewpoints, for instance, perceive social stratification
as a tool for exploitation, wherein the upper stratum exploits and exerts power over the lower
strata. Melvin Tumin critiques Davis and Moore's functional theory by asserting that positions
should not be inherently deemed more important than others. He argues that disparities in pay and
prestige might stem from power differentials rather than functional significance. Tumin also
challenges the notion that only a limited number of individuals possess talent, suggesting that talent
may be more widespread than previously assumed.
Tumin further contends that social stratification can impede motivation and hinder the recruitment
of talented individuals. Those in highly rewarded positions often utilize their power to restrict
access to their services, thereby augmenting their rewards and obstructing social mobility.
Tumin concludes that, by its very nature, stratification cannot adequately fulfill the functions
assigned to it by Davis and Moore unless there is equal access to training and recruitment
opportunities for all potentially talented individuals.
275
Dysfunctions of stratification:
Michael Young's critique of meritocracy reveals the dysfunctions within stratification systems.
Young emphasizes that a meritocratic system can result in demoralization among individuals at the
bottom who are deemed inferior.
The privileged ruling minority, benefiting from their merit-based advantages, may govern with
arrogance, ultimately contributing to social conflict. This highlights the potential overall
dysfunctions of stratification systems based on effective role allocation.
Studies conducted in Western industrial societies suggest that individuals in higher social strata
frequently owe their position not only to their personal merits or abilities but also to their social
background. This challenges the functionalist assertion that stratification systems primarily based
on economic disparities are unavoidable. However, despite these criticisms and challenges,
functionalists maintain that empirical evidence supports the notion that stratification systems are
indeed inevitable.
276
Question 3.
(a) Does collapse of functionalism and bankruptcy of Marxism coincide
with the rupture of modernity? Discuss. 20 marks
Approach
 Briefly talk about the sociological shift taking place in the second half of 20th century.
 Discuss the collapse of functionalism.
 Discuss the bankruptcy of Marxism.
 Discuss the rise of Neo-Marxism.
 Discuss the rupture of Modernity.
Solution
The collapse of functionalism and the bankruptcy of Marxism during the latter half of the 20th
century marked significant turning points in sociological thought. These transformations occurred
alongside the shifting dynamics of capitalism, the emergence of postmodern modernity, and the
growing challenges to established sociological frameworks.
The collapse of Functionalism:
Functionalism, initially proposed by Emile Durkheim, emphasized the importance of
understanding the function of social facts. However, the later work of Talcott Parsons introduced
complexity and rigidity to the functionalist framework. Parsons' revisions, such as the concept of
social systems, raised questions about the coherence and applicability of functionalism.
Additionally, the socio-cultural landscape of the 1960s, characterized by political movements and
the rise of critical theory, challenged the conservative and consensual nature of functionalism.
The bankruptcy of Marxism:
The bankruptcy of Marxism can be attributed to several factors. The decolonization process in the
1950s and 1960s left many countries with the choice between the American model of capitalism and
the Soviet model of socialism. The limitations and deficiencies of the USSR's socialist development
and policy-making, along with a lack of economic stability in nations leaning towards socialistic
welfarism, favored the rise of capitalism. The emergence of neo-Marxism, which addressed the
shortcomings of orthodox dialectical materialism, also played a role in the perceived bankruptcy of
Marxism.
Neo-Marxism:
Neo-Marxism, represented by the Frankfurt School, offered critical perspectives on capitalism while
incorporating ideas from Weber, Kant, Hegel, and Simmel. This intellectual movement, which
gained prominence in the 1960s and 1970s, contributed to the decline of traditional Marxism. Figures
like Jurgen Habermas and critical theory became influential, leading to the perception of Marxism's
bankruptcy. However, it is important to note that Marxism still resonates in the critique of
capitalism and persists as a relevant perspective.
277
Rupture of Modernity:
Modernity, often associated with the industrial revolution and the Enlightenment, represented a
break from tradition. The bombing of Hiroshima in 1945 challenged sociologists' attachment to
industrial capital modernity, while subsequent events like the feminist movement, gay rights
movement, and anti-globalization movement questioned and reacted against the existing
modernity. Some argue that modernity ended in the second half of the 20th century, giving rise to
postmodernism and a rupture in the dominant societal framework.
Thus, the collapse of functionalism and the bankruptcy of Marxism during the 1960s and 1970s
coincide with the rupture of modernity, leading to the birth of postmodernism. These events were
interconnected and reflected the changing socio-cultural landscape and the challenges faced by
established sociological frameworks. However, it is important to acknowledge that coincidence
does not imply causality. While these developments occurred simultaneously, they were influenced
by various complex factors.
278
(b) Define patriarchy. How does patriarchy manifest in interpersonal

relations? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define patriarchy
 Explain how patriarchy manifest itself in interpersonal relations at home.
 Explain how patriarchy manifest itself in interpersonal relations at work place.
 Explain how patriarchy manifest itself in interpersonal relations in public places
Solution
Patriarchy is a societal framework where men have dominant control and power in various spheres
of life such as the family, economy, and governance.
Women, on the other hand, are considered inferior to men and are often subjected to discrimination
and unequal treatment. Patriarchy is associated with gender stereotypes, the perpetuation of
traditional gender roles, and the normalization of male supremacy and authority over women.
Manifestations of Patriarchy in Interpersonal Relations:
Patriarchy manifests in interpersonal relationships through various ways, influencing power
dynamics, social norms, and expectations. Here are some ways in which patriarchy can impact
interpersonal relationships
At Home:
1. Gendered expectations and roles: Patriarchy reinforces traditional gender roles and
expectations, prescribing specific behaviors, attitudes, and responsibilities for men and
women. This includes expectations around caregiving, emotional labor, and domestic duties.
2. Division of labor at home: Patriarchy influences the division of labor within households,
with women primarily responsible for household chores and men expected to work outside
the home.
3. Control over women's bodies: Patriarchy exerts control over women's bodies through
practices such as reproductive control, restrictive dress codes, and regulations on mobility.
Women's autonomy and agency may be limited, and decisions about their bodies and
reproductive health may be controlled by others.
4. Socialization: Patriarchy influences the socialization process, instilling specific gender norms
and expectations from early childhood. Boys and girls are socialized differently, leading to
the internalization of patriarchal values and reinforcing gender inequality.
5. Intimate partner power dynamics: Patriarchy often manifests in power imbalances within
intimate relationships, where men may exert control and dominance over women. This can
involve decision-making authority, financial control, and the expectation of unquestioned
obedience.
6. Employment priority: Within families, husbands' employment is prioritized over women's
employment. Even when women are employed, their domestic responsibilities remain
largely unchanged, resulting in a double burden of work.
279
At Work Place:
1. Clustering of women in certain occupations: Women tend to be concentrated in occupations
stereotypically associated with femininity (Pink collared jobs). For instance, nursing is
predominantly perceived as a female occupation in India.
2. Unequal distribution within occupations: Women often occupy lower-status positions
within prestigious professions, while men have more opportunities in secondary and service
sectors.
3. Wage discrimination: Women experience wage disparities, earning lower salaries than men.
Female laborers, particularly in the informal sector, may receive wages below the minimum
wage. Additionally, women may be reluctant to pursue promotions that require relocation
away from their families.
4. Unemployment among highly educated women: Despite higher education and professional
training, a significant number of highly educated women in India remain unemployed due
to societal and family pressures.
5. Glass ceiling and workplace discrimination: Women face obstacles in reaching top positions
within organizations, known as the "glass ceiling." Discrimination during promotions often
leads to women being confined to lower-status clerical and primary school jobs.
At Public Places:
1. Objectification and sexualization: Patriarchy objectifies and sexualizes women, reducing
them to their physical appearance and sexual desirability. This can lead to the
commodification of women's bodies, contributing to harmful beauty standards,
objectification in media and advertising, and the perpetuation of harmful gender stereotypes.
2. Violence against women: Patriarchy perpetuates a culture of violence against women,
including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and assault. Women may experience
violence both within their intimate relationships and in public spaces, leading to fear, trauma,
and limited freedom of movement.
3. Triple stratification: Certain groups, such as Dalit women, experience triple stratification
based on gender, class, and caste, leading to multiple layers of discrimination and
marginalization.
Thus, patriarchy is a pervasive social system that reinforces male dominance and discrimination
against women in interpersonal relationships, influencing power dynamics, gender roles, and
societal norms. Overcoming patriarchy requires dismantling these ingrained structures and
promoting equality and respect among all individuals.
280
(c) What is the difference between anomie in Merton and Durkheim?

Explain. 10 marks
Approach
 Define anomie in general
 Explain Durkheim's Concept of Anomie.
 Explain Merton's Concept of Anomie.
 Provide difference between anomie in Merton and Durkheim.
Solution
Anomie is a concept of societal normlessness or moral deregulation, which has been examined by
both Merton and Durkheim. While both theorists contribute to the understanding of anomie, they
offer distinct perspectives on its causes and implications.
Durkheim's Concept of Anomie:
Anomie is a concept in sociology first introduced by Emile Durkheim, referring to a state of
normlessness or a lack of moral guidance in a society. It occurs when the social norms and values
of a society are weakened or disintegrated, resulting in individuals feeling disconnected and
disoriented. Anomie can lead to feelings of meaninglessness, purposelessness, and a lack of
direction in life, which can manifest in various forms of deviant behavior, such as crime, drug use,
and suicide.
Merton's Concept of Anomie:
Robert K. Merton built upon Durkheim's concept of anomie, stating that it is a property of the social
system rather than an individual's state of mind. Merton argued that anomie arises from the
structural conditions of modern societies, not individual pathology. He highlighted the role of
opportunity structure, where individuals resort to illegitimate means, like crime, when unable to
achieve goals through legitimate means, resulting in social regulation breakdown and a sense of
normlessness or anomie.
The difference between anomie in Merton and Durkheim view can be summarise as below:
Aspect Merton Durkheim
Definition of Disjuncture between culturally Normlessness or moral deregulation

Anomie accepted goals and socially resulting from rapid social change and
approved means weakening of collective conscience
Focus Individual response to societal Breakdown of social cohesion and shared

structure and pursuit of cultural moral values
goals
Cause of Limited access to legitimate Rapid social change and weakening of

Anomie means to achieve culturally collective conscience
accepted goals
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Emphasis Structural and individual Moral and collective aspects

aspects
Relationship Strain between aspirations and Impact on individual behavior due to
to Deviance limited opportunities leading to normlessness and lack of moral guidance.
deviant behavior
Main Theory Strain theory of Deviance Theory of social integration
Influence Influential in American Influential in classical sociological theory

sociological theory
By examining the difference between Merton and Durkheim's perspectives on anomie, we gain a
comprehensive understanding of the concept. These perspectives contribute valuable insights into
the complex nature of anomie and its implications for deviant behavior.
282
Question 4.
(a) According to Marx, how are human beings alienated from their human
potential and what does he suggest to change this? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define Alienation.
 Briefly talk about the four dimensions of alienation in capitalism.
 Discuss the alienation from Human Potential.
 Discuss the factors that leads to alienation from Human Potential.
 Discuss Marx's Suggestions to Overcome Alienation.
Solution
Alienation, as defined by Karl Marx, is a social and economic condition in which a person is
estranged or separated from the product of their own labor. According to Marx, this alienation arises
from the fact that workers are forced to sell their labor power to capitalists in exchange for wages,
and therefore have no control over the means of production or the fruits of their labor. Workers are
thus separated from the things they produce, as well as from the process of production itself, and
are reduced to being mere cogs in a machine.
Marx identifies four main dimensions of alienation within a capitalist system:
Firstly, there is alienation from the process of production, where individual workers lack control
and autonomy, becoming mere operators of machines. Secondly, there is alienation from the
product, as workers have no influence over the quantity, quality, or nature of what they produce.
The products belong to the capitalist class, and workers must purchase them from the market,
reinforcing their sense of alienation. Thirdly, capitalism fosters alienation from fellow workers
through a competitive work environment that limits interaction and hinders the formation of
meaningful social connections among workers. However, the worst form of alienation that Marx
points at is the alienation from oneself and one's potential.
Alienation from Human Potential:
In a capitalist system, individuals experience alienation from themselves and their true potential.
Work becomes a means of survival rather than a fulfilling pursuit. Individuals lose control over
their own thoughts, ideas, and creativity, as they are constrained by the demands and conditions
imposed by the capitalist mode of production.
Factors Responsible:
In a capitalist society, individuals often find themselves disconnected from their true selves and the
realization of their full potential due to various factors.
1. Work as a Compulsion: Under capitalism, work is often perceived as a means of survival
rather than a fulfilling pursuit driven by personal passion or interest. Individuals are
compelled to engage in labor solely to earn a wage and meet their basic needs. This
compulsion strips away the freedom and choice in pursuing work aligned with their true
interests and talents.
283
2. Loss of Control: Capitalist modes of production place workers in a position where they have
limited control over the work they perform. They are subjected to predetermined tasks and
routines, dictated by the profit-driven goals of the capitalist owners. This loss of control over
one's work prevents individuals from fully expressing their skills, creativity, and unique
potential.
3. Objectification: In capitalist societies, workers are often treated as mere "human resources"
or factors of production. They become commodified entities, valued solely for their labor
power. This objectification reduces individuals to replaceable components within the
production process, diminishing their sense of dignity, self-worth, and personal identity.
4. Fragmentation of Life: Capitalist societies often compartmentalize individuals' lives,
dividing work from personal and social spheres. The rigid division between work and leisure
time restricts individuals' ability to integrate their authentic selves and personal aspirations
with their occupational roles. This compartmentalization further exacerbates the sense of
alienation from oneself and hinders the holistic development of human potential.
Marx's Suggestions to Overcome Alienation:
Marx proposes fundamental changes to address the issue of alienation and unlock human potential:
1. Overhauling the Production Process: Marx envisions a society where the production process
is restructured to empower workers. By granting workers control and decision-making
power over the means of production, alienation from the process can be eliminated.
2. Transformation of Relations of Production: Marx argues for the establishment of a
communist society, where the means of production are collectively owned. This would
enable workers to participate actively in the production process and eliminate alienation
from the product.
3. Enhanced Social Interactions: Marx suggests promoting solidarity and cooperation among
workers to counter the isolation and alienation from fellow workers. By fostering a sense of
community and collaboration, individuals can regain social connections and overcome
alienation.
Marx's ideas on alienation have faced criticism and sparked debates, with some questioning the
practicality of his proposed solutions like communism. Despite the debates, Marx's analysis of
alienation has significantly contributed to understanding the complexities of human existence
within capitalist systems.
284
(b) Schooling does not ensure upward mobility of all members of this
society. Discuss with reference in class societies. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define schooling and upward mobility, and discuss the prevailing understanding of their
relationship.
 Explain how schooling does not ensure upward mobility in class societies.
 Provide an alternate view as to how schooling does ensure upward mobility.
Solution
Schooling is a formal system of education that is typically associated with classrooms, teachers,
and a structured curriculum. It is commonly believed that education, including schooling, is a
pathway to upward mobility, allowing individuals to improve their social status and opportunities.
Upward mobility refers to the ability of individuals to move from a lower social position to a higher
one, often associated with improved socioeconomic circumstances and increased social standing.
In class societies, social class plays a pivotal role in determining opportunities for upward mobility.
Individuals from lower social classes face numerous barriers that hinder their access to quality
education. Economic disparities create unequal resource distribution, resulting in underfunded
schools and limited educational opportunities for disadvantaged communities. As a consequence,
individuals from lower social classes often lack the necessary resources and support to succeed
academically. Educational systems can perpetuate inequality through structural barriers.
Inadequate resources, such as outdated infrastructure and limited educational materials,
disproportionately affect schools in lower socioeconomic areas.
According to sociologists like Paul Willis and Pierre Bourdieu, education also contributes to the
reproduction of cultural capital. Cultural capital refers to the knowledge, skills, and cultural
competencies valued in society. In class societies, individuals from higher social classes are more
likely to possess cultural capital, which gives them an advantage in educational attainment and
social mobility. On the other hand, working-class children often receive an education that
reinforces their working-class status, limiting their upward mobility.
Discrimination based on factors such as caste, race, gender, or socioeconomic status can hinder
upward mobility in education. Marginalized groups often face systemic biases, which manifest in
unequal treatment within educational settings. Prejudices and stereotypes can influence teacher
expectations, student opportunities, and educational outcomes, perpetuating social inequality.
Althusser, in his work "Ideology and Ideological State Apparatus" (1972), presents an alternative
Marxist perspective on education. He views education as the primary "ideological state apparatus"
utilized by ruling classes to advance their own ideas and interests. This appropriation of education
reinforces the dominant ideology, hindering genuine social change and perpetuating the
reproduction of the labor force. Similarly, Bowles and Gintis, in their book "Schooling in Capitalist
America" (1976), describe education as a "giant myth-making machine" with a "hidden curriculum"
that serves the interests of dominant groups.
285
Ivan Illich, in "Deschooling Society" (1971), argues that education has a concealed curriculum that
promotes existing social relations.
According to Illich, pupil often confuse teaching with learning, advancement with education, and a
diploma with competence. He further contends that schools stifle creativity and devalue individuals
by fostering dependency on the capitalist system. Schools, according to Illich, encourage "passive
consumption," which entails an uncritical acceptance of the existing social order. To address these
issues, he proposes the concept of "deschooling society."
However, the supporter of education as a medium of change argue that education is a key driver
of social mobility in modern society. It equips individuals with knowledge, skills, and credentials
that enhance their employability and economic advancement. Education also creates social
networks and opportunities, empowering individuals, broadening horizons, and promoting
health. It breaks intergenerational cycles of disadvantage and fosters social change. Examples like
the Meiji Restoration in Japan and the transformation of Chinese society highlight the
transformative power of education.
Thus, education remains a significant source of social mobility in contemporary society. However,
it is essential to address structural barriers and systemic inequalities within education to ensure that
it truly becomes a vehicle for upward mobility for all individuals. By addressing these challenges,
education can fulfil its potential as a catalyst for social mobility, contributing to a more equitable
and inclusive society.
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(c) Discuss the challenges thrown by religious revivalism to a secular nation-

state. (10 Marks)
 Define both the terms (Religious Revivalism, Nation-State).
 Causes of Religious Revivalism.
 Challenges by Religious Revivalism.
 Conclusion.
Religious Revivalism
 Religious revivalism is a term applied to mass movements which are based upon periodic
religious revivals which seek to restore commitment and attachment to the group with a
regular, observable feature of religious traditions.
 Example: Shudhi movement in pre-independence India. Nation State
 When a group of people are permanently settled on a definite territory and have a
government of their own, free from any kind of external control (can use the word
Sovereignty), they constitute a state and it has sovereign power upon its people.
Causes of Religious Revivalism –

 New insecurities and alienation that arise out of migration and urbanisation in a globalised
world are driving more people to religion as a way of establishing their identities and
validating their experiences.
 There are also economic and social insecurities that arise out of the tension of losing a job or
being alone in a multicultural environment.
 Recent events like the Covid Pandemic and the uncertainty that it unleashed in terms of
survival also pushed many people back into the folds of the religion.
 The ever-evolving modern world and the rapid quest for a ‘sense of belonging’, and ‘identity’
gets accentuated when one feels marginalised in a given context.
 Thus, there is a revival of institutional religions across the world. In different parts of the
world religion has become more visible, both in its institutional form and as an assertion of
identity.
Challenges caused by Religious Revivalism –

 Strong nationalism or strong religionism: This is the case of fusion between strong
nationalism and strong religionism, which creates a kind of indissoluble mesh of “religious
nationalism” as can be seen in the rise of right wing parties across the world who are not
shying away from the use of religion to gain the power.
 According to Michael Mann, Secularised societies faith lacks cultural authority and its appeal
seems to fall flat in front of religious organisations which seem to have greater social power.
In this context, it becomes tough for a secularly organised state to compete with an idea that
has reference to the supernatural.
 Gilles Kepel talks about secularism in a way that if anything like Salman Rushdie Affair
happens, sacred foundation for the organisation of society should be maintained even if there
is a need to Change society to maintain secularism.
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 In the absence of state’s recognition of the problems of minorities (because they have
reference to religion) feel that they are alienated from the society as there is no special policy
made for them for their improvement and this leads to movements of minorities against the
State.
 Bipin Chandra says secular interest of different religions is dissimilar and divergent from the
followers of other religions, posing a great challenge for modern nation states to form a
common minimum program.
 The policies in India, especially at state level, cannot be understood without the study of caste
in that particular state. Thus, caste consciousness has become the very core of the Indian
politics and it has become the greatest roadblock to the furtherance of secularism in our
polity.
 Communal politicians have successfully used the economics of inequality, uneven
development and underdevelopment to reinforce their stranglehold over the society.
Conclusion and Way Forward –

 Secularism provides a check on the tyranny of the majority that is natural part of any
democratic society, and thus should be promoted on its merits.
 Jose Casanova believes that in contemporary societies of the world, religious beliefs and
practices are not dying out but have increasingly re-entered public sphere. Therefore, it can
be concluded that though religion no longer has a central position in the structure of modern
society but it has not faded away and religion remains a significant force, though in new and
unfamiliar forms.
 Michael Sandel believes that since modern nation states completely ignored the questions
posed by the religious
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Section - B
(a) Is the theory of cultural lag valid in present times? Discuss. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly define cultural lag.
 Explain the Cultural Lag Theory by William F. Ogburn
 Explain the relevance of the theory with contemporary examples.
 Mention the limitations of the theory.
Solution
The theory of cultural lag examines the time disparity between technological advancements and
corresponding adjustments in non-material culture. It suggests that this time lag can lead to social
problems and conflicts.
Cultural lag Theory:
Cultural lag, as proposed by sociologist William F. Ogburn, emphasizes the differing rates of
change between material and non-material culture. Material culture, which includes tangible
inventions like technology, tends to progress rapidly due to agreed-upon efficiency standards. For
example, advancements in automobile continually strive for higher speeds, greater capacity, and
lower costs. In contrast, non-material culture, such as artistic styles or political systems, lacks
universally accepted standards and experiences fluctuating changes. Governments, for instance, can
take the form of dictatorships, oligarchies, republics, or democracies.
Relevance of the theory:
Cultural lag remains observable in contemporary society.
Technological advancements, globalization, and rapid societal changes have altered the pace of
cultural change. While material culture continues to evolve swiftly, changes in non-material culture,
such as government structures, family dynamics, education systems, and religious practices, have
been comparatively slower. This discrepancy between the rates of change has perpetuated cultural
lag. Examples of cultural lag persisting today include:
1. Internet and digital technologies: The rise of the internet and digital technologies brought
about significant changes in communication and information sharing. However, the cultural
lag theory is evident in the slow evolution of privacy laws and regulations to address the
challenges posed by the digital age.
2. Ethical guidelines for artificial intelligence (AI): The rapid advancement of AI has outpaced
the development of comprehensive frameworks to address concerns regarding bias,
accountability, and privacy. This cultural lag raises important ethical questions and
challenges in adapting to the implications of AI technology.
3. Stem cell research and ethical considerations: The adoption of new medical technologies,
like stem cell research, raises ethical questions and challenges societal norms.
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The absence of a broad social consensus on the appropriate applications of such technology
can lead to social conflict and undermine social solidarity.
4. Reproductive technologies: The development of reproductive technologies, such as in-vitro
fertilization (IVF) and surrogate motherhood, raised ethical questions and created a cultural
lag. The rapid progress in medical advancements in assisted reproduction outpaced the
establishment of comprehensive ethical guidelines and legal frameworks to address issues
like consent, parentage, and the welfare of the child.
5. Mental health support and resources: Despite increased recognition of mental health's
importance, cultural lag exists in providing comprehensive support and resources. Stigma,
inadequate funding, and limited accessibility to mental health services contribute to a
mismatch between understanding mental health issues and the availability of appropriate
care systems.
Limitations of the theory:
Despite its significance, the theory of cultural lag has not been without criticism. Some sociologists
and researchers argue that the theory oversimplifies cultural change by focusing primarily on the
lag between material and non-material culture. They contend that cultural change is a complex
interplay of multiple factors, including social, economic, and political dynamics. Moreover,
cultural lag theory may reflect a bias toward Western cultural perspectives and fail to account for
diverse cultural contexts.
While cultural lag may not comprehensively explain all aspects of cultural change, it still provides
a useful framework for understanding the challenges arising from technological advancements and
the resulting social adjustments. However, it is crucial to complement the theory of cultural lag with
other sociological perspectives that offer alternative explanations and insights into cultural change.
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(b) Are social movements primordial in means and progressive in agenda?

Explain. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly define Social Movement
 Explain what we mean by primordial means in social movement.
 Explain what we mean by progressive agenda in social movement.
 Explain the complex relationship between primordial means and progressive agenda in
social movement.
Solution
Social movements are collective attempts to bring about change and achieve common goals outside
the established institutions of society. They have the potential to create significant impact and have
been instrumental in various historical transformations.
Primordial Means:
Some social movements in history have relied on primordial means, which involve utilizing
traditional or pre-existing methods of organizing and mobilizing people. These means often draw
upon established cultural or historical identities.
Religious or nationalist movements have used primordial means to rally supporters based on shared
beliefs and values. For example, Gandhi emphasized traditional Indian values, culture, and
symbols, such as the spinning wheel (charkha), to mobilize the masses and foster a sense of national
identity.
Progressive Agenda:
A progressive agenda refers to the pursuit of social change and reform to address issues of
inequality, injustice, and discrimination. For example, Herbert Blumer viewed social movements
as agents of social change driven by dissatisfaction with certain aspects of society. Many social
movements throughout history, such as the Civil Rights Movement in America and feminist
movement, have championed progressive causes and fought for equality and rights for
marginalized groups. Their goals have been transformative, challenging existing power structures
and advocating for a more inclusive society.
Primordial mean vs Progressive agenda:
Social movements encompass a wide range of means and agendas, making their nature complex
and diverse. They can employ both primordial and modern methods of organizing, depending on
the context and objectives of the movement. The agenda of social movements can also vary, with
some advocating for progressive causes while others may have more conservative or reactionary
aims. Moreover, social movements often evolve and adapt their means and agendas based on
strategic considerations and societal dynamics.
Cultural context, political climate, and available resources all play crucial roles in shaping the means
and agendas of social movements. For example, John McCarthy in his Resource Mobilization
Theory argues that it is the availability of the ‘necessary resources’, which turns the ‘chronic
discontent’ into ‘effective mobilisations and social movements.’
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And that only political dissatisfaction is not enough, to bring about social change.
While primordial means can tap into existing identities and mobilize support, modern means such
as social media and digital organizing have also become influential in contemporary movements.
Balancing primordial means with progressive agendas allows social movements to leverage
historical legacies while advocating for transformative change. For example, Maori rights
movement in New Zealand combines primordial means rooted in Maori culture, history, and
identity with a progressive agenda for indigenous empowerment.
Social movements are complex phenomena that involve a combination of primordial means and
progressive agendas. Their nature evolves in response to societal dynamics, strategic considerations,
and available resources. By analyzing the characteristics, goals, and strategies of social movements,
we gain a deeper understanding of their role in bringing about social change and new identity
formation in a rapidly changing society.
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(c) Does scientific method make Sociology a Science? Illustrate your answer
with Durkheim's method. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly introduce the concept of the scientific method.
 Explain the Durkheim's method in Sociology.
 Provide limitation of sociology in meeting criteria of science.
Solution
The Scientific Method, in general, refers to any systematic, rational, and objective set of steps used
to explore the truth, acquire new knowledge, investigate phenomena, or correct and integrate
previous knowledge. Specifically, it involves a series of steps that begin with defining the research
question, building a hypothesis, conducting experiments or tests, and so on.
Sociology meets these criteria as it examines society systematically, collects empirical data, and
develops theories to explain social phenomena. This can be seen in the method adopted by
Durkheim in his studies.
Durkheim's scientific method:
Emile Durkheim, influenced by thinkers like Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer, aimed to
establish sociology as a distinct scientific discipline. He sought to distance himself from
metaphysical assumptions and grand theories of social development. Durkheim's method
incorporated elements of Comte's positivism and Spencer's functionalist analysis, but with
critical modifications.
Durkheim emphasized the study of social facts and their objective existence beyond individual
consciousness. He utilized quantitative data, statistics, and the organic analogy to analyze how
different parts of society function together. Durkheim's approach aimed to identify social forces and
patterns that shape individuals' behaviors and beliefs.
By employing rigorous data collection methods and statistical analysis, Durkheim sought to
uncover causal relationships within society. A notable example of Durkheim's scientific inquiry is
his study on suicide rates.
Durkheim analyzed vast amounts of quantitative data from different societies, identifying patterns
and correlations. His research revealed a significant finding: the suicide rate was influenced by the
level of social integration. Durkheim's work demonstrated the application of the scientific method
in sociology, contributing to the development of sociological theory and advancing our
understanding of social phenomena.
Limitations:
However, critics argue that the complexity of social phenomena and the role of subjectivity pose
challenges to the classification of sociology as a science. Besides Karl Popper, in his book 'The Logic
of Scientific Enquiry,' argues that science and the scientific method face the problem of
demarcation, i.e., distinguishing what is scientific and what is not, as subjectivity can be present at
times. Additionally, due to its specific nature, conducting "laboratory experiments" in a controlled
environment is not feasible in sociology.
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Therefore, establishing cause and effect through controlled experimentation is not possible, and the
discovery of fixed universal laws becomes impractical.
However, sociologists address these challenges by employing robust methodologies, such as mixed
methods approach, triangulation, and reflexivity. They acknowledge the limitations and strive to
minimize bias through rigorous data collection and analysis, peer review, and replication studies.
294
(d) Distinguish between qualitative techniques of data collection with

suitable examples from Indian society. (10 Marks)
Structure
 Introduction
 Definition
 Difference
 Application in Indian society.
 Conclusion
Quantitative methods employ a systematic, scientific investigation of quantitative properties of a
phenomenon in order to develop different types of theories and they generate a quantifiable image
of reality. Qualitative Methods refers to examination, analysis and interpretation of observation for
the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationship to gain better
understanding of symbols, motives and meanings.
Definition-
 Qualitative research is used to gain an understanding of human behaviour, intentions,
attitudes, experience, etc., based on the observation and the interpretation of the people. It is
an unstructured and exploratory technique that deals with the highly complex phenomena
which are not possible. This kind of research is usually done to understand the topic in-depth.
It is carried out by taking the interview with the open-ended questions, observations which
are described in words, and so on.
 Quantitative Research: Quantitative research method relies on the methods of natural
sciences, that develops hard facts and numerical data. it establishes the cause-and-effect
relationship between two variables using different statistical, computational, and statistical
methods. As the results are accurately and precisely measured, this research method is also
termed as “Empirical Research”. This type of research is generally used to establish the
generalised facts about the particular topic. This type of research is usually done by using
surveys, experiments, and so on.
Difference between quantitative and qualitative methods
 In the quantitative research, the problem is specific and precise in the qualitative research, it
is general and loosely structured.
 In the quantitative research, the hypotheses are formulated before the study; in the
qualitative research, hypotheses are propounded either during the study or after the study.
 In the quantitative research, concepts are operationalized; in the qualitative research concepts
are only sensitized.
 In the quantitative research, in designing research, the design is prescriptive; in the
qualitative research, the design is not prescriptive.
 In the quantitative research, sampling is planned before data collection; in the qualitative
research, it is planned during data collection.
 In the quantitative research, sampling is representative; in the qualitative research, it is not
representative.
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 In the quantitative research, all types of measurements/scales are employed; in the
qualitative research, mostly nominal scales are used.
 In the quantitative research, for data collection, generally investigators are employed in big
researches; in the qualitative research, the researchers analyse data single-handed.
 In the quantitative research, in processing data, usually inductive generalization is made; in
the qualitative research, usually analytical generalizations are made.
 In reporting in the quantitative research the finding are highly integrated; in the latter, the
findings are mostly not integrated.
Application in Indian society-
Caste- If we need to understand that whether the institution of caste has undergone any change or
not, we need to have a qualitative analysis where apart from data collection of the various features
as said by G.S. Ghurye we need to have an analytical bent of mind and also analyzing the latent
behavior of individuals but while studying whether the reservation benefits have been met then
only quantitative analysis is sufficient.
Marriage- To check whether the institution of marriage is still functional and adheres to its role as
said by Malinowski that it legitimizes the children we need to have a qualitative analysis but for
knowing about divorce rates quantitative analysis is sufficient.
Methods are the ways of conducting research. Data collection and analysis are twin objectives of
any methods. Attempts are being made to reconcile the differences between two broad methods so
that we may use the benefits of both and ignore the demerits. E.g.: Hybrids like Socio Logic by
Michel Mann in 1980s and Triangulation Method by Norman Denzin.
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(e) Is social mobility possible in closed systems of stratification? Illustrate

from research work. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly introduce the concept of the social mobility.
 Explain the what do we mean by closed systems of stratification
 Discuss Social mobility in closed systems.
 Illustrate your point with research work.
Solution
Social mobility refers to the ability of individuals or groups to change their social position within a
social hierarchy.
Closed systems of stratification:
Closed systems of stratification are societies in which an individual's social status is determined by
ascribed characteristics such as caste, race, or parental social status. Examples of closed systems
include the Indian caste system, where individuals are born into specific castes and have limited
opportunities to move out of their assigned social position.
Social mobility in closed systems:
In closed systems of stratification, social mobility is generally constrained. Factors such as inherited
social status, limited access to resources, and rigid social norms contribute to the limited mobility
within these systems. Individuals born into lower social positions often face significant barriers in
their attempts to move up the social ladder. The lack of opportunities for upward mobility is a
characteristic feature of closed systems of stratification. But practically no system can be closed
enough not to provide Social Mobility to its members because in any closed system some
individual can ensure social mobility through their efforts.
Research work:
Closed systems like the Indian caste system have been extensively studied in terms of social
mobility. Scholars such as M. N. Srinivas have explored the concept of "Sanskritization," whereby
individuals or groups can aspire to move up the caste hierarchy through emulation of higher castes'
practices and values. Similarly, Yogendra Singh's research on conversion as a means of social
mobility provide additional examples of individuals attempting to transcend their assigned social
positions within closed systems.
Furthermore, closed systems like race also demonstrate the presence of social mobility. William
Julius Wilson's 1978 book “The Declining Significance of Race” argued that economic class had
gradually become more important than race in determining the life trajectory of African Americans.
He argues that while race continues to have significant implications for individuals' life chances,
other factors such as socioeconomic status and educational attainment also play crucial roles in
determining social mobility within racial groups.
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However, it is important to note that while these studies highlight specific cases of social mobility
within closed systems, they do not undermine the overall pattern of restricted mobility. The
examples mentioned above are exceptions rather than the norm, and they do not negate the inherent
limitations imposed by closed systems of stratification.
Thus, closed systems of stratification though impose significant constraints on social mobility it also
has some instances of social mobility. Hence understanding the dynamics of closed systems of
stratification is essential for analyzing social mobility and its impact on individuals and society as a
whole.
298
Question 6.
(a) Discuss the nature of social organization of work in capitalist society
with reference to the Limits of the working day. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by explaining what we mean by social organization of work.
 Mention the characteristics of social organization of work in capitalist society.
 Explain the concept of Limits of the Working Day and how it helps us to understand social
organization of work in capitalist society.
Solution
Social organization reflects the normative structure at work place in form of stratified order in
society, power relations, social mobility, and alienation and so on.
The social organization of work in capitalist society is characterized by mass production in factories,
complex division of labor, emphasis on capital and pursuit of profit, production for exchange and
maximizing profit, a competitive environment shaping economic actors, high levels of worker
alienation, multiplicity of economic institutions, surplus production for the market and economies
of scale, a money economy and commodification of labor, and other related factors. These
characteristics of the social organization of work in capitalist society have a direct relation to the
concept of the limits of the working day.
Limits of the Working Day:
Here, the limits of the working day refer to the boundaries beyond which the working day cannot
be extended. These limits are determined by two key factors: the need for surplus labor and the
physical limits of labor. Surplus labor is essential in capitalist production to generate profits. If the
surplus labor were reduced to zero, capitalists would not be able to accumulate wealth. This need
for surplus labor highlights the exploitative nature of capitalist society, as workers are compelled
to work beyond the time necessary for their own subsistence.
Besides, there are physical and human limitations on the length of the working day. Workers have
finite energy and endurance, and they require rest and leisure for their well-being. Beyond a
certain point, excessive and continuous work becomes detrimental to their physical and mental
health. These physical limits impose restrictions on how long the working day can be extended.
However, the pursuit of profit shapes the social organization of work in capitalist society. Capitalists
control and organize the work process to maximize their profits. They set the working hours and
conditions, often pushing for longer working days to increase surplus labor. This power imbalance
between the capitalist class and the working class is a defining characteristic of capitalist social
organization.
Recognizing and understanding these dynamics is essential for comprehending the nature of
capitalist society and its impact on the lives of workers. By critically examining the social
organization of work, we can strive for a more equitable and sustainable approach to labor and
economic systems.
299
(b) Distinguish between family and household with reference to the concept
of development of the household. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define Family and Household.
 Explain the concept of development of the household.
 Distinguish between family and household.
Solution
A family refers to a group of people consisting of two or more members who are connected through
marriage, blood relations, or adoption and live together, either in the same house or in different
houses. On the other hand, a household refers to a group of individuals who live in the same
dwelling, such as a house, apartment, or annex.
Households can be classified into two types: family households, which consist of a family and may
include additional non-family members, and non-family households, which consist of individuals
who are not related to each other.
Development of household:
The concept of the development of the household refers to the changes in the composition and
structure of households over time. Individuals go through different stages and transitions in their
living arrangements. They may start in a family household with their parents, then move out to live
independently or with friends. Eventually, they may form their own family household with a
spouse and possibly children. In later stages of life, circumstances such as divorce or the departure
of a spouse may lead to living in a single-person household. However, not everyone experiences all
these stages, and some individuals may skip or repeat certain phases based on personal
circumstances.
Further the composition of households can be influenced by economic and social changes. For
example, in liberal societies, there may be an increase in unmarried couples living together without
formal marriage. Higher divorce rates could result in more single-person households. Economic
crises may lead to adult individuals returning to live with their parents. These changes highlight
how living arrangements within households can shift due to various factors. Sociologist argue that
due to various factors like population growth, increasing longevity, greater pressure on land and
housing, the average size of household has actually been increasing.
Difference between family and household:
In order to study and analyze these social dynamics accurately it becomes important to understand
the difference between family and household.
Family Household
Relationship: In a family, all members are related In contrast, members of a household are
to each other through kinship ties, not necessarily related to each other.
such as parent-child, sibling, or They may be friends, roommates, or
spousal relationships. individuals sharing a living space
without any familial connection.
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Dwelling: While members of a family may live In contrast, members of a household

together in the same dwelling, such reside in the same dwelling.
as a house or apartment, they can
also live in separate dwellings,
such as in the case of adult children
living on their own or elderly
parents residing in assisted living
facilities.
Duties and In a family, members have certain In non-family households, such as
Responsibilities: obligations, duties, and shared housing or cohabiting
responsibilities towards each arrangements, the members do not
other, often based on social norms necessarily have duties or
and cultural expectations. For responsibilities towards each other
example, parents are responsible for beyond shared expenses or basic
the well-being and upbringing of household chores.
their children, and spouses have
mutual obligations to support and
care for each other.
Types: Families encompass various types, On the other hand, households can be
including nuclear families (parents classified into two types: family
and their children), extended households and non-family households.
families (multiple generations living Furthermore, in his field study in
together), and single-parent families Gujarat, A. M. Shah classified
(one parent and their children). households into two groups: simple
and compound.
To sum up, understanding the difference between families and households is crucial for sociological
analysis. While families are characterized by kinship ties and shared responsibilities, households
encompass a broader range of living arrangements, including both familial and non-familial
301
(c) Explain with examples, the explanatory and exploratory designs of social
Approach
 Define Social Research.
 Explain Exploratory Design and give example.
 Explain Exploratory Design and give example.
 Mention some similarities & differences between the two.
Solution
Social research is a systematic investigation of social phenomena aimed at gaining a deeper
understanding of society. In this field, research designs are categorized into various types, and two
significant approaches are explanatory and exploratory designs.
Exploratory Design:
Exploratory research is conducted when there is limited existing knowledge or when a particular
topic or issue is relatively unexplored. Its purpose is to explore and generate insights rather than
providing definitive explanations. Qualitative methods such as interviews, focus groups, and
observations are commonly employed in exploratory research.
Example: Let's consider a study on the impact of social media on mental health among teenagers.
In an exploratory design, the researcher may conduct focus group discussions with teenagers to
explore their experiences, perceptions, and challenges related to social media use. Through these
discussions, the researcher can identify emerging themes, such as cyberbullying, social comparison,
or fear of missing out, which may contribute to mental health issues.
Explanatory Design:
Explanatory research seeks to understand the causes and effects of social phenomena by
examining the relationships between variables. It aims to explain why certain phenomena occur and
identify the factors that influence them. Explanatory research often employs quantitative methods
such as surveys, experiments, or statistical analysis.
Example: For an explanatory design example, let's consider a study examining the relationship
between income inequality and crime rates. The researcher may gather quantitative data on
income distribution and crime rates across different regions or countries. By using statistical
analysis, such as regression models, the researcher can determine if there is a significant association
between income inequality and crime rates. This research aims to explain whether income inequality
has an impact on the occurrence of criminal activities.
Similarities and Differences:
While both exploratory and explanatory designs contribute to social research, they differ in their
methods and objectives. They share the common ground of gathering empirical data and expanding
knowledge in sociology. Exploratory research primarily focuses on exploration, generating insights,
and understanding complex social phenomena. It utilizes qualitative methods, emphasizes open-
ended questions, and often lacks a pre-determined hypothesis.
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Exploratory research is valuable when investigating new or understudied topics, as it helps generate
hypotheses and provides a foundation for future research.
On the other hand, explanatory research aims to provide explanations and understand the causal
relationships between variables. It utilizes quantitative methods, emphasizes hypothesis testing,
and employs statistical techniques to analyze data. Explanatory research is valuable for validating
or refuting existing theories and providing evidence-based explanations for social phenomena.
Both explanatory and exploratory designs play important roles in social research. By employing
these designs, researchers contribute to a better understanding of social phenomena and provide a
foundation for policy decisions and social interventions.
303
Question - 7.
(a) How can Parsons' AGIL framework be used to analyse key problems in
a society? Discuss. 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce with Parson's systemic view of society.
 Explain the AGIL Framework.
 Explain how Parsons' AGIL framework can be used to analyse key problems in a society.
 Provide some limitations of the GIL Framework.
Solution
Parson's perspective on society views it as a system, and he emphasizes the essential needs that
must be fulfilled for the system to function effectively. His AGIL framework offers a systematic
approach to analyze social systems and comprehend their functional prerequisites. This framework
identifies four fundamental needs of a social system: Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, and
Latency. By considering these key elements, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of how
societies operate and analyse key problems in a society.
AGIL Framework:
The AGIL framework, proposed by Parsons, highlights the functional prerequisites that social
systems must fulfill for their existence and maintenance.
1. Adaptation: This refers to the system's relationship with its external environment and the
ability to meet physical needs. The economy performs the function of adaptation by
controlling the environment, producing goods, and allocating resources.
2. Goal Attainment: This encompasses actions that define the goals of the system and mobilize
resources to achieve them. The political system, such as the polity, plays a role in goal
attainment by pursuing societal objectives and mobilizing actors and resources.
3. Integration: This relates to the coordination and mutual adjustment of different parts of the
social system, primarily focusing on conflict resolution. The societal community, including
systems like law or the judicial system, performs the function of integration by establishing
control, inhibiting deviant tendencies, and maintaining coordination.
4. Latency: This function involves the maintenance of cultural values and norms within society.
Systems such as education, family, and religion handle the latency function by transmitting
culture to individuals and facilitating its internalization.
AGIL Framework used to analyze key problems:
The AGIL framework can be applied to analyze key problems in society by examining how these
problems affect each functional subsystem:
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AGIL Key problems in society

Framework
Adaptation Helps us to analyze how the problem hinders the system's ability to adapt to
changing conditions and meet physical needs. For example, the environmental
crisis and resource scarcity can challenge the economy's ability to provide for the
society's material requirements.
Goal Helps us to explore how the problem impacts the system's ability to define and
Attainment achieve its goals. For instance, social inequality may hinder the polity's goal of
promoting equal opportunities and distributive justice.
Integration Helps us to examine how the problem disrupts social integration and coordination
among different parts of the system. Social unrest and conflicts based on factors
like class, ethnicity, or religion can pose challenges to the societal community's
function of maintaining coordination and social cohesion.
Latency Helps us to investigate how the problem affects the transmission and
internalization of cultural values and norms. For example, cultural conflicts or
rapid societal changes may strain the latency systems' ability to ensure the
continuity and stability of cultural patterns.
AGIL framework can also be used to understand various aspects of a singular major problem such
as gender inequality in Indian society.
1. Adaptation: Gender inequality may restrict women's access to resources, limiting their
economic contribution and hindering overall adaptation.
2. Goal Attainment: Gender biases and discrimination can impede the polity's goal of achieving
gender equality and women's empowerment.
3. Integration: Gender-based conflicts and power imbalances may disrupt social integration
and cohesion within families and communities.
4. Latency: Gender norms and stereotypes can perpetuate inequality and limit women's
opportunities for personal and professional growth.
Limitations:
Some criticise Parsons' theory for being overly deterministic, implying that individuals have little
agency and that social structure determines individual behaviour. Others criticised Parsons' theory
for oversimplifying society, reducing it to a collection of interconnected subsystems governed by
shared norms and values.
Parsons' theory has also been criticised for failing to fully account for the role of power, conflict, and
inequality in shaping social relationships and institutions. Besides, the theory is criticised for its
Eurocentric perspective, which focuses solely on Western societies and fails to take into account the
diversity of cultures and social systems around the world.
Therefore, while the AGIL framework offers valuable insights, it should be used in conjunction with
other sociological perspectives and approaches to gain a holistic understanding of societal
challenges. By employing a multi-dimensional analysis, researchers and sociologists can effectively
explore and address the complexities of key problems within society, contributing to the
advancement of sociological knowledge and the potential for meaningful social change.
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(b) What is labour commitment? Discuss it with reference to studies of

manufacturing industry. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining labour commitment.
 Discuss the significance of labour commitment.
 Discuss the factors that influence labour commitment in manufacturing industry.
 Discuss the positive outcomes of labour commitment and the hinderance to it.
Solution
Labour commitment is a crucial aspect of the functioning of an organization and refers to the
dedication and willingness of workers towards their organization, tasks, fellow workers, labor
laws, and society as a whole. It plays a significant role in the productivity and success of a firm.
Significance of Labour commitment
Labour commitment is essential for generating value within the economic system. Karl Marx's
analysis of society based on class divisions highlights the importance of labor in the creation of
value. Workers, represented by the wages or salaries they receive, contribute their efforts and skills
to the production process, thereby creating economic value.
Recognizing and fostering labour commitment is crucial to prevent exploitation and ensure the
well-being of workers. In a capitalist society, where profits increase with production and
distribution, neglecting the commitment of laborers can lead to a decline in the quality of
production. Understanding and addressing their commitment is necessary to avoid detrimental
consequences.
Labour commitment serves to integrate workers within the social fabric and promote collective
well-being. Effective coordination and cooperation among different departments and workers
within an organization are vital for its success. By fostering a sense of commitment among workers,
firms can enhance their performance and maintain their reputation.
Labour commitment in the manufacturing industry:
Labour commitment plays a crucial role in the manufacturing industry, impacting productivity and
organizational success Labour commitment in the manufacturing industry is influenced by
various factors.
These include organizational culture, job satisfaction, leadership styles, and the presence of
supportive work environments.
For example, a positive and inclusive culture that values employee contributions, promotes
teamwork, recognizes achievements, and provides a sense of belonging can foster higher levels of
commitment. Also, when workers find their jobs fulfilling, experience a sense of accomplishment,
have autonomy and control over their work, and receive recognition and rewards, they are more
likely to demonstrate higher levels of commitment. Examining these factors helps identify strategies
to enhance labour commitment within manufacturing organizations.
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High levels of labour commitment yield several positive outcomes in manufacturing. These include
increased productivity, reduced turnover rates, improved quality control, and enhanced overall
organizational performance. Committed workers exhibit greater motivation, reliability, and a
willingness to exceed job requirements.
However, labour commitment in the manufacturing industry can face several hindrances. Firstly,
the physically demanding nature of many manufacturing tasks can lead to fatigue, injuries, and
occupational health issues, affecting workers' ability to remain committed. Additionally, certain
manufacturing jobs may involve repetitive and monotonous tasks, leading to boredom and
reduced motivation among workers. The limited opportunities for skill development and career
growth within the industry can also hinder workers' commitment, as they may feel stagnant and
unfulfilled in their roles. Moreover, occupational health and safety issues pose a significant
challenge, with inadequate safety measures, exposure to hazardous substances, and lack of proper
training undermining workers' commitment. Addressing these hindrances is crucial to promote a
more committed and engaged workforce in the manufacturing industry.
In conclusion, recognizing and fostering labour commitment is essential for the success of
organizations, especially in the manufacturing industry. Understanding and addressing the factors
influencing labour commitment can help organizations create a conducive work environment and
promote the well-being of their workers.
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(c) What, according to Pareto, are the basic characteristics of elites? Discuss
(10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by explaining what pareto meant by the term Elite.
 Mention the types of Elites as per Pareto.
 Describe the basic characteristics of elite as per Pareto.
 Provide criticism of Pareto's Elite theory.
Solution
Pareto believed that individuals are born with quite different abilities and acquire quite different
skills and aptitudes. According to Pareto, people are unequal physically, as well as intellectually
and morally. Some people are more gifted than others. Pareto says, those who are most capable in
any particular grouping are the elite.
The term elite denote simply, “a class of the people who have the highest indices in their branch of
activity.” According to Pareto, “By elite, we mean the small number of individuals who, in each
sphere of activity, have succeeded and have arrived at a higher echelon in the professional
hierarchy.” Examples are the successful businessmen, artists, successful writers, professors etc.
Pareto further divided the elite class into two categories:
1. A governing elite
2. A non-governing elite.
A governing elite comprising individual who directly or indirectly play some considerable part in
government. A non-governing elite is comprising the rest of the individuals. Governing elites are
directly and indirectly concerned with administration. They play highly important role and enjoy
prestigious place in society. Non-Governing elites are not connected with administration but occupy
such a place in society that they somehow influence the administration.
Pareto categorizes governing elites into lions and foxes. Lions achieve power through direct and
forceful actions, while foxes’ rule through cunning and manipulation. These personal qualities
determine their positions within the elite.
Basic characteristics of elites:
1. Manipulation of Political Power: Elites possess the ability to manipulate political power,
either overtly or covertly, to further their own interests.
2. Establishment of Superiority: Elites establish their superiority over others, distinguishing
themselves as rulers from those who are ruled.
3. Personal Qualities: The personal qualities of the ruling elites remain consistent throughout
time. These qualities separate them from the non-elites and contribute to their dominance.
4. Lions: One type of elite, known as "lions," possesses the ability to make direct and decisive
decisions. They rule through the use of force.
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5. Foxes: Another type of elite, referred to as "foxes," is characterized by their cunning, guile,
diplomacy, manipulation, and skill in wheeling and dealing.
6. Lack of Counterpart Qualities: Each type of elite, lions and foxes, lacks the qualities
possessed by its counterpart. These counterpart qualities are crucial for maintaining power
in the long run.
7. Decadence and Loss of Vigor: All elites have a tendency to become decadent over time. They
decay in quality and lose their vigor as they become complacent in their positions of power.
8. Circulation of Elites: The process of the "Circulation of Elites" is a distinct characteristic of
the elite class. Lions and foxes replace each other within the elite, leading to upward and
downward circulation among its members.
Limitations:
Critics argue that Pareto's view of history as a circulation of elites oversimplifies the complexities
of political systems. His theory lacks precise measurements for distinguishing superior qualities
of elites or assessing the process of elite decadence. He does suggest, however, that if elite is closed
to recruitment from below it is likely to rapidly lose its vigor and vitality and have a short life. Yet,
as T. B. Bottomore notes, the Brahmins – the elite stratum in the Indian caste system – were a closed
group which survived for many hundreds of years.
Pareto's analysis of the basic characteristics of elites highlights the importance of personal qualities
and internal organization in elite rule. While his theory has its limitations, understanding the
dynamics between elites and the masses is essential for comprehending societal structures and
political systems.
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Question 8.
(a)“The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography
and the relationship between the two in a society.” – C.W.Mills . Explain.
Structure:
 Define Sociological Imagination
 Exemplifying
 Understanding the relation between the individual (biography) and the context (history)
 Offer Criticism
 Conclude
Defining Sociological Imagination

 The term sociological imagination was coined by C.W. Mills. He defines sociological
imagination as:
 “The ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.
 This awareness enables us to understand the link between our personal experiences and the
social context in which they occur.
 The sociological imagination helps us distinguish between personal trouble and social (or
public) issues.”
 Wright Mills rests his vision of the sociological imagination precisely in the unraveling of
how the personal and public are related.
 A key element in the sociological imagination is the ability to view one’s own Society as an
outsider would, rather than from the limited perspective of personal experiences and cultural
biases.
Examples
Sociological imagination allows us to go beyond personal experiences and observations to
understand broader public issues.
 Unemployment, for example, is unquestionably a personal hardship for a man or woman
without a job. However, C. Wright Mills pointed out that when unemployment is a social
problem shared by millions of people, it is appropriate to question the way that a society is
structured or organized.
 Similarly, Mills advocated use of the sociological imagination to view divorce not simply as
the personal problem of a particular man and woman, but rather as a structural problem,
since it is the outcome of many marriages.
Importance of Sociological Imagination

Mills said:-
 It enables its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for
the inner life and the external career of a variety of individuals.
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 It enables him to take into account how individuals, in the turbulence of their daily
experiences, often become falsely conscious of their social positions.
 Within the turbulence, the framework of modern society is sought.
 Within that framework the psychologies of a variety of men and women are formulated.
 By such means the personal uneasiness of individuals is focused upon explicit troubles and
the indifference of publics is transformed into involvement with public issues.
Understanding the relation between the individual (biography) and the context (history):
The sociological imagination enables us to grasp history and biography and the relations between
the two within society.
 With it, Mills explains, that we are able to shift from an historical (or societal) to and
individual point of view and back again.
 Sociological imagination helps us acquire an understanding of our society and at the same
time satisfy our urge to know the meaning of our individual social lives.
 The relations between biography and history are the relations between what Mills called
“troubles” and “issues”.
o Troubles are private; Issues are public.
o Troubles are personal; Issues are general.
o Troubles are local; Issues are wide-ranging.
 Mills suggest that troubles are located “within the character of the individual and within the
range of his [ or her] immediate relations with others” (that is, the individual’s “milieu”).
 Mills proposes that with sociological imagination we can see how troubles and issues are
related, how troubles experienced privately can be can be connected to public issues located
in the structure of society.
Critique:
 Mills is not the first one to suggest a relation between personal and public or between present
and the past.
 Karl Marx, Weber, Durkheim have all used this methodology to highlight the importance of
the historical context in understanding the situation of an individual in the present.
 Mills’ ideas have an unusual focus on the development of research ideas, rather than the
technicalities of how to collect and analyse data, making his methodological ideas hard to fit
into the usual methodological discussions.
 John D. Brewer is pessimistic regarding how useful Mills is to the normative questions that
arise when we try to do ‘public sociology’ as ‘in late modernity there are no stark zero-sum
answers.’
 From a political perspective, a sociological imagination is extremely limited as it attributes
the causes of “individual troubles” to the structure of society. This exposes a self-reference
paradox because it assumes that humans are the product and thus mere victims of
circumstances, while at the same time demanding political action from exactly these
“products”.
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 In the end, Mills’ a model requires a deus ex machina, or, in the words of Mills, “a prophet
that comes in from a desert” to change the scheme of things.
Concludingly
 Even as we move towards later stages of modernity, CW Mills helps us to be aware of the
ideas of social structure.
 And the sociological imagination helps us to use them with sensibility.
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(b) What are sects? Discuss their role in multi-religious societies with
empirical examples. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define Sects
 Sects in diverse societies
 Some examp es
 Criticism
 Conclusion
Sects
They are religious groups that stand for those who dissent from an established doctrine.
Ray Wallis defined sects as that see themselves as uniquely legitimate. He says “people seek
salvation in the sense-of-community " of ere by sects".
Max Weber says Sects are most likely to be formed within groups which are marginal in society and
this marginalisation is justified through theodicy of disprivilege.
Sects in multi-religious or plural societies:

3 important perspectives:
 Peter Berger says that sects openly reject many of the norms and values of the society and the
worldview offered by them.
 Therefore, their intentions with the larger society are against it.
 Stark-Bainbridge theory says that sects are formed as an offshoot of existing religion as a
result of division or schism within that religion. They can be seen as a possible response to
relative deprivation of a particular section in a diverse society.
 Troeltsch - In a plural society, sects are connected with lower classes or those who are
opposed to state and society.
Role of Sects in a diverse society: -

1. A sect encompasses not the whole but a part of a society. Attaining identity easily, it tends to
provide a sense of greater self-esteem to its members and, thus, it derives its relevance.
2. Sects arose mostly to uphold the value of radical individualism, the ideal of love and
brotherhood and a conscious concern for the poor. E.g. Christianity.
3. Sects provoke very strong feelings in their followers and they feel like their life's mission is
to ensure that all others follow the true path and punish those who try to deviate from the
path. Thus, they discipline an individual in a society.
4. Sects do not become directly involved in politics. In fact, they are purposely apolitical,
refusing to grant any divine legitimation to the political structure or to court favour from the
secular authorities. Weber sees the sects' demand for a constitutional guarantee of freedom
of conscience as one of their great contributions to plural, modern societies.
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5. Sects tend to bring together peoples from various religious faiths. The main emphasis of
many multi-faith groups is to place differences aside and recognize the commonalities that
do exist. Sects provide a sense of identity to those who do not particularly agree to their
religion's ideology.
6. Sects emerge as a contradiction, try to seek remedies, create counter- culture and alternate
ideologies.
Example — Lutheranism, Calvinism, Buddhism, Jainism.
Various other examples: Muslim sects- Shias and Sunnis
Sikhs- The Nirankaris, Radha Soamis of
Beas and the Namdharis are some prominent sects.
Jains- - the Digarnbaras (sky clad) and Swetambaras (white clad)
Criticism
1. Reinhold Niebuhr- Sects could be short lived or could convert into dominant or full-fledged
religion depending upon the prevailing social condition, providing the society another
institutionalised religion.
2. If a large number of sects develop in response to major religions, it may lead to conflict and
religious intolerance. Its extreme teachings and rejection of the wider society no longer fits
the social situation of its membership.
3. Rowers Robinson in "Sociology of Religion in India" writes that in society where monism is
close to heart, but pluralism becomes the rule of law, people driven by emotion will stay
committed to their sect. Communal tensions, anti-conversion movements, in the country are
the manifestation of glorified monism, challenging the state's commitment to pluralistic
ideology.
4. Amartya Sen in "Secularism in India" considers that India's pluralism has always been a
doctrine of state that mostly fails to internalise because of rural living and commitment to
tradition.
Conclusion
Romila Thapar says secularising a society is deeply tied to the question of the kind of society that
we want.
We should believe in harmonious coexistence and understanding among different religions and
equal rights to every individual and religion to have a multi- religious nation state.
There will be sects so long as there are social classes with a pronounced consciousness of difference
and likeness.
They will disappear when, and only when, the social homogeneity of our people shall extend not
only to blood but to those subtler elements of likeness-thought, feeling, and volition, through
community of interest and equality of opportunity.
Extra:
In the Indian scene, the crucial relationship lay in the connection between multiple religious sects
and many castes.
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The sect propagated belief, the caste often determined its social context. Status was measured
through an inter-dependence of the two.
Sects of worshippers that came together differentiated by particular deities, as for example, the
Vaishnava Bhagavatas and the Shaiva Pashupatas. From the seventh century onwards religious
belief and worship was prevalent in the form of devotional sects, what we call the Bhakti sects.
Centres of the wealthy sects strengthened their identity when they also became the nucleus of
education.
This added to their authority and they could induct the elite and contribute towards elite culture.
Frequently sects with large followings and authority began to function as castes in themselves, as
for example, the Lingayat sect in Karnataka, and some would include the Varkaris of Maharashtra.
315
(c) In what way did Durkheim perceive religion as functional to society? (10
Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by explaining Durkheim's view on religion.
 Explain how Durkheim viewed religion as functional to society.
 Provide limitations/criticism of Durkheim's view on religion.
Solution
Durkheim contended that religion originates not from mysterious or supernatural forces, but from
society itself. An object of worship serves as a symbolic representation of the shared sentiments
and beliefs held by society's members. The feelings of awe and reverence evoked by religious
practices mirror those inspired by society as a whole. Consequently, when individuals engage in
the veneration of the sacred, they are essentially revering society and its belief systems. Religion,
therefore, encompasses a distinct differentiation between the sacred and the profane, with society
serving as the very source of the sacred.
Emile Durkheim, perceived religion as functional to society and these can be seen as below.
1. According to Durkheim, religion contributes to social integration by fostering a sense of
solidarity among its members. Participation in religious rituals and beliefs strengthens the
moral bonds and reinforces a shared value system within the community.
2. Durkheim argued that religion provides moral regulation and social control. Religious
teachings and moral codes establish rules and norms that guide behavior and maintain social
order within a society.
3. Durkheim emphasized the significance of religious rituals in reinforcing social bonds.
Through collective participation in rituals, individuals experience a sense of belonging and
identity within their religious community.
4. Durkheim introduced the concept of collective effervescence, which refers to the heightened
emotional and communal experience during religious gatherings. These collective rituals
generate a sense of unity and strengthen social cohesion.
Limitations of Durkheim's Perspective:

1. Durkheim's explanation of religion was primarily based on the study of homogeneous
aboriginal societies. It may not fully apply to complex modern societies with diverse
subcultures and multiple belief systems.
2. In multi-ethnic and multi-religious societies, religion can also contribute to social conflicts
and disintegration. Differences in religious beliefs can lead to destabilizing conflicts, as seen
in various historical and contemporary examples.
3. Critics, such as Karl Marx, argue that religion can have an ideological element and often
justifies existing inequalities of wealth and power within societies.
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4. Contemporary society showcases the vitality of religion in various forms, such as the
emergence of new religious movements. These groups often arise as responses to increasing
modernization and rationalization, providing alternative spiritual and communal
experiences.
5. Religious fundamentalism, characterized by militant adherence to religious beliefs, poses a
significant challenge to social order. It can lead to divisions within religious communities
and create schisms in wider society, often challenging the role of religion as envisioned by
Durkheim.
While Durkheim's theories may have limitations in the context of modern and diverse societies,
Durkheim's conceptualization of religion as a symbolic representation of society and its ability to
generate collective experiences remains relevant in studying the dynamics of religion and its impact
on social life.
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Mains 2019
Section - A
Question 1. Answer the following question in about 150 Words each: 10x5=50
(a) Discuss the historical antecedents of the emergence of Sociology as a
discipline. (10 Marks)
The emergence of sociology as a separate academic discipline can be traced back to a series of
historical antecedents and intellectual developments. While sociology is a relatively modern
discipline, its roots can be found in the Enlightenment period and various social, political, and
economic transformations over the centuries. Here are some of the key historical antecedents that
contributed to the emergence of sociology:
The Enlightenment- It is the view of many observers that the Enlightenment constitutes a critical
development especially in the later development of sociology. The Enlightenment was a period of
remarkable intellectual development and change in philosophical thought.
A number of ideas and beliefs, some of which were related to social life were overthrown and
replaced during the Enlightenment. The most prominent thinkers associated with Enlightenment
were the French philosophers Charles Montesquieu (1689 – 1755) and Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712
– 1778).
Influence of Natural Sciences- Herbert Spencer gave the concept of organismic analogy and drew
parallel between social and organic world applying evolution to the social world.
French Revolution- The French Revolution brought about far reaching changes in not only French
society but in societies throughout Europe. It changed the ‘political structure’ of European society
and replaced the age of feudalism by heralding the ‘arrival of democracy’. These significant themes
included the transformation of property, the social disorder, caused by the change in the political
structure and its impact on the economic structure.
Industrial Revolution- Industrial revolution led to change in the economy of society several social
changes followed. As capitalism became more and more complex, new class of industrial workers,
managers, capitalists emerged.
The industrial cities grew rapidly. In the industrial cities socio-economic disparities were very wide.
City life in the industrial society became an altogether a different way of life. A new population
earning their livelihood by working in the factories arose. In the early years this working-class lived-
in poverty and squalor and were socially deprived but at the same time they were indispensable in
the new industrial system.
This made them a powerful social force. The traditional emphasis on land lost its value while money
or capital became important during the Industrial Revolution.
Conservatism- These profound changes moved both conservative and radical thinkers. The
conservatives feared that such conditions would lead to ‘chaos and disorder.’ The radicals felt that
this would lead to social transformation. Though the judgement of values differed, social thinkers
of the time were agreed upon the epoch-making impact of the two Revolutions. Therefore, certain
changes taking place in the eighteenth and nineteenth century in Europe bothered social thinkers.
Sociology thus grew essentially as a product of the reflections of the great thinkers reflecting on
society.
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The emergence of sociology as a distinct discipline can be attributed to the interplay of intellectual
ideas, material developments, and social changes that characterized the modern era. Key intellectual
ideas, such as the Enlightenment, positivism, and Marxism, provided the theoretical foundations
for the study of society, while material developments, such as industrialization and urbanization,
created the social context in which sociology could develop. ogether, these factors contributed to the
establishment of sociology as a discipline dedicated to the scientific study of human society and the
pursuit of social progress.
319
(b) Davis and Moore made it clear that social stratification is a functional
necessity and also an unconscious device. Discuss. (10 Marks)
Functionalist theory assumes that the various structures and processes in society exist because they
serve important functions for society’s stability and continuity. In line with this view, functionalist
theorists in sociology assume that stratification exists because it also serves important functions for
society. This explanation was developed more than 60 years ago by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert
Moore (Davis & Moore, 1945) in the form of several logical assumptions that imply stratification is
both necessary and inevitable.
Their assumptions would be as follows:
1. Some jobs are more important than other jobs. For example, the job of a brain surgeon is
more important than the job of shoe-shining.
2. Some jobs require more skills and knowledge than other jobs. To stay with our example,
it takes more skills and knowledge to do brain surgery than to shine shoes.
3. Relatively few people have the ability to acquire the skills and knowledge that are needed
to do these important, highly skilled jobs. Most of us would be able to do a decent job of
shining shoes, but very few of us would be able to become brain surgeons.
4. To induce the people with the skills and knowledge to do the important, highly skilled
jobs, society must promise those higher incomes or other rewards. If this is true, some
people automatically end up higher in society’s ranking system than others, and stratification
is thus necessary and inevitable.
A few years after Davis and Moore published their functionalist theory of stratification, other
sociologists pointed out some serious problems in their argument: -
 First, it is difficult to compare the importance of many types of jobs. For example, which is
more important, doing brain surgery or mining coal? Although you might be tempted to
answer “brain surgery,” if no coal were mined, much of our society could not function. In
another example, which job is more important, attorney or professor?
 Second, the functionalist explanation implies that the most important jobs have the highest
incomes and the least important jobs the lowest incomes, but many examples, including the
ones just mentioned, counter this view. Elementary school teachers do a very important job
in our society, but their salaries are much lower than those of sports agents, advertising
executives, and many other people whose jobs are far less essential.
 Third, the functionalist view also implies that people move up the economic ladder based on
their abilities, skills, knowledge, and, more generally, their merit. If this is true, another
implication is that if they do not move up the ladder, they lack the necessary merit. This view
ignores the fact that much of our stratification stems from lack of equal opportunity
 Because of their race, ethnicity, gender, and class standing at birth, some people have less
opportunity than others to acquire the skills and training they need to fill the types of jobs
addressed by the functionalist approach.
 Finally, the functionalist explanation might make sense up to a point, but it does not justify
the extremes of wealth and poverty found around the globe.
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The functional theory of stratification provided by Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore suggests that
social inequalities are functional for society because they provide an incentive for the most talented
individuals to occupy jobs that are essential to the orderly maintenance of a society. Critics of Davis
and Moore's theory suggest that stratification actually undermines the stability within a society due
to unequal access to opportunities, the disproportionate amount of power given to elites, and the
institutionalization of social distance between diverse members of a society.
According to the functionalist view, stratification is a necessary and inevitable consequence of the
need to use the promise of financial reward to induce talented people to pursue important jobs and
careers.
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(c) What is the Marxist concept of ‘fetishism of commodities’? (10 Marks)

The Marxist concept of the "fetishism of commodities" is a key element of Karl Marx's analysis of
capitalism, particularly as outlined in his seminal work, "Capital" This concept refers to the way in
which commodities in a capitalist society appear to have inherent value and social significance,
which is actually a result of the specific social and economic relations within the capitalist system.
A Marxist theory that explains how inanimate objects under capitalism, get alienated from the
labour and production process and achieve fantastical powers. In modern society, this is further
accentuated by the use of brand names over quality or use-value of the product.
The concept explains that a commodity has different values. In its physical state, an object has a
purpose or utility which Marx describes as the use value. Since the production of an object requires
the labour of producers, the value of the labour adds to the value of the object. Finally, when the
object reaches the market, it has an exchange value which is the monetary value attached to the
product. As long as an object is attached to its use-value, it remains an ordinary thing. But when it
comes to the market as a commodity, it attains fantastical powers and mystical features.
Marx explains that the production and distribution of an object build or renew social relations —
the relation between an employer who hires employees who work to create the object, the
distributor who supplies raw materials for the production, the transport facility that takes raw
materials to the factories and brings the finished product to the market and finally the relation
between the consumer and the seller of the product.
Social relations under capitalism

Under capitalism, these social relations and the production process become invisible to the
consumer as it is a private process. And though an object’s potential is only realised when it is
exchanged as a commodity in the market (a place where it becomes social), the interaction between
individuals is replaced by the interaction between commodity and money, (which is also a product
of sold labour) which is the universal equivalent for exchange. Thus, the commodity is devoid of
any signs of labour put into its creation. This is unique to capitalism.
It also leads to alienation of labour as the labor is not able to associate himself with the product so
created and also has no ownership over his own creation.
Marx therefore concludes that "Whatever we may think... of the different roles in which men
confront each other in such a society, the social relations between individuals in the performance of
their labour appear at all events as their own personal relations, and are not disguised as social
relations between things, between the products of labour".
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(d) Present a sociological review on the ‘new middle class’. (10 Marks)
According to Max Weber those who possess skills that have a definite ‘market value’ (for example,
doctors, engineers and other professionals) are rewarded better than the unskilled labourers. Thus,
their “class situation” is different from that of the working class and in the Weberian framework,
they constitute the middle classes.
Later sociologists have made a crucial distinction in the sociological literature between the “old”
middle classes and “new” middle classes. The term “old” middle class is used in the sense in which
Marx had used the term “petty-bourgeoisie” i.e., those who work with their own means of
production such as traders, independent professionals and farmers. The term “new” middle class is
broadly used to describe the skilled or white-collared workers/ salaried employees and the self-
employed professionals.
A new middle class has emerged throughout the world, which is unique in the sense that it is
marked by the individual’s capacity to consume global iconic objects, renowned sociologist Jeffrey
C. Alexander has said. The term 'new middle class' in India designates the socio-economic segment
that emerged during the 1990s after liberalization, marked by swift economic expansion,
globalization, and the ascendancy of the service industry. In a renowned analysis of India's middle
class, B.B. Mishra proposed that a significant portion of this group was predominantly comprised
of educated professionals, including government employees, lawyers, college educators, and
physicians.
1. Economic Transformation: Members of the 'New Middle Class' are typically characterized
by their educational attainment, professional occupations, and relatively higher income
compared to the working class. These individuals are often engaged in professions such as
IT, finance, education, healthcare, and various service-oriented industries.
2. Consumerism: Extending viewpoints of scholars such as Simmel and Campbell to present
times, it can be stated that along with money making, consumption of goods has become an
end in itself. Consumption pattern now decides class of people.
3. Social identity: The new middle class in India is characterized by a complex and fluid social
identity, which is shaped by factors such as caste, religion, region, and language. While they
may retain some traditional values and practices, they are also open to embracing modernity
and experimenting with new ideas and lifestyles. This has led to the emergence of a hybrid
culture, which combines elements of both tradition and modernity.
4. Social Activism: The new middle class is also characterized by a heightened sense of social
responsibility and activism. They are more likely to participate in social movements and
campaigns, such as the anti-corruption movement led by Anna Hazare and the protests
against the Delhi gang-rape case in 2012. Changes have, however, occurred in the basic
character of this class. While Pawan Varma, in his book The Great Indian Middle Class has
initiated a significant debate on the declining social responsibility of the Indian middle class.
It is in this context, that the idea of new middle class has been made popular in India.
5. The new middle class has left behind its dependence on austerity and state protection. The
newness of the middle class rests on its embrace of social practices of taste and consumption
and a new cultural standard Thus, the “newness” of middle class involves adoption of a new
ideology rather than a shift in the social basis of India’s middle class.
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Criticism
The Critics of this new middle class have pointed out the negative effects that middle class
consumerism holds in the terms of environmental degradation and growing indifference towards
socioeconomic problems of the country. Although they enjoy a certain level of affluence, the 'New
Middle Class' encounters a range of difficulties. These include income disparities, uncertainties
regarding employment, and the stress associated with upholding a specific standard of living.
Moreover, they may grapple with questions related to their identity and culture as they navigate
the delicate balance between traditional values and contemporary aspirations.
The 'New Middle Class' represents a dynamic and evolving social group with significant
sociological implications. Understanding its formation, characteristics, and impact on society is
crucial for sociologists and policymakers.
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(e) Explain the probability sampling strategies with examples. (10 Marks)
Probability sampling is a sampling technique in which every member of the population has a
known, non-zero chance of being selected in the sample. This method ensures that the sample is
representative of the population, allowing researchers to make generalizations about the population
based on the sample.
Probability sampling is based on random selection of units from a population. In other words, the
sampling process is not based on the discretion of the researcher but is carried out in such a way
that the probability of every unit in the population of being included is the same.
For example, in the case of a lottery, every individual has equal chance of being selected.
Some of the characteristics of a probability sample are :
I. each unit in the population has some probability of being selected in the sample,
II. weights appropriate to the probabilities are used in the analysis of the sample and iii) the
process of sampling is automatic in one or more steps of the selection of units in the sample.
Types of probability sampling
Simple or unrestricted random sampling

Simple random sampling is a method of selecting a sample from a finite population in such a way
that every unit of the population is given an equal chance of being selected. The selection process is
very random.
For example, you may use the lottery method to draw a random sample by using a set of ‘n’ tickets,
with numbers ‘1 to n’ if there are ‘n’ units in the population. After shuffling the tickets thoroughly,
the sample of a required size, say x, is selected by picking the required x number of tickets. The units
which have the serial numbers occurring on these tickets will be considered selected. The
assumption underlying this method is that the tickets are shuffled so that the population can be
regarded as arranged randomly
Systematic sampling
Systematic sampling provides a more even spread of the sample over the population list and leads
to greater precision.
This method provides a sample as good as a simple random sample and is comparatively easier to
draw. If a researcher is interested to study the average telephone bill of an area in his/her city,
he/she may randomly select every fourth telephone holder from the telephone directory and find
out their annual telephone bills.
Stratified Random Sampling

In some cases, the population to be sampled is not homogenous. Therefore, rather than selecting
randomly from the entire population the main population is divided into a number of sub-
populations called strata, each of which is homogeneous with respect to one or more
characteristic(s). The sample elements are then selected from each stratum at random. Thus, all
strata are represented in the sample. This approach to sampling is called stratified random sampling
because the population is stratified into its sub-populations and the condition of random selection
is included by the selection within the strata.
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Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is used when the population under study is infinite, where a list of units of
population does not exist, when the geographic distribution of units is scattered, or when sampling
of individual units is not convenient for several administrative reasons. It involves division of the
population into clusters that serve as primary sampling units. A selection of the clusters is then
made to form the sample. Thus, in cluster sampling, the samplingunit contains clusters instead of
individual members or items in the population.
For example, for the purpose of selecting a sample of high school teachers in a state, you may enlist
all high schools instead of teachers teaching in high schools and select randomly a 10 per cent sample
(say) of the schools as clusters. You may then use all the teachers of the selected schools as the
sample or randomly select a few of them.
Each of these probability sampling strategies has its own advantages and disadvantages, depending
on the research question and the characteristics of the population being studied. However, all of
them aim to provide a representative sample of the population, allowing researchers to make
generalizations and draw conclusions about the population based on the sample.
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Question 2.
(a) According to Mead, “We play a key role in our own socialization.” 20
Marks
Structure:
 Defining Socialization
 Agent of Socialization
 Mead’s idea on how Socialization begins with self
 Conclusion
Defining Socialization
 Socialization is a term used by sociologists to refer to the lifelong process of inheriting and
disseminating norms, customs and ideologies, providing an individual with skills and habits
necessary for participating within his or her own society.
 Socialization can also be defined as the process whereby the helpless infant gradually
becomes a self-aware, knowledgeable person, skilled in the ways of the culture into which
s/he is born.
 Anthony Giddens defines Socialization as the process which transforms a quite helpless
human infant into a self-aware, knowledgeable person who is skilled in the ways of their
society’s culture.
Agents of socialization
The child is socialised by several agencies and institutions in which s/he participates. The agents of
socialization are listed below:-
 Family
 Peer groups
 Schools
 Mass media
 Social Media
 Other agents like neighbourhood, occupational group and social class/ caste, region,
religion.
Mead and how socialization begin with self

Mead is known for developing an evolutionary theory combining body, mind, self and society.
He was influenced by two American traditions i.e Behaviourist and Pragmatic.
Mead developed a theory of social behaviourism to explain how social experience develops an
individual’s personality; his central concept in this is self, which is the part of an individual’s
personality composed of self-awareness and self-image.
According to Mead “a person’s self consists of his own thoughts about the unified goal of his or her
body, emotions, thoughts and actions.”
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Mead defines the emergence of the self as a thoroughly social process: “The self, as that which can
be an object to itself, is essentially a social structure, and it arises in social experience”
He links development of personality and mind with selfhood. And he claimed that self is not there
at birth, rather, it is developed with social experience. E.g. – evaluating himself, I am Lazy. Me
Myself- identifying role of wicket keeper in game of cricket.
According to Mead, the development of the self goes through stages:
1. Imitation (children initially can only mimic the gestures and words of others);
2. Play (beginning at age three, children play the roles of specific people, such as a fire fighter
or the Lone Ranger); and
3. Games (in the first years of school, children become involved in organized team games and
must learn the role of each member of the team).
Mead also introduced the concepts of “generalised other” and “significant other”.
“Generalised other” can be understood as those rules and values of the culture of a particular
group in which the child is engaged. By understanding the “generalised other” the child is able to
understand what kind of manners is expected as well as valued in any social setting.
“Significant other” consists of those persons who are of importance in the child’s life and affect
her/his understanding of self along with the child’s emotions and behaviours. According to him
socialization depends upon the child’s understanding of others’ views as important in her/his life.
As life goes on, the self continues to change along with social experiences.
Mead concluded that not only the self, but also the mind is a social product. We cannot think without
symbols, and it is our society that gives us our symbols by giving us our language.
C.H. Cooley in his book The Social Organisations wrote that self evolves through a process of
looking glass- Self. It states that a person’s self grows out of society’s interpersonal interaction and
the perceptions of others. The term refers to people shaping themselves based on others peoples’
perceptions, which leads people to reinforce other peoples’ perspectives on themselves.
Process of development of socialization involves two parts:
 Inner Conversation - thinking is a process in which there is exchange of significant symbols
between person and his own self.
 Outer Conversation - verbal or non- Verbal conversation with outside world.
Conclusion
Indira Prathasarathy describes correlation that corresponds between and Individual and society.
He fabricated the effect of society on the individual’s self and the society affected by the perceptions
and actions of an individual’s self.
Ralph Turner- “Role Making” for this we should carefully observe use of significant symbols and
we should try to see you are free into actor’s subjectivity. This is the micro sociological approach
developed in American sociology.
Socialization is a concept in which the role of individual is shaped by societal norms and selfhood
but human behaviour is not completely shaped by societal norms. They change situation and think
of alternative action and modify their behaviour as ethnomethodology revealed emotional
commitment to everyday norms through purposeful breaching of norms.
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Sociologists do not think of people as little robots who simply are the result of their exposure to
socializing agents. Although socialization is powerful and profoundly affects us all, we have a self,
and the self is dynamic. Each of us uses our own mind to reason and make choices.
In this way, each of us is actively involved even in the social construction of the self. Our experiences
have an impact on us, but we are not doomed to keep our orientations if we do not like them. We
can choose to change our experiences by exposing ourselves to other groups and ideas.
Extra:
Types of Socialization
There are different forms of socialization.
Group socialization- It says that an individual’s peer groups, rather than parental figures, influence
his or her personality and behaviour in adulthood. Example, twin brothers, whose genetic make-up
is identical but they will differ in personality.
Gender socialization- Henslin contends that “an important part of socialization is the learning of
culturally defined gender roles.” It can be understood as the process by which different agents of
socialization shape the thoughts of children and make them learn different gender roles. Gender
roles are reinforced through countless subtle and not so subtle ways.
Cultural socialization- It refers to parenting practices that teach children about their racial history
or heritage and, sometimes, is referred to as “pride development.” Promotion of mistrust refers to
the parenting practices of socialising children to be vary of people from other races.
Anticipatory Socialization- The term anticipatory socialization was introduced by the sociologist
Robert K. Merton (1957). It is a process by which someone is consciously socialised for future
occupations, positions and social relationships. For example, a child made to leave home to stay in
a boarding school with the anticipation of better socialization.
There are various other forms of socialization depending upon different phases in a human’s life
time. These include primary, secondary, Re-socialization and Adult socialization.
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(b) Bring out the significance of Ethnography in social research. (20 Marks)
According to C.V Good, social research is ideally the careful and unbiased investigation of a
problem based on so far as possible upon demonstrable facts involving refined distinctions,
interpretations and usually some generalizations. While Ethnography seeks to gain insights into
social phenomena by immersing itself in the subject, which involves observing and engaging in
social activities, conversing with individuals in their everyday environments, and gathering various
materials such as photographs, texts, literature, and statistics. It is a qualitative data collection
approach which takes into account individual aspect of society as well. The different methods used
are participant observation, Naturalism, field studies etc.
Significance of ethnographic studies in social research:

1. Helps to understand complex reality of society: According to Max Weber the social reality
is vast, dichotomous and complex and in order to understand it we need to follow the
interpretivist approach. Ethnography helps to social researcher to understand the social
reality from the perspective of the people. By immersing themselves in the field, researchers
can explore the intricacies of social behaviors, cultures, and interactions, which may be
challenging to capture through other research methods.
2. Helps in understanding of human behavior: It enhances the understanding of human
behavior for scientists. A significant number of scientists engage in the field of behavioral
sciences to investigate the diverse reactions of individuals to stimuli, unravel the factors that
shape their choices and behaviors, and explore the underlying reasons for these responses.
3. Provides deep insights in research: Ethnography provides different aspects of cultural
groups, individuals including their values, norms, practices etc. As it is a qualitative research
method so it does not depend on predefined assessment with restricted observation.
4. Minimizes bias of researcher: As the analysis is based on observation and feedback of
population. So there is less chances for the researcher to include his personal bias and values
into research.
5. Provides actual picture of reality: Many groups and population are prejudiced and people
have negative bias towards them. Ethnography provides reality of groups with their own
perspective.
Limitations of Ethnographic research:

1. Time consuming: A prominent drawback of ethnography is the time element. To initiate the
study of a particular group of individuals, the ethnographer must initially build a strong
rapport with them. This process entails investing months, or possibly even years, in
observing their daily routines and gaining insights into their culture, traditions, and
behaviors.
2. Resource Intensive: As the researcher need to travel and live in at the site of study.
3. Susceptible to bias and prejudice: Ethnographers, no matter how neutral they strive to be,
might nonetheless be impacted by cultural prejudice or ignorance.
4. Limitation of accessibility to certain groups to study
5. Participants get conscious when they get to know that some research is Ethical and privacy
concern being conducted on them and sometimes they act different from their actual
behavior.
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6. Difficult to make generalizations: Different cultures have different practices and thus
studying one group can’t be generalized for all other groups.
7. : It is not right to invade the privacy of participants and treat them as means to an end.
Despite having limitations of ethnography it has provided a new and holistic approach to study the
complex human society and understand its changing pattern and problems. It helps in
understanding the reasons behind the behavior experience and attitudes of the people of the group,
community, culture or market under study.
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(c) What is ‘reserve army of labour’ ? Present the position of feminist

scholars on this. (10 Marks)
Structure
 Explain Reserve army of labour
 Feminist perspective on Reserve Army
 Contemporary Position
 Conclude
Reserve army of Labour

Reserve army of labour is a Marxist term used to describe the ranks of the unemployed who
through the absence of any meaningful choice are prepared to work for very low wages in
temporary jobs.
The existence of a reserve army of labour serves the interests of the bourgeoisie and exploits
members of the proletariat.
The use of the word "army" refers to the workers being conscripted and regimented in the
workplace in a hierarchy under the command or authority of the owners of capital.
According to Marx, reserve army of labour he is composed of three parts:
1. The floating reserve Army of labour (used to have good jobs, but are now out of work)
2. The stagnant reserve army of labour (extremely irregular employment)
3. The latent reserve army of labour (not yet fully integrated into capitalist production)
Feminist View
 Marxist and socialist Feminism: Capitalists are the main beneficiaries of women exploitation
as in pursuit for profits either they hire women at lower wages or gain from women’s
unpaid work indirectly as men are able to work at cost of their wives.
 Women are more likely to be in low paid jobs with less job security than men it is also fact
that women disproportionately work in the five C’s (cleaning, clerical, caring, cashiering
and catering).
 Christine Delphy and Diana Leonard see the family as an economic system. It involves a
particular set of labour relations in which men benefit from and exploit the women and their
work and sometimes that of their children.
 Androcentric common-sense views see housework as unimportant.
 Rosa Luxemburg argued that household labour is productive according to the continued
growth of capitalist mode of production, which requires extraction of surplus from sector
that is at least formally non-capitalist.
Thus, by revealing the true nature of housework, feminists have been able to encourage a social
change, in which the unpaid work of women is recognised.
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Contemporary Ideas:
 Because of globalisation, there has been a rise in percentage of women in the labour force in
almost every region of the world, or in other words there has been feminisation of labour
markets.
 This process of globalisation is based on demand for low wage labour of women from Third
World countries.
 Jobs has have been created for women, but most of these jobs are informal, part-time, casual
and temporary, with poor working conditions and lack of labour rights.
 These jobs are designed to be carried out in addition to household and family responsibilities
of women.
 The ILO reports that the proportion of jobless has been steadily increasing since the
beginning of the financial crisis of 2007–2008.
Conclusion
Nirmala Banerjee and Maria Mies pointed out that women are situated at the margins and for
women as subsistence producers, benefits the capitalist economy as the unorganised sector is
composed of more women. Eg- In India Self help Groups.
The globalisation there is feminisation of wage labour, wherein women from vulnerable sections,
defined by social class, colour, race and ethnicity, are employed at cheaper labour price and are
more prone to exploitation. It does seem like the failure of society to allocate resources and provide
opportunities fairly that explains the problems of poverty and social exclusion.
Extra
Marx does talk about the fourth part as well in terms of Pauperdom, who only receive the public
charity for survival.
Finally, people may leave the army and the reserve army by turning to criminality, Marx refers to
such people as lumpenproletariat.
It is a concept used by Karl Marx (but originally given by Friedrich Engels) in critique of political
economy.
Features of Reserve Army of Labour:

 It refers to the unemployed and underemployed in capitalist society.
 It is seen for the first time in capitalist era. Before this structural unemployment on a mass
scale rarely existed, other than that caused by natural disasters and wars.
 Overpopulation is in the interest of the bourgeoisie and since capital only increases when it
employs workers, the increase of capital involves an increase of the proletariat and the
increase of the proletariat must proceed relatively even faster.
 Margaret Benston - Capitalism benefits from women as they are a reserve army which helps
keep wages down plus are easily employed in the category of secondary breadwinners.
 Reserve army of workers exist - so easy to exploit workers.
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 From a feminist perspective, the work of TH Marshall is highly constricted in being focused
on men and ignoring the social rights of women and impediments to their realisation.
 Women in particular, are oppressed, not because they are socialised into being passive, nor
because they are ideologically conditioned into subservience, but because their work is
appropriated within the family
 Eg- Women provide a number of unpaid service for men including providing them with a
client sexual partner and children if he wants them. Women are not always passive victims
but economic and social constraints make it difficult for women escape from the patriarchal
family.
 Lee Harvey in critical social science embraces all those approaches in sociology that aim to
be critical of society in order to facilitate social change.
Feminists have been able to show that housework, like paid work, has a crucial role in the economy.
 Peter Custers in his book capital accumulation and women’s labour in Asian economies talks
about discourse on women’s labour and analyse the patriarchal basis of working-class
 He talks about “theory of Housewifisation”.
 Catherine Mackinnon marks gender as core contradiction of the society. It was argued that
sexist operation is the primary contradiction in society and is the basis of all other forms of
oppression.
 Angela Davis says in the pre-capitalist home based economy, woman were not only
considered to be housekeeping, but also full fledged workers as written in formative feminist
discourse.
 V. Geetha argues that the feminist protagonist of the domestic labour debate pointed out
that Marx in his theorisations did not take into account the domestic work done by woman.
Hence, Marxian theory proposed her separation of economy from house work, and omitted
the economic significance of unpaid domestic feminist scholars.
 In recent years , there has been a growing use in Marxist and anarchist theory of the concept
of "the precariat" to describe a growing reliance on temporary, part-time workers with
precarious status who share aspects of the proletariat and the reserve army of labor.
Precarious workers do work part-time or full-time in temporary jobs, but they cannot really
earn enough to live on and depend partly on friends or family, or on state benefits, to survive.
Typically, they do not become truly "unemployed", but they do not have a decent job to go
to either.
 Paul Samuelson argues that much Marxian literature assumes that the mere existence of the
unemployed drives down wages, when in reality is dependent upon contingent factors such
as are the unemployed easily available as replacements?
Three features to keep in mind about Rosa Luxemburg’s ideas that differentiate her analysis in The
Accumulation of Capital from the perspectives of other prominent Marxists:
1. Luxemburg advances a controversial conceptualization of imperialism’s relationship to the
exploitation of the working class in the advanced capitalist countries.
Because workers receive less value than what they create, they are unable to purchase and
consume all that is produced.
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This under-consumption means that capitalists must expand into non-capitalist areas, seeking
markets as well as raw materials and investment opportunities (particularly new sources of labor)
outside of the capitalist economic sphere.
‘Non-capitalist organizations provide a fertile soil for capitalism,’ she noted, which means that
‘capital feeds on the ruins of such organizations, and, although this non-capitalist milieu is
indispensable for accumulation, the latter proceeds, at the cost of this medium nevertheless, by
eating it up’.
Penetration into non-capitalist economies facilitate the capital accumulation process, but capitalist
accumulation ‘corrodes and assimilates’ these economies.
This constituted a new contradiction: ‘capital cannot accumulate without the aid of non-capitalist
organizations, nor, on the other hand, can it tolerate their continued existence side by side with
itself. Only the continuous and progressive disintegration of noncapitalist organizations makes
accumulation of capital possible’.
The inevitable tendency this leads to will be ‘the standstill of accumulation,’ which ‘means that the
development of the productive forces is arrested,’ leading to capitalist collapse. Luxemburg
conceives that this leads to a painless transition to socialism, but rather to the desperate escalation
of militarism and war.
2. Another distinctive quality of her conceptualization of imperialism is that it is not restricted
to ‘the highest stage’ or ‘latest stage’ of capitalism.
Rather, imperialism is something that one finds at the earliest beginnings of capitalism – in the
period of what Marx calls ‘primitive capitalist accumulation’ – and which continues non-stop, with
increasing and overwhelming reach and velocity, down to the present.
Or as she puts it, ‘capitalism in its full maturity also depends in all respects on non-capitalist strata
and social organizations existing side by side with it,’ and ‘since the accumulation of capital becomes
impossible in all points without non-capitalist surroundings, we cannot gain a true picture of it by
assuming the exclusive and absolute domination of the capitalist mode of production’.
Quoting Marx, she concluded: ‘The historical career of capitalism can only be appreciated by taking
them together. “Sweating blood and filth with every pore from head to toe” characterizes not only
the birth of capital but also its progress in the world at every step, arid thus capitalism prepares its
own downfall under ever more violent contortions and convulsions’.
This meant, on the international arena, ‘colonial policy, an international loan system -- a policy of
spheres of interest -- and war. Force, fraud, oppression, looting are openly displayed without any
attempt at concealment, and it requires an effort to discover within this tangle of political violence
and contests of power the stern laws of the economic process’.
3. Another special feature of Luxemburg’s contribution is her anthropological sensitivity to
the impact of capitalist expansion on the rich variety of the world’s peoples and cultures.
The survey of capitalist expansionism’s impact in her Accumulation of Capital includes such
examples as:
a) the destruction of the English peasants and artisans;
b) the destruction of the native-American peoples (the so-called Indians);
c) the enslavement of African peoples by the European powers;
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d) the ruination of small farmers in the mid-western and western regions of the United States;
e) the onslaught of French colonialism in Algeria;
f) the onslaught of British colonialism in India;
g) British incursions into China, with special reference to the Opium wars;
h) the onslaught of British colonialism in South Africa (with lengthy reference to the three-way
struggle of black African peoples, the Dutch Boers, and the British).
‘Each new colonial expansion is accompanied, as a matter of course, by a relentless battle of capital
against the social and economic ties of the natives,’ she wrote, ‘who are also forcibly robbed of their
means of production and labor power.’
Their means of production and their labor power no less than their demand for surplus products is
necessary to capitalism.
Yet the latter is fully determined to undermine their independence as social units, in order to
gain possession of their means of production and labor power and to convert them into
commodity buyers.’ But the destructive impact of all this on the cultures of the world’s peoples was
emphasized by Luxemburg as by no other Marxist theorist of her time.
336
Question 3.
(a) Discuss the importance of interpretative understanding of social
phenomena and explain its limitations. 20 Marks
Interpretative sociology, also known as interpretive sociology or interpretivism, is an approach to
studying social phenomena that focuses on understanding the meanings, beliefs, and values that
individuals and groups attach to their social experiences and actions.
It is rooted in the idea that social reality is not just an objective, external reality, but is also shaped
by the subjective interpretations and meanings that people give to their experiences.
Weber’s understanding
Interpretive sociology is an approach developed by Max Weber that centers on the importance of
meaning and action when studying social trends and problems. This approach diverges from
positivistic sociology by recognizing that the subjective experiences, beliefs, and behavior of people
are equally important to study as are observable, objective facts.
Weber was one of the first sociologists to recognize the role ‘human understanding’ and
interpretation plays in social action and the fashioning of social order without losing sight of what
he terms ‘causal adequacy’. He argued that sociology is a science that “attempts the interpretive
understanding of social action in order to arrive at a causal explanation of its course and effects”
Branches of Interpretative sociology

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Herbert Blumer proposed that sociologists should focus on the subjective and interpretive aspects
of peoples’ shared meanings. He argued that social structures are ongoing accomplishments of ‘joint
action’, and emphasized human agency to shape social contexts that are never completely external
to the individual nor obdurate in their influence and impact
ETHNOMETHODOLOGY
Similar to symbolic interactionism, ethnomethodology seeks to capture the real lived experiences of
members within society, favoring the direct observation of people, especially focusing on micro-
interactions. Both perspectives emphasize negotiation and interpretation, and suggest that only
through direct participation can researchers explicate the life world of members.
It also emphasizes the importance of language and the typifications which socially construct the
experienced world.
PHENOMENOLOGY
In this theory Alfred Schutz, propounds that the course of our action, we employ assumptions about
society and how it works and we use verstehen in a crude way to predict the action of others.
As a result, our acts are ‘meaningful’ not because we have a particular intention or motive, but
because other actors interpret our action as having symbolic significance. It is said that the
phenomenological perspective take the interpretive approach, initially developed by Max Weber
and later on by other thinkers, to the extreme.
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Importance of Interpretative Understanding:
Contextualization of Behavior: Interpretative understanding allows researchers to delve into the
context in which social phenomena occur. It recognizes that behavior cannot be fully understood
without considering the cultural, historical, and situational context in which it takes place.
Subjective Meaning deciphered and not random objective conception: It emphasizes the
importance of subjective meanings and interpretations that individuals give to their experiences.
This approach acknowledges that people's actions are guided by their own perceptions, values, and
beliefs.
Holistic Perspective and synthesis with common sense :Interpretative understanding encourages
a holistic approach to studying social phenomena. Instead of isolating variables, it seeks to
understand the interconnectedness of various factors and how they contribute to the overall
meaning of a phenomenon.
Individual experience not compromised for society’s satisfaction ;
Social phenomena are often complex and diverse. Interpretative understanding allows researchers
to explore this complexity and diversity by capturing the nuances and variations in individuals'
experiences and perspectives.
Interpretive sociology has various limitations.
 It is possible that observation may be influenced by personal bias.
 Direct observation also requires prior knowledge of the culture being studied.
 It assumes that people in society consider their actions to be rational, which may not always
be the case.
 It also has been regarded as an inadequate account of action since it remains excessively
individualistic.
 Subjectivity and Bias: The interpretative approach is inherently subjective, as it relies on the
perspectives and interpretations of researchers and participants. This subjectivity can
introduce biases, affecting the reliability and validity of the findings.
 Limited Quantification: Interpretative understanding often lacks the precision and
quantifiability associated with quantitative research. This limitation can make it difficult to
compare and measure phenomena across different contexts.
 Ethical Concerns: In-depth exploration of personal experiences may raise ethical concerns
related to privacy and confidentiality. Researchers must navigate ethical considerations
carefully when studying sensitive topics.
Interpretative understanding is invaluable for gaining deep insights into social phenomena,
acknowledging the subjective nature of human experiences. However, researchers must be mindful
of its limitations and employ rigorous methods to enhance the credibility and trustworthiness of
their findings. Balancing the strengths and weaknesses of interpretative approaches is essential for
a comprehensive understanding of social phenomena
338
(b) Are all world religions patriarchal? Substantiate your answer with
examples. (20 Marks)
Answer:
 Gender, religion, and patriarchy are foundational social constructs operating at the basis of
social organization of society.
 Religious organisations show that they are mainly dominated by the male despite the fact
that women often participate more than men in such organisations.
 Also, in some places of worship segregation of the sexes exists, e.g. seating in different pews
or sections during worship.
 Women’s participation may be restricted, for example, not being able to preach or to read
from sacred texts or aspire to become priests or pastors. Taboos that regard menstruation,
pregnancy and childbirth as polluting may also prevent participation.
 Religion, Patriarchy and the Status of Women
In most of the world’s major religions, women remain relegated to a second-tier status.
 Women in several faiths are still barred from ordination.
 Some are banned from praying alongside men and forbidden from stepping foot in some
houses of worship altogether
 Their attire, from headwear down to the length of their skirts in church, is often restricted.
 Men have been dominant as recipients, interpreters and transmitters of divine messages,
while women have largely remained passive receivers of teachings and ardent practitioners
of religious rituals.
 Attitudes developed around patriarchal interpretations of religious belief have defined and
shaped the social and cultural contexts of Indian women resulting in their disempowerment
and second-class status.
Patriarchy, in some form, exists in most religions.
 Women’s readiness to yield to the gendered regimes of religion is again brought out in the
affirmation by majority of the women respondents that their primary religious duty is to be
a good mother by bringing up children in faith.
 This ‘comforting valorization of motherhood’ could be linked to a ‘naturalness’ attributed to
procreative sex, and this in turn serves to reinforce patriarchal notions of what is appropriate
femininity.
 The irony of the religious mediation of patriarchy is that women actively collaborate in
perpetrating their own subordination by following certain religious precepts uncritically.
Having imbibed the socio-cultural patterns of thought that subjugate them, they become
transmitters of the very norms that infantilize them.
But, are all religions patriarchal?
 No religions are patriarchal in their entirety and many are not even patriarchal in their origin.
However, many have widely accepted highly patriarchal interpretations.
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Religions in their early stages
 What is ironical is that most of the organised religions of today were not discriminatory to
begin with. Infact, many scholars contend that religions were not patriarchal in the early
stages of organised life. It is believed that early religions, or more appropriately worship,
centred on female Goddesses during prehistoric times.
 It is believed that prehistoric societies and belief systems were matriarchal, as evident from
their feminine- themed iconography.
 Early Hinduism, too, is believed to be egalitarian.
 Rig-Veda expounded the idea of feminine energy behind the creation of the universe.
 With the advent of Islam, women came to enjoy a kind of autonomy that was unheard of in
the pre-Islamic Arab.
 In pre-Islamic Arab women were viewed as objects and were constantly humiliated.
 Karen Armstrong in her book Islam: A short History has pointed out that ‘the women of the
first Ummah in Medina took full part in the public life’.
 It was probably before men moulded the religion to suit their patriarchal leanings.
It seems that eventually every religion or organised belief-system was hijacked by vested interests
to further their own patriarchal agenda.
The Changing Order
Women around the world in recent times have been finding new ways to chip away at centuries of
male-dominated traditions and barriers, with many of them emboldened by the surge of social
media activism that’s spread globally in the MeToo era.
 In Israel, where Orthodox Judaism has long restricted women’s roles, one Jerusalem
congregation has allowed women to lead Friday evening prayers.
 Roman Catholic bishops, under pressure from women’s-rights activists, concluded a recent
Vatican meeting by declaring that women, as an urgent “duty of justice,” should have a
greater role in church decision- making.
 Many feminist scholars are challenging the rightfulness of long-standing patriarchal
traditions in Christianity, Judaism and Islam, calling into question time-honored translations
of verses in the Bible, Torah and Quran that have been used to justify a male-dominated
hierarchy.
 Sabrimala case in India is also an important milestone in asking the religion to treat women
fairly.
Conclusion
 Religion has also historically been one of the major sources of support and impetuses for
positive human rights movements around the world.
 However, in all of these cases, religion “reflects interests and values of the powerful and
privileged,” promising future rewards to the most powerless in society and placating them
so they accept their subjugation.
 As a result, "the world's major religions have perpetuated the most terrible barbarisms on
women, as well as other forms of inequality and exploitation"
340
(c) What, according to Merton, is the difference between ‘unanticipated

consequences’ and ‘latent functions’? Give examples to elaborate. (10
Marks)
Early structural functionalists tended to focus almost entirely on the functions of one social structure
or institution for another.
However, in Merton’s view, early analysts tended to confuse the subjective motives of individuals
with the functions of structures or institutions. The focus of the structural functionalist should be on
social functions rather than on individual motives.
Merton in Social Theory and Social Structure (1968) uses his ideas about unanticipated consequences
to foster functionalist explanation.
Serendipity (Unanticipated Consequence)

Merton acknowledged that a theory may produce a result quite different from what is stated. This
unanticipated consequence, or serendipity, sometimes comes as a surprise for many people.
The relations between the "unanticipated consequences" of action and "latent functions" can be
clearly defined, since they are implicit in the foregoing section of the paradigm.
The unintended consequences of action are of three types:
 Those which are functional for a designated system and these comprise the latent functions.
 Those which are dysfunctional for a designated system, and these comprise the latent
dysfunctions; and
 Those which are irrelevant to the system which they affect neither functionally nor
dysfunction ally, i.e., the pragmatically unimportant class of non-functional consequences.
Merton identified five factors involved in unanticipated consequences.
 Ignorance (i.e., incomplete information);
 Error (in the appraisal of current situation, inference of the future, and the selection and
implementation of a course of action);
 Imperious immediacy of interest (i.e., more concern with immediate consequences than that
of future);
 Basic values (i.e., little consideration of further consequences because of espousal of certain
fundamental values); and
 Self-defeating prophecy (i.e., the prediction itself changes the human behavior).
Latent Functions
 One of Merton’s enduring distinctions is that between manifest and latent functions.
o Manifest functions are those that are intended, latent functions those unintended.
o Latent functions, thus, are unanticipated and unintended consequences of an action
or social structure; unknown or unacknowledged reasons something is done.
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o For instance, Merton uses the case of slavery. It’s manifest function was to increase the
economic productivity of South, but the latent function was to deliver a large
underclass that elevated the status of Southern whites, rich and poor.
 Merton’s allied notion of unanticipated consequences acknowledges that structures have
both intended and unintended consequences.
 Slavery might have been instituted to strengthen the Southern economy, but its unanticipated
consequence was to slow industrialization and, ultimately, to weaken rather than strengthen
the region economically.
 Some sociologists since have regarded the exploration of unintended consequences of social
action as of the very essence of the sociological project.
 Merton maintained that not all structures are indispensible to the social system. Some can be
eliminated.
 For instance, the abandonment of gender and ethnic discrimination, for example, would not
be dysfunctional.
 This opens the way for meaningful social change and its adequate theorization.
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Question 4.
(a) Modernization presupposes class society; however caste, ethnicity and
race are still predominant. Explain. 20 Marks
According to Yogendra Singh, modernization is a form of cultural response, involving attributes
which are basically universalistic and evolutionary; they are pan-humanistic, trans-ethnic and non-
ideological. Modernization in Europe started with enlightenment and renaissance but in India it
started with advent of Britishers. The modernization was initially carried by the urban middle class
who came in direct contact with Britishers. Education became a big symbol of modernization and it
influenced all aspects of tradition – food habits, dressing, language and so on. According to
Yogendra Singh, it not only impacted cultural aspects, but also structural aspects as well.
How Modernization presupposes class society:

1. Emergence of new classes: Modernization led to emergence of new social classes. With
industrialization and urbanization new professional and working class developed.
2. New economic and political order: new political and new economic system led to formation
of new elite classes in Indian. Trade unions emerged in India. Older economic system like
Jajmani declined with arrival of new economic system.
3. Modernization based on consumption pattern: Another meaning of modernization is
introduced in Indian society on the basis of consumption pattern based on western culture.
Those who consume western food, dress are considered modern. In actuality, this concept is
referred as westernization of culture.
4. According to S.H. Alatas. “Modernization is a process by which modern scientific knowledge
is introduced in the society with the ultimate purpose of achieving a better and a more
satisfactory life in the broadest sense of the term as accepted by the society concerned”. So
such education could only be afforded by higher class people and difficult for lower classes
to achieve.
The process of modernization in India primarily commenced through Western interactions, notably
during the period of British colonial rule. This engagement led to profound transformations in
Indian culture and social organization. While many of these changes aligned with the
modernization trajectory, it's important to note that not all of them can be classified as strictly
modernizing. While the overarching intent of this contact aimed at modernization, it inadvertently
bolstered several traditional institutions in the course of this transformation.
How caste, ethnicity and race still persistent:

1. Persistence of Traditional Structures: According to Yogendra Singh, modernisation did not
lead to institutional and structural breakdown because of the characteristics of society in
India. Modernization does not always result in the complete eradication of traditional social
structures, including caste systems.
2. Centrality of caste in Indian society: Many sociologists like Ghurye proposed that the most
effective approach to understanding Indian society is through the lens of a caste model and
not the class model. They support this viewpoint by asserting that the caste system serves as
a comprehensive ideological framework that influences and permeates all dimensions of
social life for Hindus and, to a broader extent, other communities in India.
343
3. Stratification on the basis of Caste, Ethnicity and race: In European and American society,
class is the primary basis of stratification. But in India Caste, ethnicity and race still play
important role. Rich traders recognised under vaishyas supported the Buddhism and Jainism
to get higher recognition in social strata. M.N. Srinivas concept of sanskritization also support
such view.
4. Cultural and Identity Factors: Ethnicity and race are deeply rooted in cultural and identity
factors that are not easily changed by modernization alone. People's sense of identity and
belonging to specific ethnic or racial groups can remain strong despite economic and
Though class has emerged as the primary criteria for modernization but including how it developed
in India and the India society, we can say that the culture, values, norms of India society have
significant impact on the modernity and its evolution. Existence of many traditional institutions like
caste panchayats, caste-class nexus show the importance of both class and caste in the Indian society.
Both caste and class are inseparable parts of Indian social formation.
344
(b) Compare and Contrast the contributions of Marx and Weber on social
stratification in capitalist society. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Explain Social Stratification
 Explain Contributions of Marx and Weber
 The differences
 Conclude
Social Stratification
The term social stratification refers to an institutionalised system of social inequality.
It refers to a situation in which the divisions and relationships of social inequality have solidified
into a system that determines who gets what, when, and why.
It can be economical, political, caste based, on the basis of skills, meritocracy.
E.g.: Caste system in India, skilled and unskilled workers, haves and have-nots, etc.
In his famous essay on “The Future Results of British Rule in India”, Karl Marx characterised the
Indian castes as “the most decisive impediment to India's progress and power”
Contribution of Marx
In the Marxist perspective, social stratification is created by unequal property relations, or unequal
access to the means of production.
In this respect, Marx argued that western society had developed through four main epochs:
1. Primitive communism
2. Ancient society
3. Feudal society
4. Capitalist society
In the earlier epochs of history we find, almost everywhere, a complicated arrangement of society
into various orders, a manifold gradation of social rank.
In capitalist societies, the bourgeoisie class owns the means of production while the proletariat class
sells their labour to the bourgeoisie. The bourgeoisie have power and status, which they use to
maintain the society’s superstructure —it’s values, ideologies, and norms. According to Marx, a
superstructure exists in which the ideas, philosophies, and culture that are built upon the means of
production and substructure which is the b ase of society, which in Marxist terms includes relations
of production
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According to Marx, the bourgeoisie in capitalist societies exploit workers.
The owners pay them enough to afford food and a place to live, and the workers, who do not realise
they are being exploited, have a false consciousness, or a mistaken sense, that they are well off.
Engels says historical Materialism designates the view of the course of the history which seeks the
ultimate cause and the great moving power of all-important historic events in the economic
development of society.
Marx in his homogenisation thesis says that workers were divided on the basis of their skills.
Marx claims that to improve society and make it fairer, there needs to be large-scale change.
Marxism is criticised for:
 Ignoring other important factors such as gender and ethnicity
 Focusing too much on social class.
 Classes were seen by Marx to be "transitional classes", in the sense that they would eventually
disappear once the new mode of production had established its dominant position but this
has not really happened.
Contribution of Max Weber
Weber fought with the Ghost of Marx. He criticised every theory of Marx. Weber questioned Marx’s
view that society is always divided on class lines after primitive communism.
He said class division developed only with beginning of capitalism.
According to Weber, class consists of a group of people sharing similar market situations.
Weber refused to reduce stratification to economic factors (or class, in Weber’s terms) but saw it as
multidimensional. Thus, society is stratified on the bases of economics, status, and power.
One resulting implication is that people can rank high on one or two of these dimensions of
stratification and low on the other (or others), permitting a far more sophisticated analysis of social
stratification.
Social class for Weber included power and prestige, in addition to property or wealth. People who
run corporations without owning them still benefit from increased production and greater profits.
According to Weber 4 classes are there:-
 Propertied Upper class
 White collar class
 Petty bourgeois
 Manual labour
In the context of power, he was dealing with political powers. For example, in the time of
revolutions, Churches were holding an immense position in the society. They had the power of
decision making.
Weber saw structures of traditional authority, in any form, as barriers to the development of
rationality and considered rational legal authority bureaucracy “the purest type of exercise of
legal authority.”
Weber explained that maybe the community does not share same economic level, but due to prestige
and position in the society, they belong to the same status
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Contrasting the Two Perspectives
Marx’s perception of class is primarily economical but Weber focused on Status, class and power.
Marx on relationship between the classes- dependence and inequality are a cause of conflict and will
lead to revolution. But according to Weber conflict is not the cause for revolution, he theorised that
there was more than one cause for conflict besides economics, inequalities could exist over political
power and social status and saw revolution as a distant possibility.
Weber sees no evidence to support the polarisation of classes which Marx sees as being an essential
feature of the class structure.
Haralambos
Unlike Marx, Weber does not subscribe to the view that a proletarian revolution is inevitable, and
that workers will express class dissatisfaction in less dramatic ways.
Finally, Weber rejects the notion that political power is necessarily derived from economic power.
Conclusion
Idea proposed by Marx that class is determined solely by economic factors, whereas Weber would
argue that class is only one form of social stratification.
It is an impossible task to decide which theory provides the most accurate description of class, thus
not surprisingly the issue continues to be a topic of contentious debate. Weber’s theory certainly
encompasses aspects which Marx seems to have left out, yet the importance of Marx’s theories
cannot be undermined
347
c) What, according to Irawati Karve, are the Major difference between North
Indian and South Indian Kinship systems? (10 Marks)
Kinship system refers to a set of persons recognised as relatives either by virtue of a blood
relationship or by virtue of a marriage relationship. Karve’s work, Kinship Organization in India
(Deccan College, 1953) is a study of various social institutions in India. Karve mapped kinship
patterns in India on to linguistic zones to come up with the following variations. We can describe
the basic structure and process of kinship system in this area in terms of four features that is i)
kinship groups, ii) kinship terminology iii) marriage rules, and iv) ceremonial exchange of gifts
among kin.
KINSHIP SYSTEM IN NORTH INDIA

Irawati Karve (1953: 93) identified the northern zone as the region that lies between the Himalayas
to the north and the Vindhya ranges to the south.
Kinship Groups-
Patrilineage: We can say that broadly speaking kinship organisation in North India is based on
unilineal descent groups based on male descent.
Clan and Lineage groups: In North India, there is both lineage and clan exogamy. In the jati based
society, we also have gotra exogamy where a gotra refers to an ancient ancestor, a mythological
sage.
Kinship Terminology
Descriptive Nature of North Indian Kinship Terms: The kinship terminology is the expression of
kinship relations in linguistic terms. In the case of North India, we can call the system of terminology
as bifurcate collateral where each kinship term is descriptive. A descriptive kin term is unique and
used for only one relationship.
Kinship Terms Signifying Social Behaviour- Both kinship terms and behaviour reflect these
principles. Two major forms of kinship behaviour are joking relationships and avoidance
relationships. Both serve the same function, to reduce tension and act as a cathartic mechanism in
case of relationships that are precarious. These are relationships that have an ambiguous character
and the norms tend to be liable to infraction. For example, Oscar Lewis (1958: 189), in his study of a
North Indian village, has described the pattern and relationship between a person and his elder
brother’s wife. This is popularly known as Devar-Bhabhi relationship, which is characteristically a
joking relationship and avoidance relationship with husband elder brother.
Marriage Rules
Clan Exogamy: Belonging to one’s natal descent line is best expressed in matters of marriage. No
man is allowed to marry a daughter of his patriline. In North India lineage ties upto five or six
generations are generally remembered and marriage alliances are not allowed within this range.
The Four Clan Rule : In Irawati Karve’s (1953: 118) words, according to this rule, a man must not
marry a woman from (i) his father’s gotra, (ii) his mother’s gotra, (iii) his father’s mother’s gotra,
and (iv) his mother’s mother’s gotra.
348
Ceremonial Exchange of Gifts among Kin
A.C. Mayer (1960: 232) has described in his study of kinship in a village in Malwa that all gifts given
by one’s mother’s brother are called mamere. In contrast to the gifts given by the mother’s brother,
there are gifts known as ban, given by one’s agnates.
KINSHIP SYSTEM IN SOUTH INDIA

KINSHIP GROUPS
Affinal Relatives: Beyond the patrilineage are the relatives who belong to the group in which one’s
mother was born, as well as one’s wife. They are a person’s uterine (from mothers side) and affinal
(from wife’s side) kin, commonly known as mamamachchinan. In this set of relatives are also
included the groups in which a person’s sister and father’s sister are married. The nature of
interaction between a patrilineage and its affines, as described by Dumont (1986) is always cordial
and friendly.
Kinship Terminology
Parallel and Cross-cousins- The kin terminology in South India clearly separates the two categories
of cousins. There are very good reasons for doing so because in South India, parallel cousins cannot
marry each other while cross-cousins can. The parallel cousins are referred as brothers/sisters.
For example, in Tamil, all parallel cousins are addressed as annan (elder brother) or tambi (younger
brother) and akka (elder sister) or tangachi (younger sister). Cross-cousins are never
brothers/sisters. They are referred, for example in Tamil, as mama magal/ magan (mother’s
brother’s daughter/son) or attai magal/magan (father’s sister’s daughter/son.
Classificatory Nature of Kinship Terminology; The distinction between parallel and cross-cousins
combined with the classificatory nature of terminology makes the Dravidian kinship terms a mirror
image of the kinship system in South India.
Marriage Rules
Three Types of Preferential Marriage Rules:
The first preference is given to the marriage between a man and his elder sister’s daughter. Among
the matrilineal societies like the Nayars, this is not allowed.
Next category of preferred marriage is the marriage of a man with his father’s sister’s daughter (fzd).
In other words, we can also say that a woman marries her mother’s brother’s son (mbs).
The third type of preferential marriage is between a man and his mother’s brother’s daughter (mbd).
In a way, this is the reverse of (ii) above. Some castes, such as the Kallar of Tamil Nadu.
Restrictions regarding Marital Alliances:In this context it is necessary to see what are the
restrictions imposed with regard to marriage between certain relatives. For example, in certain
castes a man can marry his elder sister’s daughter but not younger sister’s daughter. Also a widow
cannot marry her deceased husband’s elder or younger brother or even his classificatory brother.
Hence, kinship is a complex component existing in society and the most fundamental principle of
society. Different regions in India follow different types of kinship system and there are many
factors which have brought changes in kinship such as migration, education, and mobility, etc.
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Section B
Question 5. Answer the following question in about 150 Words each: 10x5=50
(a) Differentiate between ‘Life-chances’ and ‘Life-style’ with suitable
The concept of Life chances and Life style is used to classify society into different strata. The concept
of life chances was used by Max Weber to define basis for stratification in the society. Life chances
according to Weber is related to the opportunities an individual got during the various stages of his
or her life. While life style is simply our way of living. But life style also signifies various social
dimension of an individual like social status etc.
According to Weber life chances pertains to the benefits and opportunities granted by an
individual's position within the market. It serves to distinguish various social classes. Those who
possess comparable "life chances" tend to belong to the same social class. Therefore, based on these
life chances, Weber identified distinct classes such as the affluent property-owning upper class,
property-less white-collar professionals, the small business-owning petty bourgeoisie, and the
manual working class.
Difference between life chances and life style:
1. Life chances are opportunities and resources you get while life style is the result of those life
chances and your effort. For instance, upper and middle-class people have better access to
many institutions/services that improve quality of life, e.g. good quality healthcare,
education, housing, etc. than working-class people.
2. Lifestyle reflects social position and social honor while it is not necessary that a good life
chances will also reflect the same. For example a person belonging to OBC caste will get life
chance in form of reservation but that does not mean he/she is having good life style as well.
3. Max weber considered both life chances and lifestyle crucial for social status. He rejected the
Marx’s mono-causal view that only economic factor is responsible for class position.
4. Life chances is ability to get rewards while the lifestyle refers to the ability to consume. For
example when you perform well in an exam for government job, you get rewarded by a
secured job. Similarly a high class person is recognized by high consumption.
5. People are aware of their lifestyle but not of their life chances. A working class person knows
about his extent of lifestyle but life chances may appear in different form from time to time.
6. People often relate their life chance with fate but lifestyle is dependent on the Trinitarian
model of weber i.e. class, party and status.
7. Max weber’ concept of life chances has provided a new dimension to look upon the caste,
class, status. It has proved the importance of life chances and lifestyle in the social
stratification and role of priviledges in the society.
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(b) Discuss the issues of access and exclusion in higher education in India.
(10 Marks)
Access to education plays very crucial role in the development of the society. It provides upward
mobility to every section of society. Education is a dynamic process that enables individuals to attain
a fulfilling life within their community. The educational system evolves in response to societal
transformations, serving as a means for its members to effectively navigate the ever-changing
dynamics of their environment.
According to Clark, “Education system has a definite bearing on the society which possesses it. The
economy, political organization, social stratification, culture, kinship and social integration of any
society are closely linked with education.”
Issues of access and exclusion in higher in India:

1. Prevailing social disparities: Narrow interpretation of Prevailing social disparities in terms
of race, caste, class, culture, religion, etc. creates inequality in education system. The lower
caste people have inequal access to initial education and that hinders their participation in
higher education as well.
2. Gender disparity: Girls and transgender children enjoy low socio-economic and educational
positions in comparison to boys. Males are more in number for higher education as compared
to females.
3. Poverty: poverty restricts the access to education and excludes those who can’t afford it.
4. Lack of consciousness of people: Educational inequality is created because of lack of
consciousness of people towards education. Conservative attitude, false ideas, wrong beliefs
and ignorance towards education create a lot of inequality in education.
5. Regional imbalance: Some areas are more developed while some are underdeveloped. So
developed areas which are mostly urban have better access to higher education, while rural
area lacks higher educational institutions. Similarly there are limited higher educational
institutions in tribal areas.
6. Language barrier: Most of the higher education in India is provided in English language.
Which also restricts participation into higher education and a cause of low enrollment.
7. Online Learning Divide: The digital divide, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has
further excluded students who lack access to technology and internet connectivity, making
it difficult for them to engage in online higher education.
Measures to achieve equality, equity and acces:

1. Providing education to all people of the society in accordance with their needs, interests and
capabilities.
2. Diversify languages at higher education. Especially in engineering and medical field.
3. Special provision in education for children belonging to disadvantaged areas like slum areas,
remote rural areas, rough hills, delta areas, jungle areas, rough mountains, etc.
4. Adopting a fair and impartial policy in admission as well as treatment in all the educational
institutions.
With huge demographic dividend of India, higher education is important for developing human
capital. It will provide social mobility and equality in the society.
351
(c) What is civil society? Present a note on civil society engagement with
science and technology policy in India. (10 Marks)
Answer:-
Defining Civil society

Civil society is community of citizens linked by common interests and collective identity. It
manifests will and interests of the citizens. It is third sector of society after government and business.
It limits power of state and usher in true and vibrant democracy by enhancing participation.
 JS MILL and Alexis de Tocqueville: CS is domain of social association which will check
excesses of the state. (based on liberal democratic theory: right bearing individuals are free
to pursue their private associations with others)
 Hegel: subordinated CS to state as he thought it as a mediating domain where particular
interests of individual and universal interest of state can be reconciled for producing ethical
basis for modern society.
 Antonio Gramsci: Civil society furthers the dominant ideologies.
 Partha Chatterjee and Sudipta Kaviraj:
o Dealinate western CS from Indian;
o Application of concepts of western CS on India is wrong as state in India is not
extensive as on west.
 Anthony Giddens—
o Groups which fall outside the market and government both can be termed as civil
society.
o Government and the market alone are not enough to solve the many challenges in late
modern societies.
o Civil society - must be strengthened and joined up with government and business.
o Voluntary groups, families and civic associations can play vital roles in addressing
community issues from
o Some elements of civil society (often characterised as ‘social movements’) seek radical
transformations of the prevailing order.
However, civil society also includes reformist elements that seek only modest revisions of existing
governance arrangements and conformist elements that seek to reinforce established rules.
Science, Innovation, and the civil society

In India, there is already a certain sentiment for self-organized bottom-up engagement and
empowerment of local civil society groups and NGOs acting in specific local and cultural or
application-oriented contexts.
 Four pillars underlie India’s science and technology goals: techno-nationalism, inclusive
growth, technoglobalism, and global leadership.
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 The innovation system started with the agricultural establishment in India being the major
player initiating basic research in the 1950s, changed to the current situation, where the
scientific establishment had almost no role.
India has a vibrant civil society, but in science and technology issues that civil society has much
more potential to contribute.
 To begin with, not many groups are active in science and technology policy in India, and
those that are there work on issues like sustainable agriculture, traditional medicine and the
rights of forest dwellers, with a focus on praxis rather than on policy aspects
 There are not many civil society groups working on science and technology policy issues in
India. One reason, perhaps, is that not many universities or institutions of higher learning
offer courses in science and technology policy or studies. Another factor could be that science
and technology policy is too diffuse a topic to attract NGOs that usually focus on a single
sector, such as health, agriculture or workers’ rights.
 Some groups are working on nuclear energy and atomic energy issues, but are divided on
nuclear energy for peaceful uses.
However, these groups and organizations still face problems in reaching or addressing science
policy actors because they often lack the technical capacity to address broader and overarching
science and technology issues beyond their operational context, and they also lack channels to the
policy-making levels.
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(d) Critique A.G. Frank’s ‘development of underdevelopment’. (10 Marks)

Structure:
 Explain A.G. Frank’s ‘development of under development”
 Drawbacks
 Conclusion
A.G. Frank’s ‘Development of underdevelopment’
 In an article entitled ‘The Development of Underdevelopment’ which set out his main
thinking, Frank declared:
 ‘Underdevelopment is not due to the survival of archaic institutions and the existence of
capital shortage in regions that have remained isolated from the stream of world history. On
the contrary, underdevelopment was and still is generated by the very same historical
process which also generated economic development: the development of capitalism itself.’
 According to A.G. Frank, underdevelopment is not a transitional stage, rather the
relationship between the centre and periphery, which has been continuously generating a
process of ‘development of underdevelopment.’
o According to this view, the capitalist system has enforced a rigid international division
of labour which is responsible for the underdevelopment of many areas of the world.
o The dependent states supply cheap minerals, agricultural commodities, and cheap
labour, and also serve as the repositories of surplus capital, obsolescent technologies,
and manufactured goods.
o These functions orient the economies of the dependent states toward the outside:
Money, goods, and services do flow into dependent states, but the allocation of these
resources is determined by the economic interests of the dominant states, and not by
the economic interests of the dependent state.
 The most explicit manifestation of this characteristic is in the doctrine of comparative
advantage.
Drawbacks of AG Frank’s Theory:
 Frank’s works have been subject to a wide-ranging set of criticisms. In many instances these
criticisms attend superficially to the complex claims of his argument and utilize as the basis
of criticism the very models of developmentalism, stages of economic growth, etc.
 However, some criticisms have been consistently focused on inconsistencies, ambiguities,
and alleged inaccuracies in Frank’s theorization.
o Neoliberalists would argue that it is mainly internal factors that lead to
underdevelopment, not exploitation – They argue that it is corruption within
governments (poor governance) that is mainly to blame for the lack of development
in many African countries. According to Neoliberals, what underdeveloped countries
need is less isolation and more Capitalism.
o Paul Collier’s theory of the bottom billion- He argues that the causes of
underdevelopment cannot be reduced to a history of exploitation. He argues that
factors such as civil wars, ethnic tensions and being land- locked with poor neighbours
are correlated with underdevelopment.
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o Modernists theorists would argue against the view that isolation and communist
revolution is an effective path to development, given the well-known failings of
communism in Russia and Eastern Europe. They would also point out that many
developing countries have benefitted from Aid-for Development programs run by
western governments, and that those countries which have adopted capitalist models
of development since World War II have developed at a faster rate than those that
pursued communism.
o Some countries appear to have benefited from Colonialism – Goldethorpe (1975)
pointed out that those countries that had been colonised at least have the benefits of
good transport and communication networks, such as India, whereas many countries
that were never colonised, such as Ethiopia, are much less developed.
o Frank and Wallerstein add a zero-sum description to this circulationist perspective.
 Not only do they maintain that advanced capitalism under-developed the periphery, but they
also insist that the centre has developed only because of the exploitation of the periphery.
 It has been pointed out that class as a unit of analysis is given minimal consideration by
Frank.
 Frank has been criticised for totally dispensing with relations of production in his analysis of
capitalism, and overemphasising the effects of external forces on underdevelopment with
little attention directed towards the influencing internal forces.
 Laclau argues against Frank’s insistence that world-historical structure is fundamentally
ordered by the capitalist mode of production, claiming that Frank mistakenly regards various
countries as capitalist when in fact they are characterised by non-capitalist modes of
production but are forced into “participation in a world capitalist economic system”.
Conclusion
 Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by
small but powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist
system.
 The “development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path- dependent.
 In sum, the ‘development of underdevelopment’ thesis is a manifold argument, containing
several different levels of critique and proposal.
 Not only does it propose a particular understanding of contemporary inequalities of human
condition, inequalities both among and within societies or nation-states; this understanding
depends upon an underlying critique of certain prevalent conceptualizations of history, of
society, and of social-scientific knowledge.
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(e) How well do you think Tonnies, Durkheim, Weber and Marx predicted
the character of Modern society? Critique. (10 Marks)
Answer:-
Theoretical Perspectives on the Formation of Modern Society

While many sociologists have contributed to research on society and social interaction, three
thinkers provide the basis of modern-day perspectives. Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max
Weber developed different theoretical approaches to help us understand the development of
modern society.
Emile Durkheim believed that as societies advance, they make the transition from mechanical to
organic solidarity.
For Karl Marx, society exists in terms of class conflict. With the rise of capitalism, workers become
alienated from themselves and others in society.
Sociologist Max Weber noted that the rationalization of society can be taken to unhealthy extremes.
Feminists note that the androcentric point of view of the classical theorists does not provide an
adequate account of the difference in the way the genders experience modern society.
Emile Durkheim
 Emile Durkheim’s (1858-1917) key focus in studying modern society was to understand the
conditions under which social and moral cohesion could be reestablished.
 Modern societies, according to Durkheim, were more complex. Collective consciousness was
increasingly weak in individuals and the ties of social integration that bound them to others
were increasingly few.
 Modern societies were characterized by an increasing diversity of experience and an
increasing division of people into different occupations and specializations. They shared less
and less commonalities that could bind them together.
 Durkheim observed, their ability to carry out their specific functions depended upon others
being able to carry out theirs.
 Modern society was increasingly held together on the basis of a division of labour or organic
solidarity: a complex system of interrelated parts, working together to maintain stability, i.e.,
like an organism (Durkheim, 1893/1960).
 According to his theory, as the roles individuals in the division of labour become more
specialized and unique, and people increasingly have less in common with one another, they
also become increasingly interdependent on one another.
 While the transition from mechanical to organic solidarity is, in the long run, advantageous
for a society, Durkheim noted that it creates periods of chaos and “normlessness.” One of the
outcomes of the transition is social anomie.
 However, Durkheim felt that as societies reach an advanced stage of organic solidarity, they
avoid anomie by redeveloping a set of shared norms. According to Durkheim, once a society
achieves organic solidarity, it has finished its development.
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Karl Marx
 For Marx, the creation of modern society was tied to the emergence of capitalism as a global
economic system. In the mid-19th century, as industrialization was expanding, Karl Marx
(1818–1883) observed that the conditions of labour became more and more exploitative.
 Add to that the long hours, the use of child labour, and exposure to extreme conditions of
heat, cold, and toxic chemicals.
 For Marx, the underlying structure of societies and of the forces of historical change was
predicated on the relationship between the “base and superstructure” of societies.
 In this model, society’s economic structure forms its base, on which the culture and other
social institutions rest, forming its superstructure.
 Marx’s analysis of the transition from feudalism to capitalism is historical and materialist
because it focuses on the changes in the economic mode of production to explain the
transformation of the social order.
 The expansion of the use of money, the development of commodity markets, the introduction
of rents, the accumulation and investment of capital, the creation of new technologies of
production, and the early stages of the manufactory system, etc. led to the formation of a new
class structure (the bourgeoisie and the proletariat), a new political structure (the nation
state), and a new ideological structure (science, human rights, individualism, rationalization,
the belief in progress, etc.).
Max Weber
 For Weber, the culmination of industrialization and rationalization results in what he
referred to as the iron cage, in which the individual is trapped by the systems of efficiency
that were designed to enhance the wellbeing of humanity. We are trapped in a cage, or
literally a “steel housing”(stahlhartes Gehäuse), of efficiently organized processes because
rational forms of organization have become indispensable.
 To Weber, capitalism itself became possible through the processes of rationalization. The
emergence of capitalism in the West required the prior existence of rational, calculable
procedures like double-entry bookkeeping, free labour contracts, free market exchange, and
predictable application of law so that it could operate as a form of rational enterprise.
 Unlike Marx who defined capitalism in terms of the ownership of private property, Weber
defined it in terms of its rational processes.
 For Weber, capitalism is as a form of continuous, calculated economic action in which every
element is examined with respect to the logic of investment and return.
 Weber argued however that although the process of rationalization leads to efficiency and
effective, calculated decision making, it is in the end an irrational system. The emphasis on
rationality and efficiency ultimately has negative effects when taken to its conclusion.
Ferdinand Tonnies
Typology evolved by Tonnies, viz., the distinction between Gemeinschaft and Gesselschaft.
 According to Tonnies, a society which is characterized by Gemeinschaft relationship is
governed by natural law, whereas the one characterized by Gesselschaft relationships is
governed by rational law.
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 According to Tonnies, Gemeinschaft, or community, is comprised of personal social ties and
in-person interactions that are defined by traditional social rules and result in an overall
cooperative social organization.
 On the other hand, Gesellschaft, or society, is comprised of impersonal and indirect social
ties and interactions that are not necessarily carried out face-to-face.
 Tonnies thought of the development of the modern world as being an evolutionary one, in
which European societies emerging from the Industrial Revolution of the nineteenth century
and became more rational and “Gesellschaft”-like, overwhelming older forms of
Gemeinschaft society.
 He believed that this new modern society, while retaining elements of an emotion-laded
Gemeinschaft, would become more and more impersonal. Tonnies’ formulation assumed
that the new Gesellschaft society was superior because the material advantages of modern
life would eventually overwhelm the older forms of Gemeinschaft, with all its sentimentality,
family-based favoritism, tribal organization, and economic inefficiencies.
Karl Marx, Emil Durkheim and Max Weber could all, in addition to being critical of modern
societies, recover positive meanings from them (this meaning socialism for Marx, rationalisation for
Weber, and organic solidarity for Durkheim).
Criticism
Missing in the classical theoretical accounts of modernity is an explanation of how the developments
of modern society, industrialization, and capitalism have affected women differently from men.
Despite the differences in Durkheim’s, Marx’s, and Weber’s main themes of analysis, they are
equally androcentric to the degree that they cannot account for why women’s experience of modern
society is structured differently from men’s, or why the implications of modernity are different for
women than they are for men. They tell his-story but neglect her-story.
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Question 6.
(a) Why is gender a dimension of social stratification? How does gender
intersect other dimensions of inequality based on caste, class, race and
ethnicity? (20 Marks)
In sociology, gender is linked to socially constructed notions of masculinity and femininity; it is not
necessarily direct product of an individual’s biological sex. Social stratification occurs when
differences lead to greater status, power, or privilege for some groups over others. Simply put, it is
a system by which society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. Women due to unequal access
to resources, power, prestige, rights lag behind their male counterpart and thus arises the
stratification based on gender.
Kimberlé Crenshaw coined the term inter-sectionality, which explained Intersectional feminism as,
“a prism for seeing the way in which various forms of inequality often operate together and
exacerbate each other”. Intersectional feminism centres the voices of those experiencing
overlapping, concurrent forms of oppression in order to understand the depths of the inequalities
and the relationships among them in any given context.
Intersection of gender with caste:

 According to feminists, the women from lower castes or marginalized sections of the society
faces double burden of exploitation and discrimination. One at the societal level and other at
the family level as well.
 But according to Leela dubey, women in lower caste are less controlled and free. For example,
the upper caste generally don’t prefer their women to work and socialize in public sphere
while lower caste women participate in labor force.
Intersection of gender and class:

 Gender and class intersect, influencing access to economic opportunities. Women from lower
socioeconomic classes may face additional challenges in accessing education, healthcare, and
employment compared to women from more privileged backgrounds.
 Higher class people also restrict females from public participation. Women in higher classes
also lack decision making power with respect to lower class women, who enjoy some
decision making due to more participation in economic sphere.
 According to Feminist, women are oppressed as a class by men and patriarchal structures.
But Frank Parkin has dismissed the idea of women as a class.
Intersection of gender and race:

 According to Black Feminists, in this overall patriarchal society, black females the
subjugated the most.
 Not only do women of color experience both racism and sexism, but their experiences of both
racism and sexism are shaped by one another. For example, since the time of slavery in the
United States, black women have been forced to act in ways counter to the “ideal woman”.
They were made to do field work alongside men. Their white counterparts were considered
fragile and relegated to child-rearing based stereotype of women as fragile.
 Black women are linked to victimization as well as compared to white women. They are also
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more sexual harassed.
Intersection of gender and ethnicity:

Both women and ethnic groups have high visibility. They 'look' different. While a minority ethnic
group in the United States of America may look different by colour, hair and facial features, a
woman ought to look different. Not only is she supposed to be shorter than 'her' men folks, be
weaker, weigh less but also dress, walk, speak. gesticulate differently. Both the ethnic minority and
women are also attributed with other qualities which are not self evidently obvious..
The important point to notice that in both the case of women and ethnic minority, the tendency of
the dominant sections of society is to attribute qualities as naturally given, biologically endowed. It
is also important to state that the ethnic group in question or women are compliant in accepting a
self definition that has been endowed socially on them. This would explain a Black girls' preference
for white dolls in America where notions of beauty are deeply ingrained. Or an Indian woman
would be empowered with the birth of a 'son and look down on other women who in her eyes were
not so fortunate.
In modern times, the dimension of gender stratification has moved beyond only female identity, it
has also included in itself transgender, bisexual, lesbian, gay etc. Government has taken many step
to reduce gender based inequalities. The recent mobility studies have shown that women are doing
considerably better in different aspects of society.
360
(b) What are the theoretical models of societal power? Which one of them is
most applicable in advanced industrial societies? (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Define Power and it’s features.
 Explain Sources of Power with various theories.
 Give one theory which you feel is most applicable in advanced industrial societies.
 Conclude.
Answer: -
Power: Possession of control, authority or influence over others, a relationship in which an
individual is able to exert influence over the mind and actions of others.
Max Weber: Opportunity existing within a social relationship which permits one to carry out one’s
will even against resistance and regardless of the basis on which opportunity rests.
Amos Hawley: Every social act is an exercise of power; every social relationship is a power equation
and every social group or a system is an organization of power.
Steven Lukes says Weber definition is narrow. According to him there is 3-D view of
power.
Three faces of power-
 Decision making.
 Non decision making (by giving limited preferences to choose).
 Shaping discussions (manipulating wishes and desires).
Basis of power: Wealth, status, knowledge, charisma, force, authority.
Features of power:
 Structural aspect of social reality,
 Operates reciprocally but usually not equally reciprocally,
 Manifests itself in a relationship manner,
 Appears as a process not a fixed part of social structure,
 Power in inherent in social stratification,
 It becomes basis of social stratification ex CW Mills.
Sources of power:
Legitimate (traditional, charisma, rational legal)
Illegitimate – force (violence, coercion)
(Can quote any of the following as models of Societal Power)
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1. ELITE THEORY OF POWER
 It was developed by Italian sociologists Vilfredo Pareto and Gaetano Mosca, which
suggest that only minority has talent, intelligence, and ability of leadership to occupy
positions of power. Minority also influence government’s decisions and gains their
dominant position beyond general elections (democracy is utopia). Elites also holds
power due to religious values which can be hereditary or which may be through
certain personal qualities.
2. CLASS THEORY OF POWER (G MOSCA)
 In Book ‘ruling class’ it is emphasized on sociological and personal characteristics of
elites. It suggests that Elite rule is universal necessity and it’s inevitability.
 Societies are divided in two groups-ruling and ruled:
Ruling class is divided into elites (political power and property)
Sub elites (technocrats, managers, civil servants)
 Dominant interests are reflected in ruling class and they dominate structures and
values
 It is different from Pareto, in which he says elites are restrained by various social
factors, ruled are not powerless in democracy.
3. Robert Michels (Iron law of Oligarchy)
 Oligarchy inevitable within democracy as it is part of technical and tactical necessity.
Leadership class comes to dominate power structure by which it controls and have
access to information and centralizes the power with little accountability
 Any democratic attempt fails because leadership class rewards loyalty. Elites have
three principles which help in bureaucratic structure. (need and specialization,
importance of psychological attributes, utilizations of facilities by old elites).
4. CW MILLS: book ‘The Power Elite’
 Mills explained elite rule in Institutional rather than Psychological terms.
 Two kinds of elites.
Segmental: Arts/music and science
Strategic: Those who govern
 Federal government
 Military
Elites have same lifestyle, family relationship and perpetuate rules through self-recruitment
Command Posts: Key pivotal positions in institutions.
Elites occupy these positions. However, elites have no moral/psychological superiority.
Elite rule is not inevitable whereas, Masses are incompetent. They are kept in state of ignorance and
powerlessness.
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5. James Burnham: Book ‘The Managerial Revolution’
 All the power is in hands of managers (separation of operation and control), capitalism
is on decline. Managers are new elites
6. TB Bottomore: Book ‘The Elites and Society’
 Elites are different in industrial and developing world
 Examined roles of elites in relation to class and class structure
 Criticized democratic and socialistic conception of elites
 Society is moving towards egalitarianism and multiple elites are present in developing
world.
o Dynastic
o Middle class
o Revolutionary intellectuals
o Colonial administrators
o Nationalist leaders.
PLURALIST THEORY OF Power
The Pluralist Model is highly applicable in advanced industrial societies, as it aptly reflects the
complexities of power dynamics in these settings.
It is based on functionalism (Parsons), classical pluralism and with emphasis on equilibrium,
stability and gradual change in society which is decentralized. Power is widely shared/diffused and
fragmented and derived from multiple resources.
Diverse group with conflicting interests such as no one plays dominant role. Natural balance of
power is preserved through bargaining and compromise.
Alexis de Tocqueville says democracy becomes dysfunctional if dominated by one interest
whereas, State is ‘honest broker’.
This model emphasizes that societal power is not concentrated but is distributed across various
actors and institutions, making it a valuable analytical tool for understanding the dynamics of
power in contemporary societies.
Neil Smelser: Strain theory.
 T Parsons (Variable Sum): Criticized Weber for constant sum of power. Power can decrease
and increase
o For example: modernity has raised lifestyle of all. It is structural feature of society and
a generalized facility or resource.
o It is capacity to mobilize resources for attainment of goals.
o Value consensus, goals are shared and power is used to further collective goals
The role of diverse interest groups in shaping policies, as seen in environmental advocacy's
influence on climate change policies and the power of labor unions in advocating for workers' rights
and wage reforms, exemplifying the continued relevance of the Pluralist Model in understanding
and analyzing power dynamics in modern advanced industrial societies.
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(c) What is affirmative action? Substantiate theoretical positions on

affirmative actions with examples. (10 Marks)
Affirmative Action is a policy or initiative that seeks to rectify historical discrimination against
minority groups by offering them preferential access to education, employment, healthcare, social
welfare, and other opportunities. Its overarching goal is to foster a more equitable and inclusive
society.
As expressed by Oliver Wendell Holmes, "Treating unequals equally results in the greatest
inequality." This underscores the necessity for affirmative action, aimed at promoting a more
compassionate and forward-thinking society.
Theoretical perspective on affirmative action:
1. Marxist Perspective: Affirmative action will promote equality in the society and thus against
the class polarization. Such action will be opposed by Have class so that they can dominate
their control over factors of production.
2. Functionalist Perspective: According to functionalists the affirmative action provide
opportunity for upward social mobility in society and thus promotes balance and stability. It
breaks the rigid caste and other social hierarchies. Ultimately it promotes solidarity in the
society.
3. Feminist Perspective: According to radical feminist the power still lies with the patriarch
and females are controlled by them. But liberal feminist states that affirmative action is
providing females opportunity to get themselves represented in economic and political
sphere and ultimately in the social sphere as well.
4. Peter Saunders distinguishes between three types of equality based on different types of
actions and opportunities:
1. Formal equality (all members of society are subjected to same laws and rules but that
does not imply that everybody ends up in the same position)
2. Equality of opportunity (people have equal chance to become unequal i.e.
meritocracy)
3. Equality of outcome (Marxist idea- equal reward for any work. E.g. affirmative action)
5. according to legalist school, the constitution of India provides for affirmative action in the
form of reservation to the backward castes and females.
Some critics argue that affirmative action, in some cases, may lead to reverse discrimination, where
individuals from non-targeted groups face disadvantages in opportunities. Example: In the United
States, affirmative action policies have been challenged in the courts, with critics arguing that they
can unfairly disadvantage certain individuals, especially Asian Americans, in college admissions.
In India also many dominant caste are demanding for reservation which will improve their status
further in social hierarchy.
Affirmative action is a complex and controversial issue, and the theoretical positions and their
substantiation often depend on the specific context and goals of these policies. Also only affirmative
actions won’t bring equality and equity in society. There is a need to change the attitude of people
towards caste, race etc.
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Question 7.
(a) What is ‘informal labour’? Discuss the need for and challenges in
regulating informal labour in post-industrial society. (20 Marks)
Workers engaged in informal labor often operate outside the regulatory framework of labor laws
and may not have access to benefits such as health insurance, retirement plans, or legal protections.
This type of work is typically characterized by its casual, irregular, and unstructured nature.
The lobour in the post-indutrial society has changed its form, participation, division of labour and
awareness about work. With increasing informalization of work, there is requirement for regulating
the informal labour because of arrival of many new issues.
Need for regulating informal sector in post industrial society:

1. Job insecurity: According to Marxist perspective the informal labour has provided a new
way of exploiting the working class by the bourgeoisie. Workers with the informal sector are
employed in factories or industries for a temporary period of time. At the same time, the
entrepreneur who employs them is also not very rich and therefore cannot afford to give
them a proper job security.
2. Low payment: Due to lack of any regulation the employer take benefit of situation and
provides low remuneration to the workers. Also majority of population is involved in
informal sector so there is less chance of bargain for workers, as many other are ready to
work at low pay. According to Jan Breman, the informal saturated with over supply of labour.
3. Workers are unorganized: Workers in the informal sectors belong to different caste, religion,
language and race. As a result of this they are not organized or unionized as a result of which
their bargaining capacity reduces.
4. Low social recognition: As these workers are not recognized and thus they get low payment
nad no security which in turn leads to low recognition in the society. Informal workers come
under lower class in the society as they lack the consumption capacity.
Social Protection: Informal labourers are often vulnerable to exploitation due to the absence of legal
safeguards. Regulating informal labor ensures that workers receive social protection, including
health care, social security, and other benefits.
Challenges in regulating informal labour:

1. Existence of informal structure under formal organization: Accroding to Peter Blau,
informal structures exist even in formal organization. For example, actual decisions are taken
by few people at the top in formal organization and they mostly share informal relation.
2. Poor implementation of rules and regulation: According to Meyer and Rowan, formal rules
are like myths which people barely follow. So even if informal labour is being regulated, it
will be difficult to enforce it effectively.
3. According to Keith Hart, the informal sector provides easy entry to even low skilled workers.
So most of the unskilled workers and immigrants prefer that informal sector should remain
unregulated for their convenience to get easy jobs.
4. Resistance to formalization: According to Structuralist and Voluntarist school, many firms
choose to remain informal to reduce the overall cost and increase profit.
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5. Economic Informality: There are instances where the informal sector is deeply embedded in
the economic framework, posing challenges in shifting towards a more formalized system
without inducing disruptions.
Though informal labour face multiple challenges but there work has some functional utility as well
that is why it is continuing but government needs to eliminate the exploitative aspects of informal
labour. Addressing these challenges requires a comprehensive approach involving collaboration
between governments, employers, workers, and civil society to create policies that strike a balance
between protecting workers and accommodating the unique characteristics of informal labor in a
post-industrial society.
366
(b) Feminist scholars argue that ‘New media’ is masculine and hence
reinforces structural hierarchies rather than reconfiguring them. Comment.
(20 Marks)
Answer:
How to attempt this “New Age Media is Masculine?”
Describe Masculinity:
It refers to the behaviors, social roles, and relations of men within a given society as well as the
meanings attributed to them.
Give Features of masculinity and associate them with Media-

 Projection of being powerful - investigative journalism.
 Judgemental and Shaming- Media trials, Victim shaming
 Values Courage as a virtue - Sting operations
 Sensationalism to get attention - 24x7 News channels thrive on creating sensation out of every
news.
 Domination - US election. (Fox News)
With the rise of Social Media there is increased possibility of threatening under the veil of
anonymity, with rape threats, stalking easier than ever.
How Structural Hierarchies are being re-inforced through Media:

 Leadership Positions: Although globally the number of women participating in media has
been increasing, the prime positions such as producers, executives, chief editors, and
publishers remains to be male dominated (White, 2009).This is relevant to the discussion of
pay parity and how gender-based stratification has an implication on economy.
 Culture impedes women from working in journalism, hence media continues and grows into
a masculine domain. Culture is significant in allotting differential status and role sets even
when it comes to media.
 Roles Given: Global Media Monitoring project reports that female journalists are more likely
to assigned soft subjects such as family, lifestyle, fashion, arts. While the hard subjects such
as politics, economy are much less likely to be written or covered by women.
Indicative of how women’s perspective on issues is amiss from media Reinforces the belief
pattern that-men are intellectually superior to women
 Using Symbolic interactionism it can be found that in terms of language and symbols used
in media, the prefix female is used in many news headlines or media coverage ranging from
print to television, internet.
For instance, Female President Jacinda tackled Corona in an effective manner This could be
a problematic reportage as it makes the achievements look as a one-time occurrence, and
significant only because of the gender, it underpins the individual achievement and
capability.
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 Hegemonic masculinity based on Gramsci’s concept of hegemony reveals that Toxic
masculinity is perpetuated.
Women are more likely to be portrayed as victims according to the Global Media Monitoring
Project leading to widespread usage of stereotypes and labelling.
 Foucault’s concept of power knowledge, micro power relations, exercise of power and
presentation of truth and knowledge, discourse and belief system- these topics can be further
explored in terms of how masculinity is a power relationship that is expressed through media
and has come to dominate media.
Do highlight Media’s reformative role

 Documentary making
 Highlighting the plight of women whenever drought strikes
 Increased reporting of rape cases has led to increased confidence of women in coming
forward to report cases
 Increased awareness of abuses other than sexual abuse.
Overall:
 Requirement is of a sensitised, parity ensuring media, that addresses these power equations
and instead of reinforcing structural hierarchies, reconfigures them.
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(c) Discuss the concept of circulation of elite. (10 Marks)

 Elites are individuals that have a capacity to save, invest, and generate knowledge,
technology and creativity well above the average of the population. They also wield
economic and political power.
 To Pareto elites are those people who possess in marked degree qualities of intelligence,
character, capacity, of whatever kind. More precisely if we grade every individual regardless
of any ethical judgment, according to their branch activity and occupation in the society, we
find at each grade level there will be a certain amount of individuals that consists of a class.
In this class hierarchy, people who are in the class which is on the top of the other classes are
called, "elite" (Pareto 1935).
 Pareto defined the circulation of elites as the turnover in power of socioeconomic classes. He
observed that elites in different societies along history do renew systematically. This is called
Pareto’s ‘Principle of Circulation of Elites’.
 Vilfredo Pareto's seminal conception of elite circulation asserts that “the governing elite is
always in a state of slow and continuous transformation,” with the occasional “sudden and
violent disturbances” (Pareto 1935, 2056).
 The term has history that dates back to the writings of Vilfredo Pareto (1935 and 1968),
Gaetano Mosca (1939 and 1968) and Robert Michels (1968, 2001) observations made by them
with regard to
o the elite as distinguished from the non-elite groups within a social order and
o the divisions within the elite as between a governing and a non-governing elite.
 Furthermore, Mosca Gaetano (1939) noted that the distinguishing characteristic of the elite is
the “aptitude to command and to exercise political control”.
 According to classical elite theory, increased circulation is related to increased integration
which is thought to increase elites’ power.
o Pareto emphasized the psychological and intellectual superiority of elites, believing
that they were the highest accomplishers in any field. He discussed the existence of
two types of elites:
o Governing elites- People who are directly or indirectly concerned with administration.
They play an important role and enjoy prestigious place in society.
o Non-governing elites- People who are not connected with administration but occupy
such a place in society that they somehow influence the administration.
 Vilfredo Pareto is the principal author of elite theory and the father of elite circulation theory.
 His theory of elite circulation is a mechanical construct, in which elites exchange their own
“degenerate” members for “superior” members of the nonelites when in equilibrium —
upheaval and revolution occur when the equilibrium is disturbed. Degenerate elites shrink
from the use of force required to restore equilibrium; superior members of the underclass
have the vigor required.
 The up and down movement of elite takes place in two ways:-
 Firstly, some non-elite by their merit may rise to the level of elite, and
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 Secondly by revolution the entire governing class may be reduced to the status of the
governed.
 Elites can survive and keep going provided they are renewed continuously, eliminate
degenerated elements and accept new elements within them in certain proportions.
Circulation between the lower layer and the upper layer - mobility - must above all be
vertical, upward, but must also be downward. There is no mobility when there is simply
assimilation or co-opting.
 According to Pareto, Circulation of elite is a process that is necessary for a healthy social
change.
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Question 8.
(a) In the light of judicial intervention on ‘Live-in relationships’, discuss the
future of marriage and family in India. (20 Marks)
A live in relationship is an arrangement where a heterosexual couple lives together, without
entering into formal institution called marriage. People enter into such arrangements to test the
compatibility before marriage or if they are unable to marry due to social restrictions or they lack
faith in the institution of marriage.
With the change in time the institution of marriage changed as well. The society transformed from
primitive to feudal and from feudal to industrial. This led to changes in mode of production and so
the division and differentiation of labor which affected the social, economical, political, cultural
aspects of every society. Live-in relationship is also result of such changes in the society and is
sustaining and increasing due to its structural and functional need. In the recent times the judiciary
has intervened and recognized the live-in relationships. This will affect the marriage and family as
an institution in India.
Future of marriage and family due to Live-in relationships:

1. Marital choices: Earlier the marital choices were made by family (in traditional joint family
system) also called arranged marriage by parents, while in contemporary society with
increasing trend of live in relationship, it has become more of an individualistic
phenomena(leading to love marriages).
2. Declining importance of marriage as an institution: The Supreme Court in Lata Singh
judgment held that live-in relationship is permissible only in unmarried major persons of
heterosexual sex. Such recognition of live in relationship weakens the institution of marriage.
3. Dilution of aim of marriage and family: Earlier marriage and family provided legitimization
to sexual relation, procreation. But now live-in relationships have diluted such aims and now
such things are done even without formal marriage. In S.P.S. Balasubramanyam v.
Surunayan the Supreme Court held that if a man and woman are living under the same roof
and cohabiting for a number of years, there will be a presumption under Section 114 of the
Indian Evidence Act that they live as husband and wife and the children born to them will
not be illegitimate.
4. Partners in a live-in relationship do not enjoy an automatic right of inheritance to the property
of their partner. The Hindu Succession Act, 1956 does not specify succession rights to even a
mistress living with a male Hindu. However, the Supreme Court in Vidhyadhari Vs.
Sukhrana Bai created a hope for persons living-in together as husband and wife by providing
that those who have been in a live-in relationship for a reasonably long period of time can
receive property in inheritance from a live-in partner.
5. Diversion from religious duties: In India marriage is linked with religious duties. It is one
of the four Ashramas of Hindu ideology, the “Grihasthashrama”. Grihasthashram deals with
marriage and includes the goals of Dharma, Artha and Kama. Thus establishment of family
is a religious duty. So such new social practices like live-in is diverting people from their
duties.
6. Increase in nuclear families: Live-in relationship still not well accepted in the society and
such relationships even if solemnized in marriage from will continue as nuclear family.
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7. As the live-in relationship is based on love and romance so there is chances that it could lead
to decrease in sexual and intimate violence.
8. Emerging new institution: With emergence of live-in relationships which allows
cohabitation of couples without marriage, heterosexual and Homosexual forms of marriages
or partnership are now being recognized in the society.
K.M. Kapadia in his “Marriage and family in India” has said that Hindu marriage is a sacrament.
Even the importance of marriage is mentioned in Rig Veda itself. In India marriage is an obligation
which is difficult to avoid due to societal pressure. An unmarried person is treated with stigma for
his whole life. So it is debatable that in the upcoming time, even with judicial recognition, how live-
in relationship is going to establish itself in the Indian society.
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(b) How, according to Merton, are deviant subcultures generated? (20

Marks)
RK Merton theory of deviance is structural functionalist conception that is explained in his Social
structure and anomie in the backdrop of Great economic depression of 1929. Merton initiates his
analysis by asserting that deviant behavior is a consequence of the cultural and structural aspects of
society. Drawing from the functionalist perspective, Merton posits that in order for a society to
operate smoothly, there must be a consensus of values among its members.
However, due to the unequal distribution of individuals within the social structure, such as
differences in class positions, not everyone has equal opportunities to fulfill these shared values.
Consequently, this unequal situation can give rise to deviant behavior. In Merton’s own words, “The
social and cultural structure exerts pressure that leads individuals in various positions within the
structure to engage in socially deviant behavior.
Merton asserts that a state of Anomie can exist within the social structure, characterized by a lack of
coordination between culturally approved goals and the means available to achieve them.
Individuals positioned in different social structures may adapt in various ways to this anomic
situation.
For instance, in American society, the shared goal of success is equated with wealth and material
possessions, often referred to as the “American Dream.” While society provides institutionalized
means to attain these goals, such as education, talent, hard work, determination, and ambition,
Merton suggests that an anomic situation arises when these conventional means do not guarantee
success for the average American.
Merton outlines five possible responses to this state of anomie-
Conformity- where individuals conform to both the goals of success and the normative means to
achieve them. They strive for success through accepted channels.
Innovation- where individuals reject normative means and turn to deviant methods to attain
success. This includes activities like bribery or involvement in illicit deals. Merton argues that
individuals from relatively disadvantaged sections of society are more likely to choose this route
when conventional means are inaccessible. They abandon institutionalized means but retain
aspirations for success.
Ritualism- It is characterized by individuals who become deviant by obsessively adhering to the
means while losing sight of the goals. This response is most prevalent among the lower middle class,
who have limited opportunities for success compared to other middle-class members. However,
their strong socialization to conform prevents them from resorting to deviant means. Instead, they
abandon their aspirations for success and become immersed in adhering to rules and norms without
striving for achievement.
Retreatism- This applies to individuals such as psychotics, artists, outcasts, vagabonds, chronic
drunkards, and drug addicts. These individuals have internalized both the cultural goals and
institutional means but are unable to achieve success due to the anomic situation. They cope with
their circumstances by completely abandoning both the goals and the means to reach them. They
withdraw from society, feeling defeated and resigned to their failures. Retreatists reject both the
cultural goals and the institutionalized means.
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Rebellion- here the individuals reject the goals, means, and institutions altogether and seek to create
a new society. Examples include historical figures like Lenin, Christ, and Gandhi, as well as
terrorists in various societies. Merton argues that rebellion is often driven by members of rising
social classes who organize the resentful into revolutionary groups.
Criticisms of Strain Theory

1. Not all working class individuals turn to crime, and so we need something else to explain
why some of them do and some of them do not. Subcultural theorists argued that the role of
working class subcultures plugs this gap in the explanation – deviant subcultures provide
rewards for individuals who commit crime.
2. Strain theory fails to explain other form of crime apart from economic crimes.
3. Merton’s reliance on official statistics means he over-estimates the extent of working class
crime and underestimates the extent of middle class, or white collar crime.
Merton’s strain theory is an important contribution to the study of crime and deviance – in the 1940s
it helped to explain why crime continued to exist in countries, such as America, which were
experiencing increasing economic growth and wealth.
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(c) How is terrorism a new form of asymmetrical warfare? What are some of
the challenges in trying to win the war on terrorism? (10 Marks)
Terrorism represents a distinctive form of asymmetrical warfare due to its unconventional nature
and the asymmetry in power and resources between terrorist groups and traditional military forces.
Unlike conventional warfare between nation-states, terrorism involves non-state actors employing
tactics that often target civilians and aim to instill fear and panic.
Sociologists states that this type of violence, as a social behavior, relies on communication, shared
and competing norms and values, and levels of social and self-restraints. Terrorists are seen to have
emerged from societies where radical norms and values proved more influential. The sociological
inquiry into these issues is approached on the basis of disciplinary insights in theoretical,
methodological, and thematic respects.
Challenges to win war over terrorism:
1. According to Merton the difference between structural means and cultural goals leads to
deviant behavior. Every society has different means and goals and it is difficult to keep
society integrated on same lines which becomes reason for such deviant behavior in the
society. Terrorists fall in the category of ‘retreatists’ that rejects both means and goals of
society.
2. According to Mead, the ‘I’ aspect is innovative aspect of individual and it leads to such
behavior which is not in line with the societal norms. Society has very little control over I
aspect. It is the ‘Me’ aspects which is influenced by the societal norms and values.
3. New technologies like social media, dark net and modernization has made it easier to access
marginalized people by radical and terrorists groups. It is difficult to track such activities and
stop them.
4. Some groups consider it functional for the society: Functionalism sees terrorism–which is a
form of crime–as a temporary deviation from the normal goings on of society, and is in a way
functional to society. Terrorism is functional because it joins individuals together in
opposition, and brings a sense of belonging to the group opposing it. This feeling of group
solidarity would help prevent anomie, which is the stage where people do not need to follow
any norms of society in order to survive in society.
5. Increasing inequality in the society: According to conflict perspective - “the idea that conflict
between competing interests is the basic, animating force of social change and society in
general." From the perspective of conflict theorists, terrorism is perceived as a response to
perceived injustices, likely stemming from factors such as misinformation, lack of education,
or unattainable objectives in the minds of terrorists. The violent actions exhibited by terrorist
organizations are seen as outcomes of individual frustration, aggression, or a preparedness
to engage in conflict.
Sociology could play pivotal role in theoretical understanding of the terrorism. With proper
sociological studies we can understand reason behind why individuals or groups assume terrorism
as their only resort. Terrorism today is mostly influenced by political and religious matters and
emerged as a new means to achieve power. Therefore an combined effort at international level is
required to address the challenge of terrorism.
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Mains 2020
Section A
Question 1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words ench.
(a) How did the intellectual forces lead to the emergence of sociology?
Discuss. (10 Marks)
Structure.
 Introduce in brief intellectual forces lead to emergence of sociology.
 Explain how Industrial and French revolution acted as intellectual forces.
 Explain conservative reactions.
 Conclude
Solution:
The emergence of sociology as a study of society is the response to 'Social conditions & intellectual
climate' prevailing in Europe around 18th Century.
T.B. Bottomore has discussed certain intellectual antecedents, that is, certain prevailing intellectual
streams, which primarily influenced the emergence of sociology as a separate body of knowledge.
a) Political philosophy
b) Philosophy of History
c) Biological theory of evolution
d) Social & political reform movements.
e) Development of method of social survey.
f) Rise of Feminism and associated thought (liberationist movement (Europe), progressive era
of US (for rights)
French Revolution and Industrial revolution acted as intellectual forces helping

Sociology’s emergence
Berger says 'Sociology is one of the intellectual products of French revolution'.
French Revolution changed the political structure of European society by replacing age of Feudalism
& heralding the arrival of democracy.
Intellectual Revolution
Political philosophy led by Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau etc. who proposed that people have
right to choose their sovereign, religious toleration, individual liberty & separation of powers etc.
influenced early Sociologists.
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Political revolution
Social order collapsed leading to a of the academicians of the era to conceptualize a science of the
society that could help restore order to the society.
Also, as a result of Industrial revolution, several 'Social changes' followed, such as:
Rise of Capitalism
 Karl Marx critically analyzed the capitalism, as it became more & more complex.
 Weber studied the new class of industrial workers, managers, capitalists as they emerged.
 Durkheim studied how technology & factory system became subject matter, even altering the
family relations.
 Life & work became depersonalized.
Rise of Socialism
• Socio — economic disparity widened
• 'Working Class' — Socially deprived yet indispensable.
These became a powerful social force to be studied.
Urbanization
• Industrial city grew, city life became a different way of life.
• New cities were known as 'repositories of misery & inhumanity'.
• Rise of petty crimes
• It was these aspects of Industrial revolution & consequent urbanization which concerned
early Sociologist.
Chicago school rose to study urbanization and subsequently defended democracy and capitalism.
Conservative reaction
They wished to return to Golden times. When there was peace, community social welfare rather
than turmoil of then contemporary Society.
It was represented by French Louis de Bonald, Joseph de Maistre.
(You can add a few points from the 10 points of Zeitlin here.)
Conclusion
The discipline of Sociology was an intellectual response to the conditions unfolding in a fast-
changing European society, with immediate context and influence provided by both FR, IR as well
as the prevailing intellectual forces of the time.
377
(b) Is sociology a value-free science? Discuss. (10 Marks)

Science can be defined as – “use of systematic methods of empirical investigation, the analysis of
data, theoretical thinking and logical assessment of arguments to develop a body of knowledge
about a particular subject matter.
To qualify as a science, for any discipline, certain criteria can be like:
• Inter-subjective reliability
• Objective and Value-free
• Quantifiability
• Universal testability and Theoretical Orientation
Sociology, as a discipline, aims to study human society, social behavior, and social institutions in a
systematic and empirical manner. While the goal of sociology is to be objective and value-free, it is
important to acknowledge that the discipline is not entirely free from values and biases. There are
several reasons for this, which can be discussed through various sociological theories and
perspectives.
Early Positivists such as Compte and Durkheim argued that Sociology could and should be objective
or value-free. They were of the view that facts and values are different and disengaged & hence can
be separated. They advocated that value distort reality and researcher should try to observe true
facts (Independent of Values). They claimed that Objectivity was attainable by scientific
methodology.
Weber believed that complete Value Freedom is not possible. Facts and values are different but not
disengaged to each other. Weber proposed sociologists distinguish and recognize their own
qualities and beat their own predispositions while leading sociological research, this he named as
worth non partisanship
An increasing number of sociologists argue that a value-free science of society is not possible as
values inevitably enter every stage of research. They bring up that a humanists decision of research
subject, the field of study, plan of theory, all rely upon his molding (instructive and familial), his
view focuses and values.
Weber believed that Value relevance would influence the choice of topics of study. Marx lived
among the oppressed, thus he wrote Das Kapital; Weber saw bureaucracy as against human
freedom, thus wrote on bureaucracy.
Gouldner accepted that all sociologists will in general subscribe to a specific arrangement of Domain
suppositions which direct the manner in which research is led and end are come to.
Post-Modernists like Lyotard rejected the likelihood of delivering any target learning and
supported that information reflects estimations of the distinctive social gathering.
Other perspectives
The Influence of the Researcher’s Values
Sociologists are human beings with their own set of values, beliefs, and biases which can influence
the choice of research topics, the formulation of hypotheses, and the interpretation of data.
The Role of Paradigms and Theoretical Perspectives
Sociology is characterized by the existence of multiple paradigms and theoretical perspectives, such
as functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.
378
Each of these perspectives is based on certain assumptions and values about society, which can
influence the research conducted within these frameworks. perspectives can lead to different
interpretations of the same social phenomenon.
Societal values
Sociologists are not only influenced by their personal values but also by the values of the society in
which they live. These societal values can shape the questions that sociologists ask, the methods
they use, and the way they interpret their findings.
The Role of Ethics
Sociological research often involves studying human subjects, which raises ethical concerns about
the potential harm to participants and the need to protect their privacy and confidentiality. For eg –
Privacy is impacted in participant observation
Contemporary researchers give due weight to objectivity but at the same time recognize the futility
of trying to wish away value influence completely from their research. Anthony Giddens says that
structure, which is largely seen as objective, and social action, which is seen as value-laden, is two
sides of the same coin and cannot exist independently.
379
(c) Methodology is a system of rules, principles and procedures, which

forms scientific investigation. Comment. (10 Marks)
What is Methodology
Methodology forms the backbone of scientific investigation in sociology, providing a systematic
framework of rules, principles, and procedures.
In the realm of sociology, methodology serves as a guide for researchers, ensuring consistency,
reliability, and validity in the study of social phenomena.
By adhering to these methodological guidelines, sociologists can conduct empirical research,
gather evidence, and draw meaningful conclusions about various aspects of human society.
Methodology In Sociology As A System Of Rules, Principles, And Procedures

1. Methodology as a System of Rules
Methodology in sociology involves a system of rules that guide the scientific investigation of social
phenomena.
These rules ensure consistency, reliability, and validity in studying social phenomena.
 In survey research, specific rules dictate the selection of participants, construction of
questionnaires, and data collection procedures.
 In a sociological study on social mobility, researchers may follow specific rules for defining
social class categories, selecting representative samples, and employing standardized
measurement scales to classify individuals.
2. Methodology as Principles
Methodology in sociology is based on principles that provide a theoretical framework for research.
Principles help researchers develop hypotheses, identify relevant variables, and analyze data
within a conceptual framework.
 Principle of social stratification guides studies on the unequal distribution of resources and
opportunities in society.
 When investigating the impact of gender on educational attainment, sociologists may apply
feminist theory as a guiding principle to examine the influence of patriarchal systems,
societal expectations, and power dynamics on educational outcomes.
3. Methodology as Procedures
 Methodology in sociology encompasses specific procedures for data collection, analysis,
and interpretation.
 Qualitative research methods, such as interviews or observations, have distinct procedures
for sampling, data coding, and thematic analysis.
 Quantitative methods, such as statistical analysis, follow specific procedures for data
cleaning, variable measurement, and hypothesis testing.
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Methodology In Sociology
Methodology in sociology aims to ensure that research is conducted in a scientific manner.
This involves adhering to rigorous standards, such as objectivity, replicability, and peer review.
Sociologists employ systematic methods to gather empirical evidence, analyze data, and draw
conclusions based on evidence rather than personal bias.
 Example: In conducting a qualitative study on the experience of immigration, sociologists
may employ procedures such as purposive sampling to select participants with diverse
migration backgrounds, conduct in-depth interviews to gather rich narratives, and use
thematic analysis to identify common themes and patterns.
Conclusion
By adhering to a system of rules, principles, and procedures, methodology in sociology allows for
a rigorous and scientific investigation of social phenomena, promoting robust and reliable
research outcomes.
381
(d) ‘Ideal Types of Max Weber are mental constructs; they do not correspond
to the reality’. Give your views. (10 Marks)
Ans: According to Weber, social reality by its very nature is infinitely compiled. Its chaotic and
complex and can’t be comprehended in its totality through social research. It is difficult to explain
it through causal-correlation. So Weber suggested sociologists should build ‘Ideal Types’ to
organize such chaotic, infinite and complex reality into comprehensive units.
Ideal types help to interpret subjective meanings and motives of an actor by an observer in an
objective manner. He defined it as – ‘An ideal type is formed by the one-sided accentuation of one
or more points of view and by the synthesis of a great many diffuse, discrete, more or less present
and occasionally absent concrete individual phenomena, which are arranged according to those
one-sidedly emphasized viewpoints into a unified analytical construct… In its conceptual purity,
this mental construct… cannot be found empirically anywhere in reality’. Ideal type is a mental
construct which is used to identify certain regularities in social life. It doesn’t deal with notion of
perfection, but commonly understood meanings in terms of regularities. At highest level of
abstraction, he developed four ideal types of his basic unit of analysis i.e. of social action. Four types
of social actions are –
Social Actions - Traditional Action
• Actor’s habitual and customary way of behaving.
• Traditional meanings are drawn by the actor from the beliefs or traditions in the society.
• For e.g. Greeting a priest.
Social Actions – Affective Action
• Determined by the emotional state of the actor.
• Affective meaning comes from emotions, in a particular situation Individual consciousness
is least (Fear, hatred, love, anger).
• For e.g. Affection of a mother.
• Social Actions - Value Rational Action (Wert Rational Action)
• Determined by a conscious belief in the value for its sake of some ethical, aesthetic, religious,
or other forms of behavior, independent of its prospects for success.
• In Wert Rational (or value Rational) action ends are “value” driven, i.e., valued by society.
• Thus, here means are rational but the end is a value.
• Example: Helping a poor with money, saving a drowning man
Social Actions - Means-ends Rational Action (Zweck rational action)
• Determined by expectations as to the behavior of objects in the environment and of the other
human beings, these expectations are used as ‘conditions’ or ‘means for the attainment of the
actor’s own rationally pursued and calculated ends.
• In Zweck Rational (or End Rational) action, ends are rational as well (Means too).
• It is based on individual’s own needs & motivations.
• Example: Preparing hard for exam
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Criticism of Weber’s Ideal Types:
• Structure functionalist criticized Weber for ignoring the influence of collective conscience and
over emphasizing orientation of individuals.
• According to Hans Gerth and C Wright Mills, although Weber implied that he had a great
concern with mental processes, he actually spent little time on them.
• According to Talcott Parsons not only the meanings and orientations but values and norms
of society as well as situational constraint also play important role in social action.
• According to Weber legal rational action is based on written rules and doesn’t involve
tradition, on this critics argue that why not all bureaucrats perform equally then.
Ideal Type is not a reality in itself, but a way to express the reality. The individual elements may be
meaningless, but when combined with other elements from reality. Ideal types act as fixed point of
reference. Therefore despite above criticism, Weber’s theory is relevant to understand the complex
reality of society. With time social action is changing from traditional/emotional rational to legal
rational.
383
(e) Analyse the relevance of 'Pattern variables' in the study of social change.
(10 Marks)
Answer:
In Talcott Parsons Theory of 'Social Action’,
Pattern variables refers to a set of concepts, which reflects the 'properties of all action systems'.
According to Parsons, in the performance of roles, individuals face 'dilemmas' which occur due
to 'improper internalisation of values' related to 'role -expectation.'
These strains in the 'role performance are reflected in five sets of dilemma, placed dichotomously,
with each side representing one polar extreme.
Remember ADAPCo
The social actor has to 'choose' one side before the actor can act. The five pattern variables, as listed
by Parsons are :
 Affectivity versus affective neutrality
 Self-orientation versus Collectivity orientation
 Universalism versus Particularism
 Ascription versus Achievement
 Specificity versus Diffuseness
The 'dilemma' of role performance is involved in relation to a 'situation' i.e., how much should a
situation be evaluated in 'emotional terms or with a degree of emotional neutrality?
In this the main issue is that of 'moral standard' in the procedure of evaluation.
Here the dilemma is whether or not the actor defines the objects of his or her role in terms of 'quality
or performance!
In this the dilemma is to be understood in terms of 'nature of social interaction' or in other words,
the scope of the object of role performance.
The Pattern variables, therefore according to Parsons, define the nature of 'role interaction' and 'role
expectations' in social system.
It provides the overall direction in which most members of a social system choose their roles.
It therefore gives us an idea about the nature of the social system.
They, help us to identify different types of 'structures of social systems'. 'Social structure' , refers to
the specific manner in which 'roles in an interaction situation are configurated or composed'.
Relevance of Parsons's pattern variables

1. Analyzing social action: Pattern variables help in analyzing social action by identifying the
different dimensions along which individuals make choices. They provide a way to examine
the factors that influence decision-making in various social contexts.
384
2. Balancing conflicting values: Pattern variables highlight the tension between different
values and norms that individuals must navigate when making choices. They illustrate the
trade-offs individuals face in resolving conflicting social expectations.
3. Understanding social order: Pattern variables contribute to understanding the maintenance
of social order. By examining how individuals select patterns of action, it becomes possible
to comprehend how societies establish and reinforce normative systems that govern
behavior.
4. Cultural and social change: The framework of pattern variables allows for the examination
of cultural and social change over time. It helps identify shifts in dominant patterns of action
and the factors influencing such changes.
5. Cross-cultural analysis: Pattern variables enable comparative analysis across different
cultures and societies. By examining how individuals respond to pattern variables in
diverse contexts, it becomes possible to understand cultural variations in social behavior.
6. Decision-making processes: The pattern variables framework provides insights into the
decision-making processes of individuals. It highlights the factors individuals consider,
consciously or unconsciously, when selecting a pattern of action in a given social situation.
7. Application in various domains: Pattern variables have been applied in various fields such
as organizational behavior, political science, and family studies. They provide a useful
analytical tool for understanding decision-making and behavior in different social contexts.
8. Continuity with social theory: The concept of pattern variables aligns with broader
sociological theories, such as structural functionalism. It complements other theoretical
perspectives by providing a framework to understand how individuals navigate social
structures and norms.
Parsons's pattern variables are relevant in understanding social action, decision-making, and the
maintenance of social order.
They offer a valuable framework for analyzing individual choices and behavior in diverse social
contexts and contribute to our understanding of cultural variations and social change.
385
Question 2.
(a) What are the reactions of R.K. Merton to the functionalism of social
anthropologists? Bring out the limitations of latent functions. (20 Marks)
Structure
 One can begin by briefing about Merton
 Explain functionalism by Merton with respect to social Anthropology
 Explain Latent and Manifest functions with Limitations of Latent functions
 Conclude
Robert K Merton was a critic of theory building strategy by Parsons.
Merton wrote extensively about functionalism in every aspect. He gave theories about Functional
Paradigm, Latent and Manifest functions, and paradigm of anomie.
He wrote about the usefulness of research, middle range theory, reference group.
He summarised and modified all earlier functional approaches and its three postulates
1. Functional Unity
2. Universal Functionalism
3. Functional Indispensability
Due to his modified functionalism, he is also known as neo-functionalist.
Merton’s Functionalism
Merton outlines the major points of his paradigm for functional research and analyses the state of
functionalism at that time.
He was especially critical of the functionalism that grew out of anthropology. His functionalism is
an attempt at modification and codification of functional approach.
1. Functional Unity
The first postulate is that cultural items are functional for the entire social or cultural system.
That a social function has a certain kind of unity and all parts of the social system work together
with a sufficient degree of harmony or internal consistency.
R Brown- Every social system has to have minimal functional unity, exactly like Parsons’
Equilibrium.
But in a modern complex society, the postulate of functional unity, as Merton argues, needs to be
redefined.
First, Merton doubts whether all societies are solidly integrated and hence every culturally
standardised practice or belief is functional for the society as a whole. E.g. certain elements of
religion can be divisive.
Secondly, Merton wants the sociologists to remember that social usages or beliefs may be functional
for some groups and dysfunctional for others in the same society.
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As in Social anthropology it is the same study of the ways in which people live in different social
and cultural settings across the globe.
As in India, how our culture and norms are vastly diversified. How people organise themselves,
the cultural practices in which they engage, as well as their religious, political and economic
arrangements.
2. Universal functionalism
The second postulate is that all standardized social or cultural forms have positive functions.
Auguste Comte believed and emphasised on Consensus. For e.g. –Religion.
Malinowski every cultural item satisfies some vital need or the other. Whatever exists is because it
satisfies some vital need.
However, Merton wrote there may be positive consequences, negative and non- functional
consequences for the social form to exist.
Merton argues that the functionalists must focus on a net balance of functional consequences,
positive as well as negative.
As in Social anthropology symbolic and integrative needs of an individual are fulfilled by
transmission of experience by means of precise consistent principles.
Needs of safety can be fulfilled by means of intellectual, emotional and pragmatic control of destiny
and chance.
Functional indispensability
The third postulate of functionalism is functional indispensability
Malinowski asserts that whatever fulfils some vital function, be it a custom, a cultural practice, is
indispensable in that society.
Radcliffe Brown’s “necessary conditions” which means until necessary conditions are not fulfilled,
society cannot exist.
Talcott Parson’s functional requisite (AGIL).
Secondly, Indispensability of existing social institution.
He wrote society will collapse in the absence of some existing social institutions.
Durkheim’s “Division of Labour” In which he says there must be some division of labour
otherwise society will collapse.
Merton counters this by stating that "just as the same item may have multiple functions, so may
the same function be, diversely fulfilled by alternative items"
Merton said that there are functional alternatives which exist in society. For eg- Crèche exists as
alternative to family and Children’s upbringing is done in Crèche as well.
As in Social Anthropology, system of education, systems of play and repose, set activities and
systems of communications for relaxation and organisation of force and compulsion should exist to
form a society.
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But Merton says which type of consequence has more weightage, if negative consequence is more
than positive consequence then we should think some other item which could be a substitute for it.
For e.g. India, Religion created disunity at the time of partition. So we should choose an alternate
ideology which should not be divisible and have negative consequences.
Merton conducted study of Hopi Tribe in America. This was regarding rain and many people
gathered there. This did not give them rain but they got solidarity which was unknown to them.
So Merton added new dimensions to functional analysis. Manifest and Latent functions are one of
those important dimensions.
Manifest Functions
Merton says that this is an idea what people think. The intended consequence, participation and
awareness among the society. For this function he was inspired from Weber as psychological
aspect is involved. He favoured non-positivist techniques should be used to identify the manifest
function.
Latent Functions
He says this is what actually happens i.e. which can be seen and verified and participants are
unaware. By looking at latent functions we can explain why apparently certain activities continue
in society.
E.g.- magic and religion. He is inspired by Durkheim and Radcliffe Brown because it shows what
was the impact on society by your actions. Merton recommended using quantitative and qualitative
methods to identify latent functions.
Limitations of Latent functions

 Latent functions often go unnoticed or uncredited, unless they produce negative outcomes.
 A report by New York Civil Liberties Union says that New York City's controversial Stop-
and-Frisk policy is a classic example of a policy that is designed to do good but actually does
harm. Post 9/11, the policy resulted in the latent dysfunction of racist harassment, as the
majority of those subjected to the practice were Black, Latino, and Hispanic boys.
 It is said that focus on identifying the latent functions takes away the sociological emphasis
from Social Change. That latent functional analysis is inevitably committed to a
‘conservative’ or a ‘reactionary’ perspective.
 The focus on latent functions and functional value will lead to loss of reformative agenda of
Sociology. As sense could be made out of things that are otherwise detrimental for the co-
existence of diverse members in a society.
 Latent functions at times are not able to differentiate between “unanticipated” consequences
and “unintended” consequences.
 Through idea of dysfunction we can account for conflicts and create social disorder providing
a kind of justification for them.
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Conclusion
Robert Merton redefined functionalism as well as his disagreement with the conventional postulates
and paradigms of functional analysis.
His brand of functionalism is more elastic, less dogmatic and hence capable of incorporating the
societal experience of dynamics, change and dysfunctions.
Armed with the notion of latent function, Robert Merton proposes to expand the realm of
sociological knowledge and enquiry. Essentially, he enables you to see the latent or hidden functions
of many social practices, which our common sense perceptions fail to comprehend.
Merton’s approach helps us analyse functions with the methodological approach to arrive at
generalisation or at Middle range Theory.
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(b) How are Hierarchy and Exclusion the major impediments in the
transformation of societies? Discuss. (20 Marks)
Answer
Try to answer this question using the following framework:
 What is Social Transformation?
 Obstacles in Social Transformation
 What is Hierarchy?
 What is Exclusion?
 How do they act as the major impediments in transforming society?
 Conclusion.
What is Social Transformation?

 Social transformation implies a fundamental change in society, which can be contrasted with
social change viewed as gradual or incremental changes over a period of time.
 Social transformation is a broad concept which incorporates the meaning of evolution,
progress, change, on the one hand, and development, modernisation and revolution on the
other.
 In the process of transformation, society moves from the one social structure to another
rapidly and holistically, for instance the transformation of a society from having a traditional
social structure to modern social structure.
 Social transformation and social problems are closely linked with each other. Society is not
static but the dominant groups in society sometimes want to perpetuate their hold over
society and protect their interests by repressive methods. Thus, in a negative manner, if the
process of social transformation is suppressed, it generates new social problems.
 On the other hand, if the process of social transformation is taking a natural course, the
society faces the problems of adjustment during the transitional phase of the decline of the
old system and the emergence of a new system.
 The major impediments that a society faces in the process of its transformation include:
o Social- lack of community support, social norms and group conformity
o Cultural- tradition, culture, customs, religion
o Economic- lack of property rights, corruption, fiscal infrastructure
o Political- ideology, values.
 Marx is perhaps the most famous proponent of the notion that forms of social organisation
are largely determined by economic factors, and in particular the impact of industrial
capitalism.
 Among political influences, the state – government – now plays a very large role in social life
and change in industrial societies.
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 Giddens believes that Cultural influences clearly play an important part in social change. For
example, secularization and the development of science have had major effects on the way
in which we think, attitudes to legitimacy and authority, and have thus also influenced social
structures, systems and values.
 In this regards, two of the major impediments in the transformation of society are namely,
Hierarchy and Exclusion.
 These are in some way or the other linked to all the four points mentioned above.
What is Hierarchy?
 Hierarchy refers to the ranking of members in social groups based on the power, influence,
or dominance they exhibit, whereby some members are superior or subordinate to others.
 When inequalities are arranged in an order, hierarchy is formed. Hierarchy denotes presence
of multiple strata in society placed one above the other.
 Functionalists suggest that Hierarchy is also a symbol of rising specialization and
differentiation in the society.
 Hierarchies can be present in many forms like caste hierarchy, class hierarchy, gender
hierarchy and political hierarchy.
 India is a hierarchical society. Societal hierarchy is evident in caste groups, amongst
individuals, and in family and kinship groups.
What is Exclusion?
 “Social exclusion is a complex and multi-dimensional process.
 Ruth Levitas writes that it involves the lack or denial of resources, rights, goods and services,
and the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available to the
majority of people in a society, whether in economic, social, cultural or political arenas.
 It affects both the quality of life of individuals and the equity and cohesion of society as a
whole.
 Social exclusion describes a process by which certain groups are systematically
disadvantaged because they are discriminated against on the basis of their ethnicity, race,
religion, sexual orientation, caste, descent, gender, age, disability, HIV status, migrant status
or where they live.
 Discrimination occurs in public institutions, such as the legal system or education and health
services, as well as social institutions like the household.
Exclusionary processes can have various dimensions

 Political exclusion can include the denial of citizenship rights such as political participation
and the right to organise, and also of personal security, the rule of law, freedom of expression
and equality of opportunity.
 Bhalla and Lapeyre argue that political exclusion also involves the notion that the state, which
grants basic rights and civil liberties, is not a neutral agency but a vehicle of a society’s
dominant classes, and may thus discriminate between social groups.
 Economic exclusion includes lack of access to labour markets, credit and other forms of
‘capital assets’.
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 Social exclusion may take the form of discrimination along a number of dimensions including
gender, ethnicity and age, which reduce the opportunity for such groups to gain access to
social services and limits their participation in the labour market, decision making
institutions.
 Cultural exclusion refers to the extent to which diverse values, norms and ways of living are
accepted and respected.
How do they act as the major impediments in transforming society?

Hierarchy
 Promotes conflict
 Merton writes that presence of sub-cultures limits the possibility of effective communication
while also increasing chances of deviance
 Favours higher or dominant classes
 Disapproves of the ‘equality of opportunity’ status of most democratic societies.
 Causes centralization of power- Hierarchical structures centralize power and authority at the
highest levels possible.
 Presence of closed groups on higher strata of hierarchy also limits the possibility of learning
the ways of reference groups.
Exclusion
 Causes poverty- Socially excluded people are often denied the opportunities available to
others to increase their income and escape from poverty by their own efforts. So, even though
the economy may grow and general income levels may rise, excluded people are likely to be
left behind, and make up an increasing proportion of those who remain in poverty.
 Social exclusion leads to conflict and insecurity- Social exclusion is a leading cause of conflict
and insecurity in
 Many parts of the world. Excluded groups that suffer from multiple disadvantages may come
together when they have unequal rights, are denied a voice in political processes and feel
marginalised from the mainstream of their society.
 Peaceful mobilisation may be the first step, such as marches, strikes and demonstrations. But
if this has no effect, or if governments react violently to such protests, then groups are more
likely to resort to violent conflict if they feel there is no alternative.
 Social exclusion makes it harder to achieve the Development Goals- Social exclusion explains
why some groups of people remain poorer than others, have less food, die younger, are less
economically or politically involved, and are less likely to benefit from services. This makes
it difficult to achieve the SDGs in some countries without particular strategies that directly
tackle exclusion
 It causes social stigma and, thus, marginalization.
Conclusion
 Society is not a static element. It is a complex system of movements and counter movements
pulling it in different directions.
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 When this tussle is finally in favor of the movement, it becomes part of the social structure.
Hierarchy and Exclusion, as seen above, are some of the major obstacles in transforming a
society.
 For the transformation of a society, measures need to be taken to overcome such impediments
and problems attached with them.
A Little More
Sociology of Social Transformation
 In developing the theories of social change and modernization, sociologists (and social
scientists in general) draw upon the contributions of classical sociologists such as the works
of those who were grappling with the rise of the capitalist industrial society in the nineteenth
century. Their focus was on different aspects of this social transformation.
 While Marx was preoccupied with the new social relations of exploitation, and predicting a
path towards an end of exploitation, Weber was concerned with the paradoxical
consequences of modernization and cultural transformations, and Tocqueville was
examining the social circumstances that gave rise to the democratic social order. Durkheim,
the first systematic sociologist, examined the social and cultural consequences of the growing
division of labour and specialization in society brought in by industrialization.
393
(c) Explain democracy as an order of society. What are the factors preventing
people's participation in politics? (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Explain Democracy
 Give examples
 Importance of People’s participation
 What is preventing them from participation
 Conclusion
Democracy
Mahatma Gandhi - It is not a legal phenomena but a spiritual one involving respect for each other
and decentralisation of power.
Pluralists say People bestow power to leaders which could be withdrawn during elections.
Political participation of people is at the core of democracy.
Democracy can be imagined to be of three types:
 Participative - Direct participation via referendum, recall, plebiscite, initiative.
 Representative – it is of two types.
o Agent based - One who consults the electorate.
o Delegate based - One who acts on his own discretion while taking decision.
 Associative - Durkheim in “professional ethics and civic morals” wrote about party
participation via voluntary organisation (socialist society).
Role of people’s participation

People’s participation may be defined as, “behaviour through which people directly express their
political opinions.”
In fact, participation comprises all those actions of citizens by which they seek to influence, support
or criticize the government and its policies.
 People’s participation in a democracy acts as a check on elite power.
 It prevents rise of civil oligarchies.
 It avoids capture of democratic institutions by privilege groups.
 It attempts to ensure that democratic structures are not reformed in ways which results in
systematic exclusion of non-elites over the longer term.
 Participation has accountability which means not just being responsive but also answerable
to people.
 Participation makes services efficient and more cost-effective, involving people challenging
institutionalised discrimination.
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 People’s participation empowers women, increases independence, awareness and empowers
capacity of marginalised groups. E.g.- in India Balwant Rai Mehta committee on Panchayati
Raj.
Ordinary people can participate in politics, and every individual has right to participate including
people with disabilities.
Eg- National Union of Disabled Persons of Uganda (NUDIPU) was formed in Uganda and works
as a unified voice for persons with disabilities for the full realization of their rights and inclusive
development.
Bastian and Bastian write four thematic variations in the concept of participation-
 Sense of belonging (as a simple means to getting unpaid labour from the people)
 Provides self-reliance
 As a technique to create ideal villages (where everybody lived peacefully and solved
problems together)
 As a method of project management (by adopting participatory methods project can be
successfully managed and completed)
Factors affecting People’s participation

 People’s participation can be affected by many factors such as social and economic factors
which are gender, age, education, family, income, poverty, economic growth, social
relationships and regional affiliation.
 Family conveys certain decision making patterns with concrete social relations as well as with
social values and norms through the conscious socialisation process.
 There are structural barriers in which even educated people face problems during
registration for voting lists.
 Gender as lack of women’s interest in politics affects their participation and they feel that
their participation can’t bring a social change.
 Old age people are more prone to health issues, which affects their participation.
 Social relationship there may be a degree of alienation or hostility towards politics, there is
also a sense of anomie.
 There may be a certain “cynicism”, suspicion towards and distrust of motive and activities
of politicians.
 Lack of political networks- The lack of openness and political decision-making and
undemocratic internal process pose a challenge for all newcomers.
 Palmor and Simon pointed out the difference of regions within the same country affected the
political participation of the inhabitants of these regions. Ethnic diversity, different habits,
incomes of people led to the difference in political participation.
Conclusion
 Participation is extremely essential in development needs to collect local information by
involving local people at all stages.
 No government can function without the support of people.
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 The process of development of public opinion generates thinking, promotes awareness and
invites people’s view on public concern.
 Media seems to have the strongest positive relationship with political participation as it helps
to formulate public opinion.
 For development of societies there is a need to involve people to ensure equitable distribution
of development.
 The World Bank Participation Sourcebook (1996) defines participation as, “a rich concept that
means different things to different people in different settings. For some, it is a matter or
principle; for others, a practice and for still others, an end in itself” and this definition itself
paves different ways for us to create a more participative democracy.
396
Question 3.
(a) Capitalism has brought increasing informalisation of work in society.
Substantiate your answer. (20 Marks)
Ans: Informalization refers to the growing prevalence of informal or non-standard employment
arrangements, characterized by the absence of formal contracts, job security, social protections, and
benefits typically associated with traditional full-time employment.
1. Flexible Labor Market: Capitalism promotes a flexible labor market where employers seek to
maximize profits by minimizing labor costs. This has led to the rise of non-standard
employment arrangements such as part-time work, temporary contracts, and subcontracting.
These arrangements often lack the stability, job security, and benefits associated with
traditional full-time employment.
2. Globalization and Outsourcing: Capitalism's global nature and pursuit of cost efficiency have
led to outsourcing and offshoring of jobs. Companies often move production to countries
with lower labor costs and fewer regulations. This shift has resulted in informal work
arrangements, as subcontracting and informal labor become prevalent in global supply
chains.
3. Technological Advancements: Capitalism drives technological advancements, which have
had a profound impact on the labor market. Automation and digitization have led to the
displacement of many traditional jobs. While new jobs are created, they often require
different skills and may be more precarious in nature, such as gig economy work or
independent contracting.
4. Deregulation and Labor Market Flexibility: Capitalist economies often prioritize deregulation
and labor market flexibility to stimulate economic growth and attract investment. While this
can create opportunities for entrepreneurship and innovation, it can also weaken worker
protections. Reduced labor regulations and weaker collective bargaining power contribute to
the informalization of work as employers exploit the lack of legal safeguards.
5. Rising Income Inequality: Capitalism, if not properly regulated, can contribute to widening
income inequality. As wealth becomes concentrated among a few, the labor market becomes
more precarious for those at the lower end of the income spectrum. People may be forced
into informal work due to limited formal employment opportunities, exacerbating the
informalization trend.
6. Lack of Social Protections: Capitalism's emphasis on individualism and profit maximization
can result in a lack of social protections for workers. Informal workers often face limited
access to healthcare, pension plans, unemployment benefits, and other social safety nets
typically associated with formal employment. This lack of protection further exacerbates the
informalization of work.
Though we know main aim of capitalism is profit making and which has led to increase in
informalization of work but at the same time it has also increased formalization in many sectors like
IT etc. Recently Government has also taken various steps in the form of labour codes to recognize
and force capitalists to recognize contractual workers and provide them with different social
benefits.
397
(b) Critically analyse Durkheim's views on elementary forms of religious

life and role of religion. Also discuss the consequences of religious
revivalism in contemporary society. (20 Marks)
Ans: According to Durkheim religion is defined as the- unified system of beliefs and practices
relative to the sacred things, the thongs which are set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices
which unite one simple moral community called a Church and those who adhere to it. There are,
thus, three fundamental elements to every religion: sacred objects, a set of beliefs and practices, and
the existence of a moral community.
Rejecting Animism, Naturalism and other theological explanations, Durkheim studied Totemism to
explain the origin of religion. According to him- anything whether stone, plant, animal etc. which
is transfigured into sacred by a community is refereed as a totem. For this Durkheim studied the
Arunta Tribe of Australia and established totemism as the origin of religion. The members of the
clan believe themselves to have descended from some common ancestor — an animal, a plant or
even some non-living object. The “common ancestor” is the “totemic object”.
According to Durkheim, a religion comes into being and is legitimated through moments of what
he calls “collective effervescence.” Collective effervescence refers to moments in societal life when
the group of individuals that makes up a society comes together in order to perform a religious
ritual. During these moments, the group comes together and communicates in the same thought
and participates in the same action, which serves to unify a group of individuals. When individuals
come into close contact with one another and when they are assembled in such a fashion, certain
“electricity” is created and released, leading participants to a high degree of collective emotional
excitement or delirium. This impersonal, extra-individual force, which is a core element of religion,
transports the individuals into a new, ideal realm, lifts them up outside of themselves, and makes
them feel as if they are in contact with an extraordinary energy.
Role of Religion:
1. Social cohesion: Religion unites the members of society and strengthens the collective
conscience. Even n modern highly differentiated and individualized society religion plays
role of uniting peole through festivals, religious ceremonies etc.
2. Meaning and Purpose: Religion offers answers to existential questions, providing individuals
with a sense of meaning, purpose, and identity. It addresses fundamental human concerns
such as the origins of the universe, the meaning of life, and the existence of an afterlife. By
providing explanations and narratives, religion helps individuals make sense of the world
and cope with life's uncertainties.
3. Social Control: Religion acts as important agency of social control. It socializes people into
moral community and puts constraints on individual behavior. For example non-
vegetarianism, no consumption of alcohol etc.
4. Sacred and Profane Dichotomy: Durkheim proposed that religion establishes a distinction
between the sacred and the profane. The sacred refers to the extraordinary, transcendent
realm that is set apart and revered, while the profane encompasses the ordinary, everyday
aspects of life. This dichotomy helps to create a sense of awe, reverence, and moral order
within society.
398
Criticism:
1. According to Weh Stanner, the distinction between the profane and the sacred is not always
absolute, and there can exist elements that are considered mundane or ordinary.
2. According to R.K Merton, religion has functions for simple societies but it is not true for
modern complex societies. In modern complex society religion is used for exploitation like
communal conflict, fundamentalism/terrorism etc.
3. According to William Edward and Starmer, the distinction between sacred and profane is
faulty at empirical level. The reality lies in continuity as there is a third group called
Mundane(This wordly).
4. Malinowski labeled his theory as an armchair theory, criticizing the fact that he never visited
the Arunta tribes even once.
5. Religion is not the sole factor for integration in the society. Today people are integrated
because of other factors like climate change, secularization etc.
Religious revivalism: Religious revivalism simply means revival of religion in any form, be it
institutional attendance as in a church, growth of religious institutions and phenomenon like sects,
cults and denominations, rise in individuals pursuing spiritual peace through personal motions of
religion and finally, growth of fundamental ideas or fundamentalism. For example, the rise of the
Arya Samaj and the Brahmo Samaj movements in India in the 19th century was a response to the
growing British presence in India and the British challenge to Hindu traditions.
There are different factors which has led to this in contemporary society like: economic and social
insecurities that arise out of the tension of losing a job, there is a new sense of alienation due to
increased ‘individuation’, increasing uncertainty of life due to pandemics like COVID-19 etc.
Consequences of religious revivalism:

1. Cultural Revitalization: Revivalism can play a role in cultural revitalization by preserving
and promoting religious traditions, rituals, and practices. It can serve as a means of
reconnecting with cultural heritage, reinforcing cultural identity, and preserving traditional
customs and values.
2. Intolerance and Conflict: In some cases, religious revivalism may lead to heightened religious
intolerance and interfaith tensions. Revivalist movements can fuel exclusivist attitudes and
ideologies, potentially leading to conflicts with other religious groups or secular societies.
Intolerance and conflicts may arise when revivalist movements challenge established social
norms or clash with other belief systems.
3. Multiple identities and complicated political scenario like increase in votebank politics.
4. Increasing religious participation and social cohesion.
Consequences of religious revivalism are not uniform and can vary widely based on cultural,
historical, and sociopolitical contexts. Positive outcomes such as community empowerment, social
support, and individual fulfillment can coexist with negative outcomes like exclusion,
fundamentalism, and intergroup conflicts.
399
(c) Discuss the consequences of Across Region marriage on kinship system

in modern Indian society. (10 Marks)
Ans: According to Malinowski, a legal marriage is one which gives a woman a socially recognized
husband and her children a socially recognized father.
Radcliffe-Brown states that Marriage is a social arrangement by which a child is given a legitimate
position in the society determined by parent hood in the social sense. While kinship is the relation
by the bond of blood, marriage and includes kindered ones. It represents one of the basic social
institutions. Kinship is universal and in most societies plays a significant role in the socialization of
individuals and the maintenance of group solidarity. A.R Radcliffe Brown defines kinship as a
system of dynamic relations between person and person in a community, the behavior of any two
persons in any of these relations being regulated in some way and to a greater or less extent by social
usage.
It is clear from different definitions that it is only through the establishment of culturally controlled
and sanctioned marital relations that a family comes into being. The institutionalized form of these
relations is called marriage. Marriage and family are two aspects of the same social reality that is
recognized by the world.
Consequences of marriage on klinship:

1. Blending of Cultural Practices: Across-region marriages often involve individuals from
different cultural backgrounds, leading to the blending and exchange of cultural practices.
This can result in a hybridization of traditions, rituals, and customs within the kinship
system. It promotes cultural diversity and enriches the collective identity of the family.
2. Expansion of Social Networks: Marrying across regions can expand an individual's social
network and increase their exposure to diverse social and cultural experiences. It can lead to
the formation of new social connections, both within the immediate family and extended
kinship networks. This can broaden perspectives, promote understanding, and foster social
cohesion.
3. Negotiation of Linguistic and Communication Challenges: Across-region marriages may
involve partners who speak different languages or dialects. This can necessitate the
negotiation of linguistic barriers within the kinship system. Family members may adopt
bilingual or multilingual communication strategies, facilitating cultural exchange and
fostering language acquisition among family members.
4. Changes in Family Structure and Dynamics: Marrying across regions can introduce different
family structures and dynamics into the kinship system. For example, individuals may bring
with them unique familial roles, expectations, and patterns of interaction influenced by their
regional background. This can lead to adaptations in traditional family hierarchies and power
dynamics.
5. Transformation of Kinship Practices: Across-region marriages can challenge and reshape
traditional kinship practices. For instance, the preference for arranged marriages within
specific regional or caste boundaries may give way to more individual choice and autonomy
in partner selection. This can result in the renegotiation of marriage customs, dowry
practices, and inheritance patterns.
400
6. Bridging Regional Divisions: Across-region marriages have the potential to bridge regional
divisions and promote inter-regional unity within the broader society. As families become
more geographically dispersed and interlinked through marriages, it can foster a sense of
common identity and shared belonging across different regions of India.
7. Challenges of Integration and Acceptance: Across-region marriages may face challenges
related to integration and acceptance within extended kinship networks. Resistance or
skepticism from conservative family members or communities could arise due to cultural or
regional differences. Over time, however, such challenges can diminish as families adapt and
embrace the evolving dynamics of the kinship system.
It's important to note that the consequences of across-region marriages on the kinship system are
not uniform and can vary based on factors such as regional diversity, individual choices, and
societal norms. The impacts can be both positive, fostering cultural diversity and social integration,
as well as challenging, requiring adjustments and negotiations within the kinship structure.
401
Question 4.
(a) Is humanity at the mercy of Nature, Science and Technology? Comment
in the light of pandemic situation. (20 Marks)
Structure
 Relation between human and nature
 What are the impacts of human’s endeavour to control nature?
 Pandemic, Humanity and Nature
 Way Out
Relation between human and nature

 Humans are now seen as independent drivers of global environmental change, clearly
humanity is not in control of the planet's forces, much less the only force on the planet.
 We regularly witness the effects of global warming, in the most developed parts of the world
for e.g. hurricanes in New Orleans and New York; and tsunamis in Java and Japan.
 Karl Marx had termed the march of humanity as a continuous march to control the forces of
nature. Many often regard him to have a positive view of industrialisation and saw nature
as a source to be controlled for man’s benefit.
 Although Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring along with well- publicised man – made
environmental disaster of the 1960s and 1970s made many Americans realise that science and
technology created problems as well as solved them.
 Today, many commentators optimistically but paradoxically propose to solve the problems
of science and technology with yet more science and technology, not less.
 Emanuele Coccia argues that we inhabit not Earth but the atmosphere, which he describes
as a sea of life, as swimmers in this sea, we cannot be biologically isolated. Neither can our
ecological practices. While, Theodor W. Adorno criticised our destructive and self-
destructive relationship with nature, with the ultimate aim of reshaping that relationship in
more mutually beneficial ways.
Impacts of Human’s endeavour to control nature

 Earth Day was designed to make us pause and consider how our actions impact the natural
environment.
 Willis Carrier endeavoured to convince people that their individual environments should be
controlled and that comfort could be quantified.
 Following are some arguments describing the impacts of human’s endeavour to control
nature:
o Purpose of many technologies is to exploit, control, or otherwise “improve” upon
nature for the perceived benefit of humanity. At the same time, the myriad of
processes in nature have been optimised, and are continually adjusted, by evolution.
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Any disturbance of these natural processes by technology is likely to result in negative
environmental consequences.
o The environmental impact of agriculture is means based and effect based, which are
related to production methods used by farmers. It involves a variety of factors from
soil to water, air, animal and soil diversity, plants, and food itself.
o Some of the environmental issues that are related to agriculture are climate change,
deforestation, genetic engineering, irrigation problems, pollutants, soil degradation,
and waste.
o Environmental impacts of transport systems include traffic congestion and
automobile-oriented urban sprawl, which can consume natural habitat and
agricultural lands.
o Global Footprint Network, an international non-profit that calculates how we are
managing or failing to manage the world’s resources, says that in the first seven
months of 2018 we devoured a year’s worth of resources, such as water, to produce
everything from the food on our plates to the clothes we’re wearing
o a new unwanted record. In just over 40 years, the world has witnessed 60% decline in
wildlife across land, sea and freshwater and is heading towards a shocking decline in
the future if current trends continue.
Pandemic, Humanity and Nature

 If there can be any enduring takeaway from the social and economic cost imposed by COVID-
19, it must be that our muchvaunted modern and technologically sophisticated society can
be humbled by nature operating at its most microscopic scale.
 At this scale, the speed of replication and proliferation is astounding and, within a few weeks
from its first manifestation, the virus brought a globally connected economy to a standstill,
and endangered the lives of total strangers across all continents.
 During the lockdown implemented due to the pandemic, the snow-capped Himalayan range
was visible to the naked eye due to cleaner air as restrictions were also imposed on
transportation.
 Visuals of a huge flock of flamingos migrating to Mumbai flooded social media. Forest
officials attributed the event to 'less polluted water, and also the 'improvement in the quality
of the algae', which is the primary food for the flamingos. This shows that how human
intervention in nature and natural processes has affected the lives and living conditions of
birds as well as animals.
 Darwinian thought teaches us the concept of never-ending competition between the “fit”
and the “unfit.”
 Society has changed dramatically, and human populations and longevity have increased, as
advances in science and engineering have influenced the ways in which people interact with
one another and with their surrounding natural environment.
 A large number of wildlife species are threatened with extinction from cutting down forests
and expanding urban areas and industrial activities.
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 The survivors are forced into closer proximity with themselves and humans, increasing the
likelihood of transforming what would otherwise be benign animal microbes into deadly
human pathogens.
 At the same time, almost silently, at the other end of the scale, a slow but perceptible
escalation of climate calamities, including more severe storms, more destructive forest fires
and faster melting of glaciers, indicate a carbon-emissions-triggered crisis where nature in
reacting on a macro scale.
 The sobering conclusion is that our armoury is inadequate to deal with either end of nature’s
scale of intervention.
Way Out
 The UN sustainable development Goals is to provide resources for the use of present
populations without compromising the availability of those resources for future generations,
and without causing environmental damage that challenges the survival of other species and
natural ecosystems.
 Engels summarised the dependence on, and need to learn from, nature:
 “Thus at every step we are reminded that we by no means rule over nature like a conqueror
over a foreign people, like someone standing outside of nature – but that we, with flesh, blood
and brain, belong to nature, exist in its midst, and that all our mastery of it consists in the fact
that we have the advantage of all other creatures of being able to learn its laws and apply
them correctly”.
 We need to recognise that in our success in controlling nature, we’ v e b e c o m e a l i e n a t
e d f r o m i t, w h i c h h a s potentially disastrous consequences as the climate changes.
 There is no doubt progress in science and technology has served humanity well over
centuries and they will continue to be called upon to serve society for centuries to come. What
we will need, however, is an outlook that seeks to harness our knowledge of science to work
in harmony with nature, rather than attempt to bulldoze it.
 In all of this, nature seems to expect of us a certain economy of consumption and gentleness
of impact.
 A human society that is sympathetic to and in harmony with our environment, and where
human beings listen to and nurture their selves, may be an enduring recipe for a safer future.
 Do read articles of Avijit Pathak written during and after Covid (he talks about the
philosophical aspects of the pandemic).
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(b) According to Durkheim, "The major function of education is the

transmission of society's norms and values." Discuss. (20 Marks)
Ans: Durkheim argues the education system provides what he terms secondary socialization as
opposed to the primary socialization which is delivered by the family. While the family passes on
particular norms and values, secondary socialization passes on universal norms and values that are
shared by broader society. This helps individuals to become fully-functional, normal members of
society and this in term helps society because people know how to behave. He defined education
as- “Education is the influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet ready for
social life. Its object is to arouse and to develop in the child a certain number of physical, intellectual
and moral states which are demanded of him by both the political society as a whole and the special,
milieu for which he is specifically destined”
According to Durkheim- “society can survive only if there exist among its members a sufficient
degree of homogeneity; education perpetuates and reinforces this homogeneity by fixing in the
mind of child, from the beginning, the essential similarities that social life demands”. Durkheim
argued that ‘to become attached to society, the child must feel in it something that is real, alive and
powerful, which dominates the person and to which he owes the best part of himself’.
How education plays major role in transmitting society’s norms and values:
1. Instilling social solidarity: By learning about history, children learn to see themselves as part
of a bigger picture and people should work together for common goals. Children also learn
how to get on with people from different backgrounds and with different experiences.
2. Teaching social rules and how to abide by them: Schools ensure everyone follows a particular
set of rules and have to behave in the same way, regardless of relationships and friendships.
Learning to interact within a set of rules is learning how to function in society. This is
important because it limits deviance: children learn about punishment and with that learn
self-discipline.
3. Moral Education: Durkheim emphasized the importance of moral education in schools. He
believed that education should teach individuals the moral principles and ethical standards
necessary for social cohesion. By internalizing these values, individuals develop a conscience
and a sense of right and wrong, enabling them to navigate society in a morally responsible
manner.
4. Cultural Transmission: Education serves as a vehicle for transmitting cultural knowledge and
heritage from one generation to the next. It encompasses not only academic subjects but also
the cultural and historical narratives of a society. Through education, individuals gain an
understanding of their cultural heritage, shared history, and collective memory.
5. Teaching specialist skills: Durkheim noted how people were going to work in mass
production, performing quite a specialist function using specialist skills. Where in agrarian
society people might have learned a particular job or craft from a parent, modern jobs
required technical knowledge and also industrial societies saw industrial change, so the
nature of jobs changed from generation to generation.
Criticism:
1. Postmodernists might criticise Durkheim for his assumption that society needs shared values
– for example, Britain has become much more multicultural in recent decades, and the extent
to which there is a single British culture is debatable. So there is no common shared values
among them.
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2. Marxists would be a bit more cynical about the relationship between school and work –
according to Durkheim school is a neutral institution which simply transmits values and
skills to individuals which enable the economy to run smoothly – according to Bowles and
Gintis’ Correspondence Principle, this is a much darker process – school teaches working
class kids to be passive, making them easier to exploit in later life.
3. Hargreaves has argued that the education system encourages individualism and competition
rather than social solidarity and shared values.
Durkheim was interested in the ways institutional systems embody and reflect the values of society,
he was also concerned with how such systems as education could foster a society better suited to
deal with the changes wrought by modernization and industrialization. For Durkheim, it’s not
enough to merely identify society’s past and present values, but to discover those values that best
coincide with the conditions of society. Durkheim found education to reflect underlying changes in
society. As such, he used educational systems as a window into society’s organization and values,
both past and present.
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(c) Critically assess social mobility in closed and open systems. (10 Marks)
Ans: Social mobility refers to the process of transitioning from one social position to another, which
typically involves significant changes in life-chances and lifestyles. The classical definition of social
mobility, coined by Pitirim A. Sorokin, encompasses not only individuals but also social objects or
values. In other words, any entity that has been created or influenced by human activity can undergo
social mobility.
Functionalists like Parsons believed that mobility is a result of process of differentiation in society
and role filling by those who suit them most. Marx, on the other hand, believed that high rate of
social mobility, embourgeoisement, will weaken class solidarity. Andre Beteille in his – ‘Caste, Class
and Power, 1971’ has shown how mobility in a closed and stratified caste system is difficult. M N
Srinivas in his study of Coorgs showed that in such a system alternate methods like Sanskritization
are evolved to move socially up, but this affects only cultural aspects and not structural aspects.
There are two types of mobility:

1. Horizontal mobility: Horizontal social mobility means movement by individuals or groups
from one position to another in society which does not involve a shift into a higher or lower
stratum. Since horizontal mobility does not involve a major movement up or down the
hierarchical ladder, the horizontal dimension of social mobility cannot throw much light on
the nature of stratification present in any society.
2. Vertical mobility: P. Sorokin defines Vertical Social Mobility as the relations involved in a
transition of an individual (or a social object) from one social stratum to another. According
to the direction of the transition there are two types of vertical social mobility: ascending and
descending, or 'social climbing' and 'social sinking' respectively.
Social mobility in open and closed system:

Closed system mobility: A closed system of mobility is that where norms prescribe mobility. Thus
the closed system emphasizes the associative character of the hierarchy. It justifies the inequality in
the distribution of means of production status symbols and power positions and discourages any
attempt to change them. Any attempt to bring about changes in such a system or to promote
mobility is permanently suppressed. In such a system individuals are assigned their place in the
social structure on the basis of ascriptive criteria like age, birth, sex. Considerations of functional
suitability or ideological notions of equality of opportunity are irrelevant in deciding the positions
of individuals to different statuses. However no system in reality is perfectly close. Even in the most
rigid systems of stratification limited degree of mobility exists. Traditional caste system in India is
an example of closed system.
Open system mobility: Open systems are characterized by the absence of barriers that prevent
mobility from one social stratum to another, allowing individuals to move freely between different
positions. In modern societies, these open systems are believed to exist in theory, as individuals
have the potential to attain any social position through hard work, skills, knowledge, and personal
efforts.
In the open system the norms prescribed and encourage mobility. There are independent principles
of ranking like status, class and power. In an open system individuals are assigned to different
positions in the social structure on the basis of their merit or achievement. Open systems mobility
is generally characterized with occupational diversity, a flexible hierarchy, differentiated social
structure and rapidity of change. In such systems the hold of ascription based corporate groups like
caste, kinship or extended family etc declines.
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The dominant values in such a system emphasize on equality and freedom of the individual and on
change and innovation. While open systems offer the potential for social mobility, it's important to
acknowledge that they do not guarantee equal outcomes. Even in open systems, structural barriers
can impede social mobility. Factors such as educational disparities, economic inequalities, and social
biases can create obstacles for individuals seeking upward mobility, particularly for marginalized
groups.
Closed systems tend to restrict social mobility and perpetuate social inequalities, while open
systems offer greater opportunities for individuals to move between social positions based on merit.
However, it's important to empirically assess the extent to which open systems truly provide equal
opportunities and address structural barriers that may hinder social mobility for marginalized
groups.
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Section B
Question 5. Answer the following Questions in about 150 words each:
(a) In the context of globalisation, has the scope of sociology been changing
India? Comment. (10 Marks)
Globalisation refers to the growing interdependence between different people, regions and
countries in the world as social and economic relationships come to stretch world-wide. The
sociologist now cannot study society as an isolated entity. The compression of space and time has
changed this. Sociologists have to study villages, families, movements, child rearing practices, work
and leisure, bureaucratic organisations or castes taking this global interconnection into account.
Studies will have to take into account the impact of WTO rules on agriculture and therefore on the
farmer.
The scope of sociology in India has had to adapt and expand its focus to address
these changes:
1. Study of global processes: As globalization has interlinked Indian society with outer
world(other societies) thus sociologists now need to incorporate the impact of those inter-
linkages on social structure, institutions, culture etc.
2. Influence of political structure: international liberal economies, political institutions impact
the political structure in India as well. It is no more secluded in nature. Action of one acountry
is monitored by all other nations for example, in Ukriane-Russia war, Russia is criticized for
its actions on global forums like UN. There is the growth of international and regional
mechanisms for political collaboration Like EU, ASEAN, SAARC etc.
3. Changing Social Structures: The social structure of Indian society has undergone significant
changes due to globalization. It has witnessed a transition from traditional agrarian societies
to urbanized and industrialized ones, resulting in alterations in social relationships, family
arrangements, and gender roles. Sociologists in India focus their research on these
transformations, along with topics like urbanization, migration from rural to urban areas,
social hierarchy, and the effects of globalization on marginalized communities.
4. New cultural practices: The process of globalization has facilitated the dissemination of ideas,
cultural practices, and values beyond national boundaries. Sociologists in India delve into
the consequences of globalization on indigenous cultures, cultural fusion, the resistance to
cultural change, and the dynamics of identity formation. For example, emergence and
celebration of new festivals like New year, mother’s/father’s day, Valentine’s day etc. They
scrutinize the interaction between globalized cultures and local traditions, as well as religious
beliefs, examining how they shape social norms, lifestyles, and patterns of consumption.
5. New form of inequalities: Earlier Indian society faced social inequalities like caste, gender,
power etc. but with globalization and growing technology, new form of inequalities has
emerged like digital divide, after LPG emergence of new social classes, poverty based of skills
etc.
So globalization has intruded in almost all aspects of Indian society and sociologists need to count
in all those impacts while evaluating the Indian society in the modern times. They impacts some
time are positively some time negatively. For examples linking of tribals to outer society may
provide them with better life opportunity or health infrastructure but at the same time it is a threat
to their traditional culture and knowledge. Therefore, the scope of sociology must adapt to emerging
trends of society.
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(b) Discuss the importance and sources of hypothesis in social research. (10
Marks)
According to Lundberg- A Hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains
to be tested. In its most elementary stages, the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess imaginative idea
or Intuition whatsoever which becomes the basis of action or Investigation. The process of research
initiates with the identification of a problem, a perceived need, or a challenge. The objective of
research is to discover a resolution to the identified difficulty. Ideally, the researcher should present
a collection of proposed solutions or explanations for the problem being addressed. These
preliminary solutions, presented as statements, are known as hypotheses, which serve as a basis for
the research to explore and provide potential resolutions. According to Stebbing, ‘Every hypothesis
springs from the union of knowledge and sagacity’.
Importance of Hypothesis:
1. It acts as the starting point for research: Once the selection and definition of the research
problem have been accomplished, the derivation of the hypothesis is the next most important
step in the research process.
2. Act as operating tool for theory: It enables the researcher to proceed on correct line of study.
Due to this progress, the investigator becomes capable of drawing proper conclusions. In the
words of Goode and Hatt, “without hypothesis the research is unfocussed, a random
empirical wandering”. The results cannot be studied as facts with clear meaning.
3. Enables researcher to select relevant fact and data: P.V. Young has stated, “The use of
hypothesis prevents a blind research and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which
may later prove irrelevant to the problem under study”.
4. Testing Theories: Hypotheses allow sociologists to test existing theories or develop new ones.
They provide a framework for examining relationships between variables and help
researchers evaluate the validity of sociological concepts, ideas, and explanations.
5. Promotes objectivity of research: The formulation of hypotheses in sociological research
fosters objectivity by presenting explicit statements regarding anticipated relationships or
outcomes. This helps mitigate the influence of personal biases or preconceived notions on
researchers, thereby facilitating a more objective analysis of data.
Sources of Hypothesis:
1. Experience and Creativity of the Researcher: While conducting research within a given
environment, researchers encounter various challenges, including some that are particularly
significant and demand substantial effort to resolve. On the basis of his personal experience
and creativity, he uses his mind and suggests some points for the eradication of a social
problem through developing a good hypothesis.
2. Background Knowledge: A researcher must possess comprehensive knowledge of
established facts, existing theories, and prior research relevant to the problem at hand. The
literature related to the subject serves as a valuable resource for formulating hypotheses. It
enhances the researcher's understanding of how to hypothesize the relationship between
variables, identifies areas of the relationship that have already been explored, and highlights
aspects that require further investigation.
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3. Versatility of Intellect: It induces originality in the process of research. an alert mind is
capable of deriving a meaningful hypothesis and rejecting a faulty hypothesis. With his
versatile intellect, the researcher may restructure his experiences and deduce the hypothesis
from a theory using logic.
4. Scientific theories: A theory is capable in explaining all the facts relating to the problem.
Scientific theory is a fertile source of hypothesis formulation. The theory which is used by a
researcher may satisfy the needs of making it, because theory explains the known facts. For
example, a researcher working on 'Modification of Teacher Behaviour' may be benefited by
the Skinnerian theory of behaviour shaping.
5. Analogies: Reasoning by analogy is based on similarities and differences between two
situations in which a similar or the same phenomenon or event takes place. Which provides
empirical ground for formulating hypothesis.
6. Culture: Culture represents the compilation of behavioral patterns and practices that develop
within a specific location and timeframe. When constructing a hypothesis to address a
problem, it is crucial to consider the cultural context. For instance, if the aim is to examine
trends in female education within a specific area, it is necessary to investigate the area's
cultural aspects, including traditions, family structures, norms, values, regional influences,
and the education system.
Hypotheses play a vital role in social research by offering direction, focus, and verifiable predictions.
They contribute to the development of theories, foster rigor and objectivity, and provide guidance
for collecting and analyzing empirical data.
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(c) What are the problems in observing social facts in Durkheim's views? (10
Marks)
Ans: In his book, ‘The Rules of Sociological Method’, published in 1895, Durkheim is concerned
with the subject matter of sociology and called social facts the subject matter of sociology. Durkheim
defines social facts as “ways of acting, thinking and feeling, external to the individual, and endowed
with a power of coercion by reason of which they control him”. To Durkheim society is a reality
suigeneris. Society comes into being by the association of individuals. Hence society represents a
specific reality which has its own characteristics.
Durkheim treated social facts as things. They are real and exist independent of the individual’s will
or desire. They are external to individuals and are capable of exerting constraint upon them. In other
words they are coercive in nature. Examples of social facts included social institutions such as
kinship and marriage, language, religion, political organization etc. In ‘The Rules of Sociological
Method’, Durkheim differentiated between two broad types of social facts — material and
nonmaterial Social Facts.
Problems in observing social facts:

1. Reliability of data: while observing social fact, reliability of data is a major concern. While
observing data for his study on Suicide, Durkheim observed that may suicides were wrong
interpreted, some were not included in records.
2. Biasness of observer: A sociologist could be biased while observing social facts which leads
to decline in objectivity of the research.
3. Impact of social facts on individual: Durkheim has taken society as a collective unit and
neglected the individuals at all. So it is difficult for him to explain how same social fact
influences different individuals differently.
4. Universalistic theories: he attempted to make common universalistic theories for all societies
which is a difficult task as different societies have different culture, norms and practices. For
example not all the societies are patriarchal in nature nut some are matriarchal as well. For
example Khasi tribes in India.
5. Complex nature of social facts: Social facts are complex and multifaceted phenomena that
encompass various interconnected elements. Observing and understanding all aspects of
social facts can be difficult, as they involve multiple dimensions, interactions, and contextual
factors.
Despite such difficulties in observing social facts, Durkheim has provided a different dimension to
sociological research with his concept of social facts. His theory of ‘social facts’ is significant because,
according to Susan Jones in her ‘What Does Durkheim Mean by ‘Thing’?’, it was crucial in separating
the new discipline from philosophical discourse. From Durkheim's perspective, we can assert that
he firmly regarded sociology as a separate scientific field with its own unique subject matter.
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(d) State the reasons for the various religious beliefs and practices in pre-
modern societies. (10 Marks)
Religious beliefs of one sort or other are present in every known society, but their variety and form
could be different. Durkheim defines it as ‘a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred
things, that is to say – things set apart and forbidden, beliefs and practices which unite them into a
single moral community, for all those who adhere to them’.
Origin of religion is more of a calculated speculation rather than an empirically researched
conclusion.
Different thinkers have put forward different theories regarding origin of

religion:
1. Intellectual Theories – They were the earliest theories of religion. They were based on
primitive logic. These theories include – Soul Theory by Comte; Dreams Theory of Spencer;
Theory of Animism of Tylor; Mana Theory of R R Marett. For example, Ghost theory of
Spencer ststes that- Primitive societies interpret the presence of deceased individuals in
dreams as an indication of a transient afterlife, thus giving rise to the belief in supernatural
entities known as ghosts. This concept, gradually evolves into the notion of gods, whereby
ancestral spirits are transformed into divine beings.
2. Functionalist: Functionalists observe that societies follow religious beliefs as it has functional
role in society’s need. According to them society requires some degree of social solidarity,
value consensus, harmony and integration. For example, Emile Durkheim studied the
Australian Aborigines and observed that religion in the form of ‘Totemism’ makes different
clans unite together at certain occasion and such congregation boosts their solidarity and
makes their spirit exalted and joyous.
Malinowski observed source of religion in ‘crisis of life’ like birth, death, puberty, marriage etc.
According to him religious rituals deals with different crisis of life. For example, a funeral ceremony
expresses the belief in immortality, which denies the fact of death, and so comforts the bereaved.
According to Parsons, religious beliefs are required to provide guidelines for human action and
standard against which people’s conduct can be evaluated.
3. Marxist perspective: According to Marx religion is created and maintained by bourgeoisie class
to control and subjugate proletariats. According to him religion is a form of ‘Mystification’ to distort
real relationship between humans and inanimate objects(nature/factors of production). Marx says
that religion exist in capitalist society because it eases pain caused by exploitation and oppression.
It justifies and legitimizes the subordination of class by another. Marx believed that religion will not
last forever. Proletariat will remove the need for religion by replacing capitalist society with
communist society.
4. Feminist perspective: they argue that religion is product of ‘Patriarchy’ in the society. It is created
and maintained to subordinate the women over men. According to Anthony Giddens the Christian
religion is a resolutely male affair both symbolically and hierarchically.
French Spencer believed that the theological stage was the beginning, metaphysical stage was the
next and the scientific stage was the last in the evolution of human societies. As science advances
and a contract-based society develop, religion centered on god head will fade away. But in modern
society we see many instances of religious revivalism in different societies.
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(e) Does the institution of marriage continue to be sacred in Indian society?

Comments. (10 Marks)
According to Malinowski, ‘Marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance of children’.
Marriage is one of the deepest and most complex human relationships. It is the cornerstone of a
society. It involves social sanction, generally in the form of civil or religious ceremony, authorizing
two persons of opposite sexes to engage in sexual union. But the Hindu concept of marriage is that
it is a sanskara (tradition) and a religious sacrament, not a contract.
Marriage is considered sacred because of several reasons:

1. Dharma was the highest aim of marriage.
2. Performance of marriage ceremony included certain rites (like havan, kanyadan,
panigrahana, saptapadi, etc.) which were considered sacred.
3. Rites were performed before sacred god Agni by reciting mantras from sacred scriptures
Vedas by a sacred Brahmin.
4. Union (between man and woman) was considered indissoluble and irrevocable.
5. Emphasis was on chastity of the woman and faithfulness of the man.
How marriage in India is still sacred:

1. Most marriages with sanction of family.
2. Still plays significant role in procreation and socialization.
3. Almost all marriages are conducted according to the rituals provided in different religions,
so it is still connected to the traditional sacred aspect of marriage.
4. Still the concept of ‘Pati Parmeshwar’ is widely transmitted to females from the family and
society.
How marriage is losing its sacredness:
1. Increasing number of divorce: The Hindu shastras regarded marriage a bond indissoluble in
life. The wife was to worship her husband as a god. To Hindu Law there was no such thing
as divorce. But in recent times divorce is institutionalized by legal means and divorce rate is
increasing day by day.
2. Extra marital affairs: Earlier marriage was considered pure as both husband and wife remain
faithful for each other but now that chastity is being diluted with increasing extra marital
affairs.
3. Live in relationships: It has emerged as an alternative to marriage in the the society. It is noe
legally and socially recognized as well, thus diluting the very concept of marriage.
4. Individualized and pleasure oriented marriages: Marriage performed for dharma and kama
both is called dharmik marriage, while one performed only for sexual pleasure is regarded
as adharmik marriage.
5. Religious rituals and ceremony is now followed just for formality and show off.
6. Marriage is no more a religious duty rather it is performed for lifelong companionship.
Despite such divergence from traditional marriage form, it still plays crucial role in maintenance of
different social institutions like family. It maintains to progression of any society by procreation,
socialization of children.
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Question 6.
(a) Discuss the new labour codes and their impact on formal and informal
labour in India. (20 Marks)
In an effort to codify the numerous labour laws in the nation, the Parliament has passed three labour
codes on industrial relations, social security, occupational safety, health, and working conditions,
along with the wage code passed in 2019. The four Codes are part of the government’s labour law
reforms agenda.
The new labour codes are aimed at facilitating ease of doing business in the country and seek to
replace 29 cumbersome laws.The objective is to encompass over 500 million organized and
unorganized sector workers—90% of the workforce which has been outside labour laws.
The idea is to ensure that they receive wage security, social security and health security, gender
equality in terms of remuneration, a minimum floor wage, and make the lives of inter-state migrant
workers easier.
Code on Wages, 2019:

This labour code envisages uniform applicability of the provisions of timely payment of wages and
minimum wages to all employees and bonus payments in all employments where any industry,
business, trade or manufacture is carried out.
It introduces the concept of a floor wage, which is to be determined by the Centre after taking into
account the minimum living standards of workers which may be different for different geographical
areas.
The Code prohibits gender discrimination in wages and recruitment of people for the same work or
work of similar nature. Work of a similar nature is defined as work for which the skill, effort,
experience, and responsibility required are the same.
Advisory boards will be constituted which will advise the governments on minimum wage fixing
and increasing the employment opportunities for women.
Code on Industrial Relations, 2020:

This labour code amalgamates three existing laws and expands the definition of worker to include
persons employed in a skilled or unskilled, manual, technical, operational and clerical capacity.
The code introduces a new provision for fixed-term employment, giving employers the flexibility
to engage a worker on the basis of a written contract. Fixed-term employees will get the same
benefits as permanent employees.
Equality for women in every sphere: Women have to be permitted to work in every sector at night,
but it has to be ensured that provision for their security is made by the employer and consent of
women is taken before they work at night.
The provision of a “Social Security Fund” for 40 Crore unorganized workers along with GIG and
platform workers will help Universal Social Security coverage
Code on Social Security, 2020:

The definition of employees has been widened to include inter-state migrant workers, construction
workers, film industry workers and platform workers/ gig workers.
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It subsumes nine laws and empowers the Centre to notify various social security schemes like the
EPF, EPS and ESI for the benefit of workers in all sectors.
It also empowers the Centre to frame any other schemes for the self-employed, unorganised
workers, gig workers and platform workers and the members of their families.
Code on Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions, 2020:

It amalgamates 13 existing labour laws into the labour code and applies to factories (as the code
expands the definition) having at least 20 workers if the manufacturing process is being carried on
with the aid of power and 40 if the manufacturing process is being done without power.
Under this code, employers are required to ensure that the workplace is free from hazards which
cause injury or occupational disease to the employees and provide free annual health examinations
or tests, free of cost to certain classes of employees.
Impact on formal labor

Potential Positive Impacts:
Simplified Compliance: The new labor codes aimed to simplify and rationalize compliance
procedures, making it easier for formal sector employers to navigate and adhere to labor laws.
Ease of Doing Business: The consolidation of labor laws intended to create a more business-friendly
environment, reducing administrative complexities and encouraging formalization of employment
practices.
Flexibility in Employment so reduced alienation

The Code on Industrial Relations introduced provisions for fixed-term employment, providing
formal sector employers with greater flexibility in hiring for specific projects or seasons.
Clarity in Wage Structures:

The Code on Wages sought to bring clarity to wage structures, making it easier for formal sector
employers and employees to understand and adhere to wage-related provisions.
Improved Industrial Relations:

The consolidation of laws related to trade unions and industrial disputes under the Code on
Industrial Relations aimed to streamline dispute resolution processes, potentially fostering better
industrial relations. Therefore refuting the Marxian clain of revolution and polarisation.
Inclusion of Social Security Benefits:

While the primary focus of the Code on Social Security is on informal labor, certain provisions
extend social security benefits to formal sector employees, enhancing their overall welfare.
Potential Negative Impacts:
Resistance to Changes:
There may be resistance from certain segments of formal labor to the changes introduced by the new
codes, especially if there are perceived reductions in benefits or changes to established practices.
Impact on Job Security: The flexibility introduced through provisions like fixed-term employment
could potentially impact job security for some formal sector workers, as contracts may be project-
based and short-term. This is way by the capitalist to masquerade their true intention.
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Challenges in Trade Union Formation:
Changes in the process of forming trade unions might pose challenges for workers in certain sectors
to organize and collectively bargain, potentially impacting their ability to negotiate for better
working conditions.
Unequal Implementation:
The implementation of the new labor codes may not be uniform across industries and regions,
leading to disparities in how formal sector workers experience the changes.
Impact on Informal Labor:

Positives
Universalization of the right to minimum wages- Prevent pauperization and exploitation of women.
Social Security Inclusion: The Code on Social Security aimed to extend social security benefits to
workers in the informal sector. This could include health and maternity benefits, life and disability
coverage, and old-age protection.
Formal Recognition:
The codes aimed to provide legal recognition to informal workers, bringing them under the purview
of labor laws. This recognition could lead to improved working conditions and protection of rights.
Facilitation of Formalization:
By streamlining labor laws and compliance processes, the new codes might make it easier for
informal enterprises to transition into the formal sector. This could lead to better access to credit,
markets, and government schemes.
Flexibility for Employers:
The introduction of fixed-term employment under the Code on Industrial Relations could provide
flexibility to employers in hiring workers for specific projects, potentially benefitting both parties.
Bringing gender equity- All the 4 codes have provisions on promoting gender equity and prevent
exploitation at all fronts
Potential Negative Impacts:

Implementation Challenges: The effectiveness of the labor codes in improving the conditions of
informal labor depends heavily on their successful implementation. In many cases, enforcement
mechanisms may be weak, leading to challenges in realizing the intended benefits.
Resistance and Opposition: Informal sector workers may face challenges in organizing and forming
trade unions, as the Code on Industrial Relations introduced changes in this regard. This could limit
their collective bargaining power.
Lack of Awareness: Informal workers might not be fully aware of their rights and the changes
brought about by the new labor codes. This lack of awareness could hinder their ability to access
and demand the benefits they are entitled to.
Continued Job Insecurity: While the formalization of certain aspects may occur, the informal nature
of employment in some sectors might persist, contributing to ongoing job insecurity for many
workers.
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Unequal Access: The implementation of social security measures may not reach all informal
workers uniformly, leading to disparities in access to benefits based on factors such as location,
industry, and gender.
It's crucial to note that the success of these labor codes depends on their effective implementation
and enforcement. Additionally, the impact on formal and informal labor may vary across sectors
and regions
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(b) According to Mills, "Elites rule in institutional terms rather than

psychological terms." Comment. (20 Marks)
Wright Mills explains elite rule (Theory of Power Elite) in institutional terms in his “The power elite,
1956” He explains elite rule in institutional rather than psychological terms. He rejected the view
that members of the elite have superior qualities of the population. Instead he argues that the
structure of institutions is such that those at the top of the institutional hierarchy largely monopolize
power.
C.Wright Mills in his book titled the Power Elite in 1956, discusses the analysis of American society.
Mills seek to explain elite rule in institutional terms as he identifies three key institutions in USA –
the major business corporations, the military and the federal government.
These institutions occupy pivotal positions in society. Those who occupy command posts in these
three key institutions constitute the elite. The holders of these command posts though apparently
distinguishable from one another in terms of their association with three key institutions are
sufficiently similar in their values, interests and ideals and are interconnected to form a single ruling
minority.
He names this ruling minority 'the power elite'. The economic, military and political interests which
these three groups represent are promoted to the extent that there is cooperation and sharing among
them. Thus as armaments pour out of factories in huge quantities, the interests of both economic
and military elites are served.
Buisness and government cannot now be seen as two distinct worlds. Economic pressure groups
influence governmental decision on economic matters particularly those pertaining to giant
corporations. Moreover, those who are in government have substantial interests in these
corporations. The net result of coincidence of economic, military and political power is power elite
which dominates American society and takes all decisions of major national and international
importance.
The cohesiveness and unity of the power elite is strengthened by the similarity of the social
background of its members and the interchange and overlapping of personnel between and three
elites. Members are drawn largely from the upper strata of society: they are mainly protestant,
native-born Americans, from urban areas in the eastern USA.
They share similar educational backgrounds and mix socially in the same high-prestige clubs. As a
result they tend to share similar values and sympathies which provide a basis for mutual trust and
cooperation.
Mills argues that American society is dominated by power elite of ‘unprecedented power and
unaccountability’. He claims that momentous decisions such as American entry into World War II
and the dropping of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima were made by the power elite with little or no
reference to the people. Despite the fact that such decisions affect all members of society, the power
elite is not accountable for its actions either directly to the public or to any body-which represents
the public interest.
Criticism
 Robert Dahl criticized Mills that his statements are only suggestive and not conclusive.
According to Dahl, Mills has emphasized only on one aspect of power-elite whereas their
second aspect is equally important that they work for the welfare of the mass with full
commitment.
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 Mills theory is also criticised for having a narrow view as it was based on his observations of
the American society only. Social facts in Latin American, Asian and African Societies are
different.
 According to T B Bottomore – ‘Elite circulation may not be always there’. In Indian society,
Brahmins , Kshatriyas and survived for long as elite due to closed nature of caste system.
 According to Westergaard and Resler, power does not lie with those who make the decisions,
but, is visible through its consequences.
Though narrow in conception but it provides deep insight into the power structure and also gave a
broad-based conception of the classical elite theory.
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(c) Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of social survey method in social
Overview
 Introduction of social survey method
 Strengths of method
 Weakness of method
 Conclusion
The social survey method in social research involves collecting data from a sample of individuals
through standardized questionnaires or interviews to understand social phenomena. These surveys
often employ statistical techniques to analyze data and draw conclusions about social attitudes,
behaviors, beliefs, or demographics within a society or specific social groups.
Strengths:
 Generalizability: By sampling a representative microcosm of a population, surveys can
paint a picture of the macrocosm with confidence. This, as Émile Durkheim
advocated, allows researchers to grasp widespread trends, beliefs, and behaviors, offering a
glimpse into the collective consciousness.
 Efficiency and Affordability: Compared to the immersive depths of ethnography or the
meticulousness of participant observation, surveys offer swift and cost-effective data
collection. As Max Weber championed, efficiency in research paves the way for larger-scale
studies and wider impact.
 Standardization and Reliability: Standardized questionnaires, ensure consistency in data
collection, minimizing researcher bias and enabling comparisons across studies. This
strengthens the foundations of reliable and replicable research.
 Quantitative Data and Statistical Analysis: Survey data, as Theodor Adorno might have
appreciated, thrives in the realm of numbers. Statistical methods unlock
patterns, correlations, and causal relationships, facilitating hypothesis testing and the
extraction of significant insights with a rigor that qualitative methods often lack.
Weaknesses:
 Issue of subjectivity: Critics, including George Herbert Mead, emphasized the role of social
context and the subjective nature of human behavior. Surveys might produce biased or
unreliable results due to question framing, respondent bias, or limited options provided. This
limitation affects the accuracy and validity of findings.
 Inability to Capture Social Change: As pointed out by contemporary sociologists like
Anthony Giddens, surveys might struggle to capture rapid societal changes or complex social
dynamics. They often reflect a particular moment in time and may not adapt quickly to
evolving social contexts.
Sampling Bias: A skewed sample can distort reality. Accessibility, response rates, and self-selection
bias can cast doubt on the inferences drawn from the data, jeopardizing the very essence of scientific
research.
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Pierre Bourdieu argued that the power dynamics embedded in language and social interactions
distort responses, failing to capture the full picture of social realities.
In conclusion, while social surveys offer benefits such as quantifiable data, generalizability, and
efficiency, they also face limitations in terms of depth of understanding, validity, reliability, and
adaptability to complex social changes, as highlighted by various sociological thinkers and
empirical examples. By combining surveys with other methods and critically interpreting results,
social researchers can build bridges between numbers and lived experiences, paving the way for a
comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the social world.
422
Question 7.
(a) Technology has accelerated the process of development and dependency.
Discuss.
 Briefly introduce role of technology
 How technology promotes Development
 How technology can lead to dependency
 Conclusion
Technology exchange drives development by spurring innovation and economic growth, fostering
global collaboration. For example, multinational companies exporting advanced tech equipment
bolster economic progress. However, dependency theory contends that relying on dominant nations
for crucial resources, like China's control over rare earth minerals, sustains power imbalances. This
reliance perpetuates disparities, reinforcing unequal global relations despite the developmental
gains from technological exchange.
How technology promotes Development

 Promotion of Economic Growth: Scholars like Joseph Schumpeter emphasize how
technological innovations drive economic growth. For instance, the digital revolution has led
to the creation of new industries and markets, fostering economic development in
technologically advanced nations.
 Global supply chains - Supply chains crisscross continents, powered by logistics platforms
and e-commerce, creating economic partnerships and interdependence. The "Asian Tigers,"
fueled by technological adoption, emerged as economic powerhouses, showcasing the
development potential of technology integration
 Enhanced Connectivity and Social Development: Thinkers like Anthony Giddens highlight
how technology facilitates global connectivity and social development. The internet, as
envisioned by Ted Nelson, has dismantled information barriers, enabling knowledge
exchange across borders. Online platforms facilitate scientific collaboration, technological
transfer, and the emergence of global research communities
 Technology bridges infrastructure gaps, as Amartya Sen argued, enabling developing
nations to leapfrog stages of traditional development. Mobile banking in Kenya, for instance,
bypasses brick-and-mortar limitations, expanding financial inclusion.
 Facilitation of Political Engagement: Robert Putnam's social capital theory suggests that
technology enables political engagement. For instance, social media platforms empower
citizens to participate in political discourse and activism, contributing to political
development globally.
 Soft Power and Influence: Technology offers states new avenues for projecting influence.
Cyber diplomacy facilitates international communication and negotiation, while cultural
exports like music and film leverage digital platforms to shape global perceptions. South
Korea's "Korean Wave," driven by K-pop and dramas, exemplifies the cultural influence
wielded through technological dissemination.
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How technology can lead to dependency
 Dependency on Technological Imports: Dependency theorists like Andre Gunder Frank
argue developing nations often rely on importing advanced technologies from developed
countries, reinforcing their technological dependency. Access to cutting-edge technologies
like Artificial Intelligence and quantum computing can create strategic dependencies,
exacerbating global power imbalances. The ongoing US-China rivalry in technology
development underscores this potential for digital dominance.
 Unequal Exchange and Center-Periphery Relations: Immanuel Wallerstein's core-
periphery framework sheds light on how technology can exacerbate global inequalities.
Developed nations, acting as the technological core, export advanced technologies at higher
prices while importing raw materials and cheap labor from the periphery. This creates a cycle
of unequal exchange, where peripheral nations remain technologically dependent and
struggle to break free from economic exploitation.
 Cybersecurity Vulnerabilities and Warfare: The digital landscape presents new avenues for
conflict and vulnerability. Cyberattacks can cripple critical infrastructure, disrupt economies,
and manipulate political processes, creating unprecedented security challenges.
 Technological Hegemony and Dependency: technological hegemony can undermine the
autonomy of the host nation and influence the policy making process. This had negative
impact for the democracy.
 According to critics this is a new age of neo-imperialism, that means, a form of domination
and hegemony established over others by way of formally free legal agreements through
economic and technological influence.
Conclusion
As technology advances, its influence on global relationships becomes more intricate. Recognizing
its dual potential to drive progress and generate dependencies is crucial in navigating this complex
digital landscape. To ensure a positive impact, prioritizing collaboration, promoting digital
independence, and closing the technology gap are imperative. By doing so, we can harness
technology as a force for global advancement and cooperation, steering away from allowing it to
widen inequalities or give excessive power to a few nations.
424
b) Phenomenological perspectives in sociology reject many of the

assumptions of positivism. Comment. (20 Marks)
What is Phenomenology
Phenomenological perspectives in sociology offer a unique lens through which to examine social
phenomena, diverging from the assumptions and approaches of more traditional sociological
perspectives, such as positivism.
Phenomenology emphasizes subjective reality, the social construction of reality, interpretation,
contextual understanding, emotion and subjectivity, reflexivity, empathy, and qualitative
research methods.
In contrast, sociological counterpoints often focus on objective reality, external factors, quantitative
measurement, generalizations across contexts, rationality, and quantitative research methods.
Phenomenological Sociological Counterpoint

Perspective
Emphasis on Subjective Emphasis on Objective Phenomenology focuses on

Reality Reality individual experiences and
subjective interpretations of social
phenomena, while sociological
counterpoints argue for the existence
of an objective reality that can be
measured and observed.
Phenomenological perspective might
explore how individuals experience
and interpret the concept of
"freedom," whereas a sociological
counterpoint might analyze
objective indicators of freedom,
such as legal rights or political
participation.
Social Construction of Emphasis on External Phenomenology highlights the role

Reality Factors of social interactions and
interpretations in constructing
reality, whereas positivistic
sociological counterpoints
emphasize the influence of external
factors, such as social structures and
institutions, on shaping social reality
investigate how individuals
construct their identity within a
particular cultural context, while a
sociological counterpoint might
analyze how broader social
425
structures, such as gender norms or
economic systems, shape identity
formation.
Emphasis on Emphasis on Quantitative Phenomenology emphasizes the

Interpretation Measurement importance of interpreting and
understanding the meanings
individuals assign to social
phenomena, while sociological
counterpoints often prioritize
quantitative measurement and
prediction.
explore the subjective
interpretations of social inequality
among marginalized communities,
while a sociological counterpoint
might measure and compare
objective indicators of inequality,
such as income disparities or
educational attainment.
Contextual Generalizations across Phenomenology highlights the need

Understanding Contexts for in-depth exploration and
contextual understanding of social
phenomena, whereas sociological
counterpoints seek generalizations
and causal relationships across
different contexts.
examine how cultural practices
shape the experience of grief within
a specific community, while a
analyze broader patterns and trends
in grieving practices across different
societies.
Emotion and Objective and Phenomenology acknowledges the

Subjectivity Rational role of emotions and subjectivity in
Approaches shaping social realities, whereas
sociological counterpoints often
favor objective and rational
approaches to understanding social
phenomena.
explore the emotional experiences of
individuals involved in social
426
movements, while a sociological
counterpoint might focus on the
rational motivations and collective
action mechanisms within those
movements.
Qualitative Research Quantitative Research Phenomenological perspectives

Methods Methods often employ qualitative research
methods to capture subjective
aspects of social phenomena, while
sociological counterpoints often rely
on quantitative methods for
measurement and analysis.
utilize in-depth interviews and
analysis of personal narratives to
understand the experience of living
with a chronic illness, while a
employ surveys and statistical
analysis to examine prevalence rates
or access to healthcare services
among those with the illness.
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(c) Critically assess the Marxian theory of 'Alienation'. (10 Marks)

 Breifly explain Alienation
 Types of alienation
 Strengths of the Theory
 Criticism of the Theory
 Conclusion
Marx's theory of alienation refers to a feeling of disconnection, estrangement, or isolation from
oneself, others, work, or society. It highlights the loss of control and fulfillment in labor, resulting
in a sense of detachment and exploitation within capitalist societies.
Marx identified four distinct types of alienation-

 Alienation from the product of labor: The factory worker who has no ownership or control
over the goods they produce
 Alienation from the act of labor: The repetitive, mundane tasks characteristic of many jobs
stifles creativity and autonomy, turning work into a means to an end.
 Alienation from one's fellow humans: Competition and individualism fostered by
capitalism breed isolation and distrust, hindering a sense of community and solidarity
 Alienation from one's species-being: By suppressing our inherent potential for creativity,
fulfillment, and social connection, capitalism alienates us from our true human essence.
Strengths of the Theory:

 Powerful Critique of Capitalism: Exposes capitalism's profit-driven exploitation, aligning
with modern concerns of income inequality
 Multifaceted Framework: Acknowledges various alienation types (psychological, social,
existential), aiding applicability to diverse work and social scenarios
 Catalyst for Social Change: Inspires movements against dehumanizing work conditions
(e.g., Occupy Wall Street, Black Lives Matter).
Criticism of the Theory:

 Historical Specificity: Limited applicability in service-based economies; risks
oversimplification in modern work contexts
 Oversimplified Human Motivation: Neglects non-work-related human experiences and
motivations highlighted by thinkers like Jurgen Habermas
 Ambiguity in Solutions: Offers vague revolutionary calls without clear transitional steps,
prompting critiques about feasibility from thinkers like Antonio Gramsci.
 According to Durkheim, the problem of alienation and anomie may be alleviated in society
by building solidarity and consensus. According to Durkheim existing mechanisms may
handle the problem and there is no need to topple the entire system.
428
Conclusion
Marx's theory reveals capitalism's dehumanizing effect, seen in precarious work resembling a
detachment from labor. Moreover, AI and automation challenging human labor echo alienation's
worry about technology's dehumanizing role. Although useful for critiquing capitalism, it needs
scrutiny for its limitations. Understanding its strengths and weaknesses sparks meaningful
discussions on work, technology, and human well-being in today's changing world.
429
Question 8.
(a) How does Marx view social conflict as an essential element in social
change? (20 Marks)
Structure
 Defining social change
 The idea of social conflict according to Marx
 How Conflict brings Social Change (Marxist view) with examples in various eras
 Contemporary take
 Criticism
 Conclude
Defining social change and its theories

 Social change can be defined as the significant alteration or modification of any social
organization and/or social structure and functions of a society and its various manifestations.
 Karl Marx contended that the most significant social changes were revolutionary in nature,
and were brought about by the struggle for supremacy between economic classes.
Social Conflict and Social Change

 According to the theory of relative deprivation, social conflict arises when a social group
feels that it is worse off than others around it. Such conflict is likely to result in successful
collective protest.
 According to Marx, conflict leads not only to ever-changing relations within the existing
social structure, but the total social system undergoes transformation through conflict.
o Marx saw conflict in society as the primary means of change.
o Marx maintained that conflicts appeared consistently throughout history during the
times of social revolution. The revolutions or “class antagonism” as he called them,
were a result of one class dominating another.
o Marx focused on exploitation of propertyless class that they should be aware that they
are dominated by a powerful and are being exploited.
Social Conflict and Change during the feudal period

 The relations between serf and lord (between burgher and gentry), underwent many changes
both in law and in fact.
 Yet conflict finally led to a breakdown of all feudal relations and hence to the rise of a new
social system governed by different patterns of social relations.
Social Conflict and Change after the feudal period

 Marx developed another idea that is concept of false consciousness.
430
 In fact, it is the ideology of the dominant class that is imposed upon the proletariat ideas such
as emphasis of competition over cooperation or of hard-work being its own reward, clearly
benefit the owners of industry.
 Marx proposed that it be replaced with class consciousness, which is the awareness of one’s
rank in society. Only when society entered the state of political consciousness would it be
ready for social revolution.
 Social Conflict won’t break out suddenly it will take time, that is when one class is weaker
the other will take over it.
 This sweeping change occurs between the classes because the entire superstructure is
depended on the relation of production.
 Eventually, Marx conceptualised certain theses on how conflict will rise in capitalistic society:
-
o Polarisation Thesis- As society progresses there is competition between large and
small capitalists, over a period of time capitalists have built-in capacity to turn into
monopoly capitalism. So the society would get polarised with two sections- Monopoly
capitalists and minority.
 Homogenisation thesis - He said in feudal society the workers remained divided on the basis
of their skills. There was internal fragmentation of workers and with the advent of capitalism
there will be the homogenisation of the proletariats.
 Pauperisation Thesis - as capitalism progressed workers will become poorer.
Social Conflict and Change in the Contemporary times

 American Sociologist Crane Brixton said revolutions are never inevitable even revolution
requires better class antagonism.
 There must be charismatic leader for revolution.
 Ralf Dahrendorf in his book class conflict in industrial societies wrote about post capitalist
society which includes high incidence of social mobility, rise of welfare state, social structure
has become highly differentiated, insulation and institutionalisation of conflict.
 Thomas L Friedman wrote on social change due to pandemic: Covid19 is a Black elephant. It
is the logical outcome of our increasingly destructive wars against nature.
 Thomas Piketty highlighted the growth of inequality, that today capitalism has ended up
being self-serving.
431
 Dattatreya Narayan Dhanagare wrote extensively on Farmer’s movement in Maharashtra
and said sudden shift to commercial agriculture particularly to cotton cultivation led to
increased requirement of rural credit and indebtedness among the peasantry. This was the
root cause of the Deccan riots and is accepted by every researcher.
Criticism of Marx and his conflict theory

 Conflict is only on the basis of contradiction on economic infrastructure and he has ignored
other basis of conflicts.
 Marx has attempted to give a generalised theory on the basis of common assumption which
may not be applicable in every case. For instance, Marx could not sufficiently explain the
structure of society in Asian subcontinent using his methodologies.
 Marx over emphasised conflict as a reaction to contradiction or exploitation.
 The growth of a new middle class contradicts the theory of Polarisation of classes and casts
serious doubts on Marx’s theory of social change.
Conclusion
 Karl Marx is the innovator of conflict theories. Sometimes Marx’s theory can be considered
as a prefabricated theory. He first ideated capitalism is bound to die and then he collected
data to prove it.
 Karl Marx believed that it’s a fundamental rule “powerful use their power to overcome
paralyse so there is a clash of interest between property owner and property less” that
revolution will not occur on its own but only when mature conditions exist and as long as
inequality persists, Marx’s theories will keep providing relevant inputs for us to take some
action.
Extra:
Social Change Definitions:

 Auguste Comte, in his theory of social dynamics, proposed that societies progressed through
a series of predictable stages based on the development of human knowledge.
 Herbert Spencer offered a theory of change that was evolutionary, based on population
growth and structural differentiation.
These are the various theories of social change: -

 Evolutionary theories- The main notion of the evolutionary theory of change is that there is
a consistent direction of social change of all societies in a similar sequence of stages from the
original to the final stage of development, or from a simple and ‘primitive’ to the more
complex and advanced state.
 Cyclical Theories- Cyclical theories have been concerned with the repetitive change of
conditions, events, forms and/or fashions over a long period of time, although the period of
recurrent phases (cycles) of change would vary.
o Pitirim Sorokin-Three cultural systems in a cyclical way
o Arnold Toynbee after going through the trend of twenty one great civilizations
concluded that civilizations are born, grow, decay and die.
432
o Vilfredo Pareto in his studies on political elites provides yet another classic cyclical
theory of change of the circulation of elites.
 Structural Functional theories- According to these theories, societies change but they also
tend to move towards equilibrium. They hold that changes disrupt the equilibrium of a
society, until the change has been integrated into the culture. Societies accept and adopt those
changes that are found useful (functional), while they reject changes that are useless
(dysfunctional).
 Robert K Merton held that “all major social structures have in due course been cumulatively
modified or abruptly terminated. In either event, they have not been eternally fixed and
unyielding to change”.
Marx and Conflict theory

 Conflict theories- According to this theory, every pattern action, belief and interaction tend
to generate an opposing reaction. Thus this theory highlights the forces producing instability
using social disorganisation.
 Marx’s idea of conflict is mainly based on the causes and consequences of class conflict
between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
 The infrastructure in capitalist society consisted of two rival classes -the Bourgeoisie or the
Owners of the means of production (Have's) and the Proletarian or the non-owners (Have-
nots).
 Since the main aim of the Bourgeoisie is to achieve maximum profit, he develops inhuman
attitude towards the workers, this results in exploitation and alienation of the workers, who
because of their feelings of discontentment and deprivation acquire feeling of class-
consciousness. These Self-conscious classes then come into conflict with each other in order
to protect their own interests.
433
(b) What is the impact of gender division of labour on the development of

society? (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Define Division of labour Sociologically
 Division of labour with respect to Gender
 How DOL leads to development of society
 How the development of society leads to gendered DOL
 Conclusion
Sociological Division Of Labour

According to Spencer, it is an interplay of individual interests that holds society together.
It serves the selfish interests of individuals to strive for integration. Thus, social life is possible.
Gender DOL
The gendered division of labor refers to the way each society divides work among men and women,
boys and girls, according to socially-established gender roles or what is considered suitable and
valuable for each sex.
In this context, the concept of Public- Private dichotomy delves into the processes operational
behind associations of women with the private place and that of men with the public places.
Impacts of Gender DOL on society

Social expectations of each gender change over time, and often develop differently in cultures
around the world.
Division of Labor based on Gender leads to the following in society: -
 Lack of control over resources
 Prevalence of males on higher education, jobs
 Placement of women in the domestic setting (which is devalued in monetary terms)
 It further reinforces the belief that women are responsible for domestic work, leading to
formation of a culture where women are assumed to be fit only for domestic chores
 It leads to ‘occupational segregation’, which is commonly split into a horizontal and a vertical
dimension.
o Horizontal segregation refers to the extent to which men and women are located in
different occupational sectors. Women are usually highly concentrated in the sectors
that require lesser skills (e.g. agriculture), that promise little chance for career
advancements (e.g. services) and that are related to care-giving (e.g.: nursing), which
often coincide also with low wages.
o Vertical segregation refers to the extent to which men and women occupy different
hierarchical positions within the same occupational sector. Within the same sector,
women tend to occupy the lower ranks of the hierarchical ladder (and consequently
the lower salary ranges)
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 Hochschild argues that changes in the gender division of labor are leading to increasing
tensions between the demands of employment and caring responsibilities.
 Beck-Gernsheim have argued that gender conflicts are replacing class conflicts.
 C.L. Ridgeway states that taken for granted beliefs about the gender division of labor allow
actors to be reliably categorized as men and women in all contexts and understood as more
or less appropriate candidates for different roles and positions in society.
 Often women and girls are confined to fulfilling roles as mothers, wives and caretakers.
Gender norms position girls as caretakers, which leads to gender inequality in how roles are
distributed at the household level. This also results in a lack of education due to the restriction
of outside opportunities and a lower labour female participation rate (LFPR).
 In Murdock’s examination of the division of labor among 324 societies around the world, he
found that in nearly all cases the jobs assigned to men were given greater prestige. Even if
the job types were very similar but men’s work was still considered more vital.
Impact of Society on Gender DOL

 According to US Census Bureau, even when a woman’s employment status is equal to a man
she will generally make only 77 cents for every dollar made by her male counterpart.
 Women in the paid labor force also still do the majority of the unpaid work at home.
 Women are assumed responsible to be the primary care giver within the four walls of the
home as well as outside it.
 Because of the prevailing gender role of general subordination, women were not granted the
right to vote in many parts of the world until the 19th or 20th centuries, some well into the
21st. Their presence in leadership roles is still abysmal.
 Gender roles are usually referenced in a pejorative sense, as an institution that restricts
freedom of behaviour and expression, or are used as a basis for discrimination.
Conclusion
Anyone planning a community intervention needs to know and understand the division of labor
and allocation of assets on a sex-and-age disaggregated basis for every community affected by
development interventions.
Rather than viewing ‘gender’ and ‘class’ as alternative causal processes, we should rather focus on
their interaction.
With the mass entry of women into the labor force, it is increasingly problematic to regard paid and
unpaid labor as residing in ‘separate spheres,’ as class analysis conventionally has done.
Demands originating from the domestic realm—for example, for time to carry out caring
responsibilities or unpaid labor (both men and women may make these demands)—might
potentially have a substantial impact on the structuring of paid employment and thus on a
significant aspect of class relations.
Shulamith Firestone claims that the mothering role is the root cause of sexual division of labour, and
its removal can lead to gender equality.
Indian government has also taken steps to ensure women representations in the government by
proposing to reserve at least 33% of seats in Lok Sabha for women.
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In corporate sector, it is mandatory for companies to at least have one female member on the board
of the directors.
World development report examines how greater gender equality can enhance productivity,
improve development outcomes for the next generation, and make institutions more representative.
Markets, institutions, and households can play a role in reducing inequality, and globalisation can
provide important opportunities.
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(c) Examine how social movements come to an end. Illustrate with examples.
(10 Marks)
Overview
 Briefly introduce social movements
 Why social movements ends
 Impact of social movements
 Conclusion
Social movements, driven by shared goals and collective action, operate outside established
institutions to bring about or resist societal changes. Charles Tilly sees them as a series of
contentious actions, providing ordinary people a crucial avenue for collective claims and political
participation.
However Movements may decline after achieving goals or due to financial issues, waning
enthusiasm, or internal divisions. Success or failure determines the fate of these dynamic and
influential social phenomena.
Why social movements ends

 Achieving Objectives: Some movements, like the labor movement, naturally decline after
securing significant rights and benefits through strategic efforts and strikes. Sidney Tarrow's
concept of "success" aligns, emphasizing transformative change and integration into social
norms upon achieving goals.
 Internal Fragmentation: Disagreements over tactics or leadership, exemplified by the 1960s
anti-war movement, can fracture movements. Charles Tilly underscores organizational
cohesion's importance, warning that internal conflicts can impede a movement's progress.
 External Repression: State violence, legal constraints, and societal backlash, as seen in the
Tiananmen Square protests, can crush dissent. Doug McAdam notes the role of repressive
tactics by powerful actors in hindering movements.
 Loss of Public Momentum: Movements, like Occupy Wall Street, may struggle when issues
fade from public attention. David Snow highlights the pivotal role of sustained public
resonance in maintaining a movement's energy and effectiveness.
 Co-optation and Dilution: Powerful actors may absorb and dilute a movement's agenda, a
risk faced by the environmental movement. Scholars like Frances Fox Piven caution against
co-optation, emphasizing the challenge of preserving core values while engaging with
influential institutions.
 Depletion of resources – According to Resource Mobilization Theory (RMT) movements
require resources to sustain themselves. Depletion of resources may lead to movement
decline.
Impact of social movements –

 Political Change: Civil Rights Movement led to 1964 Civil Rights Act, ending segregation and
expanding Black voting rights.
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 Social Transformation: LGBTQ+ movement increased acceptance and legal protections for
LGBTQ+ individuals globally.
 Cultural Shifts: Feminist movement sparked feminist art, literature, and music challenging
traditional gender roles.
 Technological Advancements: Environmental movement drove innovations in renewable
energy and clean technologies.
 Inspiring Future Generations: Anti-colonial movements inspired independence struggles,
laying the groundwork for ongoing fights against oppression.
Social movements, though temporary, leave lasting legacies shaping society. Whether successful or
not, they drive political change, reshape norms, influence culture, advance technology, and inspire
future activism. The diverse paths to closure unveil the intricate interplay between human agency
and social structures, emphasizing the transformative potential within collective action for a more
just future.
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Mains 2021
Section - A
Question 1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each.
(a) Europe was the first and the only place where modernity emerged.
Comment. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Explain emergence of Sociology.
 Explain emergence of modernity in Europe (through studies of thinkers).
 Explain Post modernity and its emergence in Europe.
 Conclude
Solution
Sociology took birth in a climate of social upheaval. The early sociologists' theories were influenced
by the socioeconomic conditions that were in place in Europe at the time. The Enlightenment, the
French Revolution, and the Industrial Revolution were the important features of this time period.
Emergence of Sociology
 The late 17th and early 18th century in Europe are referred to as the Enlightenment period
because it was at this time that people began to view the rational thought as a central feature
of human being and the human being as the centre of the universe. Some important questions
about human survival in the then contemporary society were posed during this time. Many
Positivist theorists, like Karl Marx and Max Weber in Germany and Emile Durkheim in
France, were influential in the early sociological work that emerged in Western Europe.
Emergence of modernity in Europe.
The emergence of modernity in Europe is a complex historical process that has been analysed and
interpreted by various sociological thinkers
 Marx focused on the economic and material conditions underlying the emergence of
modernity. He viewed modernity as a product of capitalism, where the bourgeoisie and the
capitalist mode of production brought about significant social transformations, including the
separation of workers from the means of production and the rise of wage labour.
 Durkheim's analysis of social solidarity and the division of labour is relevant to
understanding the emergence of modernity. He argued that modern societies are
characterized by organic solidarity, where individuals are interdependent based on their
specialized roles and contributions to society. This shift from mechanical solidarity to organic
solidarity reflects the social changes associated with modernity.
 Simmel's sociological perspective on modernity focuses on the individual's experience in
modern society. He examined the effects of urbanization, the money economy, and social
interactions in shaping the modern individual's psyche and social relations.
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He emphasized the tensions and challenges brought about by the intensification of social
interactions and the blurring of traditional social boundaries.
 Giddens' argues that modernity is characterized by reflexive self-identity, where individuals
actively construct and negotiate their social realities within the context of structural
constraints
 Weber's work on the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism highlights the role of
religious ideas, particularly Protestantism, in shaping the values and behaviours that laid the
groundwork for modernity.
Post modernity and its emergence in Europe.
Foucault's analysis of power, discourse, and knowledge is relevant to understanding the emergence
of postmodernity.
There are five Key features of the postmodern society which includes Globalisation, media saturated
and hyper-real, fragmented, consumerist, culturally diverse and hybrid and Europe fulfil all of these
features. Europe has played a significant role in the intellectual and cultural developments
associated with postmodernity; it is incorrect to assert that postmodernity is exclusively emerging
in Europe. Postmodernity is a global phenomenon that has emerged and continues to evolve in
different parts of the world, influenced by a range of historical, social, and cultural factors.
Foucault's analysis of power, discourse, and knowledge is relevant to understanding the emergence
of postmodernity.
 Europe's historical and cultural context has also shaped the conditions for the emergence of
postmodernity. The continent has experienced significant social, political, and cultural
transformations throughout history, including the decline of traditional authority structures,
the impact of world wars and conflicts, the influence of various social movements, and the
process of European integration.
 Arjun Appadurai in his work on globalization and cultural flows, emphasizes the global
diffusion and hybridization of cultural ideas and practices. He argues that postmodernity is
a transnational phenomenon, with cultural flows and exchanges occurring beyond the
boundaries of Europe.
 Manuel Castells' analysis of the network society highlights the role of technology and
communication networks in shaping postmodern social relations. He argues that
postmodernity is characterized by the dominance of information flows, the decentralization
of power, and the emergence of networked individuals and communities.
 Zygmunt Bauman argues that postmodernity is characterized by rapid social change,
globalization, and the erosion of traditional structures. Bauman's perspective transcends
geographical boundaries and highlights the global nature of postmodern conditions.
 Jean Baudrillard theory of hyperreality explores the blurring of boundaries between reality
and simulation in postmodern societies. He argues that the proliferation of media, consumer
culture, and the spectacle has led to a loss of distinction between the real and the imagined,
resulting in a hyperreal environment where symbols and simulations dominate.
The emergence of postmodernity cannot be solely attributed to Europe, as it is a global phenomenon
that transcends geographical boundaries. While Europe has been influential in the intellectual and
cultural developments associated with postmodernity, it is important to recognize that postmodern
ideas and practices have also emerged in other parts of the world.
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(b) Do you think ethnomethodology helps us in getting reliable and valid

data? Justify your answer. (10 Marks)
Ethnomethodology is a sociological approach that focuses on the study of how people create and
maintain social order through their everyday interactions. It emphasises the importance of
understanding the practical methods individuals use to make sense of and navigate their social
world.
Heritage, Linstead Define it as The study of “the body of common-sense knowledge and the range
of procedures and considerations by means of which the ordinary members of society make sense
of, find their way about in, and act on the circumstances in which they find themselves”.
The approach was originally developed by Harold Garfinkel, who attributed its origin to his work
investigating the conduct of jury members in 1954. His interest was in describing the common sense
methods through which members of a jury produce themselves in a jury room as a jury. Thus, their
methods for: establishing matters of fact; developing evidence chains; determining the reliability of
witness testimony; establishing the organization of speakers in the jury room itself; and determining
the guilt or innocence of defendants, etc. are all topics of interest. Such methods serve to constitute
the social order of being a juror for the members of the jury, as well as for researchers and other
interested parties, in that specific social setting.
1. Subjective interpretation: Ethnomethodology recognises that individuals interpret and construct
meaning from their experiences in subjective ways. This subjectivity can make it challenging to
ensure the reliability and validity of data obtained through ethnomethodological research. Different
researchers may interpret the same interactions differently, leading to inconsistencies in data.
For example, one researcher may focus on the nonverbal cues exchanged between participants,
while another researcher may pay more attention to the language used.
2. Lack of generalizability: Ethnomethodology emphasizes the unique social contexts and
meanings individuals create in their everyday interactions. As a result, the findings derived from
ethnomethodological studies are often highly context-specific and may not be easily generalized to
broader populations or situations. This lack of generalizability limits the reliability and validity of
the data for broader social analysis.
In an ethnomethodological study of workplace interactions, researchers may observe how
employees negotiate tasks and responsibilities within a specific organization. While the findings
provide valuable insights into that particular workplace, it may be challenging to generalize these
observations to other organizations with different organizational cultures and structures.
3. Limited representativeness: Ethnomethodological studies typically involve small sample sizes
due to their focus on in-depth analysis of specific interactions and contexts. While this approach
allows for rich qualitative data, the limited sample size can compromise the representativeness of
the findings. It becomes challenging to make broader claims about social phenomena based on a
small subset of cases.
4. Observer effect and reactivity: Ethnomethodology often involves researchers actively
participating in social interactions to gain insights into the social order. However, the presence of
an observer can influence the behavior and responses of individuals being studied. This observer
effect and reactivity can affect the authenticity of the data obtained, potentially compromising its
reliability and validity.
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5. Lack of standardized measures: Ethnomethodology focuses on uncovering the methods
individuals employ to create and maintain social order. This approach often lacks standardized
measures and operational definitions, making it difficult to compare and validate findings across
studies. The absence of standardized measures can hamper the reliability and validity of data
obtained through ethnomethodological research.
In summary, while ethnomethodology offers valuable insights into the social order and individual
interpretations, its application may pose challenges in obtaining reliable and valid data. The
subjective nature of interpretation, limited generalizability, lack of representativeness, observer
effect, and absence of standardized measures are factors that need to be carefully considered when
assessing the reliability and validity of data obtained through ethnomethodological research.
442
(c) Discuss the challenges involved in collecting data through census

method. (10 Marks)
What is Census Method
The census method is a widely used approach for collecting data in sociological research.
It involves gathering information from an entire population or a representative sample to obtain
comprehensive insights into various social characteristics and trends.
What does Census Include
A Census typically includes:
- a standardized questionnaire or survey
- administered to individuals or households.
Census data provides valuable information about:
- Demographic
- Social and economic characteristics of a population
Allowing researchers to understand:
- Population trends
- Patterns
- Disparities.
Challenges In Collecting Data Through Census Method

1. Non-Response Bias
 One of the primary challenges is non-response bias, where some individuals or
groups fail to participate in the census survey, leading to potential inaccuracies in
the collected data.
 Non-response bias can occur due to various factors such as lack of interest, privacy
concerns, language barriers, distrust, or difficulty reaching certain populations.
Example: People living in remote, hilly areas or Forest Dwellers.
2. Coverage Errors
 Census data may suffer from coverage errors, which occur when certain individuals
or groups are not included or are underrepresented in the census.
 Coverage errors can arise from issues like homelessness, temporary residents, remote
populations, or individuals who are difficult to reach or enumerate.
Example: People living under flyover or in pipes.
3. Social Desirability Bias
 Respondents may provide socially desirable responses rather than accurate
information, leading to social desirability bias.
 This bias occurs when individuals alter their answers to conform to societal norms or
present themselves in a favorable light, potentially distorting the true picture of
social phenomena.
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Example: Non reporting on eating or smoking habits that are not seen favorably socially like eating
beef.
4. Data Quality and Accuracy
 Collecting data on a large scale can be challenging, and errors or inaccuracies can
occur during data collection, entry, or processing stages.
 Mistakes, misinterpretation of questions, or data entry errors may lead to data quality
issues, impacting the reliability and accuracy of the collected census data.
5. Resource Intensive
 Conducting a comprehensive census requires significant resources, including
personnel, funding, logistical planning, and technological infrastructure.
 The extensive nature of census data collection can be time-consuming and costly,
particularly for large populations or geographically dispersed areas.
6. Privacy and Confidentiality Concerns
 Collecting personal and sensitive information raises privacy and confidentiality
concerns.
 Safeguarding respondents' privacy and ensuring the security of their data is crucial
to maintain public trust and comply with ethical and legal standards.
Example: Medical History of a person.
7. Data Analysis and Interpretation
 Analyzing and interpreting large volumes of census data can be complex and
challenging.
 Researchers must employ appropriate statistical methods and techniques to derive
meaningful insights from the collected data, avoiding misinterpretation or biased
conclusions.
How to Overcome These Challenges
Addressing these challenges requires:
- Careful planning
- Rigorous data collection methods
- Effective communication and outreach strategies
- Quality control measures
- Continuous evaluation and improvement of census processes
Conclusion
Despite these challenges, the census method remains a valuable tool for sociological research,
providing vital information for policymaking, resource allocation, and understanding social
dynamics within a population.
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(d) Explain whether Durkheim's theory of Division of Labour is relevant in

the present-day context. (10 Marks)
The Division of Labour in Society is the doctoral dissertation of the French sociologist Émile
Durkheim, published in 1893.
Durkheim described how social order was maintained in societies based on two very different forms
of solidarity – mechanical and organic – and the transition from more "primitive" societies to
advanced industrial societies.
Durkheim suggested that in a "primitive" society, mechanical solidarity, with people acting and
thinking alike and with a shared collective conscience, is what allows social order to be maintained.
According to him, the basis or focus of social integration differs in post-industrial societies. He
demonstrates how the process of occupational specialisation or division of labour helps to
integrate societies where heterogeneity, differentiation and complexity are to be found.
Durkheim then asks: “In modern society where heterogeneity, complexity & differentiation is
found, what holds the society together?”
According to him, division of labour arises as a result of increased material and moral density in
society. By material density Durkheim means the sheer increase in the number of individuals in a
society, in other words, population growth. By moral density he means the increased interaction
that results between individuals as a consequence of growth in numbers.
The growth in material and moral density results in a struggle for existence.
If, as in societies characterised by mechanical solidarity, individuals tend to be very similar, doing
the same things, they would also struggle or compete for the same resources and rewards. Growth
of population and shrinking of natural resources would make competition more bitter. But division
of labour ensures that individuals specialise in different fields and areas.
Relevance In Present Day
1. Specialization and Expertise: In today's complex and interconnected world, specialization is
prevalent across various fields. Examples include doctors specializing in specific medical
disciplines (e.g., cardiologists, neurologists), software developers focusing on particular
programming languages (e.g., Python, Java), or engineers specializing in specific branches
(e.g., civil engineering, electrical engineering).
2. Interdependence and Cooperation: The global economy relies heavily on interdependence
and cooperation among nations. For instance, countries specialize in producing goods and
services that they are efficient at and rely on trade to access products they lack comparative
advantage in. This can be seen in the exchange of agricultural products between countries
with varying climates or the outsourcing of manufacturing to countries with low labor costs.
3. Social Solidarity: The division of labor fosters social solidarity by bringing individuals
together around common goals and shared values. Examples include social and
environmental movements such as climate activism, where diverse individuals unite to
address global challenges like climate change, emphasizing a shared concern for the planet's
well-being.
4. Social Integration: The division of labor promotes social integration by creating
opportunities for diverse individuals to interact and collaborate. Workplaces serve as
examples where people from different backgrounds come together, fostering teamwork and
cooperation. Additionally, online platforms and communities allow individuals with
common interests to connect, share knowledge, and collaborate on projects.
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5. Social Stratification: The division of labor can lead to social inequalities and stratification in
contemporary societies. Examples include income disparities between high-paying
professions (e.g., doctors, lawyers, executives) and low-paying jobs (e.g., service industry,
manual labor), or access to resources and opportunities that are often influenced by
occupational status and education levels.
6. Technological Advancements: Technological advancements have significantly impacted the
division of labor. Automation and artificial intelligence have led to the creation of specialized
roles for tasks such as data analysis, machine learning, and robotic automation. This has
changed the nature of work in various industries, including manufacturing, logistics, and
customer service.
7. Workforce Diversity: The division of labor is influenced by workforce diversity, with
individuals from diverse backgrounds contributing their skills and perspectives. Examples
include multinational corporations employing employees from different cultures and
countries, allowing for the exchange of ideas and the integration of various perspectives into
decision-making processes.
8. Alienation and Anomie: Despite the benefits, the division of labor can also lead to alienation
and anomie. This is seen in cases where individuals feel disconnected or detached from their
work due to monotonous and repetitive tasks or lack of fulfillment. Additionally, the fast-
paced nature of modern societies can contribute to feelings of normlessness and
disconnection from social values and norms.
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(e) Critically examine Max Weber's theory of Social Stratification. (10

Marks)
Max Weber's theory of Social Stratification incorporates interrelated concepts to understand the
multidimensional nature of social inequality and differentiation in society. It emphasizes that social
stratification is not solely determined by economic factors but also by social recognition, power
dynamics, and the distribution of opportunities.
He Rejects Marx’s idea of polarisation and says Europe has 4 classes:
i. Bourgeoisie
ii. White collared property less (will increase due to bureaucratization)
iii. Petty Bourgeoisie
iv. Manual workers (will shrink due to automation)
KEY CONCEPTS EXPLANATION EXAMPLES
Class Weber defined class based on A business owner with

economic factors such as wealth, substantial wealth and
property, and income. Class is assets belongs to the
determined by an individual's upper class, while a low-
market position and their access wage worker with limited
to resources and opportunities. resources would be
considered part of the
lower class.
Status Group Status groups are based on Members of an exclusive

social honor and prestige. country club or a
Individuals belong to status professional association,
groups that share similar such as doctors or
lifestyles, values, and social lawyers, form status
recognition. Status can be groups that enjoy high
derived from factors such as social prestige and
occupation, education, or recognition.
membership in specific social
organizations.
Power Power refers to an individual's Political leaders, CEOs,

ability to influence others and and influential celebrities
achieve their goals, even against possess significant power
resistance. It is not solely based due to their ability to
on economic resources but also shape policies, control
on social and political influence. resources, and influence
Power can be exercised through public opinion.
formal authority or social
networks.
Life Chances Life chances refer to the A person born into a

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opportunities and advantages or wealthy family has better
disadvantages that individuals life chances, including
have in their lives based on their access to high-quality
class, status, and power. It education, healthcare,
includes access to education, and more employment
healthcare, job prospects, and opportunities compared
overall well-being. to someone born into
poverty.
Criticism
1. Oversimplification: Critics argue that Weber's theory oversimplifies the complexities of
social stratification by focusing primarily on class, status, and power. It fails to fully capture
other important factors such as race, ethnicity, gender, and intersectionality, which
significantly shape social hierarchies.
2. Lack of Structural Analysis: Weber's theory tends to focus on individual-level factors and
agency, neglecting the broader structural influences that contribute to social stratification.
Critics argue that the theory does not adequately address the systemic and institutional
factors that perpetuate inequality.
3. Subjectivity and Value Neutrality: Weber's theory claims to be value-neutral, but critics
argue that it is impossible to completely separate personal values and biases from social
analysis. The theory may reflect Weber's own subjective interpretations and perspectives,
potentially limiting its objectivity.
4. Inadequate Treatment of Social Class: Some critics argue that Weber's conceptualization of
social class is limited. Unlike Marxist theories, Weber's approach does not place a strong
emphasis on the economic means of production and exploitation, leading to a less
comprehensive understanding of class dynamics.
5. Insufficient Attention to Culture and Symbolic Dimensions: Pierre Bourdieu: has critiqued
Weber's theory for its limited treatment of cultural capital and symbolic dimensions of social
stratification.
6. Lack of Intersectionality: Weber's theory does not adequately address the intersectionality
of different social identities and how they intersect to shape an individual's position in the
social hierarchy. It fails to consider how race, gender, and other identity markers interact to
produce unique experiences of privilege and disadvantage.
7. Limited Scope of Power Analysis: Some critics argue that Weber's theory provides a narrow
perspective on power, primarily focusing on formal authority and bureaucratic structures. It
overlooks other forms of power, such as ideological, discursive, or symbolic power, which
are crucial in understanding social stratification.
8. Eurocentric Bias: Weber's theory is criticized for its Eurocentric bias, as it primarily draws
on Western experiences and may not fully capture the complexities of social stratification in
non-Western societies. It fails to adequately address cultural and historical variations in social
hierarchies.
Despite limitations of Weber's theory, it still offers valuable insights into social stratification.
However, combining it with other sociological perspectives can provide a more comprehensive
understanding of complex social dynamics.
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Question 2.
(a) From the viewpoint of growing importance of multidisciplinary, how do
you relate sociology to other social sciences? (20 Marks)
Society is Interconnected – Sociology can’t be isolated
In an era characterized by complex social challenges and interconnected systems, the significance
of multidisciplinary approaches has become increasingly apparent.
Sociology, as a social science focused on the study of human society and social behavior, plays a
crucial role in this context.
Understanding how sociology relates to other social sciences, such as psychology, anthropology,
philosophy, and economics, allows us to uncover the interconnectedness of these disciplines and
gain a more comprehensive understanding of the intricacies of human behavior and social
structures.
By exploring these relationships, we can appreciate the value of multidisciplinary perspectives in
addressing the multifaceted issues facing societies today.
Sociology And Psychology

 Both sociology and psychology study human behavior, but they approach it from different
angles.
 Sociology examines behavior within the context of social structures and systems, while
psychology focuses on individual mental processes and behavior.
 Sociologists and psychologists often collaborate in areas like social psychology, which
explores how social factors influence individual behavior and vice versa.
 Sociology and psychology together provide a comprehensive understanding of human
behavior by considering both social and psychological dimensions.
ALWAYS QUOTE EXAMPLES

Sociology And Psychology – Examples
 Weber – importance to meanings attached by the actor.
 Cooley – looking glass self.
 Mead – symbolic interactionism
 Parsons – affective role of mother
 Gerth and Mills – “role” as the meeting point between social structure and individual
character
 Georg Simmel (forms of interaction (formal & informal) and types of interactants (whether
known or strangers. Behaviour varies)
 Alfred Vierkandt - Sociology is sum total of social and psychic behaviour of man which can
be explained by abstract conceptual design.
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Social Psychology is increasingly gaining ground to study behaviour in a group.
Sociology And Anthropology

 Sociology and anthropology both study human societies, but they differ in their primary
focus.
 Sociology emphasizes the study of contemporary societies, social institutions, and social
interactions, while anthropology focuses on the study of human cultures, past and present,
and includes areas like archaeology and ethnography.
 Sociology and anthropology often overlap in areas like the study of social change, cultural
dynamics, and the effects of globalization.
 Both disciplines contribute to a holistic understanding of human societies by exploring
different aspects of social life.
Sociology And Anthropology – Examples
 Spencer – Social Darwinism
 Sumner – studied folkways (society + tradition)
 Malinowsky – religion theory using anthro methods
 Durkheim – Ethnography of Arunta Tribes, DOL theory
 MNS, Andre Beteille, SC Dubey, etc. – field study (borrowed from anthro) to study Indian
villages
 Malinowsky - another name of social anthro is comparative sociology
 Ideas borrowed: Survey method, Quantitative data, Fieldwork, Ethnographic research.
Sociology And Philosophy

 Sociology and philosophy are distinct but interconnected disciplines.
 Sociology examines social phenomena empirically, focusing on observable social patterns
and structures. Philosophy, on the other hand, explores fundamental questions about
knowledge, values, ethics, and the nature of reality.
 Sociological theories often draw on philosophical ideas, such as theories of social justice,
power, and morality.
 Philosophy can provide a theoretical framework for sociological analysis, while sociology
helps ground philosophical concepts in empirical evidence, leading to a more practical
understanding of social issues.
 Sociology raises a lot of philosophical questions and tries to answer them.
Sociology And Philosophy - Examples
 Giam Battista – Studied philosophy of history – separating society from political society
 Karl Mannheim – ideas of sociology of knowledge had direct contribution to
epistemological questions and thus to philosophy.
 Marxist sociology has, with time, become Marxist philosophy or Marxism.
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 Alfred Vierkandt – sociology is productive only when it has a philosophical base.
 Gunnar Myrdal – chaos cannot organise itself into cosmos, we need viewpoints.
 Philosophical orientation gives meaning to otherwise what are just facts and figures.
Sociology and Economics

 Sociology and economics intersect in the study of social and economic systems, institutions,
and behavior.
 Sociology emphasizes the social context of economic activity, such as how social factors
influence economic inequality, labor markets, and the distribution of resources, gender pay
gap.
 Economics, on the other hand, focuses on the allocation of scarce resources and the
functioning of markets, but sociology complements this perspective by examining how
social structures and norms shape economic behavior and outcomes.
 Advertisements, for instance, attemot to study consumer behaviour, values, norms, culture.
Sociology And Economics – Examples
 Pierre Bourdieu – economists shall look into all costs of economy including crime and
suicides.
 Neil Smelser – put forward the idea of industrial sociology for better understanding of
modern society.
 A. Lowe – book “economics and sociology” – examines interplay of laws of market and
mobility of factors of production.
 Francois Simiand – principles of economy need to be verified sociologically
 Weber – PESC showing affinity of certain religions to have better economic prospects.
 Marx – Economic Determinism, mode of production, etc.
 Goldthorpe, Veblen - technology available to a society, determines the character of its
culture
 Alfred Marshall – father of welfare economics
 Thomas Piketty – In 21st century capitalism is causing extreme inequality
Concludingly
Sociology is interrelated with various social sciences, and interdisciplinary approaches are
becoming increasingly important to address complex societal challenges.
The integration of sociology with psychology, anthropology, philosophy, and economics allows for
a more holistic understanding of human behavior, social structures, and the dynamics of societies.
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(b) How far are sociologists justified in using positivist approach to

understand social reality? Explain with suitable illustrations. (20 Marks)
Positivism is a philosophical and methodological approach that emphasizes the use of scientific
methods and empirical evidence to understand and explain the social world. It seeks to establish
knowledge based on observable facts, objective data, and verifiable evidence. Positivists prioritize
empirical observation, objectivity, and value neutrality, employing scientific methodologies such as
formulating hypotheses, gathering and analyzing data, and establishing causal relationships and
general patterns. While positivism has contributed to the development of quantitative research
methods and statistical analysis, it has also faced criticism for its reductionism and neglect of
subjective experiences and cultural contexts.
Positivism & Early Sociologists

For example
 Saint Simon – Sociology as Social Physics.
 Herbert Spencer - Advocated Organismic
Analogy to study Society.
 Auguste Comte introduced positivism in
Sociology.
 He, in his books
Justification ‘Course in Positive Examples
Explanation
Philosophy’ and ‘System of Positive Polity’
Scientific Rigor aimed at Studying Sociology
The positivist as a Natural
approach Surveys conducted to
Science. emphasizes scientific measure public opinion
rigor in studying social on social issues, using
phenomena. It employs random sampling and
systematic observation, standardized
measurement, and the use questionnaires to gather
of statistical analysis to data that can be analyzed
ensure objectivity and quantitatively.
replicability.
Causal Explanations Positivism seeks to A sociologist conducting a

establish causal study on the impact of
relationships between education on income
social variables, aiming to inequality, using
explain social phenomena statistical analysis to
by identifying cause-and- determine if higher levels
effect relationships. of education lead to
reduced income
disparities.
Generalizability Positivist research aims to A cross-national study on

generate generalizable the relationship between
knowledge applicable to a gender equality policies
broader population, and women's labor force
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allowing sociologists to participation, analyzing
make predictions and data from multiple
draw conclusions about countries to identify
social patterns and trends. common trends and
patterns.
Objectivity Positivism seeks to An observational study of

minimize bias and workplace dynamics,
subjectivity in research by where sociologists
relying on empirical observe and document
evidence and data interactions between
analysis. It aims to achieve employees without
an objective influencing or imposing
understanding of social their own interpretations.
reality.
Cumulative Knowledge The positivist approach A sociologist conducting a

contributes to the meta-analysis that
accumulation of combines and analyzes
knowledge over time by the results of multiple
building upon previous studies on the effects of
research, theories, and social media on mental
empirical findings. This health, contributing to the
cumulative knowledge overall understanding of
helps refine existing the topic.
theories and develop new
ones.
Limitations
1. Reductionism: The positivistic approach tends to reduce complex social phenomena to
measurable variables, often overlooking the richness and nuances of social interactions. It
may oversimplify social reality by neglecting subjective experiences, cultural contexts, and
the meanings individuals attribute to their actions.
2. Quantitative Bias: Positivism heavily relies on quantitative data and statistical analysis,
which may prioritize numerical measurements and statistical significance over qualitative
insights. This bias can lead to a narrow understanding of social phenomena, neglecting
important qualitative aspects and individual perspectives.
3. Phenomenologist – Peter Berger, Schutz – Generalisations not possible. Positivism is not
concerned with Sociology but is concerned with making Science out of Sociology. Social
realities are made, dismantled, and remade.
Ethnomethodologists – Garfinkel – Reality be studied from People’s perspective and not the
Researcher’s perspective.
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4. Value Neutrality: Positivism claims to be value-neutral, aiming for objectivity and
detachment from personal biases. However, it is challenging to completely separate
researchers' values and beliefs from the research process, potentially influencing the selection
of research questions, data interpretation, and even the choice of methodologies
5. Overemphasis on Causality: The positivistic approach places a strong emphasis on
establishing causal relationships between variables. While causality is important, some social
phenomena may be better understood through interpretive or qualitative approaches that
focus on meanings, intentions, and context rather than strict cause-and-effect relationships.
6. Neglect of Power Dynamics: The positivistic approach often overlooks power dynamics and
the ways in which power structures influence social reality. Power relations, inequalities, and
social hierarchies may not be adequately captured by quantitative measures alone, limiting
the understanding of social stratification and oppression.
7. Inadequate Representation of Marginalized Voices: The positivistic approach may
prioritize data collection from easily accessible and dominant groups, leading to
underrepresentation of marginalized voices and perpetuating biases in research. This
limitation hampers a comprehensive understanding of social reality and reinforces existing
power imbalances.
8. Limited Scope for Contextual Understanding: Positivism tends to focus on generalizable
knowledge and seeks to identify patterns and trends across populations. However, it may
overlook the importance of context-specific factors that shape social reality. Social
phenomena are often contingent on specific historical, cultural, and social contexts that
require in-depth qualitative analysis.
9. Inability to Capture Change and Complexity: The positivistic approach often relies on static
and cross-sectional data, limiting the ability to capture dynamic and evolving social realities.
It may struggle to grasp the complexities of social change, social processes, and the interplay
of multiple factors over time. Gunnar Myrdal - Complete objectivity is not desirable.
10. Interpretative School – Weber, Dilthey – Not possible to study human behaviour using
methods of natural sciences.
While the positivistic approach has its limitations, it can still provide valuable insights when used
in conjunction with other research approaches and methodologies to achieve a more comprehensive
understanding of social reality.
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(c) How is sociology related to common sense? (10 Marks)

Common sense refers to the knowledge and beliefs that individuals acquire through their everyday
experiences and interactions. Sociology, on the other hand, applies systematic and scientific
methods to study social phenomena and develop a deeper understanding of society.
Relation Between Sociology & Common Sense
Everyday Understanding: Both sociology and common sense deal with understanding and making
sense of the social world.
Observational Basis: Both common sense and sociology rely on observation as a basis for
understanding social phenomena. They draw insights from real-world experiences, interactions,
and everyday life situations to form their understanding of society.
Social Constructs: Both common sense and sociology recognize that social reality is constructed.
They acknowledge that social phenomena, norms, and beliefs are not fixed or universally agreed
upon but are shaped by cultural, historical, and contextual factors.
Sometimes Sociological knowledge itself becomes a part of common sense

knowledge – Anthony Giddens.
Schutz emphasized the "lifeworld" as the realm of everyday experiences and common sense
knowledge. He argued that individuals navigate their social realities through their subjective
interpretations and common sense understanding of the world.
Sometimes folk wisdom is close to socio. For ex give someone a bad name and it will be blamed for
many things more. Howard Beckers- labelling theory of deviance.
While there are similarities between common sense and sociology, sociology distinguishes itself
by employing rigorous research methods, theoretical frameworks, and empirical evidence to
develop a deeper understanding of social phenomena.
From a positivist perspective, common sense may lack the systematic rigor and objectivity necessary
to provide a comprehensive understanding of social phenomena. Positivists argue that common
sense often relies on anecdotal evidence, personal opinions, and intuitive reasoning, which may not
be reliable or generalizable across different contexts.
Common Sense Sociology
Study of social life and human Study of social life and human
behavior behavior
Reliance on observation and Reliance on observation and

everyday experiences empirical evidence
Use of everyday language for Use of specialized terminology and

communication. concepts
Common sense explains many Sociology is verified, self-correcting
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Common Sense Sociology
things irrationally. For ex poverty and academic discipline.

is due to wish of god.
Common sense has specific roles

Margaret Mead study of tribals in
and duties assigned for genders,
Papua New Guinea region found
poor, tribal (stereotypes).
certain gender role reversal contrary
to common sense.
Common sense is highly value

laden.
Sociology attempts to be objective
and scientific.
456
Question 3.
(a) How do qualitative and quantitative methods supplement each other in
sociological enquiry? (20 Marks)
The combination of Quantitative and Qualitative
Sociological inquiry often relies on a combination of qualitative and quantitative research
methods to gain a comprehensive understanding of complex social phenomena.
Comprehensive Understanding
 Qualitative methods provide in-depth, detailed insights into the subjective experiences,
meanings, and contexts surrounding social phenomena.
 Quantitative methods allow for the generalization of findings to larger populations,
providing a broader understanding of patterns and trends.
Example:
In a study on educational attainment, qualitative interviews may reveal the personal experiences
and challenges faced by marginalized students, while quantitative surveys can provide statistical
data on graduation rates and disparities among different demographic groups.
Contextualization
 Qualitative methods enable researchers to explore the social, cultural, and historical
contexts that shape individuals' behaviors, beliefs, and interactions.
 Quantitative methods help identify patterns and relationships between variables, allowing
researchers to understand how social factors operate at a broader level.
Example:
In a study on voting behavior, qualitative interviews may uncover the specific motivations and
influences behind individual voting decisions, while quantitative analysis can reveal correlations
between demographic factors (such as age, education, or income) and voting patterns.
Triangulation
 Combining qualitative and quantitative methods allows researchers to triangulate their
findings, enhancing the validity and reliability of their conclusions.
 Triangulation involves cross-validating results from different data sources or methods,
reducing the impact of biases or limitations associated with individual approaches.
Example:
 In a study on healthcare access, qualitative interviews may provide rich narratives of
individuals' experiences, while quantitative analysis of survey data can confirm or
challenge these findings, providing a more comprehensive understanding of the issue.
Theory Building and Testing

 Qualitative methods often generate rich, exploratory data that can inform the development
of theories or hypotheses.
457
 Quantitative methods are well-suited for testing and validating these theories, allowing for
statistical analysis and hypothesis testing.
Example:
 A researcher conducting qualitative interviews on workplace dynamics may develop a
theory about the impact of organizational culture on employee satisfaction. They can then
design a quantitative survey to test this theory, collecting data from a larger sample to
analyze the relationship between organizational culture and job satisfaction.
Conclusion
 Researchers can employ a mixed-methods approach, integrating qualitative and
quantitative methods within a single study, to leverage the strengths of both approaches.
 This approach allows for a more holistic understanding of complex social phenomena,
capturing both the depth and breadth of the research topic.
Example:
 In a study on the impact of a social intervention program, qualitative interviews can explore
participants' subjective experiences and perceptions, while quantitative surveys can
measure changes in outcomes and assess the program's overall effectiveness.
458
(b) Critically examine the dialectics involved in each mode of production as

propounded by Karl Marx. (20 Marks)
The "law of dialectics" is a fundamental principle within dialectical materialism. It encompasses
three key principles: the negation of the negation, the unity and conflict of opposites, and the
quantity and quality. These principles explain the dynamic process of change and development in
the material world. They highlight the cyclic nature of development, the role of contradictions and
conflicts in driving change, and how quantitative changes can lead to qualitative transformations.
The law of dialectics provides a framework for understanding social, historical, and natural
processes by examining underlying contradictions and the transformation of existing conditions.
Karl Marx's theory of dialectical materialism encompasses the idea that societies evolve through a
series of contradictions and conflicts. Marx theory of historical materialism will the method of
dialectical materialism for explanation of the historical process of change dialectics can be used in 2
ways:
 As a method of discussion
 As a process of change.
Marx modified Hegelian dialectal idealism to propose a radial perspective called dialectical
materialism.
1. Laws of Unity and conflict of opposites
 There are internal sides, tendencies, forces, objects or phenomena which are mutually
exclusive but at the same time presuppose each other.
 Day & night, night has its existence: day is there.
 Rich and poor, +ve & -ve, etc.
According to Marx:
Internal contradictions are present in society in terms of opposites.
 These opposites are in a state of conflict but at the same time presuppose each other for their
existence.
 These opposites in society are created by the structure of society.
 The whole process has to be changed for the resolution of these opposites.
 It will finally happen in communism.
2. Law of Negation of Negation
 Negation is overcoming of the old through internal contradiction as a result of self-
development and self-movement of objects & phenomenon.
 The successive modes of production have been negating each other due to internal
contradiction which emerge in the course of evolution.
 For eg feudal society resolved the contradiction of slave society and in turn created new
contradictions which in turn were resolved by capitalism.
459
 Thus, capitalism is negation of negation.
 History proceeds in the terms of such processes.
 The process will end only if the structure of society is such that there is no contradiction.
3. Law of transition of quantity into quality
 The process of change is not simple or gradual but it is a process of quantitative advances
which result in abstract qualitative changes at a particular moment when mature conditions
are present.
 Changes keep on occurring within each mode of production like changes in forces of
production, exploitation, conflict, alienation, called as quantitative advances.
 These changes are gradual.
 These changes do not themselves will result in a change of society or will not result in
revolution.
 The qualitative change for the transformation occurs only if mature conditions exist.
Within this framework, Marx proposed the concept of the dialectics involved in each mode of
production. Here are some critical points examining the dialectics in each mode of production:
1. Primitive Communism:
 Dialectics: The primary contradiction in primitive communism lies between individuals'
collective ownership and use of resources versus the emergence of private property and
inequality. This contradiction arises as societies transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer
groups to settled agricultural communities.
 Example: In early human societies, individuals shared resources and labor collectively,
ensuring a relatively egalitarian distribution. However, as agriculture developed, the
emergence of surplus property led to the formation of social classes and the exploitation of
labor.
2. Feudalism:
 Dialectics: Feudalism is characterized by the contradiction between the feudal lords who own
the means of production and the serfs who provide labor in exchange for protection and
access to land. The feudal relationship embodies a struggle between the ruling class and the
working class.
 Example: In medieval Europe, feudal lords owned large estates and exercised control over
serfs who worked the land. Serfs were tied to the land and were obligated to provide labor
and tribute to the lords in exchange for protection. This hierarchical relationship created a
dialectical tension between the ruling class and the working class.
3. Capitalism:
 - Dialectics: Capitalism is marked by the dialectical contradiction between the bourgeoisie,
who own and control the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labor power
for wages. This contradiction stems from the exploitation of labor and the unequal
distribution of wealth and power.
460
 - Example: In capitalist societies, business owners (bourgeoisie) accumulate wealth and profit
by exploiting the labor of workers (proletariat). The pursuit of profit and competition for
resources create a dialectical tension between the capitalist class and the working class,
leading to class struggles and conflicts.
4. Socialism and Communism:
 Dialectics: Marx envisioned socialism and communism as alternatives to capitalism, where
the dialectical contradiction shifts to the conflict between the ruling class (capitalists) and the
working class (proletariat). The goal is to establish a classless society, ending the exploitation
of labor and creating a more equitable distribution of resources.
 Example: In socialist or communist societies, the means of production are collectively owned
and controlled, eliminating private ownership and profit motives. The dialectical tension
shifts from class struggle to the struggle for social and economic equality, with the aim of
creating a society where everyone's needs are met.
Criticism
 Marx understanding of historical progress and the dialectics involved in each mode of
production oversimplifies complex social processes.
 Factors such as culture, ideology, and individual agency also shape societal changes.
 The feasibility and effectiveness of transitioning from capitalism to socialism or communism
have been points of contention among scholars and practitioners
 Historical materialism lacks empirical verification and falls short in providing concrete
evidence to support its claims.
461
(c) Do you agree with Max Weber's idea that bureaucracy has the potential
to become an iron cage? Justify your answer. (10 Marks)
Max Weber, a prominent sociologist, developed the concept of bureaucracy as a form of
organizational structure. Here are some key ideas from Weber regarding bureaucracy:
1. Rational-legal Authority: Weber argued that bureaucracies are based on rational-legal
authority, meaning they derive their legitimacy from established rules and laws rather than
personal or traditional forms of authority.
2. Division of Labor: Bureaucracies are characterized by a division of labor, where tasks are
assigned to specific roles and positions within the organization. This division enhances
efficiency and specialization.
3. Hierarchy of Authority: Bureaucracies have a hierarchical structure with clearly defined
levels of authority. Each level is responsible for supervising and controlling the level below,
creating a chain of command.
4. Formal Rules and Procedures: Bureaucracies operate according to formal rules and
procedures that guide decision-making and actions. These rules ensure consistency,
predictability, and fairness in the functioning of the organization.
5. Impersonality: Bureaucracies emphasize impersonal relationships and treat individuals
based on their role and position rather than personal characteristics. Decisions are made
based on objective criteria rather than personal preferences.
6. Merit-based Employment: Weber highlighted the importance of merit-based employment in
bureaucracies, where individuals are hired and promoted based on their qualifications, skills,
and performance rather than personal connections or favoritism.
7. Efficiency and Effectiveness: Bureaucracies aim to achieve efficiency and effectiveness by
streamlining processes, standardizing procedures, and implementing clear lines of authority
and responsibility.
According to Weber, the iron cage refers to the potential negative consequences of excessive
bureaucratization, where the rigid and impersonal nature of bureaucracy can lead to
dehumanization, alienation, and loss of individual autonomy. Here are some justifications for this
perspective:
1. Loss of Individual Autonomy: Bureaucratic organizations often have strict rules,
regulations, and hierarchies that limit individual autonomy and discretion. Employees are
expected to adhere to standardized procedures and follow orders from superiors, leaving
little room for personal judgment or creativity. This loss of autonomy can lead to feelings of
powerlessness and frustration.
2. Bureaucratic Red Tape: Bureaucratic procedures and regulations can create layers of
bureaucracy and excessive paperwork, leading to delays, inefficiencies, and a sense of being
trapped within the system. The focus on following rules and protocols can overshadow the
primary objectives of the organization, hindering innovation and adaptability.
3. Alienation and Dehumanization: The impersonal nature of bureaucracy, with its focus on
formal roles and procedures, can lead to alienation and dehumanization of individuals
within the organization.
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Employees may feel like cogs in a machine, detached from the meaningful outcomes of their
work and reduced to mere functions within a bureaucratic apparatus.
4. Rule by Experts: Bureaucratic systems often rely on specialized knowledge and expertise,
which can result in a concentration of power in the hands of a few "experts." This can create
an imbalance of power and limit the participation of those who do not possess the required
credentials or expertise, further exacerbating the iron cage effect.
5. Resistance to Change: Bureaucracies are known for their resistance to change and
adaptation. The rigid structures and processes that define bureaucracies make it difficult to
respond effectively to new challenges and evolving environments. This resistance to change
can further contribute to the feeling of being trapped within the bureaucratic system.
It is important to note that while Weber highlighted the potential negative consequences of
bureaucratization, he did not argue for its complete rejection.
Weber says that there is no alternative of bureaucracy in the present scenario as it is an indispensable
part of society and is needed to maintain the proper execution of functions of state but against its
excesses, it can be controlled. He says that although there is just a small hope but professionals such
as politicians, scientists, intellectuals, and even capitalists who stand outside the bureaucratic
system can control it. In his essay “politics as a vocation” he supports the development of political
leaders with a calling to oppose the rule of bureaucracies and the bureaucrats.
463
Question 4.
(a) Explain the concept of social mobility. Describe with suitable
illustrations how education and social mobility are related to each other. (20
Marks)
Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals or groups from one social position to another
within a social hierarchy.
 Implicit in invoking the concept of social mobility is the recognition of gradation in a society.
 The gradation is normally done in terms of power, prestige and privileges. That is to say, a
hierarchical structure then operates in such societies.
 Social mobility can occur vertically, either upward or downward, or horizontally, involving
a change in occupation or lifestyle without a significant change in social status.
According to Sorokin, horizontal social mobility means the transition of an individual or social
object from one social group to another situated on the same level.
Classically P. Sorokin defines Vertical Social Mobility as the relations involved in a transition of an
individual (or a social object) from one social stratum to another.
According to the direction of the transition there are two types of vertical social mobility: ascending
and descending, or 'social climbing' and 'social sinking' respectively.
Anthony Giddens refers to vertical mobility as movement up or down the socio-economic scale.
According to him, those who gain in property, income or status are said to be upwardly mobile,
while those who move in the opposite direction are downwardly mobile.
Education plays a crucial role in shaping social mobility as it can provide individuals with the skills,
knowledge, and credentials needed to advance in society. Here are some points illustrating the
relationship between education and social mobility:
1. Education as a Pathway: Education is often seen as a pathway to social mobility, offering
individuals the opportunity to acquire knowledge, skills, and qualifications that can lead to
better job prospects and higher social status.
2. Access to Higher Education: Higher education, such as college or university, is considered a
key factor in upward social mobility. It provides individuals with specialized knowledge and
professional training, opening doors to higher-paying jobs and positions of influence.
3. Meritocracy and Equal Opportunity: Education is often associated with the ideal of
meritocracy, where individuals are rewarded based on their abilities and efforts rather than
social background. In theory, education offers equal opportunities for individuals from all
social backgrounds to achieve upward social mobility based on their merits.
4. Credentialism: Education credentials, such as degrees and certifications, serve as a signaling
mechanism for employers. They can play a significant role in determining access to higher-
paying jobs and career advancement opportunities. Higher levels of education are often
associated with greater social mobility.
464
5. Educational Inequality: While education can be a vehicle for social mobility, it is important
to recognize that unequal access to quality education can hinder mobility for disadvantaged
individuals and communities. Socioeconomic disparities, unequal resources, and educational
inequities can limit opportunities for upward mobility.
6. Intergenerational Mobility: Education can also influence intergenerational social mobility,
where individuals can experience a different social status compared to their parents. Higher
levels of education can increase the likelihood of upward mobility, allowing individuals to
surpass the social and economic position of their parents.
7. Role of Education Policy: Government policies aimed at expanding access to quality
education, reducing disparities, and providing financial assistance can play a crucial role in
promoting social mobility. Initiatives such as scholarships, affirmative action, and
educational reforms can help level the playing field and create more opportunities for
individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds.
Criticism
 Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital and social reproduction emphasizes the role of
education in perpetuating social inequalities.
 Collins' theory of credential inflation explores how the increasing demand for educational
credentials can limit the effectiveness of education as a means of social mobility.
 Bowles and Gintis' work on the "correspondence principle" examines the relationship
between education and social reproduction. They argue that the structure and content of
education mirror the hierarchical organization of society, reproducing existing social
inequalities.
Overall, education and social mobility are closely intertwined. Education can serve as a means for
individuals to improve their social standing, access better opportunities, and break free from the
constraints of their social background. However, addressing educational inequalities and ensuring
equal access to quality education for all individuals remains essential in fostering greater social
mobility within societies.
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(b) How has the idea of ‘Work from Home’ forced us to redefine the formal
and informal organisation of work? (20 Marks)
Formal Organization of Work is the one in which the worker is governed by the formal rules and
regulations. Informal Organization of Work is the one in which workers are not governed by fixed
rules, but by directions of employer.
The concept of "Work From Home" (WFH) has indeed forced us to redefine the formal and informal
organization of work.
1. Blurring of boundaries: WFH has blurred the boundaries between formal and informal work
settings. Traditionally, formal work was associated with physical office spaces, while
informal work often took place outside of traditional office environments. With WFH,
individuals can perform formal work tasks from the comfort of their homes, challenging the
traditional notion of formal work being tied to a specific location.
Example: Remote teams collaborating on a project through virtual platforms like video conferencing
or project management tools are redefining the formal organization of work. They can accomplish
tasks and meet deadlines without being physically present in a centralized office.
2. Flexibility and autonomy: WFH has given rise to flexible work arrangements, allowing
individuals to have greater autonomy over their work schedules and locations. This
flexibility challenges the traditional rigid structures of formal organizations and allows
individuals to work in ways that suit their personal preferences and circumstances.
Example: Freelancers or independent contractors who work from home have the freedom to choose
their projects, clients, and work hours. They can manage their workload according to their own
needs and preferences, rather than conforming to the fixed schedules and rules of a traditional
workplace.
3. Evolving communication and collaboration methods: WFH has necessitated the adoption
of new communication and collaboration tools to facilitate remote work. This shift has
transformed the way people interact and collaborate, breaking down hierarchical and formal
structures in favor of more dynamic and inclusive communication channels.
Example: Online platforms like Slack, Microsoft Teams, or Zoom have become essential tools for
remote collaboration. These platforms allow for real-time communication, file sharing, and video
conferencing, enabling teams to work together effectively regardless of their physical locations.
4. Impact on organizational culture: WFH has challenged the traditional notion of formal
organizational culture. In a remote work setting, informal interactions and social dynamics
may be different from those in a physical office. The informal organization of work, such as
watercooler conversations or impromptu brainstorming sessions, needs to be reimagined in
virtual spaces.
Example: Virtual social gatherings, online team-building activities, or dedicated communication
channels for casual conversations help recreate informal interactions in a remote work environment.
Organizations have to find new ways to foster a sense of community and camaraderie among
employees who may never physically meet.
5. Work-life integration: WFH has prompted a reevaluation of the separation between work
and personal life. With the physical boundary between work and home removed, individuals
need to establish new boundaries and routines to maintain work-life balance. The distinction
between formal work hours and personal time can become more fluid.
466
Example: Some companies have implemented policies that prioritize work-life integration, allowing
employees to have more flexibility in determining their work hours. This approach recognizes that
productivity can be achieved outside the traditional 9-to-5 framework, as long as work objectives
are met.
The shift to WFH has forced organizations to adapt their formal structures, communication
methods, and cultural practices to accommodate remote work. It has redefined the way we perceive
and organize work, challenging traditional notions of formality, hierarchy, and physical presence
in the workplace.
467
(c) With suitable examples, explain how conformity and deviance coexist in
a society as propounded by R.K. Merton. (10 Marks)
Sociologist Robert K. Merton proposed the concept of conformity and deviance coexisting within a
society. According to Merton, individuals engage in both conformist and deviant behavior due to
the complex interplay of social structures, cultural norms, and individual aspirations.
Here are key points explaining this coexistence, supported by examples:

1. Strain theory: Merton's strain theory suggests that when individuals are unable to achieve
socially approved goals through legitimate means, they may resort to deviant behavior. The
strain between cultural goals and the limited means to attain them creates pressure for
individuals to deviate from accepted norms.
Example: In a society where financial success is highly valued, individuals who face limited
opportunities for economic advancement may turn to deviant means, such as theft or fraud, to
achieve wealth and status.
2. Conformity to cultural goals: Society promotes cultural goals such as financial success,
education, or social status as desirable and worthy of attainment. Conformity occurs when
individuals strive to achieve these goals through socially accepted means, conforming to
established norms and rules.
Example: Students working hard to earn good grades and gain admission to prestigious universities
are conforming to the cultural goal of academic success. They pursue education through accepted
means like studying, attending classes, and following the prescribed curriculum.
3. Deviance as innovation: Merton argues that deviance can also serve as a form of innovation
in response to societal constraints. Deviants may reject or challenge existing norms and create
alternative means to achieve goals that are not recognized or supported by society.
Example: Entrepreneurs who challenge established business norms and develop unconventional
methods may be considered deviant, yet they can bring about innovative solutions, disrupt
industries, and achieve success outside traditional paths.
4. Ritualistic conformity: Merton highlights the existence of ritualistic conformity, where
individuals adhere to societal norms without necessarily striving for the cultural goals
associated with those norms.
468
They conform to the accepted means without necessarily having a strong desire for the goals
themselves.
Example: A person who continues to work a 9-to-5 job without significant career aspirations or
ambitions for advancement is engaging in ritualistic conformity. They conform to the work schedule
and expectations of their role without actively pursuing high-status positions.
5. Rebellion as deviance: Merton also identifies rebellion as a form of deviance, where
individuals reject both the cultural goals and the accepted means of attaining them. Rebels
seek to create alternative systems or ideologies to replace the existing ones.
Example: Social movements advocating for radical political or social change, such as civil rights
movements or anti-establishment movements, engage in deviant behavior by challenging existing
norms and advocating for alternative systems.
Critical Points
 Critics pointed out that in focusing on individual responses, Merton failed to appreciate the
significance of subcultures in sustaining deviant behaviour. (sub culture of a tribe may
influence their behaviour) (behaviour of a ghetto where such behaviour is expected)
 His reliance on official statistics is also problematic, because these have since been shown to
be flawed and unreliable.
In Merton's perspective, conformity and deviance coexist as individuals navigate societal structures
and pursue their aspirations. While conformity is rooted in adherence to cultural goals and norms
through accepted means, deviance arises as a response to social strains and the pursuit of alternative
paths or goals. This coexistence demonstrates the complexity and diversity of human behavior
within a given society.
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Section B
Question 5. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each : 10x5=50
(a) Explain the emerging challenges in establishing gender equality in the
informal sector. (10 Marks)
Establishing gender equality in the informal sector presents several emerging challenges due to the
unique characteristics and dynamics of informal work. Here are key points explaining these
challenges:
1. Lack of legal protection: The informal sector often operates outside formal labor regulations,
leaving workers, particularly women, without legal protection. The absence of labor laws or
inadequate enforcement makes it difficult to ensure equal rights, fair wages, and safe
working conditions for women in the informal sector.
Example: Domestic workers, who are predominantly women, often face exploitation, long working
hours, and low wages due to the absence of legal protections and limited bargaining power.
2. Gender-based occupational segregation: Gender stereotypes and societal norms influence
occupational choices, leading to gender-based occupational segregation in the informal
sector. Women are often concentrated in low-paying and undervalued sectors, limiting their
access to higher-paying and more secure opportunities.
Example: In many developing countries, women are disproportionately represented in informal
activities such as domestic work, street vending, or home-based production, while men are more
likely to be engaged in higher-paying sectors like construction or transportation.
3. Limited access to resources and finance: Women in the informal sector face barriers in
accessing resources, credit, and financial services. Limited access to capital and lack of
financial inclusion hinder their ability to expand their businesses or improve their working
conditions, perpetuating gender inequalities.
Example: Women street vendors may struggle to access affordable credit or savings accounts,
hindering their ability to invest in their businesses or obtain necessary equipment and supplies.
4. Informal social networks and exclusion: Informal work is often characterized by informal
social networks and relationships. However, these networks can also perpetuate
exclusionary practices that limit women's access to opportunities, information, and
resources.
Example: In some informal sectors, such as construction or transportation, men dominate the
existing networks and may exclude women from job opportunities or access to key information,
limiting their participation and advancement.
5. Unrecognized and undervalued work: Informal work, particularly care work and household
chores performed predominantly by women, is often unrecognized and undervalued. The
lack of recognition and financial compensation for these contributions reinforces gender
inequalities and limits women's economic empowerment.
Example: Women who provide caregiving services, such as childcare or elderly care, within their
communities may not receive adequate compensation or recognition for their essential work, which
hampers their economic independence and social status.
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6. Lack of social protection: Informal workers, including women, often lack access to social
protection measures such as healthcare, pensions, or maternity benefits. The absence of social
safety nets further exacerbates gender inequalities and leaves women vulnerable to economic
shocks and insecurity.
Example: Women working as domestic helpers may lack access to healthcare benefits or maternity
leave, which puts their health and well-being at risk and limits their ability to balance work and
family responsibilities.
Addressing these emerging challenges requires comprehensive efforts, including legal reforms,
social protection measures, access to finance, and initiatives to challenge gender stereotypes. It is
crucial to recognize the rights and contributions of women in the informal sector and create an
enabling environment that ensures their empowerment, protection, and equal opportunities.
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(b) Critically examine the relevance of Vilfredo Pareto's theory of

Circulation of Elites in the present scenario. (10 Marks)
Vilfredo Pareto's theory of the Circulation of Elites highlights the dynamics of power and social
mobility within societies. Here are key points explaining this theory:
1. Elite dominance: Pareto argues that societies are characterized by the dominance of a ruling
elite, a small group of individuals who hold power, wealth, and influence. This elite possesses
superior abilities, skills, and qualities that enable them to gain and maintain their position of
power.
2. Circulation of elites: Pareto suggests that there is a constant process of circulation of elites in
society. Over time, elites rise and fall, and new individuals replace the old ruling class. This
circulation can occur through various mechanisms, such as competition, meritocracy, or
political and social upheavals.
3. Elite reproduction: Despite the circulation of elites, Pareto also notes that there is a tendency
for elites to reproduce themselves. The children and descendants of the ruling elite often have
advantages, privileges, and opportunities that enable them to enter and succeed within the
elite class.
4. Elites and social stability: According to Pareto, the circulation of elites contributes to social
stability by preventing the concentration of power and avoiding the stagnation or ossification
of society. The constant influx of new elites brings fresh ideas, perspectives, and energies that
stimulate social progress.
5. Critique of democracy: Pareto's theory challenges the idea of democracy as a system of equal
opportunities for all. He argues that the circulation of elites challenges the notion of equality
and suggests that democratic systems can still result in the dominance of a ruling elite.
6. Elites and social stratification: Pareto's theory acknowledges the existence of social
stratification and the unequal distribution of power and resources within societies. The
circulation of elites reinforces and perpetuates social hierarchies and inequalities.
7. Measurement of elites: Pareto introduces the concept of "Pareto's Law" or the "80/20
principle" to explain the distribution of power and resources. He suggests that approximately
20% of the population (the elite) possesses about 80% of the wealth, while the remaining 80%
(the masses) have access to only 20% of the resources.
The theory of the Circulation of Elites proposed by Vilfredo Pareto remains relevant in the present
scenario, providing insights into power dynamics and social mobility. Here are key points
explaining its relevance, supported by examples:
1. Political transitions: The theory helps us understand political transitions and the rise and fall of
political elites. For instance, in democratic systems, the circulation of elites is observed through
regular elections, where new leaders and political parties come to power, replacing the previous
ruling elite.
Example: In the United States, presidential elections result in the circulation of elites, as a new
president and their administration take office every four years, potentially bringing about policy
changes and shifts in power dynamics.
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2. Economic inequalities: The theory sheds light on the persistence of economic inequalities and
the concentration of wealth among a small elite. Despite efforts to address income disparities,
certain individuals or groups continue to accumulate significant wealth, reinforcing the notion
of elite dominance.
Example: The global wealth distribution showcases the concentration of wealth among a small
percentage of the population, with billionaires and ultra-high-net-worth individuals holding a
substantial portion of the world's wealth.
3. Social mobility and meritocracy: Pareto's theory prompts discussions on social mobility and the
role of meritocracy in the circulation of elites. It raises questions about whether societies provide
equal opportunities for individuals to rise through the ranks based on their abilities and merits.
Example: Debates around college admissions and employment practices often revolve around the
extent to which meritocracy is achieved, as some argue that socio-economic factors and privilege
still play a significant role in determining access to elite institutions or professions.
4. Elites in various sectors: The theory applies to various sectors beyond politics, including
business, academia, media, and technology. It helps analyze the concentration of power,
decision-making, and influence within these sectors, as well as the potential for new elites to
emerge.
Example: In the tech industry, there are dominant players and influential figures who shape trends
and innovations. The rise of new entrepreneurs and startups challenging established tech giants
represents a form of elite circulation within the sector.
5. Critique of democratic systems: Pareto's theory provides a critique of democratic systems,
questioning the notion of equal opportunities and emphasizing the potential for a ruling elite to
persist even within democratic structures.
Example: Critics argue that campaign finance and lobbying in democratic countries can give
disproportionate influence to wealthy individuals and corporations, perpetuating elite dominance
in the political decision-making process.
While the theory of the Circulation of Elites has its limitations, its relevance lies in offering a
framework to understand power dynamics, social mobility, and the concentration of resources
within society. It encourages critical examination of systems and structures to address inequalities
and ensure broader access to opportunities.
473
(c) Critically compare the views of E.B. Tylor and Max Muller on Religion.
(10 Marks)
E.B. Tylor and Max Muller: A Comparison of Views on Religion
E.B. Tylor and Max Muller were two influential scholars in the field of religious studies during the
19th century
E.B. Tylor, an English anthropologist, was renowned for his theories on animism as the root of
religion. He believed that religion stemmed from primitive humans assigning life and purpose to
inanimate objects and natural forces, leading to beliefs in spirits and the supernatural. Tylor argued
that these basic beliefs evolved into complex religious systems over time.
 Tylor’s approach to the study of religion was primarily based on the comparative method,
which involved comparing different religious beliefs and practices across cultures to identify
common elements.
 He believed that by studying the similarities and differences between religions, scholars
could trace the development of religious ideas and institutions.
 Tylor’s work was influential in establishing the field of anthropology as a scientific discipline,
and his theories on the evolution of religion were widely accepted at the time.
Max Muller, on the other hand, was a orientalist who focused on the study of ancient texts,
particularly those from India. Muller’s approach to the study of religion was primarily based on the
analysis of sacred texts and the historical development of religious ideas.
 He believed that religion was a universal human phenomenon, and that its origins could be
traced back to a common source, which he called the “Ur-religion.”
 Muller’s main contribution to the study of religion was his emphasis on the importance of
language and mythology.
 He argued that myths were not just primitive stories, but rather expressions of deep religious
truths that could only be understood through the study of language and symbolism.
 Muller believed that by analyzing the linguistic and mythological elements of different
religions, scholars could uncover the underlying religious ideas that were common to all
human cultures.
There are several key differences between the views of E.B. Tylor and Max Muller on religion:
The origin of religion: Tylor believed that religion originated from human beings’ attempts to
explain natural phenomena, while Muller believed that religion had a common source which was
expressed through language and mythology.
The nature of religion: Tylor saw religion as a belief system that evolved over time, while Muller
saw it as a universal human phenomenon.
The method of studying religion: Tylor used the comparative method to study religion, comparing
different religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Muller, on the other hand, focused on the
analysis of sacred texts and the historical development of religious ideas.
The role of mythology: Tylor saw myths as primitive attempts to explain natural phenomena, while
Muller believed that myths were expressions of deep religious truths that could only be understood
through the study of language and symbolism.
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Conclusion
E.B. Tylor and Max Muller had significantly different views on religion, with Tylor focusing on the
evolutionary development of religious beliefs and practices, and Muller emphasizing the
importance of language and mythology in understanding religion. While both scholars made
important contributions to the study of religion, their approaches and theories have been subject to
criticism and revision by later scholars in the field.
475
(d) What is cult? Explain the growth of cults in the contemporary world. (10
Marks)
A cult can be defined as a small, often religious or spiritual group with distinct beliefs, practices,
and a charismatic leader who exercises significant control over its members. The growth of cults in
the contemporary world can be attributed to several factors.
Growth Of Cults: Reasons

1. Search for meaning and belonging: Cults often appeal to individuals who are searching for
meaning, purpose, and a sense of belonging. In an increasingly fragmented and
individualistic society, cults provide a tightly-knit community where members feel accepted
and valued.
Example: The Rajneesh movement, popularly known as the Osho movement, attracted followers
seeking spiritual enlightenment and a sense of belonging in the 1970s and 1980s.
2. Charismatic leadership: Cults are often led by charismatic figures who possess strong
persuasive abilities and attract followers through their magnetic personalities. These leaders
can inspire devotion and create a sense of dependency among their followers.
Example: The Heaven's Gate cult, led by Marshall Applewhite, gained prominence in the 1990s.
Applewhite's charismatic leadership and promise of salvation through UFOs attracted followers
who ultimately participated in a mass suicide event.
3. Psychological vulnerabilities: Cults exploit psychological vulnerabilities of individuals,
such as a desire for guidance, validation, or escape from personal problems. They offer
solutions or a sense of control over one's life, promising personal transformation or a higher
purpose.
Example: The NXIVM cult, led by Keith Raniere, targeted individuals seeking personal
development and empowerment. Through coercive tactics, Raniere manipulated followers into a
system of control and exploitation.
4. Information age and technology: The advent of the internet and social media platforms has
facilitated the rapid spread and growth of cults. Online platforms provide cults with avenues
to recruit, disseminate information, and maintain control over followers.
Example: The QAnon conspiracy theory gained momentum through online platforms, attracting
individuals seeking a secret narrative that claimed to expose corruption and conspiracy among
political elites.
5. Breakdown of traditional institutions: The decline in trust and credibility of traditional
religious, political, and social institutions has created a void that cults can exploit. In the
absence of established authorities, cult leaders position themselves as alternative sources of
guidance and truth.
Example: The Church of Scientology, founded by L. Ron Hubbard, gained followers who were
disillusioned with traditional religious institutions and sought alternative spiritual practices.
6. Vulnerability in times of crisis: Cults often thrive in times of societal upheaval, uncertainty,
or vulnerability. They offer a sense of stability, certainty, and a clear worldview in the midst
of chaos or rapid social change.
Example: The People's Temple, led by Jim Jones, gained followers during a period of social and
political unrest in the 1970s. Jones exploited the fear and disillusionment of his followers, ultimately
leading to the tragic Jonestown mass suicide.
476
(e) Do you think Talcott Parsons gave an adequate theory of social change?
Justify your answer. (10 Marks)
Parsons, a prominent sociologist, developed the concept of "structural functionalism" and
emphasized the idea of social equilibrium and stability. While his theory offers insights into the
dynamics of social systems, it has also been subject to criticism. Here are points to consider when
evaluating the adequacy of Parsons' theory of social change:
1. Emphasis on stability: One critique of Parsons' theory is its heavy emphasis on social stability
and equilibrium. Parsons argued that social systems tend to maintain a state of balance and
harmony, with social change occurring in response to external pressures while preserving
the overall structure. This approach downplays the potential for conflict, power struggles,
and disruptive social change.
2. Limited consideration of conflict and power dynamics: Parsons' theory does not adequately
address the role of conflict and power in driving social change. It overlooks the tensions and
contradictions within society that can lead to transformative processes. Critics argue that
social change often emerges from struggles over resources, inequalities, and competing
interests, which are not sufficiently accounted for in Parsons' framework.
3. Neglect of agency and individual action: Parsons' theory focuses primarily on social
structures and systems, neglecting the role of agency and individual actions in driving social
change. It downplays the capacity of individuals and social movements to challenge existing
structures, reshape norms, and bring about transformative changes.
4. Cultural determinism: Another criticism is that Parsons' theory tends to prioritize cultural
factors in explaining social change, often neglecting economic, political, and technological
influences. This cultural determinism limits the scope of analysis and overlooks the complex
interplay of various factors that shape social change.
5. Historical specificity: Parsons' theory is criticized for its limited historical specificity. It fails
to account for the diverse historical contexts and the unique dynamics of different societies,
which can have a significant impact on the processes and patterns of social change.
6. Lack of empirical evidence: Some argue that Parsons' theory lacks strong empirical evidence
and relies heavily on abstract conceptualizations. The lack of empirical grounding raises
questions about the applicability and validity of his theory in explaining actual social change
processes.
In summary, while Talcott Parsons' theory of social change offers insights into the functional aspects
of social systems, it has been critiqued for its limited consideration of conflict, power dynamics,
agency, historical specificity, and empirical evidence. Scholars have developed alternative theories
and approaches that address these limitations and provide a more comprehensive understanding
of social change.
477
Question 6.
(a) Elucidate the main problems and challenges faced by the migrant
labourers in the recent 'Lockdown period'. (20 Marks)
As per census 2011, the total number of internal migrants in India is 36 crore or 37% of the country's
population.The Economic Survey pegged the size of the migrant workforce at roughly 20 per cent
or over 10 crore in 2016.
During the recent lockdown period in India, migrant laborers faced several problems and
challenges. Here are some of the main issues they encountered:
1. Lack of livelihood opportunities: With the sudden imposition of lockdown measures, many
industries and businesses shut down or scaled back their operations. This resulted in a severe
shortage of job opportunities for migrant laborers. They faced financial difficulties and
struggled to earn a living.
Example: Construction workers, daily wage laborers, and street vendors were among those severely
affected as their work came to a halt during the lockdown. They were left without any income to
sustain themselves and their families.
2. Mass exodus : With no work and no money, and lockdown restrictions putting a stop to
public transport, thousands of migrant workers were seen walking or bicycling hundreds of
kilometres (or even more than a thousand kilometres) to go back to their native villages, some
with their families.
Labour and Employment Minister Santosh Kumar Gangwar stated in Parliament that information
collected from state governments indicated an estimated 10 million migrants had attempted to
return home as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and consequent lockdown.
3. Lack of food and shelter: The sudden loss of income and inability to travel back home left
many migrant laborers struggling to meet their basic needs of food and shelter. They faced
the risk of hunger and homelessness.
A survey published by ‘The Hindu’ states that 96% migrant workers did not get rations from the
government, and 90% of them did not receive wages during the lockdown
4. Exploitation and discrimination: Some migrant laborers faced exploitation and
discrimination during the lockdown. They were often subjected to unfair treatment,
including non-payment of wages and being forced to work in poor conditions.
Example: There were cases reported where employers took advantage of the lockdown situation
and refused to pay the pending wages of migrant workers. In some instances, they were made to
work for extended hours without adequate protection or compensation.
5. Mental health challenges: The lockdown and the uncertainties surrounding it took a toll on
the mental health of migrant laborers. They experienced anxiety, stress, and depression due
to the disruption of their lives and the inability to provide for their families.
From 32,563 in 2019, the number of deaths by suicides by daily wage earners increased to 37,666 in
2020, the year of COVID-19 and the national lockdown. The rise in number continued to reach 42,004
in 2021.
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6. Inadequate government support: While the government implemented several measures to
assist migrant laborers during the lockdown, there were gaps in the delivery and accessibility
of these support systems. Many workers did not receive timely assistance or were unaware
of the available resources.
Government Response
 Shramik Trains were started and the Ministry of Railways reported that more than 6 million
migrants travelled by trains to their native place.
 Garib Kalyan Rojgar Abhiyaan initiative to tackle the impact of COVID-19 on migrant
workers in India.
 To help provide jobs and wages to workers, the average daily wages under the MGNREGA
were increased to ₹202 (US$2.50) from the earlier ₹182 (US$2.30), as of 1 April. ₹1,000 crore
from the PM CARES Fund was allocated for the support of migrant workers.
479
(b) Explain how political parties and pressure groups are dialectically
related to each other in terms of achieving their goals. (20 Marks)
Political parties and pressure groups are dialectically related to each other as they often interact and
influence one another in their pursuit of achieving their goals. Here are some key points that explain
their relationship:
1. Representation and Advocacy: Political parties aim to represent the interests and aspirations
of specific groups or ideologies within society. Pressure groups, on the other hand, advocate
for specific causes or issues. While political parties may align with or incorporate the goals
of pressure groups into their agenda, pressure groups provide focused advocacy and
expertise on particular issues.
Example: In India, the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) emerged as a political party representing the
interests of the common people. The party incorporated the demands and agenda of various
pressure groups working on issues such as corruption, governance, and public welfare.
2. Influence on Policy and Legislation: Both political parties and pressure groups seek to
influence policy and legislation. Political parties, through their representation in legislatures,
have the power to introduce bills and shape policies. Pressure groups exert influence by
mobilizing public opinion, lobbying, and engaging in direct actions like protests and
demonstrations.
Example: The LGBTQ+ rights movement in many countries has been supported by both political
parties and pressure groups. While political parties have worked towards legal reforms and
LGBTQ+ inclusive policies, pressure groups like human rights organizations and LGBTQ+
advocacy groups have played a crucial role in raising awareness, organizing Pride events, and
advocating for equal rights.
3. Collaboration and Coalition Building: Political parties and pressure groups often
collaborate and form coalitions to advance their common goals. By joining forces, they can
amplify their voices and increase their influence in the political arena.
Example: Environmental pressure groups often collaborate with political parties to address climate
change and advocate for sustainable policies. Greenpeace, for instance, collaborates with political
parties that prioritize environmental conservation and renewable energy in their agendas.
4. Accountability and Critique: Pressure groups play a crucial role in holding political parties
accountable for their actions and decisions. They provide critical feedback, monitor policy
implementation, and highlight issues that need attention.
Example: Human rights organizations and civil liberties pressure groups play a significant role in
holding political parties accountable for upholding fundamental rights and ensuring social justice.
They provide constructive criticism and draw attention to instances of human rights violations or
policy shortcomings.
5. Shaping Public Opinion: Political parties and pressure groups influence public opinion
through their messaging, campaigns, and advocacy efforts. They strive to shape public
discourse and generate support for their respective goals and ideologies.
Example: Political parties utilize media campaigns, public rallies, and social media platforms to
shape public opinion and gain support during elections. Pressure groups, such as think tanks and
advocacy organizations, engage in public awareness campaigns to educate and mobilize public
support on specific issues like healthcare, education, or poverty alleviation.
While political parties and pressure groups have distinct roles and strategies, their dialectical
relationship allows them to work together, influence policies, and address societal issues. The
synergy between these actors contributes to a dynamic democratic process and the representation
of diverse interests and concerns within a society.
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(c) Give your comments on the growth of religious revivalism in the present-
day context. (10 Marks)
Religious revivalism are mass movements which are based upon intense religious excitement.
Periodic religious revivals, which seek to restore commitment and attachment to the group, are a
regular sociological feature of religious traditions.
In the present-day context, there has been a noticeable growth of religious revivalism in various
parts of the world. Here are some key points that highlight this trend along with examples:
1. Increased Religious Identity: Many individuals and communities are embracing and
asserting their religious identities more prominently in public and private spheres. This
resurgence of religious identity is often fueled by a desire for cultural preservation, a
response to globalization, or a search for meaning and belonging.
Example: The rise of Hindu nationalism in India has seen an increase in religious revivalism among
Hindu communities. Fringe right wing parties promote the idea of a Hindu nation, emphasizing
the importance of Hindu culture and traditions.
2. Political Instrumentalization: Religious revivalism is often used as a tool for political
mobilization and consolidation of power. Political parties or leaders exploit religious
sentiments and symbols to gain support and secure their electoral base.
Example: The Justice and Development Party (AKP) in Turkey, under the leadership of Recep
Tayyip Erdogan, has embraced a form of Islamic revivalism. The party has utilized religious
rhetoric, policies, and symbolism to consolidate its support among conservative and religiously
inclined sections of Turkish society.
3. Conflict and Security Concerns: Religious revivalism can also be driven by conflict and
security concerns. Societies grappling with political instability, social unrest, or regional
conflicts may witness a resurgence of religious identity as people seek solace, protection, or
a sense of collective security.
Example: The growth of religious extremism and radicalization, particularly in the context of
jihadist groups like ISIS, has led to a revival of Islamic identity among marginalized and disaffected
populations in several countries, including Iraq, Syria, and Nigeria.
4. Social and Cultural Shifts: Religious revivalism can be a response to social and cultural
changes that some perceive as threatening traditional values and norms. It offers a sense of
continuity and stability in times of rapid societal transformation.
Example: In many Western countries, there has been a resurgence of conservative religious
movements, such as Christian fundamentalism or right-wing nationalist movements advocating for
the preservation of traditional Christian values. These movements often oppose progressive social
changes like LGBTQ+ rights, abortion, or secularism.
5. Impact of Technology and Media: The proliferation of digital platforms and social media
has facilitated the growth of religious revivalism by providing a space for like-minded
individuals to connect, disseminate information, and mobilize support.
Example: Online platforms have played a significant role in the growth of Hindu nationalist
sentiment in India. Social media networks, such as WhatsApp and Facebook, have been used to
spread religious propaganda, disseminate misinformation, and mobilize support for religious
causes.
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6. Cultural and Religious Preservation: In some cases, religious revivalism is driven by a desire
to preserve cultural heritage and traditions that are perceived to be under threat due to
globalization, modernization, or perceived cultural hegemony.
Example: Indigenous communities in various parts of the world, such as Native Americans in the
United States or Maori in New Zealand, have witnessed a revival of their traditional religious
practices as a means to reconnect with their cultural roots and assert their identity.
It is important to note that the growth of religious revivalism is a complex phenomenon influenced
by a variety of factors. While it can foster a sense of community and provide comfort to adherents,
it can also lead to polarization, conflicts, and challenges to secular values and pluralistic societies.
482
Question 7.
(a) Explain how the pattern of patriarchy is being altered in a family and at
the workplace in the present context. (20 Marks)
Patriarchy is a social system or structure in which men hold primary power and authority, both in
the family and in broader societal contexts. It is characterized by the dominance of male figures in
positions of leadership, decision-making, and control over resources.
The pattern of patriarchy is being altered in the present context both in families and at the
workplace. Here are some points explaining how this change is occurring:
1. Shift in Gender Roles: Traditional gender roles, where men were expected to be the primary
breadwinners and women were primarily responsible for household chores and child-
rearing, are being challenged. Many families now embrace more egalitarian roles, with both
partners sharing responsibilities. For example, men are taking on more household chores,
such as cooking, cleaning, and childcare, while women are pursuing careers and becoming
financially independent.
2. Increased Participation of Women in the Workforce: More women are entering and excelling
in the workforce across various industries and professions. This shift is reducing the
dominance of men in the workplace and challenging the notion that certain jobs are
exclusively meant for men. Women are now holding positions of power and leadership, and
their contributions are being recognized. For instance, women are becoming CEOs,
politicians, scientists, and engineers, breaking the glass ceiling that once limited their
opportunities.
3. Equal Opportunity Policies: Many countries have implemented laws and policies that
promote gender equality in the workplace. These policies aim to eliminate discrimination
and ensure equal opportunities for both men and women. For example, companies are
encouraged to have diverse hiring practices, offer equal pay for equal work, and provide
maternity and paternity leave. Such policies help create a more inclusive work environment
and challenge traditional patriarchal norms.
4. Changing Family Dynamics: Families are becoming more diverse and inclusive. Single-
parent households, same-sex parents, and blended families are increasingly recognized and
accepted. This diversification challenges the traditional patriarchal family structure, where
the father is seen as the head of the household. Instead, decision-making and responsibilities
are shared among family members based on their abilities and preferences.
5. Feminist Movements and Awareness: Feminist movements and advocacy have played a
crucial role in challenging patriarchy and promoting gender equality. These movements have
raised awareness about gender-based discrimination, violence, and inequalities. They have
also sparked conversations about toxic masculinity, consent, and gender stereotypes. By
challenging traditional gender norms, these movements are altering the pattern of patriarchy
in both family and workplace settings.
6. Paternity Leave and Flexible Work Arrangements: The availability of paternity leave and
flexible work arrangements is gradually increasing. This allows fathers to actively participate
in child-rearing and share the responsibilities traditionally associated with women. By
encouraging fathers to take leave and be involved in caregiving, these policies challenge the
notion that childcare is solely a woman's duty.
483
7. Education and Empowerment: Access to education and empowerment programs has
contributed significantly to altering the pattern of patriarchy. When women are educated and
empowered, they can challenge societal norms and achieve economic independence.
Education helps individuals question traditional gender roles and aspire to positions of
leadership and influence.
8. Changing Perceptions and Attitudes: Society's perceptions and attitudes towards gender
roles are evolving. There is growing recognition that gender is a spectrum, and individuals
should have the freedom to express their identities without judgment or discrimination. As
societal norms change, people become more accepting of diverse gender roles and challenge
the dominance of patriarchy in both family and workplace settings.
These points illustrate some of the ways in which the pattern of patriarchy is being altered in families
and workplaces. While progress is being made, there is still work to be done to achieve full gender
equality and dismantle patriarchal structures entirely.
484
(b) Critically examine the contribution of dependency theories in

understanding the present global scenario. (20 Marks)
Dependency theory, an approach to understanding economic underdevelopment that emphasizes
the putative constraints imposed by the global political and economic order. First proposed in the
late 1950s by the Argentine economist and statesman Raúl Prebisch, dependency theory gained
prominence in the 1960s and ’70s.
According to dependency theory, underdevelopment is mainly caused by the peripheral position of
affected countries in the world economy. Typically, underdeveloped countries offer cheap labour
and raw materials on the world market. These resources are sold to advanced economies, which
have the means to transform them into finished goods. Underdeveloped countries end up
purchasing the finished products at high prices, depleting the capital they might otherwise devote
to upgrading their own productive capacity.
Dependency theories have made significant contributions to understanding the present global
scenario. However, it is important to critically examine their contributions. Here are some key
points:
1. Analysis of Global Inequality: Dependency theories provide a valuable framework for
analyzing the unequal power dynamics and economic disparities between developed and
developing countries. They highlight how historical and ongoing relationships of
dependence, exploitation, and unequal exchange contribute to global inequality. These
theories emphasize the role of dominant countries (core nations) in perpetuating the
underdevelopment and dependency of peripheral countries.
2. Structural Analysis: Dependency theories offer a structural analysis of the global system,
focusing on the interconnectedness and interdependence of economies. They argue that the
global capitalist system is inherently unequal, with core countries benefiting from the
exploitation and extraction of resources from peripheral countries. This analysis sheds light
on the mechanisms that sustain global economic imbalances and reinforce asymmetrical
power relations.
3. Critique of Neoliberalism: Dependency theories provide a critique of neoliberal policies and
practices that have shaped the global economic order. They argue that neoliberalism
promotes free market principles that perpetuate dependency, as it tends to benefit the core
nations and multinational corporations while marginalizing and exploiting peripheral
countries. Dependency theorists highlight the negative impacts of neoliberal policies such as
privatization, deregulation, and trade liberalization on the development prospects of
peripheral countries.
4. Historical Perspective: Dependency theories offer a historical perspective on the origins and
perpetuation of global inequality. They trace the historical legacies of colonization,
imperialism, and unequal trade relations as fundamental factors in shaping the global order.
By understanding the historical context, dependency theories provide insights into how past
and ongoing processes have contributed to the current global scenario.
5. Emphasis on Structural Transformation: Dependency theories advocate for structural
transformation in peripheral countries as a means to break free from dependence on core
countries. They argue for the development of domestic industries, the diversification of
economies, and the reduction of reliance on primary commodity exports. This emphasis on
structural transformation aligns with the goal of promoting self-sufficiency and reducing
vulnerability to global economic fluctuations.
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6. Overemphasis on Economic Factors: One criticism of dependency theories is their
overemphasis on economic factors as the primary driver of global inequality. While economic
factors play a significant role, other dimensions such as political, cultural, and social
dynamics also contribute to the present global scenario. Ignoring these factors may limit a
comprehensive understanding of complex global issues.
7. Lack of Agency and Heterogeneity: Dependency theories sometimes overlook the agency
and heterogeneity of peripheral countries. They tend to portray peripheral countries as
passive victims of external forces, overlooking the diverse strategies, resistance movements,
and regional dynamics that exist within these countries. Failing to recognize agency can
undermine the potential for autonomous development and alternative pathways.
8. Evolving Global Context: Dependency theories were developed in the mid-20th century, and
while they provide valuable insights, they need to be critically examined in light of the
evolving global context. The rise of emerging economies, shifting power dynamics, and
complex global networks challenge some of the assumptions and generalizations made by
dependency theories. It is important to adapt and update these theories to address
contemporary global challenges.
In conclusion, dependency theories have made important contributions to understanding the
present global scenario by highlighting global inequalities, critiquing neoliberalism, and
emphasizing structural transformation.
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(c) Explain the growing salience of ethnicity in the contemporary world with
illustrations. (10 Marks)
Defining Ethnicity
Ethnicity has been defined as:
 The social group a person belongs to, and either identifies with or is identified with by
others, as a result of a mix of cultural and other factors including language, diet, religion,
ancestry and physical features traditionally associated with race.
 The growing salience of ethnicity in the contemporary world refers to the increasing
significance and attention placed on ethnic identities and their impact on social, political,
and cultural dynamics.
 Here are some explanations and illustrations of why ethnicity has become more prominent
in today's world.
Globalization And Migration

 Globalization has led to increased movement of people across borders, resulting in diverse
ethnic groups coexisting in various regions.
 This heightened interconnectivity and cultural exchange have brought ethnic diversity to the
forefront, as individuals and communities assert their distinct identities and seek
recognition within multicultural societies.
Example:
 The cultural diversity in cities like London, New York, or Toronto, where a multitude of
ethnic communities coexist and contribute to the social fabric, showcases the growing
salience of ethnicity in these cosmopolitan settings.
Political Mobilization
 Ethnicity has become a significant factor in political mobilization and identity politics.
 In many regions, ethnic groups have sought political representation, autonomy, or
recognition of their cultural rights.
 Ethnic identity has become a basis for collective action and demands for social and political
change.
Example:
 The Kurdish population in the Middle East has been politically mobilized, demanding self-
governance and recognition of their ethnic identity across Turkey, Iraq, Iran, and Syria.
 The Kurdish struggle for autonomy highlights how ethnicity plays a crucial role in shaping
political landscapes.
Conflict And Violence

Ethnicity often intersects with political, economic, or territorial disputes, leading to conflicts and
violence.
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In regions with ethnic diversity and historical grievances, ethnic identity can be a source of tension,
competition, and exclusionary policies, resulting in intergroup conflicts and violence.
Example:
 The ongoing conflicts in Myanmar between the ethnic Rohingya Muslim minority and the
predominantly Buddhist government have led to widespread violence and displacement.
 The persecution of the Rohingya community demonstrates the salience of ethnicity as a
trigger for conflict and human rights abuses.
Identity And Cultural Revival

In response to globalization and homogenizing forces, ethnic identity has gained importance as a
means of preserving cultural heritage and asserting uniqueness.
Ethnic groups have sought to revive traditional practices, languages, and customs, emphasizing
their distinct cultural identities.
Example:
 The Maori people in New Zealand have been at the forefront of cultural revitalization
efforts, reclaiming their language, customs, and land rights.
 The Maori cultural renaissance exemplifies how ethnicity is becoming more salient as
communities seek to preserve and celebrate their distinct heritage.
Social Media And Online Communities

The advent of social media has facilitated the formation of virtual communities and networks
based on shared ethnic identities.
Online platforms provide spaces for individuals to express, connect, and mobilize around their
ethnic identities, amplifying the salience of ethnicity in the digital realm.
Example:
 Hashtags like #BlackLivesMatter or #MeToo have gained global attention, highlighting the
salience of ethnicity and other identities in addressing social issues.
 These online movements have sparked conversations and activism centered around ethnic
experiences and challenges.
 It is important to recognize that while the growing salience of ethnicity brings attention to
diverse cultures and identities, it can also lead to tensions, conflicts, and exclusion.
 Balancing the celebration of diversity with the promotion of inclusivity and equality
remains an ongoing challenge in the contemporary world.
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Question 8.
(a) Discuss the changing nature of kinship relations in the contemporary
world. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define kinship.
 Discuss key factors contributing to changes in kinship relations.
 Highlight challenges and contradictions arising from changes in kinship relations.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Kinship is a fundamental social institution that encompasses the complex web of relationships based
on blood ties, marriage, and adoption within a given society. It serves as a foundational structure
for organizing familial bonds, delineating rights and responsibilities, and influencing social roles.
Factors contributing to changes in kinship relations:
1. Economic Transformations: Karl Marx's analysis of capitalism underscores how economic
shifts influence kinship structures. In contemporary times, the commodification of labor and
changing job markets can alter family roles and relationships. Example: The gig economy
and flexible work arrangements impact traditional family structures as individuals adapt to
non-traditional employment.
2. Individualization and Late Modernity: Anthony Giddens' theory of late modernity
emphasizes individual agency and the restructuring of personal relationships. This can lead
to more personalized and diverse kinship arrangements. Example: The rise of
unconventional family structures, such as chosen families and living apart together (LAT)
relationships, reflects the individualization of kinship.
3. Technological Advancements: Sherry Turkle explores the impact of technology on social
interactions. Digital communication and social media redefine how families stay connected,
influencing the nature of kinship ties. Example: Virtual communication tools facilitate long-
distance relationships and reshape family dynamics.
4. Changing Gender Roles: Judith Butler's work on gender performativity highlights the
fluidity of gender roles. Evolving gender norms can lead to shifts in family structures and
kinship relations. Example: Increasing gender equality may redefine traditional roles within
families, impacting kinship expectations.
5. Globalization: Arjun Appadurai's concept of "scapes" explores global flows of people, ideas,
and technologies. Globalization introduces new cultural influences, affecting familial norms
and kinship practices. Example: Cross-cultural marriages and transnational families are on
the rise, illustrating the impact of globalization on kinship structures.
6. Legal Changes and Recognition: Ann Ferguson’s feminist perspective addresses legal
structures and their impact on gender relations. Legal recognition of diverse family forms
contributes to the redefinition of kinship. Example: Legalization of same-sex marriage
reflects changing societal attitudes and legal frameworks, influencing kinship acceptance and
practices.
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Challenges:
1. Generational Conflicts: Karl Mannheim's theory of generational conflict explores how
changes in societal values over time can lead to tensions between different age groups within
families, impacting kinship relations. For instance, traditional values held by older
generations may clash with the evolving perspectives of younger generations.
2. Individualism vs. Collective Identity: Erving Goffman's dramaturgical approach highlights
the presentation of self in society. Changes in kinship relations may give rise to tensions
between individual autonomy and collective identity, as family members navigate their roles
in an increasingly individualistic society.
3. Economic Disparities and Inequalities: Pierre Bourdieu's concept of social capital
emphasizes how economic factors influence social structures. Changes in kinship relations
may exacerbate economic disparities, creating challenges related to access to resources,
education, and opportunities within families.
4. Cultural Clashes and Hybrid Identities: Stuart Hall's cultural studies perspective examines
the dynamics of cultural identity. Changes in kinship relations can lead to clashes or
hybridization of cultural identities within families, especially in multicultural or
transnational settings.
5. Fragmentation of Social Support: Emile Durkheim's work on social integration and
solidarity is relevant. Changes in kinship structures may result in the fragmentation of social
support networks, impacting individuals' sense of belonging and well-being.
6. Legal and Ethical Dilemmas: Jurgen Habermas's discourse ethics can be applied to analyze
legal and ethical dilemmas arising from changes in kinship relations. For example, issues
related to surrogacy, adoption, and non-traditional family structures may pose challenges
that require ethical considerations and legal frameworks.
In conclusion, the changing nature of kinship relations in the contemporary world reflects a
dynamic interplay of social, economic, and cultural forces. Traditional structures are evolving,
influenced by factors such as globalization, individualism, and technological advancements. This
transformation brings about both opportunities and challenges, as families navigate new forms of
relationships, roles, and identities.
Recognizing these shifts is crucial for developing policies that address emerging social needs and
fostering a deeper understanding of the intricate tapestry of familial dynamics.
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(b) Describe the role of Science and Technology in enabling us to face the
challenges triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Briefly introduce the significance of science and technology in contemporary society.
 Discuss how science and technological innovations played a pivotal role in understanding
and combating the pandemic.
 Explain how the role of Science and Technology in enabling us to face the challenges
triggered by the COVID-19 pandemic.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The significance of science and technology in contemporary society is profound, shaping the very
fabric of our existence. As pillars of progress, they propel societies towards innovation, efficiency,
and improved quality of life. Scientific advancements have unraveled the mysteries of the universe,
from the microscopic realms of molecular biology to the vastness of outer space. Technology, on the
other hand, has catalyzed transformative changes in communication, healthcare, education, and
industry.
Science and technological innovations played a pivotal role in understanding and combating the
pandemic:
1. Medical Sociology Perspective: Talcott Parsons and Emile Durkheim offer insights into the
role of medical institutions in society. The response to the pandemic has highlighted the
interconnectedness of healthcare systems and social structures. Innovations in medical
technology, diagnostic tools, and vaccine development have been crucial in managing the
crisis.
2. Digital Divide and Social Inequality: The concept of the digital divide, as discussed by
sociologists like Manuel Castells, becomes evident in the pandemic. The reliance on
technology for remote work, education, and healthcare has exacerbated existing social
inequalities. Ensuring equitable access to technological resources is essential for a just
response to the crisis.
3. Risk Society and Globalization: Ulrich Beck's theory of the risk society is pertinent in
understanding how globalized risks, such as pandemics, transcend national boundaries. The
interconnected world has facilitated the rapid spread of the virus, necessitating global
collaboration in scientific research and the development of medical solutions.
4. Community and Social Solidarity: Robert Putnam emphasize the importance of social
capital and community engagement. The pandemic has witnessed communities coming
together, leveraging technology for mutual aid, support networks, and disseminating
information.
5. Impact on Work and Employment: The works of Karl Marx and Max Weber provide
frameworks for understanding the socio-economic impacts of the pandemic. Remote work,
automation, and shifts in labor dynamics have been accelerated, posing challenges to
traditional employment structures and raising questions about social justice and worker
rights.
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6. Medicalization of Society: The concept of medicalization, discussed by sociologists like Ivan
Illich, is relevant as the pandemic intensifies the medical discourse in society. The emphasis
on public health measures, vaccination campaigns, and the role of medical experts in shaping
policy reflects the medicalization of societal responses to the crisis.
The role of Science and Technology in enabling us to face the challenges triggered by the
COVID-19 pandemic:
1. Medicalization of Society: The COVID-19 pandemic has witnessed the medicalization of
societal responses, where healthcare systems and medical experts play a central role. Ivan
Illich's concept of medicalization is relevant as the pandemic intensifies the influence of
medical discourse in shaping public policies, vaccination campaigns, and public health
measures.
2. Digital Divide and Social Inequality: The reliance on technology during the pandemic, for
activities like remote work and online education, has exposed and exacerbated the digital
divide. Manuel Castells' work on the digital divide becomes pertinent in understanding how
unequal access to technology impacts various aspects of society, from education to
healthcare.
3. Risk Society and Globalization: Ulrich Beck's theory of the risk society is evident in the
global nature of the pandemic. The interconnected world has facilitated the rapid spread of
the virus, emphasizing the need for global collaboration in scientific research, vaccine
development, and coordinated responses to health crises.
4. Community and Social Solidarity: Robert Putnam's emphasis on social capital and
community engagement is reflected in how communities globally have come together during
the pandemic. Despite physical distancing, technology has been utilized for mutual aid,
support networks, and maintaining social cohesion during times of crisis.
5. Impact on Work and Employment: The pandemic has accelerated changes in work patterns,
such as remote work and automation, impacting employment structures. Insights from Karl
Marx's critique of capitalism and Max Weber's theories on bureaucracy and rationalization
help analyze the socio-economic implications of these shifts.
6. Medical Sociology: Talcott Parsons' contributions to medical sociology provide a
framework for understanding the role of medical institutions in society. Emile Durkheim's
work on social solidarity is relevant as the pandemic necessitates collective efforts in the face
of a shared health crisis.
In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the indispensable role of science and
technology in navigating contemporary challenges. From vaccine development to the utilization of
digital platforms for remote work and education, the symbiotic relationship between society and
technological advancements has been pivotal.
The pandemic serves as a poignant reminder of the dual nature of technological advancements—
both as a solution to immediate challenges and a catalyst for broader societal transformations,
necessitating nuanced sociological analyses for a comprehensive understanding of these complex
dynamics.
492
(c) Highlight the roles and functions of civil society in a democratic system.
(10 Marks)
Civil society plays a crucial role in a democratic system, serving as an important pillar alongside the
government and the private sector. Its primary function is to represent and advocate for the interests
of individuals and communities, contributing to the overall well-being and functioning of society.
Here are some key roles and functions of civil society in a democratic system:
1. Advocacy and Representation: Civil society organizations (CSOs) act as the voice of citizens,
representing their interests and concerns to the government and other stakeholders. They
play a vital role in advocating for policy changes, promoting social justice, and protecting
human rights.
2. Civic Education and Awareness: Civil society promotes civic education and raises awareness
among citizens about their rights, responsibilities, and democratic processes. They provide
information, organize public campaigns, and encourage active participation in decision-
making.
3. Monitoring and Accountability: CSOs play a crucial role in monitoring the actions of the
government, public officials, and other institutions to ensure transparency, accountability,
and good governance. They act as watchdogs, exposing corruption, abuses of power, and
violations of human rights.
4. Service Delivery and Social Welfare: Civil society often fills gaps in service delivery,
particularly in areas such as healthcare, education, poverty alleviation, and disaster response.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs)
provide essential services and support to marginalized groups and contribute to social
welfare.
5. Policy Research and Analysis: Civil society organizations conduct research, gather data, and
analyze policy issues to provide evidence-based recommendations and alternative
perspectives to the government and policymakers. They contribute to informed decision-
making and help shape public policies.
6. Community Mobilization and Empowerment: Civil society mobilizes communities and
fosters grassroots participation in decision-making processes. They empower marginalized
groups, promote social cohesion, and strengthen civic engagement, fostering active
citizenship.
7. Bridge between Government and Citizens: Civil society acts as a bridge between the
government and citizens, facilitating dialogue, and fostering constructive engagement. They
facilitate public consultations, mediate conflicts, and help build consensus among diverse
groups.
8. International Advocacy and Networking: Civil society organizations often engage in
international advocacy, representing the interests of their constituencies on global platforms.
They collaborate with international organizations, participate in global policy debates, and
contribute to shaping international agendas.
These roles and functions collectively contribute to the vitality of a democratic system by ensuring
the active participation of citizens, promoting social justice, protecting human rights, and holding
the government accountable to the people it serves.
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Mains 2022
Section - A
Question 1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each.
a) Delimit the scope of Sociology in relation to other social sciences. (10
Marks)
Sociology is a distinct social science that examines human society, social behavior, and social
interactions. While it shares some overlap with other social sciences like anthropology, economics,
history, and philosophy, each discipline has its own focus and methodologies. Here's a brief
delimitation of sociology in relation to these other social sciences:
DELIMITATION OF SCOPE
SOCIOLOGY POLITICAL SCIENCE

 Society and Social Interactions:  Political Systems and Institutions: Political science
Sociology focuses on the study of focuses on the study of political systems, including
human society, social behavior, and governments, political parties, and electoral
social interactions. It examines how systems. It examines the structures, functions, and
individuals and groups interact, dynamics of political institutions at local, national,
form relationships, and create social and international levels.
structures.
 Political Behavior and Processes: Political science
 Social Structures and Institutions: investigates political behavior, such as voting
Sociology analyzes the structures patterns, political participation, and decision-
and institutions that shape society, making processes. It analyzes how individuals and
such as family, education, economy, groups engage with politics, form opinions, and
religion, and politics. It investigates influence political outcomes.
how these structures influence social
 Governance and Public Policy: Political science
relationships, norms, and
examines governance structures, public
inequalities.
administration, and policy-making processes. It
 Social Change and Social explores the formulation, implementation, and
Problems: Sociology explores social evaluation of public policies, including their impact
change, including processes like on society and the economy.
urbanization, globalization, and
While both sociology and political science overlap in
social movements. It examines social
certain areas, such as the study of social structures and
problems, such as poverty,
institutions, they differ in their emphasis and approach.
inequality, racism, and gender
Sociology has a broader focus on society, social behavior,
issues, and seeks to understand their
and social change, while political science concentrates
causes and consequences.
specifically on political systems, governance, and
 Empirical Research and Theory: political behavior.
Sociology employs empirical
research methods to collect and ANTHROPOLOGY
analyze data, including surveys,  Human Societies and Cultures: Anthropology
interviews, observations, and focuses on the study of human societies and cultures,
statistical analysis. It develops and both past and present. It examines the diversity of
utilizes theories and concepts to cultural practices, beliefs, and customs across
explain social phenomena and different groups and societies.
patterns.
 Holistic Approach: Anthropology takes a holistic
494
approach, considering various aspects of human life,
including social, cultural, biological, and linguistic
dimensions. It aims to understand the
interconnectedness of these factors in shaping
human societies and behaviors.
 Cultural Anthropology and Ethnography:
Anthropology often emphasizes cultural
anthropology, which involves immersive fieldwork
and ethnographic research to understand specific
cultural groups and their practices. It focuses on
capturing the nuances and meanings embedded in
cultural practices.
 Physical Anthropology and Archaeology:
Anthropology also encompasses physical
anthropology, which examines human evolution,
biological diversity, and adaptations. Archaeology, a
subfield of anthropology, studies past human
societies through the analysis of artifacts, structures,
and other material remains.
 Comparative Approach: Anthropology compares
different societies and cultures to identify similarities
and differences, aiming to uncover patterns and
universal aspects of human behavior and cultural
practices.
While both sociology and anthropology examine social
phenomena, they differ in their specific focus and
methodologies. Sociology has a broader focus on
contemporary society, social structures, and social
change, whereas anthropology encompasses a wider
range of cultures, past and present, and employs a
holistic approach that includes cultural, biological, and
linguistic aspects.
HISTORY
 Past Events and Narratives: History focuses on the
study of past events, societies, and individuals. It
examines historical narratives, documents, and
artifacts to reconstruct and interpret the past.
 Chronological Perspective: History emphasizes a

chronological perspective, tracing the development
and evolution of societies and civilizations over time.
It explores historical periods, events, and their
interconnections.
 Primary Sources and Evidence: History relies on
primary sources, including documents, diaries,
letters, and archaeological findings, as well as
secondary sources, such as scholarly works, to gather
evidence and construct historical narratives.
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 Contextual Analysis and Interpretation: History
involves contextual analysis and interpretation,
considering the social, political, economic, and
cultural factors that shaped historical events and
their significance.
 Causation and Continuity/Change: History
investigates causation, identifying the factors that
led to specific historical outcomes. It also examines
continuity and change over time, assessing the
impact of historical events and processes on
societies.
While both sociology and history study aspects of
human society, they differ in their specific focus and
methodologies. Sociology has a broader focus on
contemporary society, social structures, and social
change, while history concentrates on the study of past
events, individuals, and societies, employing contextual
analysis and historical narratives.
PHILOSOPHY
 Fundamental Questions and Concepts: Philosophy
addresses fundamental questions about knowledge,
ethics, reality, and existence. It explores concepts
such as truth, justice, morality, and the nature of
reality through rational and logical inquiry.
 Critical Analysis and Argumentation: Philosophy
relies on critical analysis, logical reasoning, and
argumentation to examine and evaluate different
viewpoints and arguments. It seeks to clarify and
assess concepts, theories, and beliefs.
 Metaphysics and Epistemology: Philosophy delves
into metaphysics, investigating the nature of reality,
existence, and the mind-body relationship. It also
engages in epistemology, exploring theories of
knowledge, perception, and justification.
While both sociology and philosophy engage with
fundamental questions about human behavior and
society, they differ in their specific focus and
methodologies. Sociology has a more empirical and
data-driven approach, studying social phenomena
and employing sociological theories and research
methods. Philosophy, on the other hand, uses
rational inquiry, critical analysis, and
argumentation to delve into abstract concepts,
ethical frameworks, and fundamental questions
about knowledge and reality.
496
b) How does a researcher achieve objectivity in interpretative research? (10

Marks)
Interpretative research is a valuable approach within the social sciences that focuses on
understanding the subjective meanings and interpretations individuals assign to their
experiences and social interactions.
However, the subjective nature of interpretation raises questions about objectivity and the
reliability of findings.
Reflexivity
 Researchers should engage in reflexivity, which involves self-awareness and reflection on
their own biases, assumptions, and preconceptions.
 By recognizing their own subjectivity, researchers can strive for objectivity by critically
examining how their perspectives may influence the interpretation of data.
Example:
A researcher studying gender roles in a specific cultural context acknowledges their own gender
biases and reflects on how these biases might influence their interpretation of data. They actively
question their assumptions and strive to maintain objectivity by recognizing and addressing their
own subjective perspectives.
Multiple Perspectives
 Researchers should actively seek out multiple perspectives and voices, including those that
challenge their own views.
 By considering diverse viewpoints, researchers can mitigate individual biases and enhance
the objectivity of their interpretations.
Example:
 In a study exploring the experiences of immigrants, a researcher interviews individuals from
different ethnic backgrounds, socioeconomic statuses, and migration trajectories.
 By considering a range of perspectives, the researcher can gain a more comprehensive
understanding of the complexities and diversity within the immigrant population,
minimizing individual biases.
Peer Review and Collaboration
 Engaging in peer review and collaborating with other researchers can help ensure
objectivity.
 Peer review involves seeking feedback and critical evaluation from other experts in the
field, who can provide different perspectives and identify potential biases or blind spots.
Example:
 A researcher conducting an interpretative study on the portrayal of mental illness in the
media seeks feedback from colleagues in the field.
 Other researchers review the analysis and provide critical insights and alternative
interpretations, helping the researcher maintain objectivity and ensure a comprehensive
analysis of the data.
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Triangulation
 Triangulation involves using multiple sources of data, methods, or researchers to cross-
validate findings.
 By employing different approaches and perspectives, researchers can enhance the reliability
and objectivity of their interpretations.
Example:
 In a study on youth socialization within a community, a researcher combines data from
interviews, participant observations, and documents such as diaries or social media posts.
 By using multiple data sources, the researcher can triangulate the findings, increasing the
reliability and objectivity of the interpretations.
Transparency
 Researchers should be transparent about their research process, methods, and potential
biases.
 Clearly documenting and reporting the steps taken in the interpretative research allows
others to assess the objectivity and validity of the findings.
Example:
 A researcher investigating workplace dynamics discloses their own background and
experiences in the field.
 They openly discuss their research process, including the selection of participants, data
collection methods, and analytical approach.
 This transparency allows other researchers to assess the objectivity and validity of the
interpretations.
Methodological Rigor
 Researchers should adhere to rigorous methodological practices, such as detailed data
collection, thorough analysis, and documentation of the interpretative process.
 This helps maintain objectivity by ensuring that the research is systematic, replicable, and
based on clear criteria.
Example:
 A researcher conducting an interpretative study on the cultural meanings of a religious
festival meticulously documents their data collection process, including detailed field notes,
audio recordings, and transcriptions.
 They use a systematic approach in analyzing the data, following established coding and
thematic analysis techniques to maintain objectivity and rigor in the interpretation of the
findings.
Member Checking
 Member checking involves sharing findings with research participants to verify the
accuracy and validity of interpretations.
 By involving participants in the research process, researchers can reduce potential biases and
enhance the objectivity of their interpretations.
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Example
 After conducting interviews with participants about their experiences with online gaming,
a researcher shares summarized findings with the participants for verification.
 This member-checking process allows participants to confirm the accuracy of their
perspectives, reducing potential biases and increasing the objectivity of the interpretations.
Continuous Reflection
 Researchers should engage in continuous reflection throughout the research process,
questioning their own assumptions and interpretations
 Regularly revisiting and reassessing the data and findings can help researchers maintain
objectivity and avoid confirmation bias.
Conclusion
 In interpretative research, achieving complete objectivity may be challenging due to the
subjective nature of interpretation. However, researchers can strive for objectivity by
adopting these practices to minimize biases, incorporate multiple perspectives, and enhance
the reliability and validity of their interpretations.
499
c) The difference between information and data in social science is subtle.

Comment. (10 Marks)
In the realm of social science research, the distinction between information and data may appear
subtle, yet it holds significant importance.
Definitional Difference
 Data refers to raw, unprocessed facts, figures, or observations collected during research,
often in numerical or categorical form.
 Information, on the other hand, is the processed and organized data that has been
analyzed, interpreted, and contextualized to provide meaning and understanding.
Context And Relevance
 Data lacks context and relevance without proper interpretation and analysis.
 Information provides meaningful insights and knowledge by placing the data within a
specific context and making it relevant to the research question or objective.
Communication And Presentation
 Data alone may not effectively communicate research findings to a wider audience.
 Information is presented in a structured, accessible manner, using appropriate
visualizations, narratives, or summaries to convey the key findings and insights from the
data.
Decision-making And Actionability
 Data, in its raw form, may not directly inform decision-making or actionable steps.
 Information, through analysis and synthesis, helps guide decision-making processes by
providing relevant insights and evidence-based recommendations.
Subjectivity And Perspective
 Data is considered relatively more objective and unbiased, representing the observed or
collected information.
 Information on the other hand can be influenced by the researcher's interpretation,
perspective, and theoretical lens, introducing a degree of subjectivity into the analysis and
presentation.
Utility And Application
 Data serves as the foundation for generating information and knowledge in social science
research.
 Information, with its synthesized and contextualized nature, has practical utility and can
be applied to inform policies, interventions, or further research.
Conclusion
While the distinction between information and data may seem subtle, it is essential to recognize
that data alone does not provide insights or understanding.
It is through the processing, analysis, and interpretation of data that researchers transform it into
meaningful information, enabling a deeper comprehension of social phenomena and facilitating
evidence-based decision-making in the field of social science.
500
d) Durkheim argued that society is more than the sum of individual acts.
Discuss (10 Marks)
Introduction
To Durkheim society is a reality suigeneri, society comes into being by the association of individuals.
Hence society represents a specific reality which has its own characteristics. This unique reality of
society is separate from other realities studied by physical or biological sciences.
Body
Societal reality is apart from individuals and is over and above them. A scientific understanding
of any social phenomenon must emerge from the “collective or associational characteristics”
manifest in the social structure of a society. He believed that society is a distinct and independent
entity, with its own characteristics and functions that cannot be reduced solely to the actions of
individuals.
While working towards this end, Durkheim developed and made use of a variety of sociological
concepts.
Social facts and Collective representations is one of the leading concepts to illustrate that society is
more than sum of individuals.
Social facts
Durkheim emphasized the existence of social facts, which are external to individuals and exert a
powerful influence on their behavior. These facts include social norms, values, institutions, and
collective representations that shape the way individuals think and act. Social facts are not reducible
to individual experiences and exist beyond the scope of individual agency.
Example: Consider the social norm of wearing appropriate attire to formal events. Even though
individuals may have their own preferences or comfort levels, they conform to the societal
expectation by dressing in a particular way. The enforcement of this norm is not solely based on
individual actions but is rooted in the collective expectations of society.
Durkheim emphasized that social facts operate as external constraints on individuals, limiting their
behavior and influencing their actions. These constraints are not simply the result of individual
choices or preferences but are shaped by societal expectations and collective representations. Society
imposes certain boundaries and regulations that individuals must conform to.
Example: Legal systems and laws exemplify external constraints imposed by society. Even if an
individual may personally disagree with a particular law, they are still bound by its regulations and
consequences. The legal framework functions as an external social fact that governs behavior,
transcending individual acts.
Collective Consciousness
Durkheim argued that society possesses a collective consciousness, which is the shared beliefs,
values, and moral sentiments that are held by its members. This collective consciousness shapes the
social order and guides individual behavior. It represents the collective identity and binds
individuals together, creating a sense of solidarity.
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Example: Religion can serve as an illustration of collective consciousness. Religious beliefs and
practices are shared by a group of individuals, and they form the basis of moral and ethical
guidelines for the community. The collective consciousness of the religious group influences the
behavior and choices of its members, transcending individual acts.
Criticism
1. Max Weber: Durkheim's theory neglects the significance of individual actions and the
subjective meanings individuals attach to their behavior. Society is not a monolithic entity; it
is a complex web of individual actions and interactions.
2. Karl Marx: Durkheim's focus on society as an independent entity obscures the role of class
struggle and economic factors in shaping social structures. His theory fails to address the
material conditions and power dynamics that underpin social relations
3. Friedrich Nietzsche: Durkheim's emphasis on collective norms and values suppresses
individual creativity and the potential for self-realization. Society should not be seen as an
external constraint but as an arena for individual self-expression and the cultivation of
unique perspectives.
4. George Herbert Mead: "Durkheim's theory neglects the role of individual agency and social
interaction in the construction of social reality. Society is not a separate entity; it emerges
from the dynamic processes of symbolic interaction among individuals."
5. Pierre Bourdieu: Durkheim's theory overlooks the influence of social structures on
individual habitus and the reproduction of social inequalities. Social structures are not just
external constraints; they are deeply ingrained in individuals' dispositions and shape their
behavior.
6. Michel Foucault: Durkheim's focus on society as a monolithic entity obscures the power
relations and disciplinary mechanisms that operate at the micro level. Individual actions are
not just influenced by social structures; they are also shaped by the dynamics of power and
knowledge.
7. Erving Goffman: Durkheim's theory fails to capture the nuances and complexities of
everyday social interactions. The construction of social reality is a result of individuals'
performances and impression management in face-to-face encounters, which cannot be
reduced to collective consciousness.
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e) How do sociologists construct gender in their analysis on social

inequality? (10 Marks)
Gender refers to the social and cultural roles, expectations, and behaviors associated with being
male or female in a given society.
Unlike sex, which refers to biological differences,
gender is a socially constructed concept that varies across cultures and historical periods.
It encompasses a range of attributes, including norms, values, roles, identities, and expressions
that are assigned to individuals based on their perceived sex.
Gender manifests at multiple levels within society and individuals' lives.
Here are the main levels at which gender is observed by Sociologists and analysed to better
understand Social Inequality:
1. Individual Level
 Gender manifests at the individual level through personal experiences, identities, and
expressions.
 It includes how individuals perceive and understand their own gender identity, whether
as male, female, or non-binary.
 For instance, someone who identifies as a woman may choose to wear dresses, style their
hair in a traditionally feminine way, and engage in behaviors typically associated with
femininity.
 Patricia Hill Collins in her intersectionality theory, argues that various social categories such
as race, class, and gender intersect and affect the experiences and opportunities of
individuals.
 This intersectionality provides a nuanced understanding of social inequality, as it moves beyond
singular categories to consider how combinations of identities impact a person's life experiences.
2. Interpersonal Level
 Gender is evident in interpersonal interactions and relationships.
 It influences how individuals communicate, form social connections, and establish
expectations within their personal interactions.
 Gender norms and expectations shape social interactions between individuals, affecting
roles, expectations, and behaviors within personal relationships, friendships, and romantic
partnerships.
 Judith Butler: In "Gender Trouble" (1990) Butler suggests that gender is a performative and
social construct, meaning it is an ongoing, repetitive performance rather than something
biologically inherent.
 It underscores how entrenched societal norms perpetuate gender inequality, emphasizing the
need for continual resistance and subversion of these norms.
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3. Cultural And Societal Level
 Gender is deeply rooted in cultural and societal norms, values, and beliefs. It encompasses
the expectations, roles, and behaviors assigned to individuals based on their perceived
gender.
 Cultural and societal factors influence gendered norms in areas such as education, work,
family, and politics. These norms shape the opportunities, constraints, and expectations
that individuals encounter within broader social contexts.
 For instance, it is common for girls to be steered towards humanities and arts, while boys
are encouraged to pursue science and technology fields.
 Raewyn Connell's concept of hegemonic masculinity describes a form of masculinity which is
culturally dominant in a given time and place.
 It is not static and changes over time, often reinforcing patterns of male dominance over
women.
 By challenging this concept, sociologists can illuminate how gender hierarchies contribute to
social inequality.
4. Institutional Level
 Gender is embedded within institutions such as education, healthcare, the legal system, and
the workplace.
 These institutions often reflect and perpetuate gendered norms, practices, and power
dynamics.
 For example, gender disparities can be observed in terms of access to education, career
opportunities, wages, and representation in leadership positions.
 Arlie Hochschild's concept of "emotion work" or "emotional labor" discusses the way society
expects individuals, particularly women, to manage their emotions according to the needs of
others.
 This concept has helped sociologists understand the often overlooked emotional dimension of
labor, contributing to a deeper understanding of gendered social inequality.
5. Structural Level
 Gender operates within broader social structures and systems, such as patriarchy,
capitalism, etc.
 These structures influence and perpetuate gender inequality by shaping power dynamics,
resource distribution, and societal hierarchies.
 Gender intersects with other social categories, such as race, class, and sexuality, further
shaping experiences of oppression or privilege.
 Marxist theorists argue that the gendered division of labor serves the interests of capitalist
exploitation.
 Cynthia Fuchs Epstein in her "Deceptive Distinctions" (1988), critiques the biological
determinism of gender roles.
 She argues that many gender differences are socially constructed and contribute to gender
inequality. Epstein's work reminds sociologists to critically examine gender roles and assumptions
in their analyses of social inequality.
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Other Important Sociological Works that help us construct Gender in their
analysis on Social Inequality
Erving Goffman: Although not a gender specialist, his work on the performance of self and
"dramaturgical approach" deeply influenced the understanding of gender as a performed identity.
Candace West and Don Zimmerman introduced the concept of "doing gender," which argues that
gender is not an innate characteristic but a performance that people do in their everyday
interactions. This viewpoint is related to the symbolic interactionist approach, which emphasizes
the meanings people derive from their social interactions.
Gender Socialization
 GH Mead helps study the process of gender socialization, which refers to how individuals
are socialized into gender roles and expectations from a young age.
 They examine how families, schools, media, and other social institutions transmit gender
norms and reinforce inequalities.
 For instance, research may explore how girls are socialized to conform to feminine norms
and prioritize caregiving roles, while boys are encouraged to be assertive and competitive.
Patriarchy And Power Relations
 Sylvia Walby analyzes the concept of patriarchy, which refers to a social system where men
hold power and dominance over women.
 Patriarchal structures and norms contribute to gender inequality, including disparities in
economic opportunities, political representation, and decision-making power.
Gendered Division of Labor
 Sociologists investigate how gender influences the division of labor in society, both within
the household and the workplace.
 They examine how gendered expectations and stereotypes shape occupational choices,
earning potential, and work-life balance.
 For example, studies may analyze the persistence of gender segregation in certain
professions, such as women being overrepresented in caregiving and service roles, while men
dominate in leadership positions, also known as pink-collarisation of jobs.
Concludingly
 These approaches and perspectives enable sociologists to critically analyze and understand
the complexities of gender and its implications for social inequality.
 By examining the social construction of gender, intersectionality, socialization processes,
power relations, division of labor, and feminist perspectives, sociologists shed light on the
multifaceted nature of gender inequality and contribute to efforts aimed at achieving
gender equity.
505
Question 2.
a) What aspects of Enlightenment do you think paved way for the
emergence of sociology? Elaborate. (20 Marks)
The Enlightenment was a period of remarkable intellectual development and change in
philosophical thought. The Enlightenment was a period when long-standing ideas and beliefs,
mostly related to social life, were overthrown and replaced.
The Enlightenment era, which spanned the 17th and 18th centuries, was a period marked by
intellectual and philosophical advancements. Several aspects of the Enlightenment paved the way
for the emergence of sociology as a distinct discipline. Here are key aspects that influenced the
development of sociology:
1. Empiricism and Reason: The Enlightenment emphasized the use of reason and empirical
observation as the foundations for knowledge and understanding. Philosophers like John
Locke and David Hume emphasized the importance of sensory experience and empirical
evidence in acquiring knowledge. This emphasis on empirical observation and rational
inquiry laid the groundwork for the scientific study of society, including the development of
sociological methods.
2. Social Contract Theory: Enlightenment thinkers, such as Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, proposed social contract theories to explain the origins and nature of
society. These theories posited that individuals voluntarily entered into social contracts to
establish social order and organize their lives. This focus on the social nature of humans and
the study of societal relationships provided a foundation for sociological inquiry into social
organization, structures, and interactions.
3. Critique of Traditional Authority: Enlightenment thinkers challenged traditional sources of
authority, such as the church and monarchy, and advocated for reason, individual rights, and
liberty. This critical stance towards established institutions opened up avenues for examining
social structures and power dynamics. Sociologists, like Karl Marx and Max Weber, would
later draw upon these critiques to analyze social inequality, power relations, and the impact
of institutions on society.
4. Universalism and Humanism: Enlightenment thought emphasized the universal rights and
dignity of all individuals, promoting ideals of equality and humanism. This focus on
universal principles and human rights provided a framework for understanding and
analyzing social phenomena from a broader perspective, transcending particularistic
perspectives.
5. Historical Progress and Social Change: Enlightenment thinkers embraced the idea of
progress, believing that societies could improve through the application of reason and
knowledge. This emphasis on progress and the belief in the possibility of social change laid
the foundation for sociological studies on social transformation, social movements, and
societal development.
6. Enlightenment Philosophers as Precursors: Many Enlightenment philosophers, such as
Montesquieu, Rousseau, and Voltaire, made significant contributions to social and political
thought. Their works addressed social issues, analyzed social structures, and proposed ideas
on governance and social organization. These early sociological insights and ideas influenced
subsequent sociologists and provided inspiration for the development of sociological
theories.
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While the Enlightenment era did not directly lead to the immediate emergence of sociology as a
distinct discipline, it laid the groundwork for the critical examination of society, the application of
reason to social phenomena, and the belief in social progress. These aspects fostered a fertile
intellectual climate that would later contribute to the formalization and development of sociology
as a separate field of study.
507
b) Explain the different types of non-probability sampling techniques.

Bring out the conditions of their usage with appropriate examples. (20
Marks)
Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique in which the selection of participants or subjects
for a research study does not rely on random selection. Unlike probability sampling, which ensures
that each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, non-
probability sampling methods do not guarantee representativeness and do not provide a basis for
making statistical inferences about the population.
1. Quota Sampling:
 Conditions of Usage: Quota sampling involves setting quotas for different subgroups based
on specific demographic characteristics. It is suitable when the researcher wants to ensure
proportional representation of various groups within the population.
 Sara Arber (1993) points out that it is quicker and cheaper than using probablity sampling.
 Example: A market research company conducting a survey on smartphone preferences might
set quotas to ensure an equal representation of age groups (e.g., 18-25, 26-35, 36-45) and
genders to reflect the population's diversity.
2. Multistage Sampling:
 Conditions of Usage: Multistage sampling involves selecting samples in stages, typically
when the population is large and geographically dispersed. It is useful when it is impractical
to sample the entire population.
 Example: A political pollster conducting an opinion poll on a national election might first
randomly select cities or regions, then randomly select households within those areas, and
finally interview one individual from each household to obtain a representative sample.
3. Snowball Sampling:
 Conditions of Usage: Snowball sampling is used when studying hard-to-reach or hidden
populations where there is no readily available sampling frame. It relies on referrals from
initial participants to recruit additional participants.
 This method was used by Laurie Taylor (1984) when he persuaded John McVicar , a former
criminal to build up introductions with London underground.
 Example: A researcher studying the experiences of undocumented immigrants might start
by interviewing a few individuals and ask them to refer others in their social network who
are also undocumented immigrants. The process continues, creating a snowball effect to
access a wider range of participants.
4. Volunteer Sampling:
 Conditions of Usage: Volunteer sampling occurs when individuals self-select to participate
in a study. It is suitable when the researcher wants to gather data from individuals who are
highly motivated or have a particular interest in the topic.
 Example: A support group conducting a survey on the experiences of cancer survivors might
recruit participants through self-help groups or online communities where individuals have
volunteered to share their experiences.
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5. Convenience Sampling:
 Conditions of Usage: Convenience sampling involves selecting participants based on their
easy accessibility or availability. It is often used when time and resources are limited.
 Example: A researcher conducting a study on customer satisfaction in a shopping mall might
approach shoppers in the mall's vicinity and invite them to participate in the study. The
researcher chooses participants based on convenience and proximity.
6. Purposive Sampling:
 Conditions of Usage: Purposive sampling involves deliberately selecting individuals who
meet specific criteria relevant to the research objectives. It is useful when the researcher wants
to gain in-depth insights from a particular group or context.
 Example: A researcher studying the experiences of individuals who have recovered from
substance abuse might purposefully select participants from rehabilitation centers or support
groups where they have access to individuals who can provide rich insights into the recovery
process.
These non-probability sampling techniques offer flexibility and practicality in research settings.
However, it's important to note that the results obtained from non-probability sampling may not be
generalizable to the entire population, and researchers should interpret the findings with caution.
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c) Discuss social mobility in open and closed system. (10 Marks)

Answer
Aspect Open System Closed System
Definition An open system allows for A closed system restricts social

significant social mobility, where mobility, making it difficult for
individuals can move up or down individuals to change their social
the social ladder based on their status due to limited opportunities
efforts and achievements. and barriers
Access to Open access to opportunities, Limited access to opportunities,

Opportunities resources, and education. often based on inherited social
position, family background, or
social connections.
Social Class Greater potential for upward and Limited upward mobility, as
Movement downward social mobility individuals are often constrained
by their social class of origin.
Downward mobility is also less
common.
Influence Merit-based achievements and Merit is often less influential

of qualifications play a significant compared to factors like family
Merit role in determining social mobility. background, inherited wealth,
and social connections.
Role of Less emphasis on inherited factors Greater emphasis on inherited

Inherited like family background, wealth, or factors, such as family
Factors social status background, social connections,
and inherited wealth
Impact on Open systems have the potential to Closed systems tend to perpetuate
Inequality reduce social inequality, as social inequality, as individuals'
individuals can move up or down social positions are largely
the social ladder based on their determined by their birth and
efforts and qualifications. inherited advantages or
disadvantages.
Examples Countries with relatively high Traditional caste systems like the
social mobility, such as Denmark, caste system in India, where
Canada, and Australia. social mobility is significantly
Individuals can move between restricted, and individuals' social
social classes based on their positions are determined by birth.
abilities and achievements.
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In real-world social systems can rarely be classified as perfectly closed or open.
According to Pitirim Sorokin, Western societies are open systems with relatively high social
mobility, while non-Western societies, especially pre-industrial ones, are more closed.
Degree Of Social Mobility:
 Social systems can have varying degrees of social mobility, which determine the openness
or closedness of the system.
 Some societies may have relatively high social mobility, allowing individuals to move up or
down the social ladder based on their abilities and efforts.
 However, even in these relatively open systems, certain barriers or limitations may exist,
such as discrimination or systemic inequalities.
Example:
 In the United States, individuals can experience social mobility and move between social
classes. However, studies have shown that social mobility is influenced by factors such as
race, education, and economic background, which can create barriers and limit upward
mobility for certain groups.
Influence Of Inherited Factors
Example:
 In many Nordic countries like Sweden, there is a greater emphasis on equal opportunities
and social welfare policies that aim to reduce the influence of inherited factors.
 While inherited advantages may still exist, efforts are made to provide access to education,
healthcare, and social support to individuals from all backgrounds.
Access To Opportunities
 Critics of the open system argue that while they promote meritocracy, they also perpetuate
inequality.
 The extent to which individuals have access to opportunities, resources, and education can
also determine the openness or closedness of a system. In more open systems, there is
generally greater access to opportunities for social mobility across different social strata.
 Pierre Bourdieu's concept of 'cultural capital' explains this; children from affluent
backgrounds have access to better education, networks, and other resources, enabling them
to maintain their parents' social status, making social mobility a challenge for those from
less affluent backgrounds.
Access To Technology
 Gerhard Lenski's ecological-evolutionary theory suggests that technological and
ecological changes are primary drivers for opening up societies and increasing social
mobility.
 In closed societies with limited technology, resources are scarce, and social mobility is
limited as a way to ensure survival.
Social Barriers And Discrimination
 The presence of social barriers and discrimination can limit the openness of a system.
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 Even in societies with relatively open systems, certain groups may face systemic barriers,
prejudice, or discrimination that restrict their social mobility.
Example:
 In many countries, gender-based discrimination can hinder the upward mobility of women,
even in systems that are otherwise relatively open. Women may face challenges in accessing
leadership positions or face wage gaps despite their qualifications and abilities.
Meritocracy Myth
 The idea of meritocracy, where hard work and talent lead to upward mobility, has been
criticized as a myth that conceals the structural inequalities present in society.
 Sociologists like Michael Young argue that open systems still allow for the concentration of
wealth and power, which can be passed down generations, thereby limiting true social
mobility.
 A revolutionary new argument is from Daniel Markovits, attacking the false promise of
meritocracy.
 He writes that meritocracy has become exactly what it was conceived to resist: a mechanism
for the concentration and dynastic transmission of wealth and privilege across generations.
Conclusion
 It is important to recognize that social systems exist on a spectrum, and the level of
openness or closedness can vary across different dimensions and in different contexts.
 Analyzing these nuances helps us understand the complexities and challenges individuals
face in navigating social mobility and opportunities within a given system.
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Question 3.
a) What are the shortfalls of positivist philosophy that gave rise to the non-
positivist methods of studying social reality? (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Highlight the positivism in early sociological research.
 Write shortfalls of positivist philosophy.
 Explain how shortfalls of positivist methods gave rise to non-positivist methods.
 Conclude.
Solution:
In the early stages of sociological research, positivism emerged as a predominant paradigm,
characterized by its commitment to empirical observation, scientific methodology, and the pursuit
of objective, quantifiable knowledge. It was pioneered by Auguste Comte, positivism emphasized
the application of natural sciences' principles to the study of society.
The positivist approach advocated for the collection of observable and measurable data through
methods such as surveys and statistical analysis, aiming to uncover universal laws governing
social phenomena.
Shortfalls of positivist philosophy:
1. Neglect of Subjective Reality: Positivism tends to overlook the subjective experiences,
meanings, and interpretations of individuals. Max Weber and his concept of Verstehen
emphasized the importance of understanding social phenomena from the perspective of
those involved.
2. Overemphasis on Quantification: Positivism places excessive reliance on quantitative data,
often neglecting the richness and depth of qualitative insights. Symbolic Interactionism, as
advocated by George Herbert Mead, highlights the significance of symbols and gestures in
understanding the intricate layers of social interaction.
3. Reductionism and Oversimplification: Positivism tends to reduce complex social
phenomena to simple cause-and-effect relationships, oversimplifying the intricate nature of
societal structures. Emile Durkheim's critique, especially regarding the reductionist
explanation of suicide rates, underscores the need for a more comprehensive approach.
4. Ignorance of Historical and Cultural Context: Positivism often overlooks the historical and
cultural context shaping social phenomena, leading to an incomplete understanding. Karl
Marx's historical materialism highlights the importance of historical context in
comprehending social change and conflicts.
5. Social Construction of Reality: Positivism tends to ignore the socially constructed nature of
reality and fails to account for the role of language and symbols in shaping perceptions.
Berger and Luckmann's "The Social Construction of Reality" underscores the need to
recognize how individuals collectively create and maintain their social world.
6. Inadequate Handling of Value-Laden Issues: Positivism struggles to address value-laden
issues as it aims for value-neutrality, often leading to an incomplete understanding of social
phenomena.
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The feminist perspective, exemplified by Simone de Beauvoir, critiques positivism for its
failure to adequately address gender biases and advocates for a more inclusive and value-
conscious approach.
Shortfalls of positivist methods gave rise to non-positivist methods:
1. Emphasis on Subjective Reality: Positivist methods neglect subjective experiences. The
recognition of the importance of subjective reality led to the development of non-positivist
methods. Max Weber's concept of Verstehen emphasized the need to understand social
phenomena from the perspective of individuals.
2. Qualitative Depth over Quantitative Breadth: Overemphasis on quantitative data at the
expense of qualitative insights. Non-positivist methods, such as phenomenology, prioritize
in-depth qualitative analysis for a richer understanding. Alfred Schutz's phenomenology
advocates for exploring the subjective meanings underlying social actions.
3. Holistic and Contextual Understanding: Positivism tends to oversimplify complex social
phenomena. Non-positivist methods, like symbolic interactionism, emphasize the
importance of considering the broader social context. Herbert Blumer's symbolic
interactionism highlights the significance of symbols and gestures in social interactions.
4. Integration of Historical and Cultural Context: Neglect of historical and cultural context.
Non-positivist methods, influenced by historical materialism, stress the importance of
considering historical and cultural factors. Karl Marx's historical materialism underscores
the role of historical context in shaping social structures and conflicts.
5. Recognition of Socially Constructed Reality: Ignoring the socially constructed nature of
reality. Non-positivist methods, like ethnomethodology, explore how individuals
collectively construct their social reality. Harold Garfinkel's ethnomethodology challenges
positivism by investigating the methods people use to make sense of their social world.
6. Incorporation of Values in Analysis: Positivism's struggle to address value-laden issues
due to its aim for value-neutrality. Non-positivist methods, such as feminist perspectives,
advocate for an inclusive and value-conscious approach. Simone de Beauvoir's feminist
perspective critiques positivism for overlooking gender biases and promotes a more
socially conscious analysis.
514
b) Critically examine how Durkheim and Merton explicate Anomie. (20

Marks)
Structure:
 Explain Durkheim's theory of Anomie.
 Explain Merton's strain theory.
 Highlight similarities and differences between Durkheim and Merton's perspectives on
Anomie.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Emile Durkheim's theory articulated in his seminal work "Suicide" centers on the breakdown of
social norms and values leading to a state of normlessness in society. Durkheim contends that
rapid social changes, such as industrialization and urbanization, disrupt traditional norms,
creating a condition of Anomie where individuals feel disconnected and adrift. This lack of moral
regulation heightens the risk of deviant behavior, including suicide.
Durkheim identified two types of Anomies: one resulting from excessive individualism and
another from insufficient integration into social structures. He emphasized the pivotal role of
social cohesion in preventing Anomie and maintaining societal equilibrium, providing a
foundational framework for understanding the relationship between social structure, norms, and
deviance.
Robert K. Merton's strain theory expands on Durkheim's concept of Anomie by addressing the
disjunction between culturally prescribed goals and the legitimate means available to achieve
them. Merton identifies five adaptive responses to societal pressures, namely conformity,
innovation, ritualism, retreatism, and rebellion.
In situations where individuals face structural impediments to achieving culturally endorsed
success, strain arises, leading to various forms of deviant behavior. Merton's theory emphasizes
the role of social structure in shaping deviance, asserting that institutionalized norms and values,
coupled with unequal access to legitimate opportunities, drive individuals toward unconventional
paths.
Durkheim and Merton's perspectives on Anomie.
1. Conceptualization of Anomie: Both emphasize the impact of societal factors on deviance,
but Durkheim's focus is on norm breakdown, while Merton explores the strain between goals
and means.
2. Causes of Anomie: Both attribute Anomie to societal factors, Durkheim emphasizes
normative shifts, and Merton focuses on structural strain.
3. Types of Adaptation to Anomie: Acc. to Durkheim there’s Limited exploration of adaptive
responses to Anomie. Identifies five adaptations: conformity, innovation, ritualism,
retreatism, and rebellion. Wheras, Merton provides a more nuanced understanding of how
individuals adapt to Anomie through varied deviant responses.
4. Role of Social Structure: Both recognize the influence of social structure but differ in the
proposed mechanisms for preventing or explaining Anomie.
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5. Scope of Deviant Behavior: Merton focuses on various forms of deviance arising from strain.
While Durkheim includes suicide, Merton's theory provides a more comprehensive
framework for understanding diverse deviant behaviors.
6. Time Period and Cultural Context: Durkheim during mid-20th century, United States.
Reflecting the sociocultural contexts of their times, Durkheim's work emerged during
industrialization, while Merton's theory responds to issues in post-World War II America,
demonstrating temporal and cultural specificity in their perspectives.
Durkheim prioritizes social integration as a preventive measure against Anomie whereas, Merton
underscores structural strain as a crucial determinant of deviant behavior. By critically examining
both perspectives reveals a complementary relationship between the two theories and enriching the
sociological understanding of the complexities inherent in the relationship between societal
structures, norms, and deviance.
516
c) Suggest measures to minimize the influence of the researcher in the

process of collecting data through focus group discussion. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define focus group discussions (FGDs)
 Highlight the significance of minimizing researcher influence for unbiased data
collection through group discussions.
 Challenges of collecting data through FGD’s
 Conclude.
Solution:
Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) are a qualitative research method that involves a structured and
interactive discussion among a small group of individuals, typically 6 to 12 participants, guided
by a skilled moderator.
The objective of FGDs is to gather in-depth insights into participants' attitudes, perceptions, and
experiences regarding a specific topic. This method fosters a dynamic exchange of ideas, allowing
researchers to explore diverse viewpoints, uncover shared beliefs, and understand the
complexities of social phenomena. FGDs are particularly valuable for exploring subjective
experiences, social norms, and cultural perspectives, making them a versatile tool in sociological
research for capturing the richness and depth of qualitative data in a group setting.
Significance of minimizing researcher influence for unbiased data collection through group
discussions:
1. Preservation of Participant Authenticity: Minimizing researcher influence ensures that
participants express their genuine opinions and experiences without external pressure.
Erving Goffman's dramaturgical perspective emphasizes the importance of preserving
individuals' authentic performances in social interactions.
2. Avoidance of Social Desirability Bias: Reducing researcher influence helps mitigate the
tendency of participants to respond in socially desirable ways, promoting more honest and
genuine responses. Herbert Blumer's symbolic interactionism underscores the impact of
social interactions on shaping individuals' self-presentations.
3. Enhancement of Validity and Reliability: Minimizing researcher influence contributes to
the validity and reliability of the data collected, ensuring that findings accurately represent
participants' perspectives. Max Weber's emphasis on verstehen highlights the need for
researchers to empathetically understand the subjective meanings individuals attribute to
their actions.
4. Facilitation of Diverse Perspectives: Allowing participants to express themselves freely
encourages the emergence of diverse viewpoints, enriching the data and providing a more
comprehensive understanding of the topic. Jürgen Habermas's theory of communicative
action emphasizes the importance of inclusive and undistorted communication for
democratic deliberation.
5. Promotion of Ethical Research Practices: Minimizing researcher influence aligns with ethical
considerations, respecting participants' autonomy and ensuring their contributions are not
unduly shaped by external factors.
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Carol Gilligan's ethics of care highlights the significance of ethical considerations in research,
emphasizing the need to prioritize relationships and responsibilities.
6. Cultural Sensitivity and Reflexivity: Minimizing researcher influence fosters cultural
sensitivity by allowing participants to express their perspectives authentically, free from
external biases. Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus emphasizes the role of cultural
background in shaping individuals' perceptions and behaviors.
Challenges
1. Preservation of Participant Authenticity: Minimizing researcher influence ensures that
participants express their genuine opinions and experiences without external pressure.
Erving Goffman's dramaturgical perspective emphasizes the importance of preserving
individuals' authentic performances in social interactions.
2. Avoidance of Social Desirability Bias: Reducing researcher influence helps mitigate the
tendency of participants to respond in socially desirable ways, promoting more honest and
genuine responses. Herbert Blumer's symbolic interactionism underscores the impact of
social interactions on shaping individuals' self-presentations.
3. Enhancement of Validity and Reliability: Minimizing researcher influence contributes to
the validity and reliability of the data collected, ensuring that findings accurately represent
participants' perspectives. Max Weber's emphasis on verstehen highlights the need for
researchers to empathetically understand the subjective meanings individuals attribute to
their actions.
4. Facilitation of Diverse Perspectives: Allowing participants to express themselves freely
encourages the emergence of diverse viewpoints, enriching the data and providing a more
comprehensive understanding of the topic. Jürgen Habermas's theory of communicative
action emphasizes the importance of inclusive and undistorted communication for
democratic deliberation.
5. Promotion of Ethical Research Practices: Minimizing researcher influence aligns with ethical
considerations, respecting participants' autonomy and ensuring their contributions are not
unduly shaped by external factors. Carol Gilligan's ethics of care highlights the significance
of ethical considerations in research, emphasizing the need to prioritize relationships and
responsibilities.
6. Cultural Sensitivity and Reflexivity: Minimizing researcher influence fosters cultural
sensitivity by allowing participants to express their perspectives authentically, free from
external biases. Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus emphasizes the role of cultural
background in shaping individuals' perceptions and behaviours.
Building rapport between participants and moderators aids in fostering an open and honest
discussion. Structuring discussions with open-ended questions, utilizing audio or video
recordings for accurate data capture, and implementing member checking for validation
contribute to the transparency and reliability of the data. These measures collectively safeguard
against undue researcher influence, promoting the credibility and authenticity of qualitative data
collected through FGDs.
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Question 4.
a) What characterizes degradation of work in capitalist society according to
Marx? (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Define the degradation of work as conceptualized by Marx.
 Discuss the mechanisms through which degradation occurs in capitalist societies.
 Briefly mention critiques of Marx's perspective on work degradation.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Karl Marx's conceptualization of the degradation of work in capitalist society revolves around the
notion of alienation and commodification. Marx argues that under capitalism, labor is transformed
into a commodity to be bought and sold, stripping it of its intrinsic value and reducing it to a
means of survival.
The worker, divorced from the products of their labor and the creative process, experiences
alienation on multiple fronts – from the product, the process, fellow workers, and even from the
essence of human potential. This alienation is intensified by the capitalist's pursuit of profit, which
exploits the laborer by extracting surplus value while minimizing wages.
Mechanisms through which degradation occurs in capitalist societies:
1. Commodification of Labor: In capitalist societies, degradation occurs through the
commodification of labor, reducing it to a mere commodity bought and sold in the
marketplace. Karl Marx's theory of labor commodification underscores how capitalism
transforms labor into a commodity, emphasizing the alienation and devaluation of the
worker.
2. Alienation from the Product of Labor: Capitalism alienates workers from the products they
create, as ownership and control lie with capitalists, leading to a sense of detachment and
loss of connection to their work. Marx's concept of alienation highlights the estrangement
workers experience from the fruits of their labor in a capitalist system.
3. Wage Labor and Exploitation: The wage labor system in capitalism enables the exploitation
of workers, as they receive a wage that is typically less than the value they produce, resulting
in surplus value for the capitalist. Marx's theory of surplus value emphasizes how capitalists
profit by paying workers less than the value their labor adds to commodities.
4. Division of Labor and Specialization: Capitalism fosters a division of labor where workers
become specialized in specific tasks, leading to monotony, deskilling, and a reduction in the
overall value attached to their work. Emile Durkheim's analysis of the division of labor
underscores the potential negative effects on worker satisfaction and well-being.
5. Technological Rationalization: The pursuit of efficiency and profit in capitalism often leads
to technological rationalization, which may result in the dehumanization of work, increased
surveillance, and a loss of autonomy for workers. Max Weber's theory of rationalization
explores how the drive for efficiency and calculability impacts the organization and
experience of work in modern societies.
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6. Globalization and Flexible Labor Markets: Globalization in capitalist economies contributes
to the degradation of work by fostering flexible labor markets, where job insecurity,
precarious employment, and the erosion of worker rights become prevalent. Example: Arlie
Hochschild's research on emotional labor in the global service industry exemplifies how
flexible labor arrangements impact workers' well-being and job satisfaction.
Critiques:
1. Overemphasis on Economic Factors: Some scholars argue that Marx's focus on economic
factors, such as the labor process and class struggle, overlooks the importance of non-
economic aspects in shaping the experience of work. Max Weber's emphasis on multiple
social factors influencing human behavior critiques Marx's economic determinism.
2. Neglect of Agency and Resistance: Critics argue that Marx's perspective may underestimate
the agency of workers and their capacity for resistance, portraying them as passive victims
of capitalist exploitation. James C. Scott's concept of "everyday resistance" challenges the
idea that resistance is always overt, suggesting that subtle forms of resistance are prevalent
among subordinated groups.
3. Eurocentrism and Universalization: Marx's ideas are criticized for being Eurocentric and
universalizing, with some arguing that his theories may not adequately address the diverse
experiences of work and capitalism in non-Western societies. Postcolonial scholars like
Edward Said critique universalizing perspectives that may marginalize non-Western
experiences.
4. Limited Attention to Gender Dynamics: Feminist scholars argues that Marx's analysis often
neglects the gendered dimensions of work and the specific challenges faced by women,
leading to an incomplete understanding of work degradation. Sylvia Walby's critique of
classical sociological theories highlights their gender blindness and the need for a gender-
inclusive analysis of social phenomena.
5. Historical Specificity and Change: Some critics assert that Marx's theories may be too static
and deterministic, lacking sufficient attention to historical changes and variations in the
experience of work over time. Anthony Giddens' structuration theory emphasizes the
dynamic interplay between structure and agency, calling for an understanding of social
phenomena in their historical context.
6. Neglect of Non-Industrial Forms of Production: Marx's analysis is critiqued for being overly
focused on industrial capitalism, potentially overlooking the experiences of workers in non-
industrial forms of production. E.P. Thompson's work on the moral economy critiques the
narrow focus on industrial capitalism and highlights the agency of workers in pre-industrial
settings.
The capitalist pursuit of profit exacerbates this degradation, as wage laborers, driven by the
imperative to extract surplus value, experience a systemic devaluation of their labor. The
degradation of work, according to Marx, is thus marked by a profound estrangement and
dehumanization of the laborer within the capitalist framework, emphasizing the need for a more
equitable and emancipatory alternative to the prevailing capitalist relations of production.
520
b) Social stratification is claimed to contribute to the maintenance of social

order and stability in society. Critically assess. (20 Marks)
What is Social Stratification
 Social stratification is the division of society into different hierarchical layers or strata based
on various attributes such as wealth, power, social status, and prestige.
 It is a system in which individuals and groups are categorized and ranked according to their
social standing and access to resources and opportunities.
 Social stratification is often seen as a natural outcome of human organization and interplay.
 Certain sociologists (functionalists) believe that it contributes to the maintenance of social
order and stability.
How Social Stratification adds maintenance of social order and stability in society
1. Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore proposed the functionalist theory of social stratification,
arguing that social inequality is beneficial to the workings of a society.
 They suggested that the most important roles in society require more skill and training,
so higher rewards for these roles are necessary to attract the most qualified individuals.
 This forms a meritocracy where those with the highest skills and greatest abilities rise to
the top, promoting efficiency and stability.
 Social stratification provides individuals with the motivation to work hard and achieve
higher positions in society.
 The promise of social mobility encourages individuals to pursue education, acquire
skills, and contribute to economic growth, which ultimately benefits society as a whole.
 Example of Davis and Moore’s perspective can be found in a doctor’s job being more
important than, for instance, a nurse’s job.
 The nurse’s position does not require similar skill and training level as a doctor.
 Without the incentive of higher pay, better benefits, and increased respect, why would
someone be willing to spend years reading books and doing trainings?
2. Emile Durkheim viewed social stratification as a necessary and beneficial social system that
arises out of the division of labor. He argued that in complex societies, many different roles
are needed, and they can't all command the same level of reward.
 The difference in reward is a way to encourage individuals to fulfill the more difficult
or less desirable roles that are nonetheless crucial for the functioning of society.
 Stratification allows for the division of labor based on individuals' abilities, skills, and
qualifications. Different social classes often specialize in different professions, creating a
diverse workforce that can effectively meet the needs of society.
 This ensures the smooth running of society and helping to maintain order and stability.
3. Talcott Parsons saw stratification as a system that allowed individuals to be rewarded
according to their efforts.
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 This system served to encourage competition and motivated people to work harder,
promoting stability and social order.
 Stratification establishes clear social hierarchies and roles within society. This clarity and
structure provide a sense of order and predictability, reducing social conflicts and
promoting social cohesion.
 Individuals know their place and understand their responsibilities, leading to a more
stable and harmonious society.
4. Max Weber viewed social stratification as more complex, involving three distinct
dimensions - class, status, and power.
 He claimed that these facets of social inequality interact to distribute individuals within
the social hierarchy. Although he didn't explicitly state that stratification provided order
and stability, his theory implies that it structures societal relationships in a way that could
maintain order.
 Because the existence of higher social classes and positions of authority helps maintain
social control.
 The elite and ruling classes often have the resources, influence, and power to establish
and enforce laws, regulations, and norms.
 This control helps prevent widespread chaos, maintain law and order, and deter potential
deviant behavior.
5. Nicos Poulantzas and Miliband believe that Stability of institutions is greatly impacted by
social origins of members of the government and the personal ties and influence between
members of the government and ruling-class elites.
 Social stratification supports the stability of various social institutions such as the
government, economy, education, and healthcare systems.
 These institutions rely on hierarchies and structures to function effectively.
 The presence of distinct social classes ensures a continuous supply of individuals who
can fill positions of power and responsibility, ensuring the smooth operation of these
institutions.
6. Social order maintenance: Social stratification provides a framework for resolving conflicts
and addressing grievances within society. Established legal systems and mechanisms allow
for the resolution of disputes, thereby maintaining social order. The existence of different
social classes also offers avenues for social mobility, providing hope and aspirations for
individuals seeking to improve their circumstances.
Criticism
Melvin Marvin Tumin challenged the functionalist view of social stratification, arguing that it's
not inherently beneficial to society and can instead lead to numerous social problems.
1. Social Stratification Prevents Discovery of Talent: Tumin pointed out that social
stratification can prevent people from achieving their potential. The fact that certain
positions are so highly rewarded means that they are typically occupied by those from
higher social strata, which excludes individuals from lower social strata who may have a
talent for these roles.
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2. Stratification and Dysfunction: He argued that stratification is not merely functional, as
Davis-Moore suggested, but can also lead to social dysfunction. The inequality it creates can
lead to unrest and instability, as those at the bottom of the social hierarchy may feel
disenfranchised and aggrieved.
3. Inherited Wealth and Stratification: Tumin also raised the issue of inherited wealth,
pointing out that this often has nothing to do with individual talent or the functional
importance of a person's role in society.
Karl Marx argued that social stratification is a result of capitalism and serves only to reinforce the
power of the dominant classes.
Pierre Bourdieu adds that social stratification contributes to the reproduction of social inequalities
across generations.
The children of affluent and privileged families often have greater access to resources, education,
and opportunities, which perpetuates social order and stability.
This intergenerational transmission of advantages and privileges helps maintain the existing social
structure.
Marxists also contend that social stratification can also be a source of social unrest and conflict.
When the gap between different social classes widens, it can lead to feelings of injustice and
resentment among those who are disadvantaged.
This can manifest in social movements, protests, and even social upheavals aimed at challenging
and disrupting the existing social order
Thomas Pikkety says that stratification leads to Inefficient allocation of talent and resources:
 Social stratification based on factors such as birth or inherited wealth may lead to an
inefficient allocation of talent and resources within society.
 It may exclude individuals with valuable skills and abilities from accessing positions of
power and influence, resulting in suboptimal social and economic outcomes.
Conclusion
While social stratification may contribute to social order and stability, it can also perpetuate
inequality, limit social mobility, and create social divisions.
Balancing the benefits of stratification with the need for fairness and equality is an ongoing
challenge for societies.
523
c) What is reliability? Explain the different tests available to social science

researcher to establish reliability. (10 Marks)
According to Anastasi (1957), the reliability of test refers to the consistency of scores obtained by the
individual on different occasions or with different sets of equivalent items.
The idea behind reliability is that any significant results must be repeatable. Other researchers must
be able to perform exactly the same experiment, under same conditions and generate the same
results. This will vindicate the findings and ensure that all researchers will accept the hypothesis.
Without this replication of statistically significant results, experiments and research have not
fulfilled all of the requirements of testability. This prerequisite is essential to a hypothesis
establishing itself as an accepted scientific truth. For example, if you are performing a time critical
experiment, you will be using some type of stopwatch.
According to Stodola and Stordahl (1972), the reliability of a test can be defined as the correlation
between two or more sets of scores of equivalent tests from the same group of individuals.
Reliability is a necessary ingredient for determining the overall validity of a scientific experiment
and enhancing the strength of the results.
Reliability is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures
the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the
repeatability of measurement. A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the same test
given twice is similar.
According to Guilford (1954), reliability is the proportion of the true variance in obtained test scores.
Three Types of "Reliability"
Kirk and Miller discuss three kinds of reliability. Understanding the difference between them will
help you to figure out whether the data you have gathered in your qualitative study is reliable.
"Quixotic" reliability: This refers to the circumstances in which a single method of observation yields
the same measurement over and over again. In an ethnographic study, this kind of "reliability" of
data indicates that the investigator has managed to elicit "rehearsed" or "politically correct"
information. For example, a study is conducted on gender discrimination, and the subjects are asked
the question "Do you believe in the equality of men and women?" Unfailingly, the answer obtained
is "Yes". However, the reality observed around us is actually quite different. We may then conclude
that the finding has only "quixotic reliability", because people are giving the answer they think is
"correct", because they do not wish to offend anyone. So, it is probably a good idea to ask a different
kind of question, like, "Do you think that women professionals are as competent as their male
colleagues?" Perhaps the answers to this question will be more varied and reflect reality better.
"Diachronic"reliability: This refers to the stability of an observation over time. Some examples
include the "test-retest" paradigms of experimental psychology and survey research, in which
surveys are conducted afresh after a gap of time to see if the results are the same.
However, in the context of socio-cultural phenomena in which the rate of change is rapid, obtaining
similar results over a period of time is unlikely. Continuing the example of gender discrimination,
it is seen that over the past few years, women's participation in the work force has changed, they
are no longer ignored for selection for certain kinds of jobs, and in fact are given preference over
males in areas of telemarketing and the hospitality services industry.
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"Synchronic" reliability: This refers to the similarity of observations within the same time period,
which can be evaluated by comparisons of the same data by different methods. Unlike quixotic
reliability, synchronic reliability involves observations that are consistent in nature.
Methods of estimating reliability

There are number of ways of estimating reliability of an instrument. Various procedures can be
classified into two groups:
 External consistency procedures
 Internal consistency procedures
External Consistency Procedures
External consistency procedures compare findings from two independent process of data collection
with each other as a means of verifying the reliability of the measure. Two methods are as beneath.
 Test Re-test Reliability
The most frequently used method to find the reliability of a test is by repeating the same test on
same sample, on two different time periods. The reliability coefficient in this case would be the
correlation between the score obtained by the same person on two administrations of the test.
 Parallel Forms Reliability
Parallel-Forms Reliability is known by the various names such as Alternate forms reliability,
equivalent form reliability and comparable form reliability. Parallel forms reliability compares two
equivalent forms of a test that measure the same attribute. The two forms use different items.
However, the rules used to select items of a particular difficulty level are the same. When two forms
of the test are available, one can compare performance on one form versus the other.
Sometimes the two forms are administered to the same group of people on the same day.
The Pearson product moment correlation coefficient is used as an estimate of the reliability.
Internal Consistency Procedures
The idea behind internal consistency procedures is that items measuring same phenomena should
produce similar results. Following internal consistency procedures are commonly used for
estimating reliability-
Split Half Reliability
In this method, as the name implies, we randomly divide all items that intends to measure same
construct into two sets. The complete instrument is administered on sample of people and total
scores are calculated for each randomly divided half; the split half reliability is then, the simply the
correlation between these two scores.
Kudar- Richardson Estimate of Reliability
The coefficient of internal consistency could also be obtained with the help of Kudar-Richardson
formula number 20. One of the techniques for item analysis is item difficulty index. Item difficulty
is the proportion or percentage of those answering correctly to an item.
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Section B
each:
a) Critically examine the relevance of Durkheim's views on religion in
contemporary society. (10 Marks)
Durkheim's theory on religion, as outlined in his influential work "The Elementary Forms of
Religious Life," centers on the social functions and significance of religion within society.
 Durkheim argues that religion is a system of collective representations that symbolically
represent the beliefs, values, and aspirations of a society. These collective representations are
expressed through rituals, symbols, myths, and shared practices.
 Durkheim distinguishes between the sacred and the profane. The sacred refers to those things
that are considered extraordinary, set apart, and worthy of reverence, while the profane
refers to the ordinary, everyday aspects of life. Religion establishes and reinforces this
distinction, with rituals and symbols used to mark the boundaries between the sacred and
the profane.
Durkheim's views on religion continue to be relevant in contemporary society, as they provide
valuable insights into the functions and dynamics of religious phenomena.
1. Social cohesion and solidarity: Durkheim argued that religion serves as a powerful force for
promoting social cohesion and solidarity by creating a collective conscience and shared
values.
Relevance: Religious gatherings, such as church services or communal prayers, provide
opportunities for individuals to come together, reinforcing social bonds and a sense of shared
purpose.
2. Moral guidance and regulation: Durkheim highlighted the role of religion in providing
moral guidance and regulating social behavior. In contemporary society, religious values and
ethics still influence individual and societal norms, shaping attitudes toward issues such as
sexuality, family, and social justice.
3. Rituals and symbolism: Durkheim emphasized the significance of religious rituals and
symbols in creating a sense of sacredness and reinforcing social order. These rituals and
symbols continue to be important in contemporary religious practices, as they provide
opportunities for collective reaffirmation of beliefs and values.
Relevance: Religious ceremonies, such as baptism, weddings, or funerals, serve as symbolic rituals
that mark important life transitions and bring communities together to celebrate or mourn
collectively.
4. Sense of meaning and purpose: Durkheim argued that religion provides individuals with a
sense of meaning and purpose in life, answering existential questions and offering a
framework for understanding the world. In contemporary society, many individuals still
turn to religion to find solace, guidance, and a sense of transcendence.
Relevance: People who find comfort and inspiration in religious scriptures, prayers, or spiritual
practices often attribute their sense of purpose and well-being to their religious beliefs.
526
5. Social control and integration: Durkheim suggested that religion acts as a mechanism of
social control, reinforcing societal norms and regulating deviant behavior. In contemporary
society, religious institutions continue to play a role in shaping social norms and influencing
moral judgments.
Relevance: Religious teachings may discourage behaviors such as substance abuse or promiscuity,
contributing to the formation of social norms and the regulation of individual conduct.
Criticism
 Weber criticized Durkheim's theory for overlooking the individual and subjective
dimensions of religious experience. He argued that religion is not solely a collective
phenomenon but also encompasses personal beliefs, interpretations, and experiences.
 Freud challenged Durkheim's emphasis on collective consciousness and argued that religion
is primarily a product of individual psychological needs, such as the desire for security,
comfort, and the resolution of existential anxieties.
 Cioran criticized Durkheim's view of religion as providing meaning and purpose in life,
suggesting that religion can also contribute to existential despair and create a sense of
nihilism.
Conclusion
Durkheim's views on religion continue to offer valuable insights into the functions and dynamics of
religious phenomena in contemporary society. While his ideas still hold relevance, they should be
understood within the context of the diverse religious landscape and the evolving nature of social
institutions in the present day.: Religious ceremonies, such as baptism, weddings, or funerals, serve
as symbolic rituals that mark important life transitions and bring communities together to celebrate
or mourn collectively
527
b) Discuss various theoretical perspectives on the family. (10 Marks)

Anthony Giddens gives simplified definition of family as a group of persons:
 Directly linked by kin connection
 Adult members of which assume responsibility of caring of children.
He emphasizes on criterion of commitment over and above traditional features of family.
Functional Perspective G Murdock

in his book ‘social structure’ mentions 4 functions of family:
 Economic
 Reproduction control
 Regulating sexual relations
 Socialising children
Talcott Parsons
He identifies two basic functions:
 Primary socialization of children
 Stabilization of adult personality
Ronald Fletcher talked about multifunctional family in which
the basic function may exist and other functions are being
reinvented.
Conflict Perspective The conflict perspective views the family through the lens of
social inequality and power dynamics. Conflict theorists, such
as Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, emphasize how the family
reflects and perpetuates existing social inequalities. They
highlight the following points:
 Inequality and Power: The family is seen as a site of power
struggles, with conflicts arising due to unequal distribution
of resources, gender roles, and hierarchies within the family
structure. Karl Marx argues that family assures conformity
to the individual thereby submitting to the exploitation of
haves.
 Reproduction of Inequality: The family plays a role in
reproducing and reinforcing social inequality by
transmitting social advantages or disadvantages across
generations.
Eli Zaretsky : family in moderm capitalist world creates an
illusion of private life,He sees family as major prop to capitalist
economy.
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 Gender Inequality: Conflict theorists emphasize how the
family perpetuates gender inequalities through traditional
gender roles and expectations, where women are often
assigned subordinate roles.
Murray Strauss states Marriage licence is a hitting licence.
Feminist perspective Margaret Benston

The amount of unpaid labor performed by women is very large
and very profitable to those who own the means of production.
To pay women for their work, even at minimum wage scales,
would involve a massive redistribution of wealth. At present,
the support of the family is a hidden tax on the wage earner - his
wage buys the labor power of two people.
Fran Ansley
She sees the emotional support provided by the wife as a safety
valve for the frustration produced in the husband by working in
a capitalist system. Rather than being turned against the system
which produced it, this frustration is absorbed by the
comforting wife. In this way the system is not threatened.
Kathy McAfee and Myrna Wood
They claim that The petty dictatorship which most men
exercise over their wives and families enables them to vent
their anger and frustration in a way which poses no challenge
to the system'.
Diane Feeley
argues that the structure of family relationships socializes the
young to accept their place in a class-stratified society. She sees
the family as an authoritarian unit dominated by the husband
in particular and adults in general. Feeley claims that the
family with its authoritarian ideology is designed to teach
passivity, not rebellion: Thus children learn to submit to
parental authority and emerge from the family preconditioned
to accept their place in the hierarchy of power and control in
capitalist society.
Delphy and Leonard
see the family as an economic system. It involves a particular set
of 'labour relations in which men benefit from, and exploit, the
work of women - and sometimes that of their children and. other
male relatives! The key to this exploitation is that family
members work not for themselves but for the head of the
household. Women in particular are oppressed, not because
they are socialized into being passive, nor because they are
529
ideologically conditioned into subservience, but because their
work is appropriated within the family.
Other Perspectives David Cooper

argues that the family is 'an ideological conditioning device in
an exploitive society'. Within the family, children learn to
conform and to submit to authority. The foundation is
therefore laid for the obedient and submissive workforce
required by capitalism.
Edmund Leach - A Runaway World?
In a lecture entitled A Runaway World? (1967)
Edmund Leach presented a pessimistic view of the family in
industrial society. Leach, an anthropologist, had spent many
years studying small-scale preindustrial societies. In such
societies the family often. forms a part of a wider kinship unit.
An extensive network of social relationships between a large
number of kin provides practical and psychological support for
the individual.
R.D. Laing - The Politics of the Family
Laing views the family in terms of sets of interactions.
Individuals form alliances, adopt várious strategies and play
one or more individuals off against others in a complex tactical
game. Laing is preoccupied with those interaction situations
that he regards as harmful and destructive. Throughout his
work he: concentrates on the exploitative aspects of family
relationships.
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c) Explain the implications of feminization of work in the developing

societies. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Provide a definition of the feminization of work.
 Explain the implications of feminization of work in the developing societies.
 Address the challenges and inequalities associated with the feminization of work.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The feminization of work refers to the significant increase in the participation of women in the
formal and informal labor markets, marked by their growing presence across diverse sectors and
occupations.
This phenomenon entails a shift from traditional gender roles, where women were predominantly
confined to domestic and caregiving roles, to active involvement in economic activities. The
feminization of work contributes to evolving societal attitudes, challenging traditional gender
norms, and holding implications for family dynamics and overall gender equality.
Implications of feminization of work in the developing societies:
1. Economic Empowerment and Gender Equality: The feminization of work in developing
societies can lead to economic empowerment for women, providing them with financial
independence and challenging traditional gender roles. Drawing from liberal feminist
perspectives, thinkers like Betty Friedan emphasize the importance of economic
opportunities in achieving gender equality.
2. Occupational Segregation and Gender Wage Gap: Despite increased participation, women
often face occupational segregation, with a concentration in certain sectors. This contributes
to the persistence of the gender wage gap. Heidi Hartmann's concept of the "sticky floor" and
"glass ceiling" underscores structural barriers that limit women's upward mobility in the
workforce.
3. Double Burden and Work-Life Balance: The feminization of work can result in a double
burden for women, as they balance professional responsibilities with traditional caregiving
roles, impacting their work-life balance. Arlie Hochschild's notion of the "second shift"
explores how women, despite their increasing role in the workforce, continue to bear the
brunt of domestic responsibilities.
4. Changing Family Dynamics: The increased participation of women in the workforce can
reshape family dynamics, challenging traditional gender roles within households and
fostering more equitable partnerships. Example: Research by Gøsta Esping-Andersen on
welfare states and family structures illustrates how societal changes, including women's
labor force participation, influence family arrangements.
5. Education and Skill Development: The feminization of work necessitates a focus on
education and skill development for women, providing them with the tools to access a
broader range of employment opportunities. Amartya Sen's capability approach highlights
the importance of education and skills in expanding individuals' capabilities and agency.
531
6. Intersectionality and Multiple Identities: The feminization of work intersects with other
social identities, such as race, ethnicity, and class, leading to varied experiences for women
in the workforce. Kimberlé Crenshaw's concept of intersectionality underscores how various
social categories intersect and impact individuals' experiences in society.
Address the challenges and inequalities associated with the feminization of work.
1. Gender Wage Gap and Occupational Segregation: The feminization of work often coexists
with persistent gender wage gaps and occupational segregation, where women are
concentrated in lower-paying sectors. Sylvia Walby's critique of the sexual division of labor
emphasizes how capitalism and patriarchy intersect, contributing to these inequalities.
2. Informal and Precarious Employment: Women, especially in developing societies, may find
themselves disproportionately engaged in informal and precarious employment, lacking job
security and social benefits. Example: The work of Saskia Sassen on global cities illustrates
how feminized informal labor, such as domestic work, often lacks legal protections and social
security.
3. Double Burden and Unpaid Care Work: The feminization of work can exacerbate the double
burden for women, as they juggle professional responsibilities with traditional caregiving
roles, leading to time and energy constraints. Arlie Hochschild's concept of the "time bind"
highlights the challenges of balancing work and family responsibilities, especially for
women.
4. Glass Ceiling and Limited Career Progression: Despite increased participation, women may
encounter a glass ceiling limiting their career progression, as organizational structures and
biases hinder their ascent to leadership positions. Pierre Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital
emphasizes how entrenched social structures can perpetuate gender-based disparities in
career advancement.
5. Intersectional Inequalities: The feminization of work intersects with other identities,
resulting in varying experiences. Women from marginalized groups may face compounded
inequalities. Example: Intersectional analysis, inspired by Kimberlé Crenshaw's work,
reveals how race, class, and gender intersect to create unique challenges for women of color
in the workforce.
6. Violence and Harassment at the Workplace: The feminization of work is associated with an
increased risk of gender-based violence and harassment, reflecting power imbalances and
reinforcing a hostile work environment. Example: Recent studies, such as those inspired by
the work of Raewyn Connell on gender relations, highlight the prevalence of workplace
harassment and its impact on women's well-being.
The feminization of work in developing societies carries multifaceted implications that extend
beyond the economic domain. While it presents an opportunity for women's economic
empowerment and challenges traditional gender roles, it also brings forth challenges such as
occupational segregation, the gender wage gap, and the double burden of work and caregiving. This
phenomenon reshapes family dynamics, contributes to changing societal attitudes, and demands a
focus on education and skill development for women.
532
d) Write a note on global trends of secularization. (10 Marks)

Bryan Wilson defines secularization as the process whereby religious thinking, process and
institutions lose social significance.
3 Stages:
Theological Society - secularization - Secular society
 In the 19th Century it was widely believed that industrialisation and the growth of scientific
knowledge would lead to secularization.
 Early sociologists Auguste Comte, Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Weber all believed that the
process of secularization was bound to occur as societies modernized and became more
reliant on science and technology to control and explain the social world.
 Contemporarily, there is debate over the secularization thesis.
 Secularization is a complex sociological concept because there is little consensus on what
secularization is and how to measure it.
Secularization can be evaluated according to number of aspects and dimensions.
1. Institutional religion - participation has decreased according to some.
2. Disengagement of the Church from the wider Society - David Martin sees this view as
concerned with decline in power, wealth, influence and Prestige of the church.
3. Differentiation - that is church no longer performs or it has been delinked from other social
Institutions. Specialised institutions have come up in the political and economic arenas and
the religious institutions in contemporary society confines themselves to purely religious
matters.
4. Religious pluralism - the continuing proliferation of sects and denominations has been
interpreted by some researchers as the decline of religion
5. Secularization of Religious Institutions - that is region itself has undergone a process of
secularization. Religious Institutions engaged in tasks which may not be strictly speaking
religious. Example running hospitals, educational institutions, et cetera
6. Generalisation- Parsons argues that as religious Institutions become more specialised
religious values become increasingly generalized. Religious beliefs no longer specifically
direct particular actions. However, they are incorporated into the society’s value system they
provide general guidelines for conduct.
7. Individuation - Robert N Bellah - that is religion is increasingly an individual quest for
meaning rather than a collective actor worship.
8. Transformation - Rather than seeing religious beliefs as generalized or “individuated” a
number of sociologists argue that these beliefs have now become transformed into secular
guides to action into Western society. Example: Weber sees the logic of the spirit of capitalism
in ascetic Protestantism
9. Desacralization - This means that supernatural forces are no longer seen as controlling the
world. Action is no longer directed by religious belief. Man's consciousness has become
secularized.
533
Global trends of secularization indicate a shift towards a more secular and pluralistic worldview.
Here are some key observations on the global trends of secularization:
1. Declining Religiosity: Many regions across the world, including Europe, North America,
and parts of Asia, have witnessed a decline in religious affiliation and participation. The
number of people identifying as religious, attending religious services, or engaging in
religious practices has decreased over time.
Steve Bruce argues that state churches have lost their power over state.
Almost half of Swedes say that religion is 'not at all important', according to a survey by Pew
Research Center.
2. Rise of Religious Non-Affiliation: The growth of the "nones" or religiously unaffiliated
individuals is a significant aspect of secularization trends. This group includes atheists,
agnostics, and those who identify as "spiritual but not religious." Non-affiliation is
particularly prevalent among younger generations.
David Martin : Shift in focus of religion away from the institutions of state and economy towards
needs and sentiments of people.
3. Changing Religious Landscape: Secularization is accompanied by changes in the religious
landscape, including a rise in religious pluralism and the presence of multiple faith traditions
within societies. This diversification challenges the dominance of a single religion and
contributes to a more secular social fabric.
4. Influence of Modernization: The process of modernization, including advancements in
science, technology, and urbanization, has been linked to the decline in religious adherence.
As societies become more industrialized and knowledge-based, religious explanations and
practices may be viewed as less relevant or superseded by rational and empirical
perspectives.
In countries like Japan, modernization and industrialization have been associated with declining
religiosity. Traditional religious practices, such as Shintoism and Buddhism, have experienced a
decrease in adherents, with many Japanese individuals adopting a more secular lifestyle.
5. Impact of Individualism: Increasing individualism and personal autonomy have
contributed to secularization trends. People are more likely to question traditional religious
authorities and dogmas, seeking personal autonomy in matters of faith and belief. This
emphasis on individual choice and freedom has led to a reevaluation of religious
commitments.
6. Social and Cultural Factors: Secularization is influenced by social and cultural factors such
as higher education levels, increased gender equality, and shifting societal norms. These
factors can promote critical thinking, rationality, and secular values, challenging traditional
religious authority and beliefs.
It's important to note that while secularization is a prevailing trend, it does not mean the eradication
of religion or the absence of religious beliefs and practices entirely. Religious traditions continue to
play significant roles in many societies, and religiosity persists in various forms.
 Jose Casanova in his book Public Religions in the modern world states that religion has not
drawn itself from public and political life.
534
 Bryon Wilson that secularization cant be just measured by decrease in attendance in religious
institutions.
 Steve Bruce points out that in British Social attitude survey (1991) only 12 % said that they
have stopped believing in god.
 Gilles Kepel – Claims that any trend towards secularization was reversed in around 1970s
when various religious revivals sprang up.These revivals were aimed at recovering a sacred
foundation for the organisation of the society by changing society if necessary. To Kepel all
these are example of counter secularism and also the emergence of new religions movements
countering the secularization thesis.
Jose Casanova, thus, believes that in contemporary Societies of world religious beliefs and practices
are not dying out but have increasingly re-entered public sphere. Therefore, it can be concluded that
though religion no longer has a central position in the structure of modern society it has not faded
away and religion remains a significant force though in new and unfamiliar forms.
535
e) Trace the trajectory of development perspectives on social change. (10

Marks)
Structure:
 Define Social Change.
 Explain various development perspectives on social change.
 Explore post-development critiques that can challenge mainstream development.
perspectives.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Social change refers to the transformative alterations, modifications, or shifts that occur over time
in the patterns of behaviour, structures, institutions, and values within a society. It involves the
evolution of societal norms, customs, and institutions, reflecting adjustments in the ways
individuals interact, organize, and perceive their surroundings.
Various development perspectives on social change.

1. Modernization Theory: Modernization theory posits that societies progress through distinct
stages of development, marked by the adoption of Western values, institutions, and
technologies. Rostow's stages of economic growth model represents modernization theory,
emphasizing the linear progression of societies from traditional to modern.
2. Dependency Theory: Dependency theory contends that underdevelopment in certain
nations is a result of their economic dependence on more powerful, industrialized countries.
Andre Gunder Frank's core-periphery model is central to dependency theory, highlighting
global economic inequalities.
3. World-Systems Theory: Building on dependency theory, world-systems theory views global
capitalism as a complex system with core, semi-peripheral, and peripheral nations,
influencing patterns of social change. Immanuel Wallerstein's world-systems theory
provides a framework for understanding global economic and social structures.
4. Neoliberalism and Globalization: Perspective: Neoliberal perspectives advocate for free-
market policies and minimal state intervention, emphasizing the role of globalization in
promoting economic growth and social change. Scholars like Milton Friedman and
Friedrich Hayek are associated with neoliberal economic thought.
5. Post-Development Perspectives: Post-development critiques challenge traditional
development paradigms, emphasizing the need for context-specific, bottom-up approaches
that prioritize local knowledge and sustainability. Arturo Escobar's work critiques
universalizing development models and calls for more inclusive, participatory approaches.
6. Sustainable Development Paradigm: The sustainable development paradigm integrates
environmental, social, and economic considerations to promote equitable and ecologically
viable development. Example: The United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
exemplify the commitment to a more comprehensive and sustainable approach to social
change.
536
Post-development critiques that can challenge mainstream development.
perspectives.
1. Post-Development Critique: Post-development scholars argue that mainstream
development models perpetuate Western-centric ideologies, imposing homogenized
solutions on diverse societies. Arturo Escobar's "Encountering Development" critiques
universalizing approaches and emphasizes the importance of local knowledge in
development.
2. Cultural Imperialism and Ethnocentrism: Post-development critiques highlight how
mainstream development often leads to cultural imperialism, imposing Western values and
undermining indigenous knowledge. Edward Said's "Orientalism" critiques Eurocentric
biases in understanding and representing non-Western cultures.
3. Participatory Development: Post-development perspectives advocate for participatory
approaches that empower local communities in decision-making, challenging top-down
development models. Paulo Freire's "Pedagogy of the Oppressed" influences participatory
development by emphasizing dialogue and empowering marginalized voices.
4. Local Knowledge and Practices: Post-development theorists argue for the recognition and
integration of local knowledge and practices, challenging the imposition of external,
standardized solutions. Vandana Shiva's work on ecofeminism emphasizes the importance
of indigenous knowledge in sustainable development.
5. Economic Alternatives: Post-development critiques challenge the dominant economic
paradigm, suggesting alternative models that prioritize social well-being and ecological
sustainability. Example: E.F. Schumacher's "Small Is Beautiful" advocates for appropriate,
small-scale technologies and locally centered economic systems.
6. Deconstruction of Development Discourse: Post-development perspectives engage in the
deconstruction of development discourse, questioning its assumptions and advocating for
pluralistic, context-specific understandings of progress. Michel Foucault's ideas on discourse
analysis inform the examination of power relations embedded in development narratives.
The trajectory of development perspectives on social change is marked by a dynamic evolution over
time, reflecting shifting paradigms and responses to global challenges. The current emphasis on the
Sustainable Development Paradigm reflects a growing recognition of the interdependence of
economic, social, and environmental factors. This trajectory underscores the complexity of
development theories, calling for nuanced, interdisciplinary perspectives that acknowledge the
diverse experiences and contexts in the pursuit of meaningful social change.
537
Question 6.
a) According to Mead the idea of self develops when the individual becomes
self-conscious. Explain. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Explain idea of self by Mead.
 Explain how according to Mead the individual becomes self-conscious.
 Explain short comings of ‘theory of self’ given by Mead.
 Conclude.
Solution:
According to Mead, the self is not a fixed entity but emerges through a dynamic interplay of the "I"
and the "me." The "I" represents the spontaneous and impulsive aspect of the self, while the "me"
signifies the socialized and reflective dimension, shaped by societal norms and expectations. In
essence, the self is a fluid and socially constructed entity, evolving through social interactions and
reflective processes, highlighting the significance of social context in shaping individual identity
and behaviour.
The individual becomes self-conscious.
1. Symbolic Interaction and Role-Taking: According to Mead, self-consciousness emerges
through symbolic interaction and role-taking. Individuals learn to take on the perspective of
others, anticipating how they will react in a given situation. Herbert Blumer, a proponent of
symbolic interactionism and a student of Mead, extended these ideas in his work,
emphasizing the role of interpretation and communication in social interaction.
2. The Play Stage: Mead identifies the play stage in childhood as crucial for the development
of self-consciousness. During this stage, children engage in imaginative play, taking on the
roles of significant others. Example: Observations of children engaging in role-playing
activities in educational settings illustrate the early stages of developing self-consciousness.
3. The Generalized Other: Mead introduces the concept of the generalized other, representing
an internalized understanding of societal expectations and norms. This internalization
contributes to self-consciousness. Erving Goffman's dramaturgical approach complements
Mead's ideas, emphasizing the presentation of self in everyday interactions and the influence
of societal expectations.
4. Socialization and Significant Others: Through socialization, individuals encounter
significant others (such as family, peers, and teachers) who shape their understanding of
social roles and expectations, fostering self-consciousness. Example: Studies on the impact of
family dynamics and peer groups on the development of self-consciousness exemplify the
role of socialization.
5. The Looking Glass Self: Mead's idea of the looking glass self suggests that individuals form
their self-concept by imagining how others perceive them. This reflective process contributes
to self-consciousness. Charles Horton Cooley's work on the looking glass self-complements
Mead's ideas, emphasizing the role of social feedback in shaping self-perception.
538
6. Language and Symbols: Mead underscores the importance of language and symbols in the
development of self-consciousness. Through linguistic interaction, individuals gain a deeper
understanding of societal expectations. Example: Analysing online communication and its
impact on identity formation demonstrates the contemporary role of language and symbols
in shaping self-consciousness in a digital age.
Short comings of ‘theory of self’ given by Mead.
1. Overemphasis on Symbolic Interaction: Critics argue that Mead's theory of self-places
excessive emphasis on symbolic interaction, potentially neglecting other factors that
contribute to individual identity and consciousness. Erich Fromm's social psychological
theories highlight the role of social structures and economic systems in shaping individual
identity, providing a broader perspective.
2. Limited Attention to Structural Constraints: Mead's focus on the agency of individuals may
overlook the impact of structural constraints and societal inequalities in shaping self-identity.
Pierre Bourdieu's concept of habitus emphasizes how social structures and class positions
influence individuals' dispositions and self-perceptions.
3. Cultural Variations in Self-Concept: Mead's theory may not fully account for cultural
variations in the construction of self-concept, as different societies may have diverse norms
and expectations. Clifford Geertz argue for an understanding of self-concept within the
specific cultural contexts in which individuals are embedded.
4. Neglect of Emotional Dimensions: Mead's theory is critiqued for not adequately addressing
the emotional dimensions of self-formation, such as the role of emotions in shaping identity
and consciousness. The work of Arlie Hochschild on emotional labour and the sociology of
emotions provides insights into the emotional aspects of selfhood.
5. Underestimation of Unconscious Influences: Critics argue that Mead's focus on conscious
role-taking may underestimate the role of unconscious influences and innate predispositions
in the development of self. Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theories highlight the
significance of the unconscious mind in shaping behavior and identity.
6. Situational Context and Power Dynamics: Mead's theory may not sufficiently address the
impact of situational contexts and power dynamics on the negotiation of self-identity,
particularly in unequal social relations. Michel Foucault's discourse analysis and power
dynamics framework provide insights into how societal power structures influence
individual subjectivities.
Mead's theory underscores the social nature of the self, emphasizing how interaction, role-taking,
and the internalization of societal norms contribute to the emergence of self-consciousness and the
development of a complex, socially constructed individual identity.
539
b) Analyse the nature of transition from ideology to identity politics India.

(20 Marks)
Structure:
 Explain identity politics.
 Explain transition from ideology to identity politics India.
 Examine the impact of identity politics on the overall political discourse in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Identity politics refers to political mobilization and activism based on shared social identities, such
as race, gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, religion, or other markers of social belonging. In
identity politics, individuals unite around common experiences of discrimination, marginalization,
or shared historical struggles to advocate for the rights, recognition, and representation of their
specific identity group.
Transition from ideology to identity politics India:
1. Shift from Ideology to Identity: In India, the transition from ideology to identity politics
reflects a shift from overarching political ideologies, such as socialism or secularism, towards
a more nuanced focus on specific identity-based concerns. Example: The emergence of
regional parties like the Shiv Sena in Maharashtra, which initially focused on regional
development but later shifted to identity-based politics, illustrates this transition.
2. Mobilization around Identity Markers: The shift involves political mobilization around
identity markers like caste, religion, and ethnicity, where political agendas are framed to
address the specific interests of these identity groups. Benedict Anderson's concept of
imagined communities and Partha Chatterjee's theories on political society influence this
transition by emphasizing the role of identity in shaping political affiliations.
3. Backward Castes and Reservation Movements: The assertion of backward castes for social
and economic rights through reservation movements signifies a shift towards identity-based
politics, challenging the dominance of traditional ideological frameworks. Example: The
Mandal Commission's recommendations and subsequent protests in the late 20th century
exemplify the politicization of caste identities in India.
4. Religious Identity and Communal Politics: Communal politics based on religious identity
has gained prominence, with parties and movements mobilizing communities around shared
religious affiliations. Talal Asad's work on religion in the public sphere contributes to
understanding how religious identity becomes a focal point in political discourse.
5. Identity as Electoral Strategy: Parties increasingly use identity-based appeals as electoral
strategies, recognizing the potency of addressing specific identity concerns to garner support.
Example: The rise of regional parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in Uttar Pradesh,
which focuses on Dalit identity, exemplifies the electoral dimension of identity politics.
6. Media and Framing of Identity Issues: The role of media in framing identity issues and
portraying them as central to political discourse has played a significant role in the transition
from ideology to identity politics. Example: Media coverage of identity-based movements,
like the Jat reservation protests in Haryana, contributes to shaping public perceptions and
political agendas.
540
Impact of identity politics on the overall political discourse in India.
1. Polarization and Fragmentation: Identity politics in India has contributed to increased
polarization and fragmentation along religious, caste, and ethnic lines, shaping political
discourse around group identities. The concept of primordialism, Anthony D. Smith, helps
understand how identity politics can reinforce perceived historical and cultural differences,
contributing to polarization.
2. Electoral Strategies and Voting Patterns: Political parties strategically use identity-based
appeals to target specific voter blocs, influencing voting patterns and electoral outcomes.
Example: The Bharatiya Janata Party's (BJP) focus on Hindutva and the Bahujan Samaj Party's
(BSP) emphasis on Dalit identity illustrate how parties incorporate identity into their electoral
strategies.
3. Policy Formulation and Implementation: Identity politics has influenced policy formulation
and implementation, with governments often catering to the demands and expectations of
specific identity groups. Michel Foucault's ideas on power dynamics and governmentality
provide insights into how identity-based pressures can shape state policies.
4. Media Representation and Public Opinion: The media plays a crucial role in framing
identity issues, influencing public opinion and contributing to the prominence of identity-
based narratives in political discourse. Example: Media coverage of issues related to identity,
such as debates on reservations or religious conflicts, shapes public perceptions.
5. Identity-Based Movements and Protests: Identity politics has led to the rise of social
movements and protests demanding recognition, rights, and representation for specific
identity groups. Charles Tilly's theory of social movements helps understand how collective
action around identity issues can shape political discourse and bring about change.
6. Challenges to Secularism: Identity politics has posed challenges to the secular fabric of
Indian politics, as religious and caste-based identities often take precedence over broader
ideological considerations. Example: The Ayodhya dispute and the subsequent political
mobilization around it highlight how religious identity can influence political discourse and
challenge the secular ethos.
Identity politics has become a dominant force, influencing policy decisions, electoral strategies,
and shaping the contours of political discourse in contemporary India. This transition underscores
the dynamic interplay between socio-cultural identities and political dynamics, signaling a
nuanced evolution in the country's political landscape.
541
c) How do-little tradition and great tradition coexist in contemporary Indian

society? (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Explain Little tradition and Great Tradition.
 Explore how the do-little tradition and great tradition coexist.
 Address any challenges arising from the coexistence of the do-little and great traditions.
 Conclude.
Solution:
"Little tradition" refers to localized, community-specific customs, rituals, and practices deeply
embedded in the day-to-day life of specific regions or groups within a society. These traditions are
often informal, vernacular, and may escape the attention of mainstream discourse.
"Great tradition" encompasses broader, pan-Indian or overarching cultural and religious practices
that are more widely recognized and institutionalized. These traditions often represent
standardized cultural frameworks and are prevalent across a larger social and geographical
spectrum.
Both coexists:
1. Integration in Festivals and Rituals: The coexistence of do-little and great traditions is
evident in various festivals and rituals. M.N. Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization"
highlights how local practices are often adapted to align with the norms of the great tradition.
For example, festivals like Diwali or Holi may incorporate both local customs and broader
religious practices, showcasing the integration of the two traditions.
2. Social Structure and Caste Dynamics: Louis Dumont's theory of hierarchy and caste
systems is relevant in understanding the coexistence of traditions within social structures.
Localized caste practices (do-little) exist alongside broader societal norms influenced by the
great tradition. The persistence of caste-based practices in marriage rituals or social
interactions illustrates the complex interplay between the two traditions.
3. Everyday Life Practices: The coexistence of do-little and great traditions is observable in
daily life practices. Robert Redfield's concept of "little traditions" and "great traditions"
emphasizes how localized customs shape everyday life. An example is the simultaneous
adherence to regional dietary practices and broader religious dietary guidelines,
demonstrating the multifaceted nature of food habits.
4. Religious Syncretism and Worship: The coexistence is exemplified in religious syncretism
and worship. T.N. Madan's work on religious pluralism in India illustrates how local deities
and practices coexist with broader religious traditions. Pilgrimages to both local shrines and
major religious centers showcase the dynamic interaction between the two traditions.
5. Language and Vernacular Expressions: A.K. Ramanujan's ideas on language and cultural
expressions are pertinent to understanding the coexistence of do-little and great traditions.
Vernacular languages, dialects, and local idioms persist alongside the broader linguistic
norms influenced by the great tradition. This is evident in literature, oral traditions, and
colloquial language expressions.
542
6. Challenges and Adaptations: Partha Chatterjee's concept of "subaltern studies" is relevant
for understanding challenges and adaptations in the coexistence of traditions. Marginalized
groups often negotiate with both do-little and great traditions, adapting to changing societal
norms. Examples include subaltern communities navigating cultural changes while
preserving indigenous practices, showcasing the intricate interplay between the two
traditions.
Challenges arising from the coexistence of the do-little and great traditions.
1. Cultural Hegemony and Resistance: The coexistence of little and great traditions can lead to
tensions related to cultural hegemony, where the dominant great tradition influences and
marginalizes local practices. Sociologist Antonio Gramsci's concept of cultural hegemony is
relevant here. Recent examples include indigenous communities resisting the imposition of
mainstream cultural norms to preserve their distinctive little traditions.
2. Modernization and Globalization Impact: The impact of modernization and globalization
can create tensions between little and great traditions. Ulrich Beck's theory of "risk society"
highlights how global trends may challenge and even erode localized customs. Recent
examples include the encroachment of Western consumerism affecting traditional local
economies and practices.
3. Conflicts in Religious Practices: Religious tensions may arise due to differences in little and
great traditions. Peter Berger's concept of the "sacred canopy" illustrates how religious beliefs
provide a shared reality. Conflicts may emerge when local religious practices clash with
broader religious norms, as seen in debates over rituals and worship practices.
4. Identity Politics and Social Movements: Charles Taylor's exploration of identity politics is
relevant in understanding tensions related to the coexistence of traditions. Identity-based
social movements may emerge as communities assert their little traditions against perceived
threats from the great tradition. Recent examples include movements advocating for the
protection of regional languages and cultural practices.
5. Economic Disparities and Social Inequality: Economic disparities may exacerbate tensions
between little and great traditions. Pierre Bourdieu's theory of social capital highlights how
economic inequalities can influence cultural practices. For instance, commercialization and
tourism may exploit local traditions, leading to tensions between economic interests and the
preservation of authentic little traditions.
6. Media and Cultural Homogenization: The role of media in shaping cultural narratives can
contribute to tensions. Marshall McLuhan's ideas on the global village and cultural
homogenization highlight the influence of media on cultural practices. Recent examples
include debates over the representation of local customs in mainstream media, with concerns
about misrepresentation or cultural appropriation.
In conclusion, the coexistence of do-little tradition and great tradition in contemporary Indian
society represents a dynamic interplay between localized customs and overarching cultural norms.
This complex relationship is shaped by historical, social, and economic factors, giving rise to a rich
tapestry of traditions that define the diverse identity of the nation. While tensions and challenges
may arise from this coexistence, the resilience and adaptability of Indian society are evident in the
simultaneous preservation of indigenous practices and the incorporation of broader cultural
influences. The synergy between little and great traditions reflects the ongoing negotiation of
identities, contributing to the vibrant and multifaceted nature of India's cultural landscape.
Understanding this interplay is essential for sociological analysis, offering profound insights into
the intricate mechanisms shaping the sociocultural fabric of contemporary India.
543
Question 7.
a) Critically analyse Parsons views on society as a social system. (20 Marks)
Parsons' ideas on social systems and his theory of action or action approach are rooted in the
thinking of his predecessors. In his monumental book The Structure of Social Action (1937) Parsons
has reviewed the contributions of many social scientists, but gave special emphasis to Pareto,
Durkheim and Max Weber.
Parsons divides earlier contributions into three broad schools of thought, viz., the utilitarian, the
positivist, and the idealist. The utilitarians see social action in a highly individualist fashion. They
emphasise utilitarian rational calculation but at the level of the individual. For this reason they are
unable to accommodate the fact that social life is collectively cohesive and not a random effect.
Parsons own approach to the social system is integrative in nature since he not only brought out the
significance of motivational factors, such as those present in the utilitarian perspective in the
formation of the system, but also that of values. He formulates this approach through his theory of
social action, which is an intrinsic element of the social system. Action, according to Parsons (1973)
does not take place in isolation. It is not "empirically discrete but occurs in constellations" which constitute
systems.
Parsons' social system theory, also known as structural functionalism, is a theoretical framework
that views society as a complex system composed of interconnected parts. Here are the key elements
and concepts of Parsons' social system theory:
1. System: Parsons conceptualized society as a social system, likening it to a biological
organism. He emphasized the interdependence and interconnections between various social
institutions, such as family, education, economy, and religion, which work together to
maintain social order.
2. Functionalism: Parsons argued that social systems have functional imperatives that are
necessary for their survival and stability. These imperatives include adaptation, goal
attainment, integration, and latency.
Adaptation: Society must adapt to its environment and adjust its norms, values, and practices to
meet changing circumstances.
Goal attainment: Society establishes and achieves goals, such as economic growth, political
stability, and social progress.
Integration: Social systems require mechanisms to ensure social cohesion, cooperation, and
solidarity among individuals and groups.
Latency: Social systems need to maintain patterns of cultural values and socialization to ensure
continuity across generations.
3. Social Roles and Institutions: Parsons emphasized the importance of social roles and
institutions in social systems. Roles are sets of expected behaviors associated with particular
positions in society, while institutions are structured patterns of social relationships and
practices.
4. Social Change and Evolution: Parsons recognized that societies undergo changes over time.
He posited that societies evolve through a process of structural differentiation, where new
specialized institutions emerge to fulfill specific functions. He also acknowledged that social
change can lead to strain and instability, requiring social systems to adapt to new
circumstances.
544
Criticisms
Parsons' social system theory has faced various criticisms, including:
 Overemphasis on social order and stability, neglecting social conflict, power dynamics, and
inequalities within society.
 Limited attention to the agency of individuals and the role of social change in transforming
social systems.
 Critics argue that functionalism can justify and reinforce existing social inequalities and
oppressive structures.
Despite these criticisms, Parsons' social system theory has influenced the field of sociology and
provided a framework for understanding the complexity and interconnectedness of social systems.
545
b) Discuss how 'environmentalism' can be explained with new social

movements approach. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Definition of environmentalism and the concept of the new social movements.
 Discuss how the new social movements approach can be applied to understanding
environmentalism.
 Acknowledge any challenges associated with applying the new social movements
approach to environmentalism.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Environmentalism refers to a social and political movement aimed at addressing environmental
concerns, promoting sustainable practices, and advocating for the conservation of natural
resources. It encompasses a range of activities, from grassroots activism to policy advocacy, with
the overarching goal of fostering ecological balance and mitigating human impact on the
environment.
The concept of the new social movements represents a theoretical framework that expands beyond
traditional class-based movements. Developed in the late 20th century, this approach emphasizes
issues related to identity, quality of life, cultural change, and non-hierarchical structures. It
recognizes that modern social movements, including environmentalism, are driven by a diverse
set of concerns, engaging individuals across various social categories and challenging existing
power structures through collective action and cultural critique.
New social movements can be applied:
 Emphasis on Identity and Quality of Life: The new social movements approach underscores
the significance of identity politics and the pursuit of an improved quality of life. Applied to
environmentalism, this translates into movements that go beyond class distinctions and
incorporate diverse identities, as individuals unite around shared environmental concerns.
Alberto Melucci's theory of collective identity and the importance of personal narratives in
social movements align with this perspective.
 Non-hierarchical Structures and Grassroots Activism: Environmental movements often
exhibit non-hierarchical structures and emphasize grassroots activism. The new social
movements approach recognizes the importance of decentralized organizational structures,
where leadership is distributed, fostering a participatory and inclusive ethos among activists.
Manuel Castells' work on the network society and the role of grassroots movements in
shaping societal change is relevant here.
 Cultural Critique and Alternative Lifestyles: Environmentalism, when viewed through the
new social movements lens, involves a cultural critique of prevailing norms and practices
that contribute to environmental degradation. Movements often promote alternative
lifestyles, challenging mainstream consumerist patterns. Ulrich Beck's concept of the risk
society and the redefinition of lifestyles as responses to environmental risks is applicable.
 Intersectionality and Multiple Identities: The new social movements approach recognizes
intersectionality, acknowledging that individuals hold multiple identities.
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In environmentalism, this means considering how environmental issues intersect with other
social categories such as gender, race, and class. Kimberlé Crenshaw's intersectionality
theory is relevant for understanding the layered nature of identities within environmental
movements.
 Global Connectivity and Transnational Activism: Environmental movements often
transcend national boundaries, engaging in transnational activism. The new social
movements approach emphasizes the interconnectedness of global issues, highlighting how
environmental concerns mobilize activists globally. Arjun Appadurai's work on global
cultural flows and the role of transnational networks in shaping social movements can be
applied.
 Social Media and Mobilization: The new social movements approach acknowledges the role
of technology, particularly social media, in mobilizing activists. In environmentalism, social
media platforms facilitate communication, coordination, and the dissemination of
information, contributing to movement strength. Manuel Castells' theory of the networked
society and the transformative impact of digital communication on social movements aligns
with this aspect.
Challenges:
 Fragmentation and Internal Conflicts: The application of the new social movements
approach to environmentalism may face challenges related to internal fragmentation and
conflicts within movements. Diverse identities and interests within the environmental
movement can lead to tensions and hinder cohesive collective action. Zygmunt Bauman's
concept of liquid modernity and the challenges of maintaining collective solidarity in a
rapidly changing world provide insights into internal conflicts within movements.
 Co-optation by Mainstream Institutions: Environmental movements adopting the new
social movements approach may face co-optation by mainstream institutions, diluting their
radical objectives. This challenge arises when movements become incorporated into existing
power structures, compromising their transformative potential. Antonio Gramsci's theory of
cultural hegemony and the risk of co-optation when movements become part of the dominant
culture is relevant.
 Ineffective Policy Impact: Despite mobilization and activism, environmental movements
applying the new social movements approach may struggle to translate their goals into
effective policy changes. Structural barriers and resistance from established political systems
can impede policy impact. Pierre Bourdieu's concept of symbolic power and the challenges
of translating symbolic capital into tangible political influence shed light on this aspect.
 Limited Inclusivity and Exclusivity: The emphasis on identity politics within the new social
movements approach might inadvertently lead to exclusivity within environmental
movements. Some identities or groups may feel marginalized, hindering the inclusivity
essential for a broader and more impactful movement. Iris Marion Young's theory of the
politics of difference and the challenge of inclusive deliberation within diverse movements
provides insights into this challenge.
 Global-Local Imbalances: Environmental movements emphasizing global connectivity may
face imbalances between global and local concerns. The prioritization of global issues might
neglect local contexts and fail to address specific environmental challenges faced by local
communities.
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Arjun Appadurai's concept of global cultural flows and the potential disconnect between
global narratives and local realities can inform the analysis of this challenge.
 Technological Inequalities and Access: The reliance on technology, a key aspect of the new
social movements approach, may exacerbate existing inequalities. Limited access to digital
platforms and technology can exclude certain groups from participating fully in
environmental movements. Manuel Castells' theory of the digital divide and its implications
for social participation highlight the challenges associated with technology-driven
movements.
This new social movements approach remains invaluable in unpacking the multifaceted dynamics
of environmental movements, by shedding light on their transformative potential and contributing
to broader sociological discussions on social change and activism.
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c) Illustrate with examples the role of pressure groups in the formulation of

social policies, (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define pressure groups.
 Explain Role of pressure groups in formulation of social practices with examples.
 Explain challenges faced by pressure groups in formulation of social practices.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Pressure groups, are organized entities formed by individuals or organizations with shared
interests, goals, or concerns. These groups actively engage in influencing public policies and
decisions by employing various strategies such as lobbying, public campaigns, and advocacy efforts.
Unlike political parties, pressure groups do not seek direct political power but focus on shaping
policies and influencing decision-makers to align with their specific agendas.
Role of pressure groups:

1. Influence on Education Policies: Pressure groups often play a significant role in shaping
education policies by advocating for changes in curriculum, inclusive practices, or
educational access. For example, disability advocacy groups may push for inclusive
education policies, drawing on the theories of Michel Foucault, who highlighted the power
dynamics inherent in educational institutions.
2. Advocacy for Gender Equality: Feminist pressure groups have been instrumental in
influencing social practices related to gender equality. Drawing on feminist theories by
thinkers such as Simone de Beauvoir, these groups advocate for policy changes to address
issues like equal pay, reproductive rights, and the elimination of gender-based violence.
3. Environmental Policy Reform: Environmental pressure groups, inspired by ecological
thinkers like Rachel Carson, actively engage in shaping social practices related to
environmental conservation. These groups advocate for policy changes to address issues like
climate change, sustainable development, and conservation practices, influencing societal
attitudes towards the environment.
4. Healthcare Advocacy: Health-focused pressure groups contribute to the formulation of
social practices in healthcare. For instance, groups advocating for mental health reforms may
draw on sociological theories like Erving Goffman's concepts of stigma to push for
destigmatization and improved mental health policies.
5. Criminal Justice Reform: Pressure groups focused on criminal justice reforms, influenced by
thinkers like Michel Foucault and his critique of the penal system, work towards changing
social practices related to law enforcement and incarceration. These groups may advocate for
policies emphasizing rehabilitation over punitive measures.
6. Social Justice Movements: Movements like Black Lives Matter, drawing on critical race
theory, exemplify pressure groups influencing social practices related to racial justice and
equality. These groups advocate for policy changes addressing systemic racism, police
brutality, and promoting inclusivity, thereby shaping broader societal norms.
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Challenges:
1. Internal Fragmentation and Conflicts: Pressure groups often face internal challenges such
as ideological differences, conflicting interests, or power struggles within the group. This
internal fragmentation can hinder the group's effectiveness in advocating for social practices.
Zygmunt Bauman's theory of liquid modernity highlights the fluid and fragmented nature
of contemporary societies, contributing to internal challenges within pressure groups.
2. Co-optation by Mainstream Institutions: There is a risk that pressure groups may be co-opted
by mainstream institutions, compromising their radical objectives. Antonio Gramsci's
concept of cultural hegemony emphasizes how dominant ideologies can absorb and
neutralize dissenting voices, impacting the autonomy of pressure groups.
3. Limited Inclusivity and Representation: Pressure groups may face challenges in ensuring
broad inclusivity and representation of diverse voices. This can lead to the exclusion of
marginalized groups or perspectives, hindering the group's ability to address the full
spectrum of social practices. Iris Marion Young's theory of the politics of difference
underscores the importance of inclusive deliberation within diverse movements.
4. Resistance from Established Power Structures: Existing power structures may resist the
influence of pressure groups, particularly if their advocacy threatens established interests.
Pierre Bourdieu's concept of symbolic power illuminates how resistance from dominant
groups can limit the impact of pressure group efforts.
5. Ineffective Translation of Symbolic Capital: Pressure groups may struggle to translate their
symbolic capital, such as public support or awareness, into tangible political influence or
policy changes. Bourdieu's theories on symbolic capital and the challenges of converting it
into political capital are pertinent here.
6. Technological Inequalities and Access: The reliance on technology for advocacy efforts may
exacerbate existing inequalities, as some groups may have limited access to digital platforms.
Manuel Castells' theory of the digital divide underscores the potential exclusion of certain
segments of society from technological-driven movements.
While pressure groups contribute significantly to democratic governance by amplifying diverse

voices and holding policymakers accountable, and limited inclusivity underscore the need for
ongoing scrutiny and refinement of their approaches.
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Question 8.
a) Sociologists argue for democratization of science and technology for
inclusive development. Comment. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Define the terms "democratization of science and technology" and "inclusive
development."
 Explain why democratization of science and technology for inclusive development.
 Explain the challenges faced related to the democratization of science and technology.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The "democratization of science and technology" refers to the equitable distribution of scientific
knowledge, tools, and advancements across diverse segments of society, ensuring widespread
access and participation in the benefits of technological progress. It advocates for inclusivity in the
scientific enterprise, empowering individuals and communities from varied social, economic, and
cultural backgrounds.
"Inclusive development" embodies a socio-economic approach that aims to distribute the benefits
of development processes equitably, leaving no section of society marginalized. In the context of
sociology, inclusive development strives for social justice, addressing disparities in access to
resources and opportunities.
Need for democratization of science and technology for inclusive development.
1. Empowerment of Marginalized Groups: Michel Foucault's concept of power relations
highlights how knowledge is central to social power structures. Democratizing science and
technology enables marginalized groups to gain knowledge, challenging traditional power
dynamics. Recent Example: Grassroots movements using technology for social justice, such
as the Black Lives Matter movement leveraging social media.
2. Social Integration and Cohesion: Emile Durkheim's emphasis on social integration
underscores the importance of societal cohesion. Democratizing science and technology can
bridge gaps by providing common platforms for interaction, reducing social disparities.
Recent Example: Online educational platforms breaking geographical barriers, fostering
education for all.
3. Economic Equality and Social Mobility: Karl Marx's critique of capitalism focuses on
economic inequality. Democratization of science and technology can create opportunities for
economic empowerment and social mobility. Recent Example: Open-source software
development communities providing avenues for individuals irrespective of economic
background.
4. Cultural Diversity and Representation: Stuart Hall's cultural studies emphasize the role of
representation in shaping societal perceptions. Democratizing science and technology
ensures diverse voices contribute to innovation, preventing cultural hegemony. Recent
Example: Efforts to include diverse voices in artificial intelligence development to avoid
biased algorithms.
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5. Knowledge as a Public Good: Jürgen Habermas's theory of communicative action
emphasizes the importance of open and inclusive discourse. Democratizing science and
technology aligns with the idea of knowledge as a public good, fostering democratic
deliberation. Recent Example: Open-access journals promoting the dissemination of research
beyond academic circles.
6. Environmental Sustainability: Ulrich Beck's theory of the risk society underscores the
interconnectedness of technology and environmental challenges. Democratization of science
and technology can facilitate solutions for sustainable development. Recent Example: Citizen
science projects contributing valuable data to monitor and address environmental issues.
Challenges:
1. Digital Divide and Inequality: Manuel Castells' network society theory highlights the role
of information and communication technologies. The digital divide, where some have access
to technology while others do not, exacerbates existing social inequalities. Recent Example:
Disparities in internet access impacting online education during the COVID-19 pandemic.
2. Power Imbalances and Technological Determinism: Langdon Winner's concept of
technological determinism emphasizes how certain technologies shape social structures and
power relations. The control over emerging technologies often lies in the hands of powerful
entities, leading to unequal distribution of benefits. Recent Example: Concerns over the
monopolistic control of big tech companies impacting democratic processes.
3. Ethical Dilemmas and Social Values: Albert Borgmann's critique of the technological
society focuses on the erosion of meaningful engagement with the world. Democratizing
technology may face challenges when it comes into conflict with ethical values and societal
norms. Recent Example: Debates surrounding the ethical implications of artificial intelligence
and privacy concerns.
4. Cultural Resistance and Identity Threats: Pierre Bourdieu's cultural capital theory
emphasizes the significance of cultural resources. Democratization of technology may face
resistance from cultural groups fearing the erosion of their identity and unique ways of life.
Recent Example: Indigenous communities resisting the implementation of certain
technologies that threaten their cultural heritage.
5. Globalization and Neo-Colonialism: Immanuel Wallerstein's world-system theory
examines global economic structures. The spread of technology may perpetuate neo-colonial
dynamics, where powerful nations dictate the technological agenda, limiting autonomy for
others. Recent Example: The dominance of Western tech companies shaping global digital
landscapes.
6. Technological Unemployment and Social Displacement: Karl Polanyi's idea of the double
movement explores the social consequences of economic changes. Democratization of
technology, while creating opportunities, may also lead to job displacement and social unrest.
Recent Example: Automation in industries contributing to job losses and the need for re-
skilling programs.
The sociological imperative for the democratization of science and technology to achieve inclusive
development is rooted in the discipline's commitment to social justice, equality, and the
dismantling of power differentials. As echoed by thinkers such as Michel Foucault, Emile
Durkheim, and Jürgen Habermas, ensuring universal access to knowledge and technological
advancements empowers marginalized communities, fosters social cohesion, and democratizes
decision-making processes.
552
b) Are traditional social institutions getting weakened as agents of social

change in the contemporary society? Substantiate. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Explain Traditional Social institutions.
 Explain Agents of Social Change.
 Discuss How Social change and weakening of traditional institutions. (with examples)
 Conclude.
Solution
Institutions, such as the family, education, religion, government, economy, and healthcare, have
historical and cultural significance, providing a framework for social order and stability. They
allocate roles, socialize individuals, and transmit cultural knowledge. Traditional social institutions
exhibit formal structures, resistance to change, and persist over time, shaping individuals' identities
and shaping social cohesion. However, they are not static and can undergo adaptations or
transformations in response to societal changes.
Three Basic Factors Of Social Change

 Discovery – it can inspire shifts in attitudes, behaviours, and policies, leading to
transformative social change.
 Invention - Invention is the new combination or a new use of existing knowledge, for
example, the assembling of the computer from an already existing idea. The idea of
combining them was new.
 Diffusion - Diffusion refers to the spread of cultural traits from one group to another. It
operates both within and between societies. It takes place whenever societies come into
contact. Diffusion is a two-way process. The British gave us their language and made tea an
important ritual.
Exogenous And Endogenous Origin of Change
 Some sociologists have offered a distinction between endogenous change (change originating
from within) and exogenous change (change originating outside).
 It can be argued that wars (exogenous origin) have played an active part in bringing about
major social changes in societies across the world.
 Again, it could be said that in the modern world, the change taking place in the developing
countries have been stimulated to a large extent, by western technology which was
introduced in most cases following colonial rule.
 But in all societies, including those in which the initial impetus has come from outside, social
change has dependent to a great extent upon the activities of various social groups within
the society.
 A major part of sociological analysis consists in identifying the sphere and groups, that are
principally affected, and the ways in which innovations are diffused from one sphere to
another.
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Factors That Affect Direction And Rate Of Social Change
 Geography and Ecology
 Population
 Technology
 Values and Beliefs (protestant ethics & spirit of capitalism)
 Role of individuals
Social Change And Weakening Of Traditional Institutions
1. Max Weber's concept of rationalization suggests that bureaucratic structures and
rationalized systems in modern society can displace traditional social institutions. For
example, as governmental institutions expand and take over certain functions, traditional
institutions like extended families may lose their influence in decision-making processes and
social support systems.
2. Anthony Giddens proposed the theory of "structuration," emphasizing the reciprocal
relationship between individuals and institutions. In contemporary society, individuals are
increasingly empowered to shape institutions rather than being passive recipients. This can
weaken the power dynamics within traditional institutions and open up spaces for
alternative forms of social change.
3. Emile Durkheim argued that modern societies undergo a transition from mechanical
solidarity, characterized by strong collective consciousness and shared values, to organic
solidarity, marked by a division of labor and individualism. This shift weakens the influence
of traditional social institutions that once held authority over individuals' behaviours and
beliefs.
4. The decline of religious institutions: Peter Berger noted the process of secularization, where
religious beliefs and practices lose influence in society due to the rise of scientific explanations
and pluralism. Religious institutions have weakened as agents of social change, as
individuals adopt more diverse beliefs or become disconnected from religious affiliations.
5. Changing family dynamics: Judith Stacey highlighted the transformation of family
structures, such as the rise of non-traditional family arrangements, single-parent households,
and cohabitation. These shifts challenge the traditional family institution and its role as a
primary agent of socialization.
6. Erosion of political institutions: Ulrich Beck argued that traditional political institutions face
challenges from social movements and citizen engagement. Activism and grassroots
movements demand more participatory decision-making, accountability, and transparency,
challenging the authority of established political institutions.
7. Transformation of education: Pierre Bourdieu emphasized how education institutions
perpetuate social inequalities through unequal access and reproduction of social class
structures. Alternative education models and digital platforms challenge traditional
educational institutions, fostering new modes of learning and knowledge dissemination.
8. Changing gender roles: Simone de Beauvoir and feminist theorists have critiqued
traditional gender roles, advocating for gender equality and challenging institutions that
perpetuate gender-based hierarchies and discrimination.
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9. Human rights movements: Movements advocating for human rights, such as civil rights,
LGBTQ+ rights, and indigenous rights, have challenged discriminatory practices upheld by
traditional institutions, leading to social change and legal reforms.
10. Social media and digital activism: The rise of social media platforms has facilitated the
mobilization of individuals and communities around social causes, bypassing traditional
institutions and enabling decentralized forms of activism.
11. Generational shifts: Younger generations often exhibit different values, priorities, and
expectations compared to older generations, leading to generational tensions and a
questioning of traditional institutions that may not align with contemporary social realities.
12. Secularization: The rise of secularism and the decline in religious adherence have diminished
the authority and influence of religious institutions in shaping societal values, moral codes,
and social norms.
Traditional social institutions can still act as agents of social change by adapting
and evolving to meet the needs of a changing society.
1. Religion as an Agent of Social Change: For instance, the Civil Rights Movement in the
United States was strongly influenced by religious leaders and organizations, such as Martin
Luther King Jr., who drew upon Christian principles of justice and equality to challenge racial
segregation. Max Weber highlighted the transformative potential of religious ideas and
values in his concept of the "Protestant Ethic," which emphasized the role of religious beliefs
in facilitating the emergence of capitalism and modernization.
2. Education as an Agent of Social Change educational institutions continue to be vital agents
of social change by challenging existing norms and promoting critical thinking. In recent
years, schools and universities have played a crucial role in raising awareness about social
issues such as gender equality, LGBTQ+ rights, and racial justice.
Paulo Freire highlighted the transformative potential of education, emphasizing the importance of
critical consciousness and empowering marginalized groups to challenge oppressive structures
3. Family as an Agent of Social Change: The traditional institution of the family can also act as
an agent of social change.
For instance, changing family structures, such as single-parent households and same-sex parent
families, challenge traditional notions of the nuclear family and promote inclusivity and diversity.
Judith Stacey argued for a more expansive understanding of family beyond the traditional model,
highlighting the potential of diverse family structures to bring about social change and challenge
heteronormative norms.
4. Media as an Agent of Social Change: Mass media, as a prominent social institution, has the
capacity to shape public opinion, challenge dominant narratives, and facilitate social change.
For example, media outlets have played a crucial role in raising awareness about social issues like
climate change, gender inequality, and racial injustice.
Herbert Marcuse explored the concept of the "culture industry," highlighting how mass media can
either reinforce or challenge existing power structures, and how it can serve as a tool for social
transformation.
5. Political Institutions as Agents of Social Change: Political institutions, such as governments
and political parties, have the power to enact policy changes and drive social transformations.
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For example, the legalization of same-sex marriage in many countries was made possible through
political processes and institutions.
Anthony Giddens emphasized the importance of political institutions in facilitating social change,
arguing that democratic participation and policy reforms are essential for addressing societal
challenges and promoting progressive social change.
6. Intersectionality: which acknowledges the overlapping systems of oppression and privilege
that individuals experience based on their intersecting social identities, such as race, gender,
class, and religion.
Intersectional analyses recognize that traditional social institutions can simultaneously act as agents
of social change and perpetuate inequality.
For example, while religious institutions may promote social justice in some contexts, they can also
reinforce patriarchal or heteronormative power structures.
7. Gender roles : Judith Butler and Simone de Beauvoir have emphasized the performative
nature of gender, challenging the notion of fixed gender roles and advocating for gender
equality.
Efforts to challenge gender roles and promote gender equality include campaigns against gender-
based violence, advocacy for equal pay and opportunities in the workplace, and initiatives to
challenge gender stereotypes in media and education.
For example - The #MeToo movement, highlights the transformative power of collective action to
challenge patriarchal norms and bring about societal change.
Conclusion
These factors collectively contribute to the weakening of traditional social institutions as agents of
social change, as they face challenges from alternative ideologies, emerging social movements, and
evolving societal dynamics.
Modernization, rationalization, individual agency, and cultural shifts contribute to this
transformation, opening up spaces for alternative forms of social change and challenging the
established authority and norms upheld by traditional institutions.
556
c) How do you understand the relationship between patriarchy and social

development? (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define the terms "patriarchy" and "social development"
 Explain how patriarchy leads to social development.
 Explain challenges faced in social development due to patriarchal society.
 Conclude.
Solution:
"Patriarchy refers to a social system where power and authority are predominantly held by men,
shaping societal structures and norms to prioritize male dominance and control. It manifests in
various forms, influencing gender roles, expectations, and the distribution of resources within a
given society.
'Social development' encompasses the progressive improvement of societal well-being,
encompassing economic, political, and cultural dimensions. It involves advancements in education,
healthcare, gender equality, and overall quality of life.
Patriarchy can lead to social development.
1. Division of Labor and Efficiency: Talcott Parsons' structural functionalism suggests that
traditional gender roles within a patriarchal framework can lead to a more stable social
structure. According to this perspective, distinct gender roles may contribute to social
efficiency, allowing for specialization in tasks.
2. Social Stability and Order: Emile Durkheim's functionalism argues that social stability is
essential for development. Some proponents may argue that patriarchy provides a traditional
and stable social order, which can be perceived as a prerequisite for societal advancement.
3. Preservation of Cultural Values: Clifford Geertz's symbolic anthropology emphasizes the
importance of cultural values. Supporters of patriarchy might argue that it plays a role in
preserving traditional cultural values, contributing to social cohesion.
4. Economic Growth and Family Stability: George Murdock's functionalism suggests that
family structures contribute to economic growth. Some perspectives may argue that
patriarchy, by establishing clear gender roles, fosters family stability, which can positively
impact economic development.
5. Social Order and Control: Robert K. Merton's strain theory explores social order and
deviance. Proponents of certain patriarchal structures may argue that it provides a sense of
order and control, reducing societal deviance and contributing to overall social development.
6. Cultural Relativism and Local Development: Ruth Benedict's cultural relativism highlights
the importance of understanding cultural practices in their local context. Some arguments
may suggest that in certain societies, patriarchy is deeply ingrained in the cultural fabric and
may be perceived as contributing to local development within that specific cultural
framework.
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Challenges:
1. Gender Inequality in Education: Sylvia Walby's theory of patriarchy emphasizes the
interconnectedness of various social structures. In patriarchal societies, gender biases often
limit educational opportunities for women, hindering their access to knowledge and skills.
Example: Gender gaps in educational attainment persist in many societies, with girls facing
barriers in enrollment and retention.
2. Economic Disparities and Unequal Opportunities: Heidi Hartmann's concept of "the glass
ceiling" highlights gender-based obstacles to women's career advancement. Patriarchy
contributes to unequal pay, limited job opportunities, and challenges women's economic
independence. Example: Gender wage gaps persist globally, reflecting systemic barriers to
women's economic empowerment.
3. Gender-Based Violence and Social Instability: Raewyn Connell's theory of hegemonic
masculinity explores power dynamics in gender relations. Patriarchal societies often tolerate
or perpetuate gender-based violence, creating a culture of fear and instability. Example: High
rates of domestic violence and harassment in various societies illustrate the persistence of
patriarchal norms.
4. Limited Political Representation for Women: Anne Phillips explores the concept of political
representation. In patriarchal societies, women often face obstacles in entering political
spheres, limiting their ability to influence policy decisions. Example: Gender disparities in
political representation, with women underrepresented in many legislative bodies globally.
5. Reproductive Health Inequities: Sherry Ortner's feminist anthropology emphasizes
women's roles in societal structures. Patriarchal norms may contribute to limited
reproductive rights and healthcare access for women, affecting their overall well-being.
Example: Ongoing debates on women's reproductive rights and access to healthcare services
in various regions.
6. Cultural Stereotypes and Social Stigma: Erving Goffman's dramaturgical perspective
explores the role of stigma in social interactions. Patriarchal societies often perpetuate
harmful gender stereotypes, leading to social stigma and limiting individuals' opportunities
based on their gender. Example: Persistence of gender stereotypes impacting career choices
and societal expectations.
In conclusion, the relationship between patriarchy and social development is inherently complex,
marked by a pervasive tension between traditional power structures and the pursuit of inclusive
progress. While certain perspectives posit stability and order as potential benefits of patriarchal
norms, the overwhelming sociological consensus underscores the detrimental impact of patriarchy
on social development.
The entrenched gender inequalities perpetuated by patriarchal systems limit opportunities for
women, contributing to disparities in education, economic empowerment, and political
representation. The prevalence of gender-based violence and the perpetuation of harmful
stereotypes further hinder societal advancement.
558
Mains 2023
Section A
Question 1. Answer the following questions in about 150 words each
a) What is the distinctiveness of the feminist method of Social research.

Comment. (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Define feminist research methodology.
 Distinctive features of feminist method of social research
 Limitations of the feminist method
 Conclusion
Introduction:
 Feminist research methodology is an approach to inquiry that is based on understanding
gender-related issues, inequalities, and power dynamics. It seeks to challenge traditional
‘malestream’ research practices that have historically overlooked or marginalized women's
experiences and perspectives.
 Feminist Research ‘insists on the value of subjectivity and personal experience.’ – Naomi
Black.
Distinctiveness of the feminist method:
 Personal Relationship and Engagement: Ann Oakley advocates for a closer rapport
between interviewer and interviewee, facilitating authentic information exchange. Feminist
methodology should be based on real relationships which are equal and compassionate.
Oakley discusses about the feminist approach of interview. Feminist methodology aims to
eliminate the power dynamic between the researcher and the researched. Sandra Harding
and D.E Smith advocate for positioning the researcher on an equal level with the researched.
 Epistemological grounding: Judith Cook and Mary Margaret Fanow lay out five essential
ideas in feminist methodology. They involve studying women and gender, raising
awareness, respecting participants' knowledge, focusing on ethics, and aiming to empower
women and address power imbalances.
 Reflexivity: Reflexivity stands as a core principle in feminist methodology, involving a
researcher's scrutiny of their methods, role, connections with participants, and how their
social position influences the research process. Fanow and Cook suggest that reflexivity also
encompasses researchers' inclusion in their research writing and their emotional responses
to their work.
 Standpoint epistemology: The feminist standpoint theory asserts that women's perspectives
hold an epistemic edge when it comes to understanding gender-related phenomena,
compared to theories that rely on sexist or androcentric assumptions.
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For example, Marxist feminists like Hartsock and Rose highlight women's role in household
care. Women, tending to everyone, perceive how patriarchy falls short in addressing needs.
Dominant men may overlook its impact on subordinates' interests.
 Methodological richness: Feminist methodologies aren't one fixed method but include
diverse approaches, as feminist research does not stem from a unified set of thought and
perspective. However, feminist research put an emphasis on qualitative methods.
 Intersectionality: Recognizing the intersection of various social identities (such as caste, race,
class, sexuality) and how they intersect with gender to create unique experiences of
discrimination or privilege.
Limitations of Feminist research methods:
 Lack of objectivity: While aiming to challenge objectivity, some critics argue that complete
subjectivity might hinder the quest for balanced and unbiased research outcomes.
 Lack of generalizability: Feminist research, being qualitative and subjective, may restrict its
applicability to wider populations or contexts.
 Potential bias and lack of validity: Championing particular perspectives and agendas could
potentially lead to bias in research outcomes. Ray Pawson contends that feminist
epistemology faces significant challenges when the researched individuals perceive the
world differently from the researchers.
 Standardization and Consistency: Feminist research methods, due to their diverse range,
might not possess the standardized rigor and consistency typical of traditional research
approaches.
Conclusion:
 Feminist research methodologies, while facing criticism for potential bias and perceived lack
of neutrality, stand as valuable tools in understanding societal structures. Prioritizing
women's experiences and empowerment, these methodologies offer a critical lens to
challenge and reshape prevailing social norms.
560
b) Discuss the relationship between sociology and political science. (10

Marks)
Approach
 Intro: Define Sociology and Political Science
 Body: Discuss the relationship between sociology and Political science, their divergent and
complimentary aspects
 Conclusion: Use of both to solve the problem of society.
Answer:
Sociology and political science are both academic disciplines under the domain of social sciences
that study different aspects of society and human behaviour.
 Sociology is the systematic study of human society, its structure and interaction with various
social institutions, while Political science is the study of governance systems, political
processes, and political behaviour.
Distinct Subject matter
 The early scholars differentiated sociology from political science based on the idea that the
Political Science was concentrated with the state and power whereas Sociology was a broader
discipline associated with the study of entire society.
 As Sociology involves systematic study of human society, social structure & institutions and
their interconnections. Sociologists like Durkheim and Weber have contributed to
understanding the structure of society and the impact of social facts.
 Political Science focuses on governance systems, political processes. Scholars like Aristotle
and Machiavelli have explored the nature and processes of political governance.
Study of Society and Politics
 Sociology examines social behaviour, institutions, and change in society. Durkheim's concept
of social facts and Weber's analysis of bureaucracy helps in understanding societal influences
on political attitudes.
 Political Science Perspective: Concentrates on governance, political processes, and behaviour.
Aristotle's political theories and Machiavelli's insights on statecraft and power dynamics
offer foundational views on political structures.
Role of Power and Authority
 Sociology investigates power distribution in social relationships and institutions. Foucault's
studies on power and knowledge intricately demonstrate how power influences social
behaviour.
 Political Science analyses the exercise of power and authority in political systems, focusing
on the distribution and use of political power.
Influence of Social and Political Factors
 Sociology studies the impact of social norms and values on individuals. Durkheim's theories
on societal cohesion and collective conscience are important in understanding these
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influences.
 Political Science examines the role of political institutions and processes. Social institutions
like caste, kinship, and demography play an important role in political decision making.
Impact on Policy Making
 Sociology's provides insights into social conduct of individuals and social change to guide
social policies. Durkheim's studies on social cohesion and Weber's work on social
stratification offer valuable perspectives for policy formulation.
 Political Science’s role in providing insights into political behaviour and processes guide
political policies. Aristotle's and Machiavelli's insights into governance and power play a
significant role in shaping political policies.
Complementary to each other
 Both disciplines follows similar methodology, for example: quantitative methods (surveys,
statistical analysis) and qualitative methods (interviews, participant observation) used for in-
depth study of social structure and their working.
 Sociological perspectives, such as conflict theory and symbolic interactionism, have been
instrumental in understanding political phenomena, also thinkers like Karl Marx, who is
central to both sociology and political science, explored how economic super structure
influence power dynamics and social revolution.
 With the rise of interdisciplinary approach, more scope of integration is present at various
levels inquiry.
Conclusion:
While sociology and political science have distinct focuses, their interrelation is crucial for a
comprehensive understanding of society. The integration of sociological theories from thinkers like
Durkheim and Weber with political insights from Aristotle and Machiavelli enriches our
understanding of the complex dynamics within human societies.
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c) How does the dramaturgical perspective enable our understanding of

everyday life? (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Brief introduction about the Dramaturgical perspective
 Discuss the ways in which Dramaturgical perspective help in understanding everyday life
 Shortcomings of the Dramaturgical perspective
 Conclusion
Introduction:
Dramaturgy is a sociological perspective that is a component of symbolic interactionism and is used
in sociological analysis of everyday life. Developed by American sociologist Erving Goffman in his
seminal 1959 text The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, dramaturgy uses the metaphor of
theatre to explain human behaviour.
In this perspective, people act as performers in their daily lives, portraying identities through
various roles, akin to theatrical characters. Dramaturgy suggests that engaging with society
involves presenting oneself through these roles.
Significance of Dramaturgical perspective in shaping understanding of everyday
life:
Front Stage and Backstage Behaviour: The front stage/backstage concept elucidates how
individuals navigate between public and private personas. In public, they adhere to societal roles,
conforming to norms. In private, they reveal more authentic behaviour. For example, employees
switch from professional behaviour in the workplace to informal conduct during lunch breaks.
Impression management: Goffman's perspective highlights how individuals actively or passively
control the impressions they give off. The aim is to influence others' opinions or perceptions through
these self-presentations in public settings. For example, during a job interview candidates carefully
select what aspects of their skills, experiences, and personality traits to highlight to create a
favourable impression on the interviewer.
Role playing: Everyday interactions are formed of individuals adopting particular roles and
adhering to socially accepted behaviour. For example, The teacher embodies the role of an authority
figure, following a socially scripted behaviour of guiding and instructing students. This role
involves maintaining discipline, imparting knowledge, and facilitating learning within the
classroom.
Faux pas: In Goffman's framework, a "faux pas" refers to an action or remark that violates
established social norms or expectations, causing embarrassment or discomfort for those involved.
For example, making an inappropriate joke during a serious meeting or accidentally revealing
sensitive information about someone can be considered a faux pas.
Shortcomings of the Dramaturgical perspective:
Invalid inferences: The chief limitations of the dramaturgical model are that it excites the invalid
inferences that offstage “roles” are more like stage actors’ roles than they really are, and that the
person is nothing but these “roles.”
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Ignores Individual Agency: It doesn't fully account for individual agency-the ability of individuals
to act independently and make choices beyond scripted roles. While roles provide a framework,
individuals also have the capacity to shape their interactions and challenge societal norms.
Not a Comprehensive Theory: This perspective falls short of providing a comprehensive theory
that can offer all-encompassing explanations for human behaviour or generate testable hypotheses.
Simplification of Human Behaviour: It oversimplifies human behaviour by framing interactions
solely as performances. Not all human actions and relationships can be neatly categorized as
scripted performances; some interactions are more spontaneous or genuine.
Conclusion:
The dramaturgical perspective, by employing theatrical metaphors, elaborates the intricacies of
social interactions and reality construction in everyday life. Through Goffman's lens, one can delve
into the nuanced interaction between individual performances and societal expectations, offering a
vivid understanding of daily social engagements.
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d) Is reference group theory a universally applicable model? Elucidate. (10

Marks)
Approach
 Define Reference group theory by R K Merton
 Discuss the application of Reference Group theory & its drawbacks
 Conclusion –
Answer:
Reference Group Theory

Reference group theory, term coined by Herbert Hymer in 1942, and later expanded by Robert
Merton, in which he explains that -
A reference group is one to which an Individual always refer to in order to evaluate their
achievements, aspiration & ambitions.
Individuals belong to multiple groups in society. The group to which individual belong referred as
membership group, the group to which individuals does not belong to referred as non-
membership group. People generally consider the non- membership groups as reference group,
they feel relatively deprived and goes for anticipatory socialization.
Universality of Reference Group Theory

While the theory has been widely used in sociology, psychology, marketing, and other fields to
explain individual and group behaviours, its applicability can vary depending on cultural, social,
and individual factors.
Its applicability depends on several factors:
Cultural Factors
Cultures vary in the extent to which they emphasize individualism or collectivism.
In individualistic societies, people are more likely to compare themselves with others and use
reference groups to assess their own status. For example, in Western societies, where individualism
is highly valued, reference group theory may be more applicable as people often compare their
achievements and possessions with those of others.
On the other hand, in collectivist societies, where group harmony and consensus are more
important, people may be less likely to use reference groups for social comparison.
There, they may be more focused on fulfilling their roles and responsibilities within the group. Thus,
the applicability of reference group theory may be limited in such cultures.
Social Factors
The social context can also influence the applicability of reference group theory. For instance, in
highly stratified societies, people may be more likely to compare themselves with others in their
own social class, rather than those in different classes. In such cases, reference group theory can be
useful in explaining social behaviors and attitudes.
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However, in soc ieties with high social mobility, where people can move up and down the social
ladder, the concept of reference groups may be less relevant.
For ex: Louis Dumont considers India Society as homo hierarchicus and called Caste system as
closed. Whereas the concept of Sanskritization given by M N Srinivas employ reference group
theory to explain the chances of mobility in closed society.
Individual Factors
Individual factors, such as personality traits and personal values, can also affect the applicability of
reference group theory. Some individuals may be more susceptible to the influence of reference
groups than others, depending on their personality, values, and life experiences. For example,
people with high levels of self-esteem or those who value independence may be less likely to
compare themselves with others, making reference group theory less applicable to them.
Relative Deprivation
Merton refers to relative deprivation in the study of American Soldiers who looked at themselves
and evaluated their role-performance, career achievements, etc. w.r.t their civilian married
American counterparts.
While, the theory does not applies to people who does not feel relative deprivation or the societies
which are isolated. For example, the isolated tribes in many areas are not even aware about the non-
membership groups due to limited or no interaction.
Anticipatory Socialization
In the context of non-membership reference groups, people adopt the values, life-styles of the group
to which they aspires but does not belong
Conclusion
In conclusion, while reference group theory provides a valuable framework for understanding
social behaviours and attitudes, its applicability is not universal. It’s relevance and impact of
reference groups is context-dependent. Therefore, it is crucial to consider these factors when
applying reference group theory in different contexts.
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e) Do you think that the boundary line between ethnicity and race is
blurred? Justify your answer. (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Define race and ethnicity in the introduction.
 Highlight the difference between race and ethnicity.
 Discuss how the boundaries are blurred.
 Conclude with emphasising on the relevance of the concepts.
Introduction:
 Race, refers to the idea that the human species is divided into distinct groups on the basis of
inherited physical and behavioural differences. The most widely used human racial types are
those based on visual traits (such as cranial features ,nasal index, skin colour). Sociologists
consider race as a social construct, more often used as a tool for oppression and violence.
 Ethnicity, according to Thomas Eriksen is based on widely held notions of shared origin and
shared culture, and must be recognized as such by outsiders as well as by the proclaimed
members of an ethnic group or category.
Blurred boundaries between race and ethnicity:
Historical Context: Historical contexts such as colonisation and cultural influences contribute to
the blurring, as certain racial categories may coincide with specific ethnic groups.
Interconnected identities: Ethnicity and race often intertwine, as racial identities may encompass
shared cultural, historical, or social aspects present in ethnic groups.
Socio-cultural dynamics: Cultural and social factors often influence the classifications of race and
ethnicity. Focus on cultural diversity has also obscured the boundaries between race and ethnicity.
A Japanese-American might identify as part of the Japanese or Asian race but may not associate
with her ethnic roots if not engaging in ancestral practices, seeing herself primarily as American.
Intermarriages: Increase in inter-racial and inter-ethnic marriages are contributing to the breaking
down of race and ethnic boundaries. Fluid nature of identity of interracially married couples suggest
that racial and ethnic classifications are not fixed.
Cultural perception: Cultural traits are often regarded as genetic and inherited (e.g. body odour,
which is a function of diet, cosmetics, and other cultural items); physical appearance can be
culturally changed (by scarification, surgery, and cosmetics); and the sensory perception of
physical differences is affected by cultural perception of race (e.g. a rich Negro may be seen as
lighter than an equally dark poor Negro, as suggested by the Brazilian proverb: ‘Money bleaches’).
The Boundary line still exists:
Race is often seen as more fixed as it is tied to physical attributes while ethnicity is more fluid based
on cultural affiliation and self-identification.
Language and Traditions: Ethnicity commonly involves shared language, traditions, and customs
unique to a particular group, while race typically doesn't have inherent cultural elements tied to it.
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Social discrimination: Blurring the line between race and ethnicity might conceal the ongoing
existence of racial inequalities in society.
Preserving cultural heritage: Maintaining distinct ethnic identities is crucial to uphold the unique
cultural heritage.
Assertion of identity: Numerous racial and ethnic groups uphold distinct racial and ethnic
boundaries to affirm their pride and sense of belonging in their identities. They are also crucial in
political mobilization.
Conclusion:
The blending of ethnicity and race arises due to a combination of biological, cultural, and socio-
political elements, shaping discrimination and societal frameworks. Understanding this intricate
distinction is essential for addressing systemic inequities in societies worldwide.
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Question 2.
a) What, according to Robert Michels, is the iron law of oligarchy? Do lions

and foxes in Vilfredo Pareto's theory, essentially differ from each other?
Substantiate. (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Define Iron law of oligarchy in the introduction
 Explain factors that lead to oligarchy
 Discuss Pareto’s circulation of elites
 Highlight the differences between lion and the foxes
 Conclusion
Robert Michels, a German sociologist coined the phrase “iron law of oligarchy” in his classic 1911
text “On the Sociology of the Party System in Modern Democracy”. The "iron law of oligarchy"
states that all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will
eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, thus making true democracy practically
and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations. The principle of
oligarchy in modern democratic parties, therefore, arises from the “technical indispensability of
leadership”.
Factors that leads to oligarchy:

 Functional necessity: Large organizations require efficient leadership and decision-
making, making direct democracy impractical.
 Psychological transformation: Leaders develop specialized skills and knowledge, creating a
distance between them and the general membership. Elite rule thrived, Michels argued, on
the masses' desire for guidance and hero worship.
 Organizational needs: Leaders prioritize the organization's survival and
stability, sometimes over the desires of individual members While strong leadership ensures
an organization's survival, its growing power inevitably concentrates authority, forming an
oligarchic rule.
 Three pillars of leaders control: The knowledge edge, granting them privileged information
and expertise; the communication monopoly, where they dominate the party press and
travel expenses, ensuring a captive audience; and, the political skill, making them masters
of persuasion through speeches, writing, and impeccable organization.
Pareto’s elite theory of power:

 Vilfredo Pareto argued that societies are divided into two main groups of the ruling and the
ruled. He claimed in his ‘Mind and Society, 1935’ that personal qualities separate rulers and
the ruled and they are same at all times. Psychological traits, according to Pareto, form the
bedrock of elite power, which they wield overtly and covertly across civilizations. He
identified two categories of elites:
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 Those with a direct or indirect interest in governance are called governing elites. These
people hold key positions in society and perform crucial roles. There are two types of
governing elite – lions and foxes who replace each other in a process called as “Circulation
of elites.”
 Lions and Foxes: Within the framework of Pareto's theory, lions and foxes are symbolic
representations. Lions are conservative elites adhering to traditional ideologies, whereas
foxes are innovative elites embracing materialistic gains. The analogy between lions and
foxes was introduced by the political philosopher and historian Niccolò Machiavelli in his
work "The Prince." In this metaphorical comparison, lions symbolize commanding and
authoritative leaders employing force and aggression to attain their objectives, whereas
foxes embody shrewd and crafty individuals who depend on cleverness and strategic
thinking.
Difference between Lions and Foxes:

 Motivation: Lions are driven by residual instincts associated with group persistence. They
prioritise loyalty, aggression, and the preservation of order and stability within the elite
group. Motivated by residues of combination, Foxes focus their approach on intellectual
calculation, manipulation, and adaptability. They excel in strategic manoeuvring, forming
alliances, and exploiting opportunities for personal gain.
 Means of acquiring and maintaining power: Lions Secure their position through force,
intimidation, and open displays of dominance. Lions rely on charisma, strong leadership,
and ruthlessness to maintain direct control. For example, dictators like Hitler, former US
President Donald Trump, Franco in Spain. Foxes utilize cunning, deceit, and behind-the-
scenes manoeuvring to influence power dynamics. They excel in negotiation,
resourcefulness, and manipulating public opinion. Recent examples could include Tony
Blair’s premiership, the politicians of the EU, David Cameron’s Conservative party and
Obama’s presidency.
 Long-term stability: Rule of Lions tends to be less stable due to reliance on raw power and
potential internal conflicts. Their rigidity and resistance to change can lead to revolutions or
uprisings. Foxes can potentially lead to more stable regimes due to their adaptability,
willingness to compromise, and emphasis on diplomacy rather than overt force. However,
their pursuit of individual gain can foster corruption and internal power struggles.
Criticism:
 Elite justification: The theory can be seen as justifying or legitimizing elite domination by
offering a seemingly natural and inevitable explanation for it.
 Underestimating agency: The theory can be seen as overly mechanistic, suggesting that
individuals within the elite and wider society have little agency to influence power dynamics.
Raymond Aron argued that Pareto's "derivations" lacked explanatory power and that his
framework relied too heavily on psychological reductionism.
 Historical applicability: The theory's focus on early 20th century European societies may not
be directly applicable to the diverse political and social dynamics of the contemporary world.
 Empirical limitations: Some critiques argue that Pareto's theory lacks rigorous empirical
testing and validation. His criterion for distinguishing between “lion and foxes” is merely
his own interpretation of the style of the elite rule.
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Moreover, Pareto fails to provide a way of measuring the process of elite decadence. Mitchell
also criticized that Pareto’s scheme has a meta-physical strength along with an empirical
weakness.
Conclusion:
Michels' iron law of oligarchy and Pareto's theory of lions and foxes, though distinct concepts, offer
complementary insights into the dynamics of power and elite control. While Michels highlights the
inevitable tendency of organizations towards oligarchic rule regardless of their initial structure,
Pareto suggests that within these oligarchies, different personality types ("lions" and "foxes") vie for
dominance.
571
b) What is historical materialism? Examine its relevance in understanding

contemporary societies. (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Brief introduction of the concept of Historical Materialism
 Explain key features of the concept
 Relevance in understanding contemporary societies
 Conclusion
Introduction:
The clearest exposition of the theory of historical materialism is found in Marx's 'Preface' to "A
Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy" (1859). Marx's historical materialism views
human history as the development and consequences of new forces of material production,
emphasizing the role of productive forces in shaping the course of history. Marx drew inspiration
from Hegelian ideas of dialectical materialism. While maintaining the dialectical approach from
Hegel, Marx substituted idealism with materialism.
Historical Materialism Unpacked:

 Materialism vs. Idealism: Marx's materialism contrasts with idealism, which argues that
ideas and consciousness shape the material world. He saw idealism as neglecting the
fundamental importance of material conditions in shaping human history and society.
 Emphasis on Material Conditions: Marx emphasizes the material environment as the
primary determinant of human history and society. This includes things like
technology, resources, and the way we produce and distribute goods.
 The Mode of Production: Marx argues that the specific way a society produces goods (the
"mode of production") shapes everything else about it. This includes its social, political, and
cultural structures, legal systems, and even its ideas and values. Mode of production consists
of means (resources and tools), relations (social dynamics among groups), and forces
(human labour and skills) of production.
 Base and Superstructure: Society is divided into the "base" (economic foundation and class
relations) and the "superstructure" (laws, politics, religion, art). Changes in the base drive
changes in the superstructure, according to Marx.
 Historical Change through Class Struggle: Marx believed that change in society happens
through conflict between social classes. The ruling class (those who control the means of
production) wants to maintain the status quo, while the working class (those who sell their
labour) seeks to change it. This conflict drives historical progress and the evolution of the
mode of production. He describes these stages as-Primitive Communism -Slavery -
Feudalism-Capitalism -Socialism- Communism.
 The dynamic growth of productive forces (technology, skills, etc.) creates an inherent tension
with the existing social, legal, and economic structures (relations of production).
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 This widening gap eventually renders the old system incompatible with the new level of
productivity, triggering its collapse and a shift towards a new mode of production, with its
own distinct superstructure. For example, the rise of industrial power in the late 18th century
made the rigid class structure of feudalism unsustainable, leading to the emergence of the
capitalist system.
Relevance in understanding Contemporary societies:

 Analysing Capitalism: Historical materialism provides a framework for understanding and
critically analysing contemporary economic systems. The recurring crisis of capitalism, for
example, the recent 2008 global recession, increasing unemployment and environmental
degradation testify to the continued relevance of Marx’s ideas.
 Understand economic inequality: Historical materialism provides an understanding of
poverty as a necessary result of the drive for maximum profits by capital, i.e., the driving
down of labour costs by lowering wages and ultimately displacing labour by technology.
Economic disparity has been widening due to neo-liberalist systems across the world.
 Globalization: Late 20th and early 21st-century global trade created an integrated world
economy. This led to the global spread of Western consumer culture, brand loyalty, and
media adaptation, influencing governments' trade agreements and intellectual property
rights.
 Automation and the Shift in Labour Relations: Automation and artificial intelligence are
reshaping nature of work, leading to discussions on universal basic income, reskilling, and
labour regulations to tackle unemployment and income inequality.
 Neo-imperialism: Historical materialism highlights factors like unequal distribution of
resources, power imbalances between developed and developing countries, and exploitative
labour practices as potential contributors to inequalities experienced by some Third World
countries. Andre Gunder Frank’s world systems theory employs this perspective.
 Social movements: Explains the emergence of social movements for economic justice
triggered by material conditions.
Criticism:
 Economic determinism and reductionism: Critics contend that Marx's exclusive focus on
economic factors as the primary driver of historical change oversimplifies the complexity of
social, political, and cultural dynamics. Economic reductionism neglects the impact of non-
economic factors such as culture, ideas and agency on historical processes.
 Class Reductionism: Marx's emphasis on class struggle as the central motor of history has
not taken into account other axes of stratification such as race, gender and ethnicity. Max
Weber’s Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism can be interpreted as a critique to Marx’s
ideas.
 Teleological View of History: The teleological nature of historical materialism, suggesting
an inevitable progression towards communism, has been questioned. History is not
necessarily moving towards a predetermined endpoint and that various outcomes are
possible.
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 Revolutionary Failures: Detractors point to historical instances where attempts to implement
Marxist ideas resulted in authoritarian regimes and economic difficulties. The practical
failures of some Marxist-inspired revolutions have led to criticism of the viability of Marxist
solutions in practice. Daniel Bell in his work “The End of Ideology” has challenged Marx's
prediction of the intensification of class conflict and the eventual overthrow of capitalism.
 Failure to explain contemporary societies: Anthony Giddens in his work A Contemporary
Critique of Historical Materialism” has argued that the Historical Materialism falls short in
capturing the complexities of late modernity, characterized by globalization, technological
advancements, and cultural transformations beyond economic relations.
Conclusion:
Historical materialism remains a valuable and relevant framework for understanding
contemporary societies, particularly in analysing social inequalities, class conflicts, and the
relationship between economic structures and political ideologies. Through adaptations, it
remains a pertinent tool for understanding and critiquing modern social configurations.
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c) What are variables? How do they facilitate research? (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduction: Briefly Explain What is Variable.
 Main Body: Role of Variables in Experimental Research along with example of sociologists
 Conclusion: Significance in Operationalizing the Sociological Research.
Answer:
In sociological research, a variable refers to any attribute, trait, or condition that can change or vary
among different units of analysis (individuals, groups, societies).
Types of Variables: they are classified as independent, dependent, and control based on their roles
in a study. For instance, income, education level, and social status can all be variables.
Variables play a crucial role in research by helping researchers understand human behavior, social
interactions, and social structures. Here's a simpler breakdown:
Establishing Cause and Effect:

 By changing one factor (the independent variable) and watching what happens to another
factor (the dependent variable), researchers can figure out cause-and-effect relationships. For
example, Émile Durkheim looked at social factors like community involvement to explain
different suicide rates in his research.
Turning Concepts into Measurable Variables:

Researchers use variables to convert broad ideas into measurable factors. This involves developing
reliable and valid indicators or measures to capture the concept being studied.
For example, in a study on social capital, Lin (1999) operationalized the variable using measures of
social networks, trust, and reciprocity.
Comparing Groups:
Variables help researchers see differences between groups. For example, W.E.B. Du Bois used
economic data to compare disparities between Black and white Americans.
Controlling Other Factors:

Using control variables, researchers can make sure they're studying the effect of the primary factor
and not other influences. Robert K. Merton used this approach to study the impact of expectations
on students' academic performance.
Conclusion:
The accurate identification and measurement of variables are essential in operationalizing
sociological research. They bring structure, precision, and comparability to studies, making it
possible to validate hypotheses and understand social phenomena on a deeper level. Through
variables, sociologists transform abstract theories into empirical realities, facilitating meaningful
research that can guide policies and interventions.
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Question 3.
a) What are the characteristics of scientific method? Do you think that
scientific method in conducting sociological research is foolproof?
Elaborate. (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Briefly explain the scientific method in the introduction
 Explain the key features of the scientific method
 Limitations using scientific methods in sociological research
 Conclusion
George Lundberg defines scientific method as one consisting of systematic observation,
classification, and interpretation of data. The main difference between day-to-day generalization
and the scientific method lies in the degree of formality, rigorousness, verifiability and the general
validity of the latter.
According to R.N. Thouless, “Scientific method is a system of techniques (different in many respects
in different sciences, although retaining the same general character) for attaining the end of
discovering general laws.”
Characteristics of the Scientific Method
 Empirical Evidence: Reliance on empirical evidence obtained through direct observation or
experimentation. Scientific knowledge is based on observable and measurable phenomena.
 Objectivity: The pursuit of objectivity in research, minimizing personal biases and subjective
interpretations. Researchers strive to maintain neutrality and avoid influencing the outcomes
of their studies.
 Replicability and Predictability: The ability to repeat experiments or studies under similar
conditions to verify and validate results. The scientific method aims to establish patterns and
regularities in natural phenomena, allowing researchers to make predictions about future
occurrences based on established principles.
 Hypothesis Testing: The formulation of testable hypotheses that can be subjected to
empirical scrutiny. Hypotheses provide specific predictions that guide the research process
 Controlled Experiments: Utilization of controlled experiments to isolate variables and
establish cause-and-effect relationships. Control groups and experimental groups help
researchers identify the impact of specific factors.
 Openness and Transparency: Transparency in reporting methods, data, and results,
allowing other researchers to scrutinize and replicate the study. Openness contributes to the
integrity and trustworthiness of scientific research.
Scientific method in Sociological Research:
 Positivists like August Comte and Emile Durkheim emphasise on the scientific methods.
They advocate for applying the methods of natural science to social research.
 By using scientific methods, they aim to uncover the underlying laws of social phenomena,
allowing for the prediction and control of social behaviour to a certain extent.
 Positivists favour the quantification of data, translating social phenomena into numerical
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values.
 Positivists value the concept of replicability, suggesting that research should be conducted
in a way that allows others to replicate the study under similar conditions. They seek to
establish causal relationships between variables. Through experimentation or statistical
analyses, they aim to determine whether changes in one variable are responsible for changes
in another, contributing to a deeper understanding of social dynamics.
Max Weber finds use of positive science methods alone as inadequate for the study of human
behaviour in society. According to him they must be supplemented with additional methods
especially relevant to social sciences like the Verstehen approach and ideal type.
Critique of the Scientific method:
 Limitation of Experimentation: Scientific observation often relies on experimentation to
establish precise relationships between variables. However, in Sociology, experimentation is
rarely feasible due to practical and ethical constraints. It is challenging to control human
behaviour in a laboratory setting, and ethical concerns arise regarding the treatment of
individuals as subjects.
 Challenge of Quantification: While some sociological phenomena can be quantified using
statistical methods, a significant portion remains inherently qualitative. The diverse nature
of sociological phenomena poses challenges for universal quantification. Phenomenologists,
Symbolic interactionists and other non-positivists largely rely on qualitative data.
 Issue of Generalization: Sociologists encounter difficulty in deriving law-like
generalizations from their studies due to the unique and unrepeatable nature of human
behaviour.
 Challenge of Objectivity : Objectivity, crucial for unbiased data collection and analysis,
proves challenging to achieve in sociological research. The nature of the subject often
involves personal biases, making complete objectivity nearly impossible. Sociologists strive
to minimize subjectivity while recognizing the inherent challenges in maintaining complete
objectivity. Gunnar Myrdal believed that complete objectivity is an impossible ideal to attain.
 Epistemological Concerns : According to Paul Feyerabend, the scientific method represents
a form of 'epistemological anarchism' by suggesting that any discipline not adhering to the
scientific method should not be regarded seriously. Thomas Kuhn, in his work 'Scientific
Revolution,' challenges the perception of scientific researchers as entirely objective. He
suggests that researchers within the scientific method also operate based on certain
assumptions.
 Feminist critique of the scientific method: Feminists like Sandra Harding and Donna
Haraway among others have mounted a detailed and strident critique of the scientific
method by contesting its conceptions of knowledge, truth, rationality and objectivity.
Feminist critique attempts to identify androcentric and sexist biases in the practice of science.
Conclusion:
While the scientific method offers a structured approach in sociology, it's not entirely foolproof. The
complex nature of social realities demands a mix of both scientific and alternative methods for a
comprehensive understanding of sociological subjects. Weber finds use of positive science methods
alone as inadequate for the study of human behaviour in society. According to him they must be
supplemented with additional methods especially relevant to social sciences like the Verstehen
approach and ideal type.
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b) How do you assess the changing patterns in kinship relations in societies

today? (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Define kinship in the introduction
 Explain the factors leading to changes in kinship relation
 Discuss the different forms of changes in kinship relations
 Discuss the positive and negative implications of the changes
 Conclusion
Introduction:
Kinship is one of the main organizing principles of society. Kinship is the socially recognized
relationships between people in a culture, who are either held to be biologically related or given
the status of relatives by marriage, adoption, or other rituals. Rapid societal transformations
prompt a re-evaluation of traditional kinship patterns.
Factors contributing to changes in kinship relations:

 Economic Development: Economic changes, such as industrialization or urbanization, often
lead to alterations in kinship patterns. Economic opportunities and mobility influence family
structures, fuelling transition to nuclear families.
 Technological Advances: Advances in technology like communication, and transportation
can alter kinship patterns by facilitating connections among family members across
geographical distances.
 Legal and Policy Changes: Changes in laws and policies, including those related to marriage,
divorce, and adoption, can have significant effects on kinship patterns. Legal reforms may
redefine family structures and relationships.
 Social and Demographic Shifts: Demographic changes, such as population growth, ageing
populations, and migration, can influence kinship relations. Social factors like changing
societal norms regarding family size and structure also play a role.
 Individual Choices and Agency: The decisions made by individuals regarding marriage,
partnerships, and childbearing contribute to changes in kinship patterns.
Changing trends in Kinship relations:

 Nuclear Family System: Modernity and urbanisation has led to weakening of kinship bonds
as there is a shift from joint to traditional families. William J. Goode has argued that conjugal
families are more suited to the industrial age.
 Gender Roles: More women in the workforce re-evaluates traditional kinship roles, affecting
care-giving and household dynamics.
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Gender roles are becoming more fluid. For example, there is rising trend of shared parental
leaves, flexible work arrangements and stay-at-home dads.
 Online Social Networks: Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram etc. helps in
forging new kinship-like relations, providing alternative spaces for social interaction.
 Diverse family structures: The definition of "family" is expanding. Blended families, same-
sex couples, single-parent households, Double income no kids households are becoming
increasingly common, challenging traditional notions of kinship. Transnational families are
on rise as globalization challenges traditional kinship, necessitating maintenance of ties
across borders.
 Shift in marriage patterns: While arranged marriages remain prevalent in some cultures,
others witness a growing trend towards love marriages. In India, inter-caste marriages, live-
in relationships are gradually becoming common. The stigma against divorces is gradually
losing its strength. Anthony Giddens has suggested that marriage has become, “just one-
lifestyle among others.” Andrew Cherlin has suggested that we are witnessing
“deinstitutionalization of marriage.”
 Fictive kinship: These kinship relationships aren’t based on blood relation or filial
relationship. Rather they are based on social or economic considerations. Examples in
different cultures include, Compadrazgo (co-parenthood) in Mexico, Gurung tradition of
‘Rodi’ where teenagers where teenagers form kinship bonds to socialise, perform communal
tasks and find marriage partners. Janet Carsten in her work, Cultures of relatedness has
explored the changing nature of what constitutes as kinship.
 Legal Frameworks: Progressive legal frameworks broaden the definition of family and
kinship. Legalization of same-sex marriages, adoption laws, legal frameworks governing
surrogacy and assisted reproductive technologies have adapted to changing family
dynamics.
 Alternate institutions: Shifting responsibility from family to state or private institutions.
Creches, Old-age homes etc are performing many traditional roles of the family.
Implications of the changes:

 Individual freedom and agency: Increased family autonomy and personal choice in
marriage partners can empower individuals to pursue their goals and create families that
reflect their personal values and aspirations.
 Diverse family structures: Expanding definitions of family and acceptance of non-traditional
structures can provide support and belonging to individuals who might not find it within
traditional kinship networks.
 Intercultural understanding: Inter-religious and inter-caste marriages can promote cultural
exchange and understanding, potentially breaking down social barriers and fostering greater
harmony within communities.
 Flexibility and adaptability: Evolving kinship structures can provide greater flexibility and
adaptability in response to changing social and economic realities.
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Negative implications:
 Weakening social bonds: Increased geographical mobility and reliance on digital
connections can potentially weaken face-to-face interactions and emotional bonds within
families and communities. R Cavens noted that decline in kinship relationships results in
decline in influence of mechanical solidarity.
 Social isolation and loneliness: Lack of traditional support networks and reliance on nuclear
families can contribute to feelings of isolation and loneliness, especially for individuals facing
challenges or transitions. Robert Putnam in "Bowling Alone" argues that declining social
capital and weakened community ties contribute to feelings of isolation and
loneliness, which can be exacerbated by changing family structures.
 Vulnerability of family structures: Non-traditional family structures may face legal or social
hurdles, and single parents can struggle with childcare and financial burdens
 Intergenerational conflicts: Changing roles and expectations within families might lead to
intergenerational conflicts over values, decision-making, and caregiving responsibilities.
Conclusion:
Amid societal changes, the reassessment of kinship reflects a narrative of adaptation and
transformation. Traditional kinship is undergoing reconsideration, entwined with broader shifts, as
digital connections and individual choices play an increasingly influential role in shaping social
relations.
580
c) Is Weber's idea of bureaucracy a product of the historical experiences of

Europe? Comment. (10 Marks)
Answer:
Overview
 Brief Introduction of Weber’s bureaucracy
 Discuss the historical context of Europe that shaped bureaucratic model.
 Conclusion suggesting the importance of socio-historical context.
 Conclusion:
Weber’s bureaucratic theory argues that bureaucracies are highly structured, emotionless, and
well-organized organizations. It claims that these bureaucracies have evolved from traditional
structures, experiencing changes where leadership rules changed into clearly defined sets of rules
and laws usable across different organizational levels. Weber's model of bureaucracy was
influenced by his observations of the evolving socio-economic and political conditions in Europe in
the late 19th and early 20th centuries
Bureaucracy: Product of historical experiences of Europe:
Industrialization: Europe witnessed industrial revolution in the late 19th century and it led to the
growth of large-scale organizations, demanding more structured and efficient administrative
systems. Hence, Weber proposed the bureaucratic model as he recognised traditional methods were
inadequate. With its hierarchical structure, specialized roles, rules, and merit-based hiring,
bureaucracy suited industrialization's complexities.
The rise of nation-states significantly impacted the development and evolution of bureaucracy. As
centralized political entities, nation-states required efficient administrative structures to manage
their expanding territories, populations, and resources. Problems of nepotism and cronyism in
traditional administrative systems gave way to a system of recruitment based on merit.
Several European nations incorporated aspects of his bureaucratic model into their public
administration systems, aiming to enhance efficiency, transparency, and accountability. For
example, Germany civil service system emphasized hierarchy, clear rules, and specialization,
mirroring Weber's principles.
Global Resonance:
Though European history shaped Weber's perspective, his bureaucratic principles have global
resonance, suggesting broader relevance.
Non-European Administrative Systems: Nations outside Europe have integrated bureaucratic
principles into their governance structures. For instance, post-independence African and Asian
nations adopted bureaucratic systems to streamline administration.
Corporate Administration: Businesses worldwide utilize bureaucratic elements such as clear roles,
rules, and hierarchies to manage complex operations and ensure efficiency.
Management Theory: Weber's ideas continue to be influential in management literature and
education globally, shaping how organizations, regardless of location, structure themselves.
Conclusion:
While rooted in European historical developments, Weber's bureaucratic principles have shown
adaptability and applicability across diverse cultural, social, and institutional contexts, highlighting
their broader resonance and relevance on a global scale.
581
Question 4.
a) Do you think that common sense is the starting point of social research?
What are its advantages and limitations? Explain. (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Define common sense and social research in the introduction
 Discuss common sense as starting point for social research
 Elaborate advantages and disadvantages of the same
 Conclusion
Introduction:
According to Alfred Schultz, common sense is organized, ‘typified’ stocks of taken-for-granted
knowledge upon which our activities are based and which in the natural attitude we do not
question. It is the collectively shared knowledge on the basis of which we evaluate others, self and
situations. It is not objective, scrutinized or universally valid. It is particular and localized and highly
variable across time and space.
P .V. Young defines social research as “the systematic method of discovering the new facts or
verifying the old facts, their sequences, inter relationship, causal explanations and the natural laws
which govern them.”
Common sense as starting point of social research:

 Sociology draws a great deal from common sense as the former touches on the everyday
experiences of lay persons.
 For phenomenologists like Alfred Schutz, common sense forms the bedrock of social action.
It's a vast library of unspoken assumptions and taken-for-granted knowledge that guides our
everyday interactions. Ethnomethodologists, on the other hand, see it as a dynamic process,
with unspoken rules constantly being negotiated and reshaped in social encounters.
 Interpretive sociologists, including symbolic interactionists, value understanding this
"insider knowledge" to explain how people make sense of their social world. Common sense
is central to their approach as it underpins the shared symbols and gestures people use to
communicate.
 However, not all see it as an equal partner: Durkheim believed sociology must rise above
common-sense biases to achieve true scientific understanding, while Marxists view it as
inherently ideological and limited.
 Sociologists often challenge common sense assumptions about social reality. So it does
provide the raw material for social research. For example, Peter Berger and Thomas
Luckmann explored how common sense is socially constructed.
 Anthony Giddens and "Reflexive Modernity": Giddens' theory examines how individuals
negotiate their social worlds through "reflexive" engagement, constantly evaluating and
adapting their actions based on common-sense understandings of their social contexts.
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 Arlie Hochschild’s Second Shift draws on the widespread notion of a gendered division of
labour as a "common-sense" expectation, highlighting its impact on gender-based
inequalities.
Advantages:
 Accessibility and Familiarity: Common sense draws from everyday experiences and shared
understandings within a society. This readily available resource provides initial insights and
helps researchers identify areas worthy of investigation. It's similar to a common language,
allowing researchers to connect with and understand research participants more readily.
 Generating Hypotheses: Everyday observations rooted in common sense can spark initial
hypotheses to be tested through rigorous research methods. For example, noticing an
increase in divorce rates in certain social circles might lead to a hypothesis about the
correlation between income disparity and marital stability
 Understanding Context and Participant Motivation: Researchers rely on common-sense
understandings of the social world to interpret behaviours, gestures, and cultural nuances
encountered during fieldwork. This helps them navigate unfamiliar settings and build
rapport with research participants, leading to richer and more nuanced data collection.
 Grounding Theoretical Frameworks: Some sociological theories, like Robert K. Merton's
"Middle Range Theory," are built upon observable facts and common-sense understandings.
This helps the theories remain relevant and applicable to real-world social issues.
 Cultural Sensitivity: Common sense reflects cultural norms and values. Incorporating
common sense in ethnographical research helps researchers understand and respect the
cultural context, promoting sensitivity to the lived experiences of the individuals being
studied.
Disadvantages:
 Subjectivity and Bias: Common sense is inherently subjective and shaped by individual
experiences, cultural backgrounds, and personal biases. Pierre Bourdieu argued that the
seemingly "natural" way of perceiving the world often reflects the dominant ideologies and
power structures within a society, potentially obscuring or misrepresenting the experiences
of marginalized groups.
 Lack of Validity and Reliability: Common sense is often vague, oversimplified, and may
lack evidence backing, making it unreliable for conclusive sociological inferences.
Sociologists seek to uncover underlying societal structures beyond common sense
perceptions, as seen in structural analyses of poverty contrary to individual-failure based
common sense explanations
 Inconsistency and Contradictions: Common sense may contain inconsistencies and
contradictions, as it is not always based on empirical evidence
 Resistance to Change: Common sense can resist new ideas or insights that challenge
established beliefs, hindering intellectual progress
 Localised knowledge: Andre Beteille says common sense is localised and particular whereas
sociological research aims for generalizability.
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 Cultural Variability: Common sense varies across cultures, leading to diverse perspectives
that may not align with empirical reality. Immanuel Wallerstein emphasized the importance
of considering historical and global contexts to avoid ethnocentrism.
Conclusion:
Though common sense may provide initial understanding and occasionally align with sociological
theories, its limitations necessitate a more structured, evidence-based approach like sociological
research for accurate understanding of social phenomena. Sociological imagination encourages a
critical, contextual, and research-informed understanding of the social world.
584
b) How is poverty a form of social exclusion? Illustrate in this connection

the different dimensions of poverty and social exclusion. (20 Marks)
Overview:
 Define poverty and social exclusion.
 Elaborate the different dimensions of poverty and exclusion.
 Discuss the Way ahead.
 Conclusion
The 18th century writings of Sir John Sinclair and Sir Frederick Eden observe that poverty is a
social problem. Poverty is a relative condition of absence of some desirable component in society.
Mostly, the term is used in an economic sense. A condition of lacking vital resources- is often
qualified as relative and absolute.
Ruth Levitas has defined social exclusion as the denial of resources, rights, goods and services, and
the inability to participate in the normal relationships and activities, available to the majority of
people in a society, whether in economic, social, cultural or political arenas.
Poverty as a form of social exclusion:
 Poverty acts as a potent mechanism of social exclusion, effectively locking individuals and
communities out of various aspects of social life. This exclusion manifests in numerous
dimensions, creating a web of disadvantage that reinforces inequality and perpetuates
poverty cycles.
 Economic Exclusion: Poverty translates to a lack of financial resources, limiting an
individual's ability to afford necessities like food, housing, and healthcare. This translates to
exclusion from markets, services, and opportunities that require financial participation.
 Employment barriers: Poverty often restricts access to quality education and skills
training, hindering employability and career advancement. This marginalizes individuals
from the formal economy, confining them to low-wages and precarious jobs, or excluding
them entirely from the workforce. Marx's concept of pauperization and Max Weber’s idea
on cultural values affecting economic success helps us understand how systemic economic
disparities foster social exclusion.
 Social Exclusion: Negative social perceptions attached to poverty can lead to
stigmatization, prejudice, and social isolation. This exclusionary attitude marginalizes
individuals and communities, limiting their access to social networks, support systems, and
informal opportunities. Pierre Bourdieu's concept of "social capital": Explains
how access to social networks and resources is crucial for mobility and well-being.
 Limited social mobility: Poverty can restrict access to quality education and social
capital, further perpetuating intergenerational poverty and hindering social mobility. This
creates closed circles of exclusion, where children of disadvantaged families face similar
limitations and challenges due to their socioeconomic background.
 Political Exclusion: Poverty can weaken an individual's or community's voice and agency
within social and political spheres. This exclusion from decision-making processes limits
their ability to advocate for their needs and influence policies that impact their lives.
585
 As per Walker & Walker, social exclusion can manifest as a denial of civil, political, and
social rights, thereby interlinking with poverty as it restricts access to basic resources and
services.
 Disenfranchisement and limited civic participation: Poverty can restrict access to resources
needed for participation in community initiatives. This disenfranchisement excludes
individuals from exercising their political rights and shaping policies that affect their lives.
 Cultural Exclusion: Lack of access to educational and cultural resources diminishes cultural
capital, an essential asset for social mobility and participation in certain social circles. This
further reinforces social exclusion and perpetuates inequality. Oscar Lewis's concept of the
"Culture of Poverty" suggests that poverty is not just a lack of resources but also involves the
adoption of a value system that perpetuates poverty. Diane Pearce’s Feminisation of
poverty delve into the value systems and gender biases that perpetuate poverty and
exclusion.
 Psychological Exclusion: The stigma associated with poverty can lead to feelings of
shame, inferiority, and hopelessness. This can erode self-esteem and motivation, further
hindering an individual's ability to engage in social life and break out of poverty cycles. The
chronic stress and anxiety associated with poverty can increase vulnerability to mental
health problems. Ann Oakley's "housewives, meals, and money" analyses the mental and
emotional burden of managing household budgets and resources in conditions of
poverty, highlighting the psychological toll of exclusion and hardship.
Mitigation and way forward:
 Reframing Poverty: As Amartya Sen’s capability approach’ advocates, there is need to
focus on ensuring every individual has the capabilities to lead a flourishing life. Robert
Castel suggests fostering secure employment with adequate wages and benefits, reducing
precarity and building pathways out of poverty.
 Investing in social capital: Expanding access to quality education, healthcare, and
community resources, as Pierre Bourdieu emphasizes, can equip individuals with the tools
and networks needed to navigate exclusion and participate fully in society.
 Empowering Political Participation: Nancy Fraser suggests expanding access to resources
and education that enable marginalized groups to engage effectively in public discourse and
advocate for their needs.
 Encouraging Cultural Participation: Ensuring affordability and accessibility of cultural
spaces can break down cultural barriers and promote inclusion. Addressing biases and
discriminatory practices within cultural institutions, can create welcoming spaces for
diverse communities and dismantle social hierarchies based on cultural capital.
 Addressing the Psychological Impact: Combating stigma and promoting mental health
support: Acknowledging the psychological burden of poverty and stigma, as Ann Oakley
highlights, requires readily available mental health services and social support systems to
empower individuals and communities.
Conclusion:
Poverty is not just an economic hardship; it acts as a multi-dimensional web of exclusion that
permeates the social, political, and cultural spheres. Understanding these various dimensions is
crucial for devising effective policies and interventions that address the root causes of poverty,
promote social inclusion, and break the cycle of disadvantage.
586
c) Highlight the differences and similarities between totemism and

animism. (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Briefly introduce the idea of totemism and animism.
 Discuss the similarities and differences between the two.
 Conclude with emphasis on diversity of religious systems.
Introduction:
Totemism and animism have been considered as primal forms pf religion, often linked with
evolutionary approaches to religion.
Totemism: It is a system of belief in which humans are said to have kinship or a mystical
relationship with a spirit-being, such as an animal or plant. The entity, or totem, is thought to
interact with a given kin group or a clan’s ancestor and to serve as their emblem or symbol. Frazer
suggested totemism as a cooperative division of labour in certain groups protecting specific edible
animals or plants. Durkheim, focusing on Australian Aboriginal societies, viewed totemism as the
simplest form of religion, symbolizing collective social representation.
Animism: It is a spiritual belief affirming the presence of spirits or souls in all living beings,
natural elements, and objects. This holistic philosophy highlights the interconnectedness among
humans, animals, plants, and seemingly lifeless entities. According to E. B. Tylor, animists believe
in the “animation of all nature”, and are characterized as having “a sense of spiritual being
inhabiting trees and rocks and waterfalls”.
Similarities between Totemism and Animism:
 Sacred nature: Both totemism and animism involve a recognition of the sacred or spiritual
qualities within elements of the natural world, such as animals, plants, and natural
phenomena.
 Symbolic Representation: Totemism often utilizes specific animals or plants as symbols
representing the identity and values of a group. Animism, too, involves attributing symbolic
meaning to various natural elements as carriers of spiritual significance.
 Ancestor Worship: Both totemism and animism may involve reverence or acknowledgment
of ancestral spirits. Ancestors, whether represented through totems or seen as spirits in
animistic beliefs, play a role in the spiritual landscape.
 Ritual Practices: Rituals are common in both totemism and animism. These rituals often
involve ceremonies, dances, or symbolic acts aimed at maintaining harmony with the
spiritual forces and seeking their favor or protection.
Differences between Totemism and Animism:
 Focus: According to anthropologist Tim Ingold, animism focusses on individual spirit
beings which help to perpetuate life, whereas totemism more typically holds that there is a
primary source, such as the land itself or the ancestors, who provide the basis to life.
 Scope: Totemism is specific to certain cultural groups or indigenous societies, while
animism is a more universal belief found globally, adapting to diverse cultural context.
587
 Group Identity: Totemism contributes to the formation of group identity, with different
clans or groups adopting specific totems whereas Animism does not necessarily involve the
same emphasis on group identity through the use of symbolic totems.
 Cultural practices: Totemism includes group rituals on symbolic totems, enhancing social
unity. Animism, with more diverse rituals, emphasizes a broader spiritual connection with
nature, not necessarily tied to specific symbols.
 Hierarchy of spirits: In totemism, hierarchy of spirits might exist as some totems hold more
significance. Animism views spirits more equally. For example, among the Kwakiutl people
of the Pacific Northwest, totem poles reflect a spirit hierarchy, where each symbolizes a
specific ancestor, and placement signifies relative importance.
Conclusion:
The nuanced differences between totemism and animism highlight the diversity of human beliefs,
exhibiting localized rituals in totemism and a globally adaptable spiritual connection in animism.
This underpins the rich cultural mosaic shaping our understanding of the intrinsic bond between
humanity and the natural world.
588
Section B
a) Examine the relevance of corporate social responsibility in a world

marked by increasing environmental crises. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Briefly introduce with importance of Corporate Social Responsibility.
 Explain the relevance of corporate social responsibility in a world marked by increasing
environmental crises.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has emerged as a critical concept in contemporary society,
reflecting the growing recognition of the responsibilities that corporations hold beyond profit-
making objectives.
CSR encompasses a range of voluntary initiatives undertaken by corporations to address
environmental, social, and economic concerns, such as philanthropy, sustainability initiatives, and
ethical labour practices.
Relevance of corporate social responsibility in a world marked by increasing environmental
crises:
 Environmental Stewardship and Sustainability: CSR gains relevance in the face of
escalating environmental crises, Ulrich Beck's theory of "risk society." Corporations play a
pivotal role in mitigating environmental degradation and promoting sustainability through
initiatives such as reducing carbon emissions, minimizing waste generation, and investing in
renewable energy sources.
 Stakeholder Accountability and Transparency: Robert Putnam's concept of "social capital"
underscores the importance of trust and cooperation among stakeholders in addressing
environmental challenges. For instance, companies like Starbucks and Nike have
implemented stakeholder engagement strategies to solicit feedback and input on their
environmental policies and practices, enhancing their credibility and legitimacy as
responsible corporate citizens.
 Corporate Governance and Ethical Leadership: Max Weber's theory of bureaucratic
authority emphasizes the role of ethical leadership and institutional accountability in
ensuring corporate responsibility. CSR promotes ethical governance by advocating for
corporate transparency, integrity, and accountability in environmental decision-making
processes. For example, companies like Tesla and Google have adopted corporate
governance structures that prioritize environmental sustainability and ethical business
practices, setting benchmarks for responsible leadership in addressing environmental crises.
 Community Engagement and Social Impact: Manuel Castells' theory of the "network
society" highlights the interconnectedness of social actors and institutions in addressing
complex societal issues. CSR encourages corporations to engage with local communities and
civil society organizations in collaborative efforts to address environmental challenges and
promote sustainable development.
589
For instance, companies like Coca-Cola and Microsoft have invested in community-based
environmental projects, such as reforestation initiatives and clean water programs, to address
environmental crises while enhancing their social impact and reputation.
 Regulatory Compliance and Risk Management: Anthony Giddens' theory of "reflexive
modernization" underscores the importance of adaptive governance mechanisms in
responding to environmental risks and uncertainties. CSR motivates corporations to comply
with environmental regulations and adopt proactive risk management strategies to mitigate
environmental liabilities and reputational risks.
In conclusion,
CSR holds immense relevance in addressing the escalating environmental crises faced by our world
today. By integrating environmental sustainability into their business strategies and operations,
corporations can mitigate their ecological footprint which can contribute to environmental
conservation and will foster long-term sustainability.
As environmental concerns continue to intensify, the adoption of CSR becomes not only a moral
imperative but also a strategic necessity for corporations to navigate environmental risks, uphold
their social license to operate, and contribute positively to the well-being of present and future
generations.
590
b) How is civil society used in deepening the roots of democracy? (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define civil society.
 Explain role of civil society used in deepening the roots of democracy.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Civil society encompasses a broad array of organizations, groups, and networks that operate
independently from the government and the market, engaging in collective action to address
societal issues, advocate for social change, and promote the interests of citizens. It serves as a vital
space for citizens to express their voices, exercise their rights, and participate in democratic
processes, contributing to the pluralism, diversity, and vitality of democratic societies.
Role of civil society used in deepening the roots of democracy:
 Facilitating Citizen Participation and Engagement: Robert Putnam's theory of social capital
emphasizes the role of civil society in fostering trust, cooperation, and civic engagement
among citizens, which are essential for the functioning of democracy. For example,
organizations like the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
(NAACP) in the United States and the Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa played
pivotal roles in mobilizing citizens and advocating for political reforms, contributing to the
deepening of democracy in their respective countries.
 Promoting Pluralism and Diversity of Voices: Alexis de Tocqueville's theory of democracy
emphasizes the importance of a vibrant civil society in promoting pluralism and diversity of
voices, which are essential for preventing the concentration of power and fostering inclusive
governance. For example, organizations like Amnesty International and Greenpeace
advocate for human rights and environmental protection, amplifying the voices of
marginalized communities and challenging oppressive power structures, thereby enriching
democratic discourse and decision-making.
 Safeguarding Human Rights and Liberties: Hannah Arendt's theory of political action
underscores the role of civil society in safeguarding human rights and liberties against the
encroachment of authoritarian regimes and oppressive governments. Civil society
organizations serve as watchdogs, monitoring government actions, exposing human rights
abuses, and advocating for legal and institutional reforms to protect fundamental freedoms.
 Fostering Social Cohesion and Solidarity: Ernest Gellner's theory of nationalism highlights
the role of civil society in fostering social cohesion and solidarity among diverse groups,
which are essential for the stability and resilience of democratic societies. Civil society
organizations provide spaces for social interaction, mutual support, and collective action,
bridging social divides and building trust among citizens. For example, community-based
organizations and voluntary associations promote social integration and solidarity through
activities such as community service, cultural events, and mutual aid, strengthening the
social fabric and promoting democratic values of equality and inclusivity.
 Enhancing Democratic Governance and Accountability: Jürgen Habermas' theory of
communicative action underscores the importance of deliberative democracy and public
discourse in democratic governance.
591
Civil society organizations facilitate public debates, information sharing, and consensus-
building, which are essential for informed decision-making and responsive governance. For
example, media watchdogs and investigative journalism organizations play a crucial role in
exposing corruption, promoting transparency, and holding governments accountable to the
public, thereby strengthening democratic institutions and deepening democratic practices.
In conclusion, civil society plays a pivotal role in deepening the roots of democracy by fostering
citizen participation, promoting pluralism, safeguarding human rights, fostering social cohesion,
and enhancing democratic governance. By serving as a catalyst for social change and a watchdog
against abuses of power, civil society acts as a bulwark against authoritarianism and promotes
democratic values of equality, inclusivity, and justice.
592
c) What functions does religion perform in a pluralistic society? (10 Marks)

Structure:
 Define Religion.
 Explain functions performed by religion in a pluralistic society.
 Challenges faced by religion in pluralistic society.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Ronald Robertson - It refers to the existence of Supernatural beings which have a governing effect
on life.
But, according to Malcolm Hamilton certain belief systems such as Buddhism don’t contain a belief
in supernatural beings. Thus, defining religion is a tough and complex task.
Functions performed by religion in a pluralistic society:
 Promotion of Social Cohesion and Harmony: Émile Durkheim argued that religious rituals
create a sense of collective effervescence, or shared emotional energy, that binds individuals
together in a unified moral community. Example: The Kumbh Mela in India, where millions
of Hindus gather to bathe in sacred rivers, exemplifies how religious rituals foster social
cohesion and unity among diverse participants.
 Facilitation of Moral and Ethical Guidance: Max Weber suggested that certain religious
traditions, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, promote ethical monotheism, which
emphasizes the importance of moral conduct and ethical behavior. Example: The Ten
Commandments in Judaism and Christianity provide moral guidelines for adherents,
shaping their ethical decision-making and behavior in various aspects of life.
 Expression of Cultural Identity and Heritage: Clifford Geertz proposed that religion serves
as a system of symbols that express and reinforce cultural meanings and values, including
aspects of identity and heritage. Example: The Diwali festival in Hinduism, celebrated with
rituals, lights, and festive foods, not only expresses religious beliefs but also symbolizes
cultural identity and heritage for Hindus around the world.
 Provision of Emotional Support and Coping Mechanisms: William James explored the
psychological dimensions of religious experience, suggesting that religious beliefs and
practices provide individuals with emotional comfort, consolation, and meaning. Example:
The role of prayer and meditation in Buddhism and Christianity offers practitioners a means
to cope with stress, anxiety, and grief by fostering a sense of connection with a higher power
or spiritual reality.
 Promotion of Social Justice and Advocacy: Dorothy Day advocated for the application of
Catholic social teachings, which emphasize principles of social justice, solidarity, and the
preferential option for the poor, in addressing societal issues. Example: The Catholic
Church's involvement in the Civil Rights Movement in the United States, through figures like
Martin Luther King Jr. and organizations like the Catholic Worker Movement, demonstrates
religion's role in advocating for social justice and equality.
593
Challenges:
 Conflict and Competition Among Religious Groups: Georg Simmel emphasized that
conflict is a natural and inevitable aspect of social life, including competition between social
groups such as religious communities. Example: The partition of India in 1947 resulted in
widespread communal violence between Hindus and Muslims, illustrating how religious
diversity can lead to intergroup conflicts and tensions.
 Secularization and Decline in Religious Authority: Max Weber argued that modernization
and rationalization lead to the decline of traditional authority structures, including religious
authority, as individuals increasingly rely on scientific and rational explanations for
phenomena. Example: The rise of secularism in Western Europe during the Enlightenment
era led to a decline in the influence of the Catholic Church and religious institutions,
demonstrating the impact of secularization on religious authority.
 Challenges to Religious Identity and Belief Systems: Erving Goffman proposed that
individuals construct their identities through interactions with others, which may include
exposure to diverse religious beliefs and worldviews in pluralistic societies. Example: In
multicultural societies like Canada, immigrants may experience identity challenges as they
navigate between their religious heritage and the secular norms of their adopted country,
leading to conflicts between traditional beliefs and modern values.
 Erosion of Traditional Cultural Practices: Michel Foucault examined how power structures
influence knowledge production and shape social practices, including the marginalization of
minority cultures and religious traditions in pluralistic societies. Example: The impact of
globalization on indigenous cultures in countries like Australia, where traditional Aboriginal
religious practices and languages have been suppressed or lost due to colonialism and
cultural assimilation, illustrates the erosion of cultural heritage in pluralistic contexts.
In a pluralistic society, religion serves multifaceted functions which are crucial for social cohesion,
ethical guidance, cultural expression, emotional support, and advocacy for social justice. It acts as a
unifying force which fosters harmony among diverse communities through shared rituals and
values, while also providing moral frameworks that guide individual behaviour. Ultimately,
religion plays a pivotal role in shaping societal norms, values, and collective identities, contributing
significantly to the fabric of social life and cohesion.
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d) Analyse critically David Morgan's views on family practices. (10 Marks)

Structure:
 Introduce briefly with David Morgan’s contribution and his views on family practices.
 Explain Morgan’s views on family.
 Criticism of his theory.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Introduction:
David Morgan revolutionized the study of family dynamics with his pioneering concept of 'family
practices'. His approach reorients the discussion from a static notion of 'the family' as a noun, to a
dynamic understanding of 'doing family' as a verb. This shift emphasizes the significance of daily
actions and interactions, moving away from traditional structural definitions of the family.
Morgan's Views on Family:
1. He challenges the conventional, rigid definitions of family, advocating for a more fluid
understanding based on daily interactions and practices. He also argues that the essence of
family life is captured more accurately through these practices rather than fixed structures.
2. Family is an active process involving continuous effort and interaction, rather than a static
entity, highlighting the significance of actions in nurturing and sustaining family
relationships.
3. Morgan recognizes the diverse ways in which people engage in family practices,
acknowledging the variations across different cultures and societies. This approach is more
inclusive, accommodating the various forms families can take in the modern world.
4. Intimacy and Care: The role of care, intimacy, and obligation within family are crucial in
maintaining the familial bond and providing a sense of belonging.
5. Social and Cultural Context: Morgan situates family practices within broader societal norms
and values, highlighting how these practices are influenced by and reflective of the larger
social and cultural milieu.
Criticism:
 Structuralist sociologists argue that Morgan's theory underplays social structural factors
(like class, gender, and race) in the formation and dynamics of families.
 Feminist sociologists argues that female bears the burden of unequal distribution of
domestic labour and care responsibilities, which are shaped by broader patriarchal
structures.
 Postmodern scholars: Criticize Morgan’s theory of being too broad and inclusive, risking the
loss of specificity in understanding family dynamics in different cultural and social contexts.
 Traditional Family sociologist: Morgan's approach dilutes the concept of family by
extending the definition to include a wide range of practices and forms, the specific
sociological significance of the family is weakened.
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Conclusion:
David Morgan's concept of 'family practices' offers a profound and inclusive view of contemporary
family dynamics. It shifts the paradigm from a static to a dynamic understanding of family,
accommodating the complexities and diversities of modern familial structures. Despite its
criticisms, Morgan’s framework remains an essential tool for understanding contemporary family
dynamics.
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e) Does women's education help to eradicate patriarchal discriminations?

Reflect with illustrations. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Introduce briefly about patriarchal discriminations.
 Explain how women's education help to eradicate patriarchal discriminations with
illustrations.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Patriarchal discrimination refers to the systemic oppression and marginalization of individuals
based on their gender, with men typically holding power and authority over women within social,
political, and economic structures.
It is rooted in traditional gender norms and roles, patriarchal discrimination manifests in various
forms, including unequal access to resources and opportunities, restricted autonomy and decision-
making power for women, and the normalization of gender-based violence and exploitation.
Women's education will help to eradicate patriarchal discriminations:
 Empowerment through Knowledge: Pierre Bourdieu's theory of cultural capital suggests
that education serves as a form of symbolic power that can challenge and disrupt existing
social hierarchies. Women's education equips individuals with critical thinking skills,
awareness of their rights, and access to information, enabling them to challenge patriarchal
norms and advocate for gender equality.
 Economic Independence and Autonomy: Amartya Sen's capability approach emphasizes
the importance of education in expanding individuals' capabilities and opportunities.
Women's education enhances their economic prospects by increasing their employability,
income potential, and financial independence, reducing their dependence on male relatives
and spouses and challenging traditional gender roles that prioritize men as breadwinners.
For instance, studies have shown that higher levels of education among women are
associated with lower rates of child marriage, as educated women are more likely to delay
marriage and childbearing, pursue higher education, and engage in economic activities
outside the home, breaking the cycle of poverty and patriarchal control.
 Transforming Social Norms and Attitudes: Raewyn Connell's theory of hegemonic
masculinity highlights the role of education in challenging dominant gender norms and
fostering more egalitarian attitudes and behaviors. Women's education disrupts traditional
gender roles by challenging stereotypes, promoting gender-sensitive curricula, and fostering
critical thinking about gender inequalities and discrimination.
 Political Participation and Leadership: Nancy Fraser's theory of participatory parity
emphasizes the importance of equal participation and representation in democratic
processes. For example, countries like Finland and Norway, which have high levels of gender
equality and women's education, have greater representation of women in political
leadership positions, resulting in more gender-responsive policies and greater attention to
women's issues.
 Intersecting Forms of Discrimination: Kimberlé Crenshaw's theory of intersectionality
highlights how multiple forms of discrimination intersect and compound to create unique
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experiences of oppression.
Women's education addresses not only gender-based discrimination but also intersects with
other forms of discrimination, such as race, class, ethnicity, and caste, amplifying its impact
in challenging systemic inequalities. For example, initiatives promoting girls' education in
marginalized communities in India and South Africa address intersecting forms of
discrimination based on caste and race, empowering women to challenge multiple forms of
oppression and advocate for their rights.
In conclusion, women's education serves as a powerful tool in the ongoing struggle to eradicate
patriarchal discriminations, although it alone may not be sufficient to fully dismantle deeply
entrenched patriarchal structures.
Thus, while women's education represents a crucial step towards gender justice, it must be
complemented by broader social and institutional changes to achieve lasting progress in the fight
against patriarchal discriminations.
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Question 6.
a) What are the different dimensions of qualitative method? Do you think
that qualitative methods help to gain a deeper sociological insight? Give
reasons for your answer. (20 Marks)
 Define qualitative methods
 Key dimensions of Qualitative methods
 Criticism of qualitative methods
 Conclusion
Qualitative research in sociology involves studying social phenomena through non-numeric data,
emphasizing the exploration and understanding of complex social processes. They delve beyond
numbers and statistics, capturing the richness of lived experiences, subjective meaning, and the
intricate tapestry of social processes.
Qualitative methods, including interviews, observation, content analysis, and ethnography, offer
diverse approaches to explore social phenomena, providing nuanced insights through immersion,
analysis, and interaction with participants in various settings.
Some key dimensions include:
1. Depth and Richness: Qualitative methods aim to provide in-depth insights into social
phenomena, capturing the richness and complexity of human experiences. E.g.: The works
of sociologist Erving Goffman, such as "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life," employ
qualitative methods to explore the intricate dynamics of face-to-face interactions and the
dramaturgical aspects of social life.
2. Contextual Understanding: focuses on the context in which social phenomena occur,
recognizing the importance of understanding the social, cultural, and historical factors that
shape behaviors. E.g.: Pierre Bourdieu's qualitative research on cultural capital and habitus
explores how social context influences individuals' tastes, preferences, and opportunities.
3. Flexibility and Emergence: Qualitative methods allow for flexibility and the emergence of
new insights during the research process, enabling researchers to adapt their approach based
on ongoing observations.
4. Subjectivity and Reflexivity: Qualitative researchers often acknowledge their subjectivity
and engage in reflexivity, recognizing the influence of their own perspectives on the research
process. E.g. Dorothy E. Smith's feminist qualitative research, such as "The Everyday World
as Problematic," emphasizes the importance of reflexivity in understanding how social
structures are shaped and experienced by individuals from different social locations.
5. Holistic Approach - Qualitative methods adopt a holistic approach, considering the
interconnectedness of various social factors and exploring the interplay between them. E.g.
The ethnographic work of Clifford Geertz, such as "The Interpretation of Cultures,"
demonstrates the holistic nature of qualitative research by delving into the symbolic
meanings embedded in cultural practices.
Criticism of Qualitative methods
 Lack of Generalizability: Qualitative focus on specific groups/events, criticized by
positivists for limiting generalizability to broader populations or phenomena.
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 Subjectivity: Potential researcher bias, a concern raised by Popper, challenges the objectivity
of findings, impacting the reliability of qualitative research outcomes.
 Time-Consuming: Particularly applicable to ethnographies, qualitative methods demand
extensive time commitments, potentially limiting the feasibility of large-scale research
endeavors.
 Less Replicability: Subjectivity and the unique nature of qualitative studies present
challenges for replicability, affecting the ability to verify findings across different settings.
Qualitative methods significantly contribute to gaining a deeper sociological insight by offering rich
descriptions, understanding subjectivities, and providing a flexible and contextual approach. These
methods, exemplified by scholars like Bourdieu, allow researchers to delve into the complexities of
human experiences, adapting to emerging themes.
The holistic nature of qualitative research enhances understanding by considering interconnected
social factors. While quantitative methods reveal patterns, qualitative approaches complement by
uncovering nuanced aspects of lived experiences, contributing to a more comprehensive
understanding of the multifaceted social world. The combination of both approaches often results
in a richer and more insightful sociological analysis.
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b) Explain Max Weber's theory of social stratification. How does Weber's

idea of class differ from that of Marx? (20 Marks)
 Brief introduction of social stratification and ideas of Marx and Weber
 Weber’s theory of stratification
 Difference between Weberian and Marxian theory
 Conclusion
Social stratification is the hierarchical arrangement of individuals or groups in a society. Marx's
view, rooted in economic class conflict, emphasizes ownership of means of production. Weber's
multidimensional theory considers class, status, and party, recognizing the interplay of economic,
social, and political factors in shaping social hierarchy.
Weber’s theory of stratification
In his seminal work "Economy and Society," Weber identified three primary components of social
stratification: class, status, and party.
 Class: Weber acknowledged the economic aspect of class but expanded it beyond ownership
of the means of production. Class, for Weber, is determined by an individual's position in the
market economy, considering income from both property and labor.
 Status: Unlike Marx's singular focus on economic class, Weber introduced status as a crucial
dimension. Status is based on social prestige and influenced by factors such as education,
ethnicity, and lifestyle. It recognizes that societal standing extends beyond economic
considerations.
 Party: Weber emphasized the role of political power in social stratification. Party refers to
organizations influencing policy and operating in the political domain, highlighting the
impact of political affiliations on an individual's societal position.
Difference between Weberian and Marxian theory
 Economic Determinism: Marx, rooted in economic determinism, argued that an individual's
class is fundamentally determined by their relationship to the means of production. The
bourgeoisie, who own the means of production, and the proletariat, who sell their labor,
constituted the two primary classes in Marx's framework. In contrast, Weber acknowledged
economic factors but expanded the analysis to include status and party as equally important
contributors to an individual's social position.
 Another distinction lies in the objective versus subjective nature of class positions. Marx
maintained that class positions were objectively determined by one's relationship to
production. In contrast, Weber was interested in the subjective understanding of social
stratification. He recognized that an individual's perception of their social status is influenced
not only by economic factors but also by considerations of status and political power.
 Class conflict - Marx asserted that class conflict, particularly between the bourgeoisie and
the proletariat, was inevitable and would lead to revolutionary change. Weber, on the other
hand, was more skeptical of the inevitability of class conflict. He argued that status and party
influences could act as mitigating factors, tempering the likelihood of an all-encompassing
class struggle.
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 Number of classes - Marx posited a dichotomy between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat
while acknowledging the existence of intermediate classes. Weber, in contrast, proposed a
more intricate classification, recognizing multiple classes based on diverse economic
circumstances, social standing, and political affiliations.
In conclusion, while both Weber and Marx addressed the concept of social stratification and class,
their perspectives differed significantly. Marx's focus on economic relationships and the
inevitability of class conflict contrasted with Weber's multidimensional approach. Weber's
incorporation of status and party dimensions enriched the understanding of societal dynamics,
recognizing the complexity inherent in social stratification. The divergences between these two
classical sociologists contribute to a comprehensive analysis of the multifaceted nature of social
hierarchy.
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c) What are the ethical issues that a researcher faces in making use of
participant observation as a method of collecting data? Explain. (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview-
 Briefly explain participant observation as a research method
 Discuss the ethical issues associated with participant observation.
 Conclusion which suggests the significance of this method if ethical
 considerations are taken into account.
Introduction:
Participant observation is a qualitative research methodology in which the researcher studies a
group not only through observation, but also by immersing in its daily activities. By doing so, they
aim to gain a deeper understanding of social practices, beliefs, and dynamics from an insider's
perspective.
Classic ethnographic studies, such as Argonauts of the Western Pacific by Malinowski among the
Trobriand Islanders, have made extensive use of participant observation. In India, M.N. Srinivas
employed this approach to examine the 'sanskritisation' process in Mysore.
Ethical Issues in Participant Observation:
Informed consent (Ethics of Deception): Everett C. Hughes stressed genuine consent in field
research. Gaining informed consent can be challenging when researchers immerse in a community.
Participants might not grasp the study's impact, especially if the presence disrupts. Concealing
identity or purpose raises ethical issues, conflicting with research honesty.
Privacy and Intrusiveness: Erving Goffman, in his seminal ethnographies, grappled with the
balance between close observation and respecting individual privacy. Researchers need to ensure
confidentiality, especially when dealing with sensitive information or behaviours shared in
confidence.
Power Dynamics: The researcher's status and authority might intimidate or influence individuals
in a vulnerable situation, impacting their decision-making process regarding participation. For
example, Beteille during his field research in Tanjore had to change his mode of interaction with
the villagers due to the caste dynamics of the place.
Misrepresentation and Bias: Clifford Geertz highlighted ethnography's interpretative nature and
risks of misrepresentation. Researchers blurring observer-participant lines can introduce biases and
conflicts. Understanding cultural norms prevents misinterpretation. For instance, Margaret Mead's
study in Samoa faced criticism for potential cultural bias.
Potential Harm: The presence of a researcher can inadvertently cause harm or discomfort to
participants or disrupt existing social dynamics within the observed group or community.
Researchers must prioritize participants' well-being and prevent adverse effects arising from the
study.
Exploitation risk: Participant observation carries the risk of exploitation. While the researcher might
gain from the study, participants may not receive direct benefits, which could be perceived as a form
of exploitation. For example, a researcher studying low-income groups gain insights and career
advancement, but participants receive no tangible benefits.
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Conclusion:
Engaging in participant observation yields valuable insights, yet it presents ethical complexities.
Navigating these challenges requires careful consideration, ensuring respect for the rights and
dignity of those under observation.
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Question 7.
a) Explain how economic globalization has brought changes in the patterns
of employment in the 21st century. (20 Marks)
 Define economic globalization.
 Employment Shifts Driven by Economic Globalization:
 Issues associated with economic globalization.
 Conclusion
Economic globalization, characterized by integrated markets, international trade, and fluid capital
movements, has deeply transformed employment patterns worldwide. While this phenomenon
offers new job opportunities and market expansion, it also presents multifaceted challenges.
Employment Shifts Driven by Economic Globalization:
1. Manufacturing to Services Transition: Western economies have seen a decline in traditional
manufacturing jobs, replaced by the service sector. Example: Detroit's shrinking auto industry
versus Silicon Valley's tech boom.
2. Rise of Precarious Employment: The surge in temporary, gig-based, or informal jobs.
Example: The dominance of gig platforms like Uber and ola. Guy Standing's concept of the
"precariat" class denotes those facing fluctuating employment conditions.
3. Outsourcing and Offshoring: Relocation of business operations to countries with cost-
effective labour Example: Tech support and call centers mushrooming in India. Arjun
Appadurai’s framework of global "scapes" underlines such shifts.
4. Informal Employment Surge: The unregulated job sector's growth, especially in developing
nations. Example: Day laborers in Mumbai or makeshift markets in Bangkok. Keith Hart
underscores the expanding "informal sector" role in global economies.
5. Skill Polarization: A widening chasm between high-skilled, well-paid jobs and low-skilled,
poorly-paid jobs . Example: The vast pay gap between AI specialists and factory workers in
the same city.
Issues associated with economic globalization.
1. Income Disparity: Growing wage discrepancies exacerbate societal inequalities. Example:
The burgeoning wealth of tech moguls in the US compared to stagnating median incomes.
2. Job Insecurity: Gig economy growth undermines job stability and benefits. Example:
Freelancers without health benefits or job assurance during economic downturns.
3. Cultural Homogenization: Dominance of global brands and corporations might dilute local
traditions. Example: The ubiquity of global fast-food chains replacing local eateries in cities
worldwide.
4. Labor Exploitation: To remain competitive, regions may tolerate harmful labor practices.
Example: Sweatshops in Bangladesh with perilous working conditions catering to global
fashion brands.
5. Environmental Degradation: Intensifying production can compromise environmental
standards. Example: Deforestation in Brazil for cattle farming driven by global meat demand.
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6. Dependency and Vulnerability: Nations overly dependent on global markets may face
vulnerability during economic downturns or crises, impacting employment rates and overall
economic stability.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, economic globalization's impact on employment is multifaceted. While it offers
increased job opportunities, skill enhancement, and a diverse workforce, challenges such as job
displacement, income inequality, and environmental concerns persist. Striking a balance requires
thoughtful policies that address the drawbacks while harnessing the positive aspects to ensure a
fair, sustainable, and inclusive global labor market.
606
b) Do you think that social media has brought significant changes in the
forms of protest? Argue your case. (20 Marks)
 Introduce social media.
 How social media had changed form of protest.
 Issues associated with social media protests.
 Conclusion
Social media, a collection of digital platforms facilitating content creation, sharing, and interaction,
transforms communication and community dynamics. Its pervasive influence has significantly
reshaped the landscape of social and political activism.
In the 21st century, marked by a surge in social media usage, its role in protests is particularly
captivating. Social media wields transformative power in shaping activism, yet it also presents
potential pitfalls, emphasizing the intricate and influential relationship between digital platforms
and the evolution of protest movements.
How social media had changed form of protest.
 Amplified Reach: Example: The farmer protests in India garnered global attention and
solidarity, significantly aided by platforms like Twitter. Manuel Castells, with his
“networked society” concept, discusses the amplified reach of social issues through digital
networks.
 Quick Mobilization: Zeynep Tufekci examines how social media accelerates mobilization
rates in protests. Example: The swift organization of the anti-CAA (Citizenship Amendment
Act) protests across Indian cities.
 Democratizing potential of digital platforms - Voices from the fringes, like Dalit activism or
LGBTQ+ rights, gaining prominence online.
 Global Solidarity: E.g. Iranian women movement Enables transnational support for local
causes. Sidney Tarrow’s work on “transnational social movements” explains such
phenomena.
 Innovative Activism: Digital tools lead to innovative protest forms. Example: Online art and
meme culture during the JNU (Jawaharlal Nehru University) protests.
 Documenting Atrocities: Acts as evidence and counters state or media narratives. Example:
Videos during the Delhi riots shared on social media countered mainstream narratives.
 Mobilization of Youth: Climate change protests led by youth activists, such as Greta
Thunberg, gained global momentum through social media campaigns, engaging a younger
demographic.
Issues associated with social media protests.
1. Surface-level Engagement: 'Clicktivism' doesn't guarantee substantial offline action.
Example: Many trending hashtags in India don't necessarily culminate in on-ground
mobilization.
2. State Surveillance: Facilitates monitoring and suppression by the state. Example: Activists
arrested in India based on online activities, like Disha Ravi's case.
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3. Echo Chambers: Risk of polarized views and selective exposure. Example: Polarized Indian
political discourse on platforms like Facebook and Twitter.
4. Misinformation and Fake News: Rapid spread of unverified information.
5. Targeted Harassment: Example: Gurmehar Kaur, an Indian student activist, faced massive
online trolling and threats.
6. Digital Divide: Example: Rural voices in India sometimes remain unheard in the largely
urban-centric social media discourse.
Conclusion:
Social media has undeniably brought significant changes to the forms of protest. It facilitates
mobilization, amplifies messages, and offers new tools for engagement and organization. However,
it also introduces challenges like state surveillance, misinformation, and the digital divide.
Recognizing both its potential and pitfalls is crucial for understanding the evolving landscape of
activism in the digital age. By harnessing its strengths while mitigating its risks, social media can
remain a powerful tool for social change and democratic participation.
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c) Assess critically A. G. Frank's theory of development of

underdevelopment. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Explain A.G. Frank’s ‘development of under development”
 Explain drawbacks of AG Frank’s Theory
 Conclusion.
Solution:
A.G. Frank’s ‘Development of underdevelopment’
 In an article entitled ‘The Development of Underdevelopment’ which set out his main
thinking, Frank declared:
 ‘Underdevelopment is not due to the survival of archaic institutions and the existence of
capital shortage in regions that have remained isolated from the stream of world history. On
the contrary, underdevelopment was and still is generated by the very same historical
process which also generated economic development: the development of capitalism itself.’
 According to A.G. Frank, underdevelopment is not a transitional stage, rather the
relationship between the centre and periphery, which has been continuously generating a
process of ‘development of underdevelopment.’
o According to this view, the capitalist system has enforced a rigid international division
of labour which is responsible for the underdevelopment of many areas of the world.
o The dependent states supply cheap minerals, agricultural commodities, and cheap
labour, and also serve as the repositories of surplus capital, obsolescent technologies,
and manufactured goods.
o These functions orient the economies of the dependent states toward the outside:
Money, goods, and services do flow into dependent states, but the allocation of these
resources is determined by the economic interests of the dominant states, and not by
the economic interests of the dependent state.
 The most explicit manifestation of this characteristic is in the doctrine of comparative
advantage.
Drawbacks of AG Frank’s Theory:
 Frank’s works have been subject to a wide-ranging set of criticisms. In many instances these
criticisms attend superficially to the complex claims of his argument and utilize as the basis
of criticism the very models of developmentalism, stages of economic growth, etc.
 However, some criticisms have been consistently focused on inconsistencies, ambiguities,
and alleged inaccuracies in Frank’s theorization.
o Neoliberalists would argue that it is mainly internal factors that lead to
underdevelopment, not exploitation – They argue that it is corruption within
governments (poor governance) that is mainly to blame for the lack of development
in many African countries. According to Neoliberals, what underdeveloped countries
need is less isolation and more Capitalism.
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o Paul Collier’s theory of the bottom billion- He argues that the causes of
underdevelopment cannot be reduced to a history of exploitation. He argues that
factors such as civil wars, ethnic tensions and being land- locked with poor neighbours
are correlated with underdevelopment.
o Modernists theorists would argue against the view that isolation and communist
revolution is an effective path to development, given the well-known failings of
communism in Russia and Eastern Europe. They would also point out that many
developing countries have benefitted from Aid-for Development programs run by
western governments, and that those countries which have adopted capitalist models
of development since World War II have developed at a faster rate than those that
pursued communism.
o Some countries appear to have benefited from Colonialism – Goldethorpe (1975)
pointed out that those countries that had been colonised at least have the benefits of
good transport and communication networks, such as India, whereas many countries
that were never colonised, such as Ethiopia, are much less developed.
o Frank and Wallerstein add a zero-sum description to this circulationist perspective.
 Not only do they maintain that advanced capitalism under-developed the periphery, but they
also insist that the centre has developed only because of the exploitation of the periphery.
 It has been pointed out that class as a unit of analysis is given minimal consideration by
Frank.
 Frank has been criticised for totally dispensing with relations of production in his analysis of
capitalism, and overemphasising the effects of external forces on underdevelopment with
little attention directed towards the influencing internal forces.
 Laclau argues against Frank’s insistence that world-historical structure is fundamentally
ordered by the capitalist mode of production, claiming that Frank mistakenly regards various
countries as capitalist when in fact they are characterised by non-capitalist modes of
production but are forced into “participation in a world capitalist economic system”.
Conclusion
Underdevelopment is viewed as an externally-induced process which is perpetuated by small but
powerful domestic elite who form an alliance with the international capitalist system. The
“development of underdevelopment” is therefore systemic and path- dependent.
In sum, the ‘development of underdevelopment’ thesis is a manifold argument, containing several
different levels of critique and proposal. Not only does it propose a particular understanding of
contemporary inequalities of human condition, inequalities both among and within societies or
nation-states; this understanding depends upon an underlying critique of certain prevalent
conceptualizations of history, of society, and of social-scientific knowledge.
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Question 8.
a) What is Taylorism? Analyze its merits and demerits. (20 Marks)
Overview
 Briefly define Taylorism in the introduction
 Discuss the merits and demerits of Taylorism
 Conclusion
Introduction:
Taylorism is a theory associated with Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 –1915), who was considered to
be the father of scientific management. Taylorism is a set of ideas, developed by Frederick Winslow
Taylor, aimed to increase productivity by breaking down each task into smaller tasks, observing
them, timing them, and redesigning the work that is better coordinated by creating the best way to
accomplish the given task.
Principles of Taylorism:
 Management will develop the science of each element of work (to identify and introduce the
best way of accomplishing a task)
 Scientifically select and then train, teach, and develop the workers.
 Cooperation between workers and management to ensure work is done per the method
developed.
 Division of labour and responsibility where management is responsible for planning and
workers are responsible for the implementation of the work plan.
Merits of Taylorism:
 Enhanced Efficiency: Taylorism prioritizes efficiency and productivity by decomposing
tasks into smaller segments and assigning them to specialized workers.
 Process Standardization: Taylorism stresses the importance of standardizing work
processes, ensuring consistent output quality, minimizing errors, and facilitating simpler
training for new employees.
 Specialization and Skill Alignment: Scientific management promotes task specialization,
fostering heightened expertise and efficiency in specific job roles.
 Incentive Mechanisms: Taylor proposed a piece-rate payment system, linking workers' pay
to their output, serving as a motivational tool to enhance productivity.
 Clear Organizational Hierarchy: Taylorism advocates for a well-defined hierarchical
structure within organizations, reducing workplace confusion and conflicts.
 Enhanced Training and Development: Taylorism advocates for structured training
programs, aligning with standardized and specialized tasks to enhance employee skills.
Demerits of Taylorism:
Reductionist Approach: Breaking tasks into smaller units can strip work of its holistic essence. Karl
Marx would argue this leads to worker alienation, where the labor is detached from the final
product.
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Rigid System: Taylorism doesn't account for variability or creativity. It may not be suitable for
industries requiring constant innovation or adaptation.
Worker Dissatisfaction: The repetitive nature of tasks can lead to boredom, decreased job
satisfaction, and burnout. Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne studies highlighted the importance of
considering human needs and the social aspect of work, which Taylorism often neglects.
Overemphasis on Quantitative Metrics: While Taylorism focuses on measurable outcomes, it may
neglect qualitative aspects such as workplace culture or worker well-being.
Overshadowing structural principles: Critics pointed out that Taylor's principles tended to
overshadow important structural concepts like coordination, delegation, and decentralization.
Conclusion:
Taylorism significantly influenced industrial production through its focus on efficiency and
standardization. Despite enhancing productivity, criticism arose due to its mechanistic view of
labour. In modern times, though rare, elements of Taylorism persist, often combined with more
adaptable management approaches.
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b) What are new religious movements? Elaborate emphasizing their forms

and orientations. (20 Marks)
Overview
 Define New Religious Movements in the introduction.
 Discuss different forms of the NRMs and their orientations.
 Criticism of New Religious movements.
 Conclusion
Introduction:
The term "New Religious Movements" (NRMs) was initially used by social scientists to describe a
diverse array of spiritual movements that emerged in the West post-1960s.
By definition, these faiths are considered "new," presenting fresh religious perspectives tailored to
modern circumstances, despite often claiming ties to ancient traditions. NRMs typically position
themselves as countercultural, offering alternatives to established Western religions like
Christianity. These movements tend to be diverse, embracing eclecticism, pluralism, and
syncretism by amalgamating beliefs and practices from various sources into their doctrines.
Different forms of New Religious Movements:
Sects: Bryan Wilson defines sects as religious groups that often emerge as breakaways from
established religious traditions. These groups typically emphasize strict adherence to particular
doctrines or practices and often separate themselves from mainstream religions. For example, Sunni
and Shia sects in Islam, Amish, Quakers in Christianity and Swaminarayan Sect, Radhasoami
Satsang in Hinduism.
Cults: According to Roy Wallis cults differ from sects in that they are individualized, loosely-
organized, tolerant and make very few demands on their adherents. Wallis distinguishes NRMs
into world-affirming(cults), world-accommodating and world-rejecting categories. A cult is
characterized by belief systems that typically don't center around a deity or deities and often
demonstrate openness and acceptance toward alternative belief systems. For example, Osho
movement
Audience Cult: Stark and Bainbridge look at religions and spiritual movements as if they were
business organizations, referring to participants/adherents/congregants as customers or clients. An
audience cult involves passive participation, where individuals attend lectures, read books, or
purchase DVDs to absorb specific messages or ideas.
Client Cult: It is one where the cult has a relationship with its adherents similar to a doctor/patient
relationship. The cult is a service provider and the clients enter into a prolonged relationship as they
might do with a therapist.
Alternative Spiritualities: This category includes diverse spiritual practices and beliefs outside
conventional religions, such as New Age movements, neo-paganism, or holistic spirituality, often
emphasizing personal growth, mysticism, and alternative healing practices. New Age movements
are built on self-spirituality and detraditionalization. Examples of New Age Movements are
crystal healing, meditation, yoga, astrology, Tarot reading etc.
Cargo Cults: Primarily in the South Pacific, they await the return of ancestral spirits bringing "cargo"
or prosperity. Example: The John Frum movement in Vanuatu.
613
Orientations of NRMs:
 Charismatic Leadership: Many NRMs revolve around charismatic leaders who attract
followers through their personal charisma, visionary messages, or perceived divine
connections.
 Alternative Beliefs: NRMs often promote beliefs or doctrines that diverge from traditional
religious norms, offering alternative interpretations of spirituality, cosmology, or the divine.
 Social Transformation: Some NRMs focus on societal change, advocating for social justice,
equality, or challenging existing norms and structures. World accommodating movements
like the Osho movement emphasize on inner spirituality and personal growth without
aiming to change the world.
 Communal Living: Certain NRMs emphasize communal living, where members share
resources, live in close-knit communities, and practice collective decision-making.
 Syncretism: Combining beliefs or practices from various religious traditions. For example,
The Bahá'í Faith. Rosabeth Moss Kanter talks about syncretism in NRMs as a means to
address diverse spiritual needs.
Criticism of New Religious Movements:
 Exploitation: There are instances where leaders or groups within NRMs have been accused
of exploiting followers financially, emotionally, or psychologically, often through deceptive
practices or coercion.
 Breakdown of Relationships: In extreme cases, involvement in NRMs might lead to
estrangement from family and friends, as the movement demands exclusive commitment
and discourages interactions with outsiders.
 Psychological Impact: In certain situations, intense involvement in NRMs can lead to
psychological distress, identity crises, dependency, and in some cases, mental health issues
among followers.
 Controversial Practices: Some NRMs engage in controversial practices that can raise ethical
and legal concerns, such as secretive rituals, unconventional healing methods, or extreme
behaviors.
 Loss of Autonomy: Followers might experience a loss of personal autonomy and critical
thinking as they adhere strictly to the doctrines and rules of the movement, sometimes at the
expense of their individuality.
Conclusion:
New Religious Movements, arising from evolving social and spiritual contexts, present a diverse
landscape that brings both enrichment and possible challenges. They highlight the dynamic shifts
in contemporary religious beliefs and practices.
614
c) Examine the role of science and technology in addressing age-old taboos

and superstitions. (10 Marks)
Approach:
 Intro: Historical conflict between science and age-old taboos.
 Main Body: Explain how science, technology, and rationality dismantle age-old
superstitions.
 Conclusion: How technology is powerful agents of change.
Introduction:
Throughout history, science and technology have been viewed as the driver of rationality and
objective outlook, emphasizing evidence-based approaches to problem-solving. In contrast to age-
old taboos and superstitions rooted in fear, ignorance, and cultural tradition.
The historical conflict between these forces can be traced back to various societies where
superstitions influenced social practices and beliefs. The scientific revolution and the Enlightenment
period marked a turning point, igniting the spirit of rational inquiry and laying the groundwork for
modern societies to tackle entrenched beliefs.
Main Body:
Empirical Inquiry and Rationalization:
 Empirical Inquiry: According to Auguste Comte’s law of three stages, the progression from
theological and metaphysical stages to the scientific (positive) stage illustrates the role of
empirical science in replacing superstitions with rational explanations.
 Rationalization: Max Weber's concept of rationalization highlights how modern societies
progressively abandon traditional and mystical beliefs in favor of systematic thinking and
logical reasoning.
Understanding Unknown Phenomena:
Science provides evidence-based explanations for natural phenomena traditionally attributed to
supernatural causes, such as eclipses and diseases, debunking myths associated with them.
Medical and Agricultural Advancements:
Advancements in medicine, such as vaccinations and hygiene practices, have dispelled the belief in
witchcraft and curses as causes of diseases.
In agriculture, technology has helped replace ritualistic practices with scientifically proven farming
techniques, reducing the dependence on superstitious rituals for crop fertility.
Countering False Consciousness:
Karl Marx’s concept of false consciousness is challenged as science exposes the exploitative nature
of superstitions upheld by certain social groups to maintain their dominance.
Role of Communication Technology:
Digital platforms, social media, and broadcast networks facilitate the rapid dissemination of
scientific knowledge and rational ideas, providing immediate counter-narratives to misinformation
and superstition.
615
Impact of Education and Media:
Education systems integrate scientific literacy into curricula, promoting critical thinking from an
early age.
Media campaigns, documentaries, and public service announcements use engaging narratives to
challenge ingrained taboos, offering alternative perspectives that align with scientific
understanding.
Conclusion:
Science and technology serve as powerful agents of change, offering rational and objective
perspectives that help societies move beyond age-old taboos and superstitions.
By promoting empirical inquiry, encouraging rational thought, and making knowledge accessible,
they foster a modern, evidence-based worldview that dispels myths and advances societal progress.
Ultimately, the continued advancement of technology and scientific education can empower
individuals to embrace a more enlightened, inclusive, and progressive society.
616
Contents
Mains 2013........................................................................................................................2
Mains 2014........................................................................................................................55
Mains 2015........................................................................................................................107
Mains 2016........................................................................................................................160
Mains 2017........................................................................................................................215
Mains 2018........................................................................................................................276
Mains 2019........................................................................................................................333
Mains 2020........................................................................................................................390
Mains 2021........................................................................................................................456
Mains 2022........................................................................................................................526
Mains 2023........................................................................................................................585
1
Mains 2013
Section A
Question 1. Write short notes on the following: (Each note should not exceed 150
words) 10 × 5 = 50
a) Andre Beteille's definition of class. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Begin with Andre Beteille's work on class and his approach of studying class.
 Give the views of Andre Beteille on Class. (Should be the major part of answer)
 Provide some criticism of his views on class.
Solution
Andre Beteille is a French-born Indian sociologist whose book "Class, Caste, and Power: Changing
Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village" is regarded as a seminal work on class and social
stratification in India. He has examined the concept of class from a Marxist standpoint in his work,
emphasising the importance of class as a fundamental aspect of society.
1. According to Beteille, a class is a group of people who have a similar level of control over the
means of production and have a similar position in the economic system. For him, class is
determined by the relative positions of various groups in the social hierarchy.
2. He believes that social, economic, and political dynamics cause classes to change constantly
over time. For example, he saw the Green Revolution's sociological implications as an
increase in social class divisions and the rise of a bullock capitalist class.
3. He views class and status as two distinct but related concepts. He maintains that although
status influences a person's social position in terms of respect and prestige, class dictates their
economic position.
4. He argues that class is a fundamental feature of Indian society, which is characterized by
disparities based on birth, level of wealth, and occupation.
5. According to Beteille, a significant contributor to class inequality in Indian society has been
the caste system. He argues that caste is a type of social stratification that significantly
influenced Indian society and influenced how classes relate to one another in that society.
6. However, Beteille observed that in determining the structure and dynamics of Indian society,
class ties were far more significant than caste ties. While caste was a crucial factor in India's
social stratification, in his opinion class was more essential in determining how resources and
power were distributed.
7. Andre Beteille believed that there was no single, universal way to classify the agrarian class
structure and instead proposed his own classification based on land ownership, control, and
use. Beteille categorises the agrarian class structure into three broad groups: landowners,
cultivators, and agricultural labourers.
2
8. Andre Beteille was also one of the first sociologists in India to conduct a systematic study of
the middle class. He defined the middle class as a "cultural and socioeconomic category"
distinguished by certain characteristics and lifestyles such as a high level of education, a
white-collar occupation, and a high standard of living.
9. He argued that the Indian middle class was distinguished by a strong sense of moralism, a
belief in the value of tradition, and a desire for stability and order.
Some of the criticisms of his views on class are:
1. Marxist theory has a significant influence on his ideas about class, and he does not sufficiently
take into account other viewpoints.
2. Overlooks how crucial cultural and ideological influences are in determining how people
experience and relate to class.
3. The agency of individuals and groups in influencing class relations and experiences is not
something he fully acknowledges.
4. His theories on class fail to appropriately take into account how racial and gendered
intersections affect class relations and experiences.
For the study of sociology, particularly in the context of Indian society, Andre Beteille's position on
class has significant ramifications. As a result of his ideas, our understanding of class, how it affects
us, how power and resources are distributed, and how to better comprehend it has been shaped and
improved.
3
b) M.N. Srinivas's concept of westernisation. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Begin with M.N. Srinivas's work on social change.
 Give the views of M.N. Srinivas on Westernization. (Should be the major part of answer)
 Provide some criticism of his views on Westernization.
Solution
M.N. Srinivas an Indian sociologist whose book "Social Change in Modern India" is a study of social
change in India in the early 20th century and its impact on Indian society and culture.
1. M.N. Srinivas defines Westernisation as the changes that have occurred in Indian society and
culture as a result of over 150 years of British rule, and the term encompasses changes that
have occurred at various levels, including technology, institutions, ideology, and values.
Thus, he traces westernisation back to the British Raj.
2. According to Srinivas, Westernization is a cultural process of change caused by the influence
of Western ideas, values, and institutions on non-Western societies.
3. He saw Westernization as a complex process of transformation that included not only the
introduction of Western technology and economic systems, but also changes in social,
political, and cultural norms and values.
4. M.N. Srinivas argued that there were three kinds of Westernization in his work: primary,
secondary, and tertiary Westernization.
a. Primary westernization refers to the emergence of westernised sub-cultural pattern
through a minority section of Indians, who first came in contact with the western
culture.
b. Secondary westernisation refers to the process in which, a section of population came
in direct contact with the beneficiaries of Westernisation.
c. Tertiary westernisation refers to the general spread of western cultural traits, such as
the use of new technology, dress, food, and changes in the habits and styles of people
in general.
5. M.N. Srinivas also developed the concept to describe the process of social and cultural
mobility in India's traditional social structure. It has also emerged in Srinivas' research on the
Coorgs of south India.
6. Westernization, according to Srinivas, was not a one-way process of simple imitation, but
rather a dynamic and evolving process shaped by the interaction of Western and non-
Western cultures.
7. He emphasised that Westernization had both positive and negative effects on non-Western
societies, and that it was critical to understand how Westernization was being adapted and
transformed in different cultural contexts.
8. He believed that while Westernization had resulted in increased education, science, and
technology, it had also resulted in cultural decline and the loss of traditional values.
4
Some of the criticisms of his views on Westernization are:
1. Since it presupposes that Western culture is the primary factor driving change and that non-
Western cultures are passive recipients of this change, critics claim that Srinivas' idea of
Westernization has a Eurocentric perspective.
2. The influence of dominance and power in determining the course of cultural change is not
fully reflected in Srinivas' definition of Westernization.
3. Westernization concepts primarily analyse social change in "cultural" rather than "structural"
terms, and according to Yogendra Singh, the process of westernization also resulted in
structural changes because it gave rise to several new phenomena and institutions, such as
the middle class and the bureaucracy.
Despite these criticisms, Srinivas' concept of Westernization remains a seminal contribution to the
study of cultural change and modernization, and it remains relevant in current discussions of these
topics.
5
c) Satya Sodhak movement of Mahatma Jyotiba Phule. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Begin with the origin of Satya Shodhak Movement and nature.
 Provide the sociological significance of Satya Shodhak Movement. (Should be the major part of
answer)
 Provide some limitations of Satya Shodhak Movement.
Solution
Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth-seeker’s Society) was a social reform society founded by Jyotiba Phule
in Pune, Maharashtra, in 1873.
For the following reasons, the Satya Shodhak movement has significant sociological significance:
1. The movement fought against the caste-based inequalities and oppression that Dalits and
other members of the lower castes had to suffer.
2. Phule recognised the value of education in promoting social change and established schools
for girls and lower caste members, challenging traditional patriarchal and caste-based norms
that limited access to education.
3. The Satya Shodhak Samaj inspired subsequent social movements in India aimed at ending
caste discrimination and promoting equality and social justice. Jyotiba Phule, according to
Dhanjay Keer (famous biographer), is the father of the Indian Social Revolution.
4. The movement's goals were to abolish the practise of untouchability, encourage inter-caste
marriages, remove existing caste barriers, and establish a more egalitarian society.
5. The movement is an early example of Dalit assertiveness and the power of collective action
in bringing about social change. The Satya Shodhak movement, according to Gail Omvedt,
was an early form of Dalit assertion and resistance.
6. Phule and his followers criticised religion and advocated for a more secular and rational
approach to social and political issues.
7. The Satya Shodhak Samaj brought together members of the lower castes, including Dalits,
and created a sense of community and solidarity among them, allowing them to assert their
rights and resist discrimination and oppression.
The Satya Shodhak Samaj faced a number of constraints that hampered its effectiveness and reach.
Among the key limitations of the movement are:
1. The movement was primarily centred in western India and had a limited geographical
spread, limiting its impact and reach.
2. The movement lacked political power and was unable to effectively challenge the time's
dominant political structures and power dynamics.
3. The upper castes, including the Brahmins, were staunchly opposed to the movement's goals
of promoting equality and challenging the caste system.
4. The lack of a strong and committed leadership base hampered the movement's ability to carry
out its work effectively and sustain its momentum.
Despite the limitations mentioned above, the Satya Shodhak Samaj movement was one of India's
earliest and most influential social reform movements, having a significant impact on Indian society
and the larger struggle for social justice and equality.
6
d) Classes in agrarian society in India. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce answer with concept of social class system and the basis of agrarian social classes.
 Elaborate on various factors that determined the classes in agrarian society in India.
 Mention studies done by thinkers and their classification of agrarian society in India.
Solution
A social class system is established in any society where the means of production are privately
owned and the accumulation of wealth becomes concentrated in the hands of a small group of
individuals. In a society where agriculture is the main source of production, social classes are
established based on the control and organization of agricultural resources and other production
means.
Classes in India's agrarian society are influenced by multiple factors including the caste system,
colonialism, capitalism, and the political system. The caste system has resulted in unequal power
dynamics, where upper caste groups have control over the majority of land and other means of
production, while lower castes are primarily employed as laborers. During the Mughal period, rural
society was dominated by Jajmani relationships where upper castes held sway over lower castes in
a patron-client relationship. The British colonial rule further entrenched the power of the upper
classes and eroded the position of the lower classes through various policies.
After gaining independence, several laws such as the Tenancy Act, the Zamindari Abolition Act,
and the Land Ceiling Act were enacted with the goal of transferring ownership of land to the people
who work it, which led to members of the middle class and intermediary castes in rural society
becoming landowners. However, the capitalist system has resulted in a concentration of wealth and
power among a tiny group of people, exacerbating the oppression of the rural poor and the loss of
land for small farmers.
Class structure in an agricultural society in India has been the focus of numerous studies by
researchers such as D.N. Dhanagare, Utsa Patnaik, and Daniel Thorner. Thorner believes that
agricultural class structure can be identified based on three factors: income from the land, the type
of rights, and the amount of actual fieldwork done. He categorizes the classes into Malik, Kisan, and
Mazdoor. Malik represents big landlords and wealthy landowners, Kisan are small and marginal
landowners who also work on other fields, and Mazdoor are landless laborers who rely primarily
on work in other fields. Patnaik uses ownership of property as the main indicator and classifies
classes as Zamindar, Kisan, and Mazdoor. Modern sociologists such as Gail Omvedt and M.S.
Swaminathan factor in technology, including tractors, high-yield seeds, and chemical fertilizers, in
determining class.
The overall class structure in an agrarian society in India is composed of landlords, middle farmers,
small marginal farmers, and landless laborers. The distribution of resources and well-being in the
society are significantly affected by the complex and interrelated factors of caste, colonialism,
capitalism, and politics, which shape the deeply ingrained class system.
7
e) Other Backward Classes. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce with general understanding of Other Backward Classes in India.
 Give example of castes that constitute OBCs and their position in caste hierarchy.
 Briefly talk about the backwards class movement.
 Mention views of various thinkers on OBC.
Solution
The Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India are a group of people who are disadvantaged in terms
of their economy, education, and social status in comparison to other sections of society. The Indian
government recognizes this group and provides them with certain policies to support their growth
and development. These policies are designed to promote their socio-economic advancement.
In India, the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) are situated between the upper castes and the
marginalized Scheduled Castes and Tribes. They encompass various intermediate castes, such as
cultivators, artisans, and service castes, and go by different names in different parts of India, such
as Yadavs, Kurmies, Gujjars, and Jats in northern states, and Kappus, Kammas, Reddies, and
Vokkaliggas in southern regions.
The Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in India are a product of the country's complex social,
economic, and political systems. The Backward Classes Movement started in the early 20th century
with the aim of increasing social mobility for lower castes. The movement was based on three
ideologies: adaptive movements, cultural revolts, and counter-culture movements. Lower castes
claimed higher varna status, reinterpreted Hindu religion, or resorted to mass mobilization and
protest in response to the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities within the caste
system. After independence, various factors such as population growth and state policies led to
increased social mobility for backward classes in rural areas. The impact of state policies was not
uniform across the country but they still contributed to the rise of the backward classes as a powerful
social, economic, and political block in rural areas.
M.N. Srinivas was one of the first sociologists to study Sanskritization, where lower castes adopt
the lifestyle and customs of higher castes to improve their social status. Gail Omvedt views OBCs
as an important political force that can challenge the dominance of upper castes in India. Utsa
Patnaik considers OBCs as a heterogeneous group that is economically disadvantaged and socially
marginalized. M.S. Swaminathan believes that the welfare of OBCs, who are a crucial part of India's
agricultural sector, is essential for the country's overall agricultural development. David Hardgrave,
a Marxist, considers backward class mobilization to be a class mobilization driven by caste interest.
Sociologists argue that the classification of OBCs as a separate category reinforces the caste system
and perpetuates the marginalization of these groups. It is also argued that the OBC category is not
homogeneous and that it obscures the differences and inequalities within the group.
In short, the OBC group shows that the caste system still affects India and we need a better way to
deal with social and economic problems. This means understanding the complex factors that affect
OBCs and working towards equality and fairness for everyone in society.
8
Question 2.
a) What are the features that distinguish tribes from the rest of the
population? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with some facts on Tribal population in India.
 Mention the features that distinguish the tribes from rest of the population.
 Also mention the specific problems of Tribes and the safeguard available to them.
 Mention the overlap between the tribes and rest of the population.
Solution
In India, tribal populations are collectively referred to as Adivasis. As of 2021, the estimated tribal
population in India is approximately 104 million, constituting around 8% of the country's total
population. India has perhaps the highest concentration of tribal population anywhere in the world
except Africa.
Tribes are known for their distinct cultural practices, beliefs, and traditions, including language,
rituals, music, and dance, which separate them from the rest of society. They have a strong sense of
social organization and group identity, which is often centered around families, clans, or extended
families. Tribal economies are often subsistence-based and include agriculture, hunting, and
gathering, or other traditional livelihood practices. Many tribes are located in remote or isolated
areas and may have special political status such as recognition as a sovereign nation or special legal
protections for their land and resources.
Mandelbaum mentions the following characteristics of Indian tribes - kinship as an instrument of
social bonds; a lack of hierarchy among men and groups; absence of strong, complex, formal
organization; communitarian basis of land holding; segmentary character; little value on surplus
accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading; lack of distinction between form and
substance of religion; a distinct psychological bent for enjoying life.
According to T.B. Naik, there are certain characteristics that define tribes in the Indian context. These
include: minimal functional interdependence within the community, an underdeveloped economy
based on primitive methods of utilizing natural resources and multiple economic activities, a degree
of geographical isolation, a shared dialect, political organization and influence of community
panchayats, and existence of customary laws.
Tribals in India face distinct problems including land alienation, indebtedness, issues with forests
and government control, poor implementation of protective acts, displacement, health problems,
poor education, shifting cultivation, poor utilization of government funds, and poor delivery of
government programs. Additionally, there are political problems and insurgency in the northeast
region.
In India, various measures have been put in place to protect the rights of tribes, including the
Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dweller's (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act 06,
which seeks to address their long-standing demands for forest rights.
9
Other initiatives include the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes, TRIFED for marketing
tribal goods, reservation of seats in the Lok Sabha and Assemblies for Scheduled Tribes (as specified
in Article 164,3, 332), appointment of a Minister in charge of tribal welfare, the Panchayats
(Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA), and others. These measures aim to address
the issues of integration, development, and autonomy for tribes in a multi-dimensional manner.
It's important to note that not all tribes are alike, and the characteristics described above may vary
from one tribe to another. Additionally, the distinction between tribes and the rest of society is not
always clear-cut, and there may be overlap or fluidity between the two. This can be seen in the
classification of tribes provided by GS Ghurye. Ghurye classified tribes in India as hinduised tribes,
partially hinduised tribes, and hill section tribes. Even Andre Beteille says "there is no satisfactory
way to define a tribe and it can only be explained through the continuum.
Historically, tribes have been an integral part of the Indian society for thousands of years. They have
played a crucial role in shaping the cultural and social fabric of India, and have a rich and diverse
history that is closely tied to the land and its resources. Their well-being and development are
important for the overall development of the country.
10
b) Write a note on ethnicity and integration in the context of tribes. (20

Marks)
Approach
 Introduce with definition of ethnicity and tribe.
 Give the relationship between ethnicity and tribe category in Indian context.
 Mention views suggested for tribal development and discuss integrationist approach.
 Mention the measure take for tribes and the problems of integration and development.
Solution
Ethnicity refers to a group of individuals who share a common cultural background which
encompasses their shared ancestry, language, history and values. The term is frequently utilized to
describe communities that are bonded by a mutual sense of belonging and similar cultural
attributes.
Conversely, a tribe is a social group that is typically established based on common ancestry and
geographical location. The organization of a tribe often revolves around a central leader or council
and they possess their own set of cultural practices, traditions, and beliefs, distinct from other
groups. A tribe is usually a tighter-knit social group when compared to an ethnic group.
In some instances, the terms "ethnicity" and "tribe" are used interchangeably to describe a specific
group of people. This can be seen with groups like Gonds, Santhals, and Bhills, who are viewed as
both tribes and ethnic groups due to their own social and political organizations and a strong sense
of community identity. However, it's crucial to understand that the connection between ethnicity
and tribe in India can be shaped by historical, political, and economic factors. For example, the
Indian government categorizes tribes as Scheduled Tribes, a group that is entitled to specific rights
and privileges under the constitution. This categorization can have both positive and negative
impacts on the social, economic, and political well-being of tribal communities in India.
When we talk about Integration, it refers to the act of bringing together different groups and
fostering their coexistence in a peaceful and inclusive society. When India gained independence,
various methods were proposed for integrating tribals into Indian society. Verrier Elwin, a Christian
missionary and ethnographer, advocated for an isolationist approach to tribal development, arguing
that tribes should be kept away from modern culture and the market economy to avoid cultural
shock. This approach was criticized as "Museum ology." GS Ghurye rejected this approach and
suggested "assimilationist" approach in which tribal development should involve social evolution
from tribe to caste to class, with tribes being exposed to caste, living in caste villages, and taking up
caste occupations to minimize differences between the two groups and eventually contribute to
nation-building. Ultimately, Jawaharlal Nehru chose a "middle way" or an "integrationist" policy.
This policy aimed to preserve the distinct cultural identity of tribals while also allowing them access
to modern benefits and integration into the mainstream. This policy was reflected in the reservation
policy, which guaranteed representation for tribals in Indian society while preserving their cultural
identity.
Additionally, in conjunction with the rural development strategy, a tribal development strategy was
adopted. Besides this, the appointment of a minister responsible for tribal welfare, and the
implementation of the Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA) was done
to protect the rights of tribals.
11
Despite these efforts, however, tribes still face numerous challenges and barriers to integration, such
as poverty, lack of education and healthcare, and political marginalization.
In recent years, there have been several demands for tribal autonomy, including demands for the
creation of tribal-majority states, greater representation in government and other institutions, and
the recognition of tribal cultural and economic rights, recognition of separate Sarana religious code
for tribal population. Some of the prominent tribal autonomy movements in India include the Naga
National Political Groups in Nagaland, the Mizo National Front in Mizoram, and the Bodoland
Movement in Assam
To sum up, ethnicity and integration are important ideas for understanding the culture and society
of tribes in India. Despite some attempts to bring different groups together, more needs to be done
to break down barriers and allow tribes to fully take part in society.
12
(c) How does the new Forest Act affect tribals? (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by briefly explaining what is Forest Right Act 2006 and its major provisions.
 Mention the positive impacts or benefits of the Act for the tribal communities
 Mention the negative impacts or limitations of the Act for the tribal communities.
 Conclude by providing some solution to the problem of communalism.
Solution
The Forest Rights Act of 2006 recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling communities and tribal
populations, who have been historically denied access to forest resources due to colonial forest laws.
It was passed by the Indian parliament in 2006 and aims to correct past injustices and provide legal
status to the rights of these communities. The Forest Rights Act recognizes the rights of traditional
forest dwellers and forest-dwelling scheduled tribes, granting them possession of forest land they
have lived on for multiple generations.
The Act recognizes various rights, including the right to hold and live, community rights, ownership
rights, rights to access and use forest produce and biodiversity, and the right to protect and manage
forest resources. Additionally, the Act provides for the conversion of leases and the settlement of
forest dwellers.
Some of the positive impacts of the Act on the tribal communities are seen as below.
1. One of the primary impacts of the Forest Rights Act has been the recognition of the tribal
rights. The Act has recognized the right of
2. Scheduled Tribe (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dweller (OTFDs) to live in the forest,
collect forest produce, and manage forests. This recognition has helped in protecting and
preserving the traditional livelihoods and cultural practices of these communities.
3. The Act has also empowered tribal communities by giving them a legal framework to claim
their rights over forestland and resources. This has given them a greater sense of control and
ownership over their traditional territories, which was previously denied to them. The Act
has also reduced the displacement and eviction of tribal communities from their traditional
territories, which was a major issue faced by these communities in the past.
4. Moreover, the involvement of tribal communities in forest management has improved
conservation and sustainable use of forest resources. The Act has encouraged the
involvement of tribal communities in the management of forests, which has led to better
forest cover in many areas.
5. The recognition of the rights of tribal communities over forestland and resources has also
helped protect their cultural identity and traditional practices. This has contributed to
preserving the unique cultural heritage of these communities.
6. Furthermore, the implementation of the Forest Rights Act has enabled greater social and
political participation of tribal communities, particularly women, in decision-making
processes related to forest management and governance. This has increased their social and
political participation, and helped them in accessing previously denied economic
opportunities, such as collection and sale of non-timber forest produce, which has improved
their income and livelihoods.
13
7. Finally, the recognition of the rights of tribal communities over forestland and resources has
also contributed to strengthening social cohesion within these communities by empowering
them to manage and protect their natural resources.
The Forest Rights Act though is a legislation aimed at recognizing and protecting the rights of tribal
communities over forestland and resources in India it has many limitation.
1. Its implementation has been limited, particularly in states with large tribal populations,
resulting in a lack of recognition of their rights and continued marginalization.
2. Furthermore, the Act has led to conflicts between tribal and non-tribal communities over
forestland and resources, particularly in areas with high commercial value forests. Although
the Act recognizes the rights of tribal communities, they often face limited access to forest
resources due to inadequate implementation and lack of government support.
3. In addition, the Act has not always been implemented in a gender-sensitive manner, resulting
in continued gender inequalities within tribal communities.
4. The recognition of tribal rights over forestland and resources has also led to the displacement
of non-tribal communities, particularly those who have been using these resources for
commercial purposes. This again has resulted in conflicts and tensions between tribal and
non-tribal communities.
5. Although the Act aims to empower tribal communities by giving them a greater say in forest
management and governance, in many areas, decisions related to forest management and
governance are still made by the government and non-tribal actors, leading to a lack of
participation of tribal communities in decision-making.
To overcome the limitations of the Forest Rights Act 2006, actions such as strengthening
implementation, resolving conflicts, ensuring access to resources, promoting gender sensitivity,
ensuring participation in decision-making, strengthening monitoring and evaluation, providing
legal support, addressing bureaucratic delays, strengthening community institutions, promoting
sustainable forest management, and addressing root causes of marginalization are needed. This
requires a comprehensive and integrated approach that addresses social, economic, and political
factors and collaboration between government, civil society, and tribal communities.
14
Question 3.
(a) What are the main features of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s views on annihilation
of caste? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce with general view and contribution of BR Ambedkar towards the problem of caste.
 Give features of caste system as per BR Ambedkar.
 Provide reasons he gave for Annihilation of Caste.
 Provide measures he gave for Annihilation of Caste.
Solution
B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent Indian social reformer and the architect of the Indian Constitution,
wrote the book "Annihilation of Caste" which discusses the deeply entrenched caste system in India,
its impact on society, and the need for its annihilation. In his book, Ambedkar presented a scathing
critique of the caste system, arguing that it was the root cause of social and economic inequality in
India.
Ambedkar's views on the caste system and chaturvarna can be summarised as follows:
1. The caste system perpetuates inequality and discrimination by denying people basic human
rights based on their birth.
2. The traditional caste-based occupations restrict social and economic mobility, further
entrenching caste-based discrimination.
3. Chaturvarnya presupposes classification of people into four definite categories, but it is
impossible to classify people into four definite classes accurately.
4. Chaturvarnya is not only based on division of labour, but it is also a division of labourer into
water-tight compartments.
5. Caste endogamy is a practice that reinforces caste boundaries and prevents inter-caste
marriages.
6. Ritual pollution is a practice that reinforces caste-based discrimination and maintains the
caste hierarchy.
7. Hinduism is the source and sustainer of the caste system, and its scriptures have been used
to justify caste-based discrimination.
Ambedkar believed that the annihilation of caste was necessary for the following reasons:
1. Caste killed public spirit, destroyed the sense of public charity, and made public opinion
impossible.
2. The caste system promoted an anti-social spirit, created segregation and exclusiveness,
prevented fellow-feeling and common consciousness, and thus was not functional for society.
3. The caste system is not based on merit, but on birth, which hinders social and economic
progress.
4. The eradication of the caste system is essential for the establishment of a just and equitable
society.
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5. The creation of a casteless society based on equality and social justice is necessary for the
growth of democracy in India.
6. The caste problem cannot be solved by the adoption of a universalist religion or philosophy,
as it is deeply rooted in Indian society and culture.
7. The caste system cannot be eradicated by inter-caste marriages alone, as it is a systemic
problem that requires structural change.
B.R. Ambedkar sought the following measures to annihilate the caste system:
1. Abolishing the practice of caste endogamy, which restricts inter-caste marriages and
reinforces caste boundaries.
2. Abolishing the traditional caste-based occupations and allowing individuals to choose their
own occupation based on their skills and abilities.
3. Enacting legislation to guarantee the basic human rights of all citizens, regardless of caste.
4. Ensuring equal political representation for all castes in the democratic process, including the
reservation of seats for lower castes in elected bodies.
5. Providing education and vocational training to members of lower castes to increase their
opportunities for social and economic mobility.
6. Reforming Hinduism to remove the caste system from its scriptures and practices, and
creating a universal religion based on the principles of equality and social justice.
7. The eradication of caste-based discrimination requires the active participation of all members
of society.
Overall, Ambedkar's work was instrumental in bringing the issue of caste to the forefront of the Indian social
and political discourse. His work not only shed light on the pernicious effects of the caste system, but also
offered practical solutions to eradicate it. Ambedkar's vision of a casteless society based on the principles of
equality and social justice continues to inspire social and political movements in India today.
16
(b) Critically evaluate Louis Dumont's Homo Hierarchicus. (20 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce answer by briefly mentioning about Louis Dumont and his work on Caste
system in India.
 Explain his concept of Homo Hierarchicus.
 Provide criticism of his concept of Homo Hierarchicus and his understanding of caste
system.
Solution
Louis Dumont was a French social anthropologist and Indologist who is known for his research on
India and its caste system. He is considered one of the most important anthropologists of the 20th
century, particularly for his contributions to the study of hierarchy, power, and values in social
structures. Louis Dumont's book "Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and its Implications"
presents a theoretical framework for understanding the caste system in India.
1. In his book, Dumont argues that the "values or ideologies" of traditional societies are
fundamentally different from those of modern Western societies.
2. He suggests that the caste system in India is organized around the values of collectivism and
hierarchy, which are different from the individualism and equality valued in the West.
3. Dumont asserts that the caste system in India is based on a religious ranking of individuals
in terms of a dialectical relationship between the "pure" and the "impure".
4. The hierarchy between the castes becomes the basis of "separateness," "distinction," and
division of labor between the different caste groups. However, the value of hierarchy also
integrates the Hindu society as the different caste groups are not just "hierarchically ranked"
but are also "mutually related" through "a system of opposition," as the pure is pure only in
relation to the impure.
5. According to Dumont, the "ritual hierarchy" is a "pure hierarchy" that exists independently
of economic and political power. This aspect of "power" operating within the framework of
status-hierarchy is unlike the class society of modern societies. The "pure hierarchy"
stemming from "religious values" makes the caste system "peculiar to Indian society."
However, Dumont's theory has been subject to criticisms on various grounds
some of his criticisms are as follows-
1. Critiques of Dumont's theory argue that he tried to develop an "ideal type" of the Hindu caste
system, which he applied pan-India. This was mainly because his sources were derived from
classical Hindu texts, and he ignored a large amount of empirical literature, which provides
graphic details of how the caste system functioned at the micro-level. There exist significant
variations in the system of caste hierarchy from region to region. For example, the Brahmins
do not command much respect in the northwestern region of India.
2. Dumont's theory is based on the assumption that while modern societies of the West were
characterized by the ideas of individualism and egalitarianism, traditional societies were
characterized by conceptions of the "collective" nature of man, and the primacy of social
rather than individual goals and thus, hierarchy and inequality
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He, therefore, projected traditional societies like India as "closed and unchanging" and the West as
"open and progressive." It has, therefore, been argued that he works with a false dichotomy of
traditional and modern societies.
3. Critics argue that Dumont's theory gave no recognition to individual choice, and people who
comprised the system were depicted as "unfeeling, regimented, automatons" ruled by
inexorable social forces. Such a notion could easily be contradicted by empirical studies
carried out by professionals. His theory, therefore, gave no agency to the individuals who
practice it.
4. According to critics, the oppressive side of the caste system and various "oppositional
movements" against it had no place in Dumont's depiction of Indian society and in his theory
of the caste system.
5. In modern as well as pre-modern India, there were many "social mobilizations against
Brahminical dominance," which were not discussed by Dumont. From Buddhism to Bhakti
to Sikhism to neo-Buddhism, there have been strong and, in many instances, successful
opposition to caste ideology.
6. In conclusion, Dumont's theory of the caste system in India provides a framework for
understanding the organization of the caste system around the values of collectivism and
hierarchy. However, his theory has been criticized for developing an "ideal type" of the caste
system, working with a false dichotomy of traditional and modern societies, and giving no
7. Critics argue that Dumont's depiction of the Indian society and his theory of the caste system
did not acknowledge the oppressive side of the system and the various movements against
it. Many social mobilizations against Brahminical dominance, from Buddhism to Bhakti to
Sikhism to neo-Buddhism, were not discussed by Dumont.
Although Dumont's intention was to study only the underlying structure of the system and not its
practice, he aimed to make generalizations. While the ideological emphasis of Dumont's approach
is useful for analyzing stable social situations with consistent reciprocity between structure and
culture, it has limitations in its application in the context of rapid social change.
18
(c) What are the features of M.N. Srinivas' concept of dominant caste? How
effective is it in understanding today's reality? (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with MN Srinivas's work on Dominant Caste.
 Provide features of Dominant Caste as given by MN Srinivas.
 Provide the relevance of the concept of Dominant Caste in today's society.
Solution
M.N. Srinivas' concept of dominant caste refers to a caste that holds a position of dominance in a
particular region or locality. The concept of dominant caste, was introduced by M.N. Srinivas in his
essay "Social System of a Mysore Village."
Srinivas observed that the Okhalinga caste, which made up nearly half of the population of the
village Rampura, was the dominant caste due to its economic and social power, including being the
largest landowners.
He attributed the emergence of dominant castes to modernizing influences and identified several
factors that contribute to their rise. Some of the key features of this concept include:
Economic and social dominance: The dominant caste is characterized by its economic and social
dominance in a particular region. It typically controls the resources, institutions, and networks of
power in the area. It must own a sizeable amount of cultivable land. Landed elite in Northern states
like Punjab are more powerful than Brahmins.
Numerical Strength: Numerical Strength plays an important role in determining dominant caste. A
dominant caste must be of considerable numerical strength.
Political power: The dominant caste often holds significant political power in the region, with
members holding positions of authority in local governments, institutions, and organizations.
Hierarchy: A fairly high place in Local Hierarchy also determines dominant nature –
Peasants/Okkalinga in Mysore Village of Rampura are dominant.
Ritual purity: The dominant caste often places a strong emphasis on ritual purity and cleanliness,
which is used as a means of distinguishing themselves from other castes. The chances of a caste to
dominate become higher if it is not placed too low in ritual hierarchy.
Western Education: In his later writings he also attributes Western/Non-traditional education as
also one of the factors determining dominance.
The Relevance of the concept of Dominant Caste in understanding today's reality can be seem as
below:
Understanding the power dynamics of a village society requires an examination of the concept of
dominant caste, which is crucial in comprehending various aspects of village society, including
Sanskritization, dispute resolution, hierarchy in multi-caste villages, patronage, and power.
The concept is multi-dimensional and remains important in the current context of intense
competition for political and economic power.
19
The dominant caste in a village used to be determined by big landowning families like the Brahmins
and Rajputs who received land as a gift from rulers. However, land reforms and the abolition of the
Jamindari system have made political power the new determinant of dominant caste. While
economic power was traditionally important, it is now limited to traditional villages that have not
undergone modern political transformation.
The concept of a dominant caste is criticized by scholars who disagree on whether numerical
strength or secular power and ritual status determine the status of a dominant caste. Some argue
that historically, numerical strength was not decisive in the formation of a dominant caste. Besides,
alone-Brahmin, a sadhu, a jamindar, alone social worker each has exercised more influence than a
numerically preponderant community in the village. Others believe that with modern democracy
and development, numerical strength has become more important, and scheduled castes and tribes
can now assume a greater importance. Overall, the idea of what makes a caste dominant is still
debated.
The relevance of the concept has eroded due to social changes in contemporary rural India, such as
the reservation for scheduled castes and tribes and the introduction of Panchayati Raj. However,
politically dominant groups still exercise influence in some villages.
Therefore, while the concept of dominant caste may still have some relevance, it needs to be
complemented with other approaches to provide a more nuanced understanding of today's reality.
20
Question 4.
(a) Distinguish between formal and informal sectors in India. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with general view of nature of Indian Economy
 Distinguish between formal and informal sectors in India.
 Also mention the overlap between the two sectors
Solution
India is a rapidly developing country with a complex and diverse economy. By nominal GDP, it
ranks as the world's fifth-largest economy, and by purchasing power parity (PPP), it ranks as the
third-largest. One way to understand the country's economic landscape is to examine the distinction
between the formal and informal sectors.
SR No Formal Sector Informal Sector
1 The formal sector pertains to the Conversely, the informal sector denotes the
segment of the economy that is unstructured portion of the economy that
subjected to government regulations, functions beyond the scope of governmental
taxation, and labor laws compliance. regulations and labor laws.
2 It comprises sectors such as It encompasses small-scale industries, street

manufacturing, finance, insurance, vendors, petty traders, and household
real estate, and government services. enterprises.
3 The formal sector employees obtain In the informal sector, the workers are
consistent salaries, avail themselves predominantly self-employed, and they
of social security, and enjoy various generally engage in low-skilled and poorly-paid
perks, including paid leaves, health jobs without any job security, social security, or
insurance, and retirement benefits. additional perks. They do not pay taxes or
receive any government protection.
4 The formal sector is relatively minor A considerable proportion of India's population

but provides higher job security, works in the informal sector, which is marked
favorable working conditions, and by meager earnings, unfavorable working
social protection. conditions, and inadequate social safeguards.
5 The Indian Formal Sector In India, the informal sector is primarily

encompasses a variety of entities, composed of agricultural workers, self-
such as Public Sector Enterprises, employed individuals such as street vendors
Private Sector Companies, Banking and small shop owners, contract laborers, and
and Financial Institutions, household laborers (predominantly women).
21
Government Departments and Unfortunately, child labor is also prevalent and

Agencies, as well as Educational classified as informal labor due to the absence of
Institutions, Hospitals, and Research government regulations and oversight. Any
Organizations, that receive funding labor that operates outside the purview of
and regulatory oversight from the government regulations is deemed
government. unorganized.
6 Although the formal sector offers Conversely, the informal sector exacerbates
reliable and secure employment poverty and inequality by offering meager
options, its capacity to absorb the compensation and unfavorable working
expanding labor force is restricted, conditions that compromise the economic and
leading to a considerable number of social welfare of laborers and their families.
workers being compelled to join the
informal sector.
7 Formal sector companies offer Although the informal sector plays a vital role
consistent and secure jobs with in the Indian economy by contributing
predetermined compensation and significantly to the country's GDP and
perks, such as paid time off, medical employing a substantial number of individuals,
coverage, and retirement benefits. it receives little attention from the government.
The formal sector is largely controlled The informal sector is inadequately supported
by manufacturing, finance, and and lacks protection, including access to social
information technology industries, security, credit, and technology.
and it's approximated that merely 10-
15% of the Indian labor force is
working in formal employment.
There is often a significant amount of overlap between the formal and informal sectors in India. In
some cases, workers who are technically part of the formal sector may also engage in informal work
to supplement their income. For example, a factory worker may take on additional work as a cab
driver (ola/uber) in the evenings or on weekends to earn extra money.
Similarly, informal workers may sometimes interact with the formal sector. For instance, the use of
online marketplaces by informal businesses to sell their products or services. These marketplaces,
such as Amazon provide a platform for small and informal businesses to reach a wider customer
base, expand their market, and increase their revenue.
This overlap can make it difficult to accurately measure the size and scope of the informal sector, as
workers may move in and out of informal work as their circumstances change. It also means that
efforts to improve working conditions and job security in the formal sector may have spill over
effects on the informal sector, and vice versa.
In conclusion, the formal and informal sectors are two distinct components of the Indian economy,
each with its characteristics and challenges. In addressing the issues faced by both sectors, it is
essential to focus on creating opportunities for growth and development in the formal sector while
also providing protection and support for those working in the informal sector.
22
(b) Examine the influence of industrialisation on caste. (15 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce answer by briefly explaining caste system.
 Explain how industrialization played a role in diluting the caste system.
 Explain how caste system is still prevalent despite industrialization.
Solution
Caste is a system of social stratification that has existed in India for centuries. It is a hierarchical
system that categorizes people into different groups based on their birth, and assigns them different
roles and status in society. The caste system is characterized by a rigid hierarchy, with the highest
castes enjoying the most privileges and power, and the lowest castes facing discrimination and
exclusion.
Industrialization played a role in diluting the caste system in India by creating new economic
opportunities and social mobility.
1. As India's economy shifted from agriculture to industry, new occupations and professions
emerged, creating a demand for skilled labor and education. This provided opportunities for
people from lower castes to gain education and skills, and to move into new occupations and
professions, breaking down traditional barriers of caste-based occupation.
2. Industrialization also led to the growth of urban centres and the rise of a new middle class
that was not defined by caste. This allowed for greater social mobility, as people from
different castes could interact and work together in urban areas without being subject to
traditional caste-based restrictions.
3. Max Weber, a German sociologist, argued that industrialization would lead to the decline of
traditional forms of authority, including caste systems. He believed that the rise of modern
capitalism would create a new class of people based on merit and achievement rather than
on birth and social status.
4. The anonymity in urban areas has played a significant role in breaking down the restrictions
on food and drink that were prevalent in the caste system. In addition, the removal of civil
and religious disabilities has also helped to weaken the caste system.
5. Furthermore, industrialization brought about changes in the political and social structures of
India, leading to the emergence of new social movements and political parties that challenged
the caste system and fought for the rights of marginalized communities. This led to the
adoption of affirmative action policies such as reservations in education and employment for
lower castes, which helped to reduce caste-based inequality and discrimination.
6. Finally, the uniformity of language has decreased the influence of caste as English became
the sole medium for exchange of ideas. Modernists like Yogendra Singh celebrate
industrialization as a secular institution that has developed in the macro sphere and
penetrated into the meso and micro sphere, leading to further weakening of the caste system.
23
Despite industrialization, the caste system is still prevalent in India due to several reasons.
1. Firstly, the caste system has been deeply ingrained in Indian society for centuries and has
become a part of the cultural and social fabric. Even with the growth of urban areas and
industrialization, people's beliefs and attitudes towards caste have not changed significantly.
2. Secondly, while industrialization has created new opportunities for social mobility and
economic growth, it has also led to the emergence of new forms of inequality. For example,
certain caste has been disproportionately represented in the new service and professional
industries, while others have been left behind in low-skilled and low-paying jobs. This
perpetuates existing social hierarchies and reinforces caste-based discrimination and
inequality. Additionally, the neoliberal economic policies associated with industrialization
have led to the further marginalization of lower castes, particularly in rural areas where many
of them still live and work.
3. According to Louis Dumont, industrialization in India did not lead to the disappearance of
the caste system but rather a transformation of it. Andre Beteille also argued that
industrialization had a limited impact on the caste system in India, as the economic benefits
of industrialization were not evenly distributed across different caste groups
4. Besides, the caste system has been reinforced by political and economic structures that benefit
certain groups while marginalizing others. This includes policies such as affirmative action
and reservation, which are intended to address historical injustices but have also led to
resentment and tension between different castes.
5. Moreover, inter-caste marriages are still relatively rare, and people tend to marry within their
own caste, which perpetuates caste divisions and reinforces the caste hierarchy.
6. Finally, the caste system is also reinforced by the socialization process, in which children are
taught to value their own caste and to avoid contact with those of other castes. This
socialization begins at a young age and is perpetuated through family, education, and
religious institutions.
In conclusion, while industrialization has played a significant role in diluting the caste system in
India by creating new economic opportunities, social mobility, and challenging the traditional
authority of caste-based hierarchies, it has not completely eradicated the caste system. The caste
system is still prevalent in India due to its deep-rooted nature, the emergence of new forms of
inequality, uneven distribution of economic benefits, reinforced political and economic structures,
the continuation of endogamy, and socialization. Thus, further efforts are required to address the
inequalities and discrimination perpetuated by the caste system and to achieve true social equality
and justice in India.
24
(c) Discuss the salient features of Indian middle class. (15 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with general definition of Middle Class.
 Discuss in detail some of the salient features of Indian Middle Class.
Solution
Middle class refers to a social group that occupies a position between the upper class and the
working class or lower class. While the definition of the middle class can vary depending on the
country and the specific social and economic context, some Common characteristics of the middle
class include moderate to high income, higher education levels, a wide range of occupations, and a
focus on cultural and social values such as education, professional achievement, and upward
mobility.
However, some of the salient features of the Indian middle class are:
1. British colonial legacy: B.B. Mishra in his work on "the middle classes in India" concluded
that the British rule resulted in the emergence of a class intermediaries serving as a link
between the people and the new rulers.
2. Origin in Caste: According to Andre Beteille, the Middle Class in India is viewed as a part of
a relatively new social formation based on caste and kinship. Middle Class belonged to castes
which were educationally forward traditionally. However, they were the pioneers of social
reforms and donned a liberal and secular outlook. Thus, though, it had caste origins, but it
was not hesitant to shake its roots for a liberal outlook.
3. Education: Education is a key feature of the Indian middle class, with most members having
completed at least some level of higher education. This is often seen as a way to achieve
upward mobility and improve social status.
4. Occupation: The Indian middle class includes a wide range of occupations, including
professionals, managers, and entrepreneurs, as well as skilled workers in industries such as
IT, finance, and healthcare.
5. Income: While the Indian middle class is characterized by a moderate to high level of income,
the exact income level can vary widely depending on factors such as occupation and location.
The definition of middle class in India, according to The Economist, is when a household has
more than one-third of its income remaining after paying for food and shelter.
6. Aspirations: The Indian middle class is often characterized by its aspirations for upward
mobility and a better quality of life. This often translates into a focus on savings and
investment, as well as a desire for home ownership and other symbols of social status.
7. Values: The Indian middle class often places a high value on education, professional
achievement, and social mobility. Additionally, family values are important, with many
middle-class Indians prioritizing the well-being and education of their children. However, in
Andre Beteille's opinion the middle class valuess are difficult to be characterised because they
are still in the process of formation i.e. transitional and have not acquired a stable form. As
such they are marked by contradictions & oppositions
8. Consumption: The Indian middle class is a key driver of consumption in the country,
25
particularly in areas such as housing, automobiles, and consumer goods. The Indian middle
class has become the segment driving consumption of “luxury” goods like cars and air-
conditioners, according to a survey by the National Council for Applied Economic Research
(NCAER). However, consumption patterns can vary widely depending on regional and
cultural factors.
9. Rural and Urban: Middle class today is not only urban centric, it is a phenomenon of rural
areas also due to expansion of administrative machinery, market economy, Green
Revolution, farm mechanization, transport, cooperative movement etc. Y. Singh
distinguishes between the rural and urban middle class by highlighting that both share a
conservative and narrow utilitarian outlook. However, the rural middle class differs from the
urban middle class in that it harbors intense antagonism and conflict towards the latter due
to historical factors, such as the slowdown in agricultural production and the
underdevelopment of agriculture after globalization and economic liberalization.
In general, the Indian middle class is a fast-growing and dynamic social group that has a significant
impact on the economy and society of the country. While there is no uniform definition of the Indian
middle class, the traits mentioned earlier are usually regarded as essential to its identity and
ambitions.
26
Section-B
Question 5.
(a) Five Year Plans. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with briefly explaining what were Five Year Plans.
 Mention some major goals of FYP and its social impacts.
 Briefly mention the shortcomings of the FYP.
Solution
The Indian Five-Year Plans were a series of centralized economic development initiatives launched
by the Government of India from 1951 to 2017. The plans were formulated by the Planning
Commission and set specific targets for each sector, with funding and resources allocated
accordingly.
1. Promotion of industrialization: This was done by encouraging the growth of the
manufacturing sector, which was expected to provide employment opportunities to the
growing workforce. The process of industrialization resulted in urbanization as individuals
relocated from rural regions to cities in pursuit of employment opportunities in factories and
other industries. Additionally, this brought about the creation of new societal groups,
including the rise of a middle class and the development of working-class movements. The
social and cultural effects of industrialization were also apparent, as seen in the expansion of
consumerism. Furthermore, industrialization frequently brought about substantial migration
and displacement.
2. Emphasis on agricultural development: The plans aimed to increase agricultural productivity
and promote rural development, which was seen as a crucial component of the country's
economic growth. It led to the growth of a new rural middle class, which played an essential
role in the development of the agricultural sector.
3. Improvement of social indicators: The plans also focused on improving social indicators, such
as health, education, and nutrition. This was done by investing in social infrastructure, such
as schools, hospitals, and public health programs. Improving social indicators had wide-
ranging social impacts, including enhanced well-being, reduced poverty, increased social
inclusion, greater social mobility, improved gender equality, etc
4. Reduction of regional disparities: The plans focused on reducing regional disparities by
promoting economic growth in the backward regions of the country. It aimed to create a more
equitable distribution of resources and promote inclusive development. It led to the growth
of a new aspirational middle class in the backward regions of the country and the emergence
of a more inclusive society.
5. Employment generation: This was done by promoting the growth of the manufacturing and
service sectors, which were expected to provide new jobs. Is it led to the growth of a new
urban working class, and the emergence of a new set of aspirations and lifestyles.
27
6. Reduction of poverty: The plans sought to provide a safety net for the poorest sections of
society by investing in social welfare programs, such as food subsidies and rural employment
schemes. It led to a more inclusive and egalitarian society.
7. Scientific and technological development: The plans aimed to promote research and
development in areas such as agriculture, health, and industry, with the goal of achieving
self-sufficiency and promoting innovation. Scientific and technological development had a
wide range of positive social impacts, including improved quality of life, increased
productivity, enhanced education, reduced environmental impact, increased access to
information, improved safety and security, greater creativity and innovation, enhanced
cultural exchange, and increased diversity.
8. Environmental sustainability: The plans aim to promote sustainable development by
investing in renewable energy, conservation of natural resources, and the mitigation of
climate change. It reflects a growing concern for the environment and the need for a more
ecologically sustainable society.
The Indian Five Year Plans, aimed at economic development, had some significant shortcomings,
including inadequate implementation, limited focus on agriculture, neglect of social sectors,
inadequate attention to the private sector, failure to address regional disparities, environmental
impact, lack of long-term vision, emphasis on heavy industry, lack of participation and inclusivity,
dependence on external aid, inadequate attention to human capital, and inequitable distribution of
benefits. These challenges contributed to economic imbalances, social and economic inequalities,
and hindrances to innovation and competitiveness.
Although the Indian Five Year Plans had limitations, they still played a critical role in shaping
India's social and economic landscape.
28
(b) Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. (10

Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with briefly explaining what is MGNREGA Scheme.
 Discus the positive social impact of the scheme.
 Discus the shortcoming or the negative social impact of the scheme.
Solution
MGNREGA is a social welfare program implemented by the Indian government in 2005 to provide
employment to rural poor households. The program offers 100 days of wage employment per year
to adult members who volunteer to do unskilled manual work through various projects related to
agriculture, water conservation, and rural connectivity. MGNREGA aims to generate employment,
enhance the livelihood security of rural households, and create durable community assets, making
it one of the world's largest social welfare programs.
The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGA) has brought
about numerous positive social impacts, such as providing employment to millions of rural
households, reducing poverty and increasing rural incomes. Jean Drèze highlighted MGNREGA's
potential to reduce poverty and promote inclusive growth in rural India. Additionally, it has
empowered women by offering them employment opportunities and promoting their participation
in community decision-making. It has also helped to provide jobs to socially marginalized
communities and aided in the development of rural infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and water
conservation projects, which have improved the quality of life in rural communities. MGNREGA
has also contributed to environmental conservation by encouraging the use of sustainable practices
such as afforestation and water conservation. Moreover, the scheme has prevented forced
migration, especially when there is no agricultural work available, and has led to a reduction in
infant mortality rate, maternal mortality rate, and poverty.
However, there are negative social impacts of MGNREGA as well. Many of the jobs created under
the scheme are unskilled manual labor, leading to work-related health problems such as fatigue and
back pain. Further, Ashwini Deshpande argued that the program has also led to some degree of
labor market segmentation. While MGNREGA has empowered women, it has also been criticized
for reinforcing traditional gender roles. Additionally, the provision of guaranteed employment may
discourage labor mobility and lead to dependence on the scheme. There have been instances of
corruption and mismanagement in the implementation of MGNREGA, including the issuance of
fake job cards, incomplete works, and siphoning off of funds meant for the scheme. Critics have
argued that the high costs associated with the implementation of MGNREGA could be better
utilized for other rural development and poverty reduction programs. Furthermore, there is a
significant problem of delayed salary processing for employees working under MGNREGA. The
scheme has contributed to an increase in rural wages, resulting in higher input labor costs for
agriculture, which has led to an increase in food prices. Jayati Ghosh argued that the program's
long-term sustainability will depend on the ability of policymakers to address the social and
economic challenges associated with the program.
In summary, MGNREGA is an essential social welfare initiative that has had a significant impact on
rural development and the reduction of poverty.
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Nevertheless, the long-term success and viability of the program will rely on the capacity of
policymakers and stakeholders to tackle the social obstacles linked with the program and ensure its
continued commitment to providing opportunities for underprivileged communities and
promoting social equity.
30
(c) Green Revolution. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce answer with briefly explaining what is Green Revolution.
 Discus the social impact of the Green Revolution.
 Provide some perspectives of Thinkers on the Green Revolution.
 Provide conclusion that briefly provides some solution to the problem of Green Revolution.
Solution
In the 1960s, India implemented a set of agricultural initiatives known as the Green Revolution,
which sought to enhance food production and security through the utilization of high-yield crop
varieties, modern irrigation methods, and agrochemical inputs. The Green Revolution resulted in a
substantial rise in agricultural output and was instrumental in converting India from a food-
shortage country to a food-surplus one.
The Green Revolution, which was aimed at improving agricultural productivity through modern
technology and supportive measures, had both positive and negative social impacts. One of the
positive impacts was the significant increase in agricultural production, which allowed for more
food to be produced to meet the needs of a growing population. This was seen as a major
achievement by the government and the scientists who contributed to the effort.
However, there were also negative social effects that were pointed out by sociologists who studied
the Green Revolution areas, such as the widening of economic disparities among farmers. Only large
landholders were able to exploit the new techniques, while small and marginal farmers and
agricultural laborers were left behind, resulting in increased economic inequality. Additionally,
tenant cultivators were adversely affected as large farmers reclaimed land previously leased out
under tenancy agreements, pushing tenant-cultivators into the rank of landless laborers.
The Green Revolution also led to large-scale migration of agricultural laborers from poorer regions
to prosperous areas, increasing regional disparities and further under-developing the source area
of migration. The introduction of machinery such as tillers, tractors, threshers, and harvesters
displaced service caste groups who used to carry out these agriculture-related services, leading to a
pattern of rural-urban migration.
The social structure of rural areas was also altered by the Green Revolution, with new dominant
castes emerging in some areas. Socially backward castes (OBCs) benefited the most from the Green
Revolution, accumulating wealth and property through a plethora of cash crops and commercial
agriculture, while traditionally landless scheduled castes were left behind. Rich farmers in some
areas spent a portion of their inflated income on conspicuous consumption, while share-croppers
and landless laborers found themselves excluded from the new prosperity.
The Green Revolution also worsened regional inequalities, as the areas that underwent this
technological transformation became more developed while other areas stagnated.
It also led to a shift of authority from the older generation to the younger generation, as the younger
generation was better equipped to handle the new technology and economic transactions.
Furthermore, the Green Revolution invited and facilitated the entry of new market forces, which
greatly affected the Jajmani relations between the traditional jajmans (patrons) and client or service
castes, leading to changes in inter-caste relations in villages.
31
In view of the negative environmental and social impact of modern methods of cultivation, there is
now a suggestion to return to traditional, more organic seeds by the farmers' movement and organic
movement.
Numerous intellectuals have also reflected on the adverse effects of the Green Revolution as below
Amartya Sen argued that the Green Revolution, while boosting agricultural productivity, has also
contributed to social and economic inequality, and that a more equitable approach to development
is needed.
Bina Agarwal argued that the Green Revolution has had negative effects on women farmers, who
have been excluded from access to credit, land, and technology, and who have often borne the brunt
of the social and environmental costs of intensive agriculture.
Rajni Kothari criticized the Green Revolution for leading to the displacement of small farmers and
the concentration of land ownership in the hands of a few wealthy individuals.
William H. Friedland argued that the Green Revolution has led to the expansion of capitalist
agriculture and the marginalization of small farmers and rural communities.
To improve the impact of the Green Revolution in India, strategies such as adopting sustainable
agriculture, supporting small farmers, improving water management, promoting crop
diversification, and ensuring inclusiveness are needed. These strategies will reduce the negative
impact of the Green Revolution and make the benefits more equitable and sustainable.
32
(d) Child Labour. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce answer with definition of Child Labor.
 Discus the causes of Child Labor.
 Provide strategies to deal with the problems of Child Labor.
Solution
UNICEF (United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund) defines child labor as work
that deprives children of their childhood, their potential, and their dignity and that is harmful to
their physical and mental development. It refers to work that is mentally, physically, socially, or
morally dangerous and harmful to children, and interferes with their schooling. In general, any
work that is performed by a child under the age of 18 is considered child labor, unless it is classified
as "light work," which is defined as work that is not harmful to a child's health or development and
does not interfere with their education.
Child labor in India can be attributed to both structural and cultural factors. From a structural
perspective, factors such as overpopulation, poverty, lack of proper education and opportunities,
parental illiteracy, urbanization, and the availability of cheap child labor contribute to the
widespread prevalence of child labor. Additionally, the prevalence of the Jajmani system in some
regions of India and the transfer of bonded labor or debt responsibility from parents to children are
also seen as contributing to the problem.
On the cultural front, the practice of involving children, particularly girls, in household chores is
widely accepted. Furthermore, the caste-specific occupational system often involves vocational
training at a young age, and it is considered better to expose children to such training. However,
this has also led to children being employed as bonded laborers to pay off debts or serve as
apprentices, which is not only illegal but also harmful to their physical and mental development.
In addition to the factors mentioned earlier child labor can also be caused by various factors,
including demand for cheap labor in industries like textiles, construction, and agriculture, conflict
and displacement forcing children to work, discrimination against marginalized communities,
trafficking and exploitation, and family indebtedness where children are sent to work to pay off
family debts or may be trafficked for forced labor.
Some strategies that we can use to address the problem of child labor in India as follows.
Firstly, the government should provide free and compulsory education up to the age of 14.
Secondly, the government and NGOs should work together to raise awareness about the negative
impacts of child labor and the importance of providing a healthy and safe environment for children
to grow up in. Thirdly, the government should provide financial and other support to families living
in poverty.
Fourthly, companies operating in India should be held accountable for any child labor in their
supply chains, and the government should introduce strict regulations to prohibit the employment
of children and ensure compliance with international labor standards. Further, children who are
rescued from child labor should be provided with psychological and medical support and access to
education and vocational training. Also, better access to healthcare for children, particularly from
vulnerable or marginalized communities, is needed to address the risk of injury and illness.
33
Besides, the government should consider increasing the minimum age of employment and strictly
enforce it to prevent children from working in various industries. Further, vocational training
programs should be provided to help children develop skills that will enable them to find better-
paying jobs when they reach adulthood. Moreover, community involvement is essential, and NGOs
and the government should engage with local communities to understand the reasons why children
are working and find alternative solutions.
Also, the government should strengthen child protection mechanisms and improve the capacity of
child protection agencies to identify and rescue children who are at risk of child labor and provide
appropriate support. Lastly, consumers can also play a role in reducing child labor by supporting
companies with ethical supply chains and avoiding products produced using child labor.
To deal with the problem of child labour, we should take a cue from Kailash Satyarthi who says,
"Child labour perpetuates poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, population growth, and other social
problems. Addressing the issue of child labour requires a comprehensive, multifaceted approach
that focuses on education, economic development, and social protection."
34
(e) Sex Ratio. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce answer with definition of sex ratio and give some stats on it.
 Discus various aspects of sex ratio in India.
 Mention the implication of skewed sex ratio.
 Provide solutions to deal with skewed sex ratio.
Solution
In India, the sex ratio is the ratio of females to males in a given population. Specifically, it is the
number of females per 1,000 males in the population. The sex ratio in India has been a matter of
concern due to the persistent preference for male children and the practice of sex-selective abortion,
which has resulted in an imbalanced sex ratio in favor of males. As of 2021, the sex ratio in India is
estimated to be 934 females per 1,000 males.
Historically, the sex ratio has been slightly in favour of females. However, in India, the juvenile child
sex ratio has been declining sharply for more than a century, with some states showing even greater
cause for concern. Demographers and sociologists have identified several reasons for the decline,
including cultural factors, inheritance practices, safety concerns, patrilineal traditions, and issues
related to honour and females. Additionally, factors related to women's health, such as maternal
mortality, may be contributing to the declining sex ratio.
Severe neglect of girl babies in infancy, sex-specific abortions, and female infanticide due to religious
or cultural beliefs are also major contributors to the decline in the sex ratio. The regional pattern of
low child sex ratios seems to support these arguments, although there are some anomalies, such as
the fact that the lowest child sex ratios are found in the most prosperous regions of India.
It is possible that as prosperous families decide to have fewer children, they may also choose the sex
of their child with the help of ultrasound technology. The government has imposed strict laws
banning such practices, including the Prenatal Diagnostic Techniques Act, which imposes heavy
fines and imprisonment.
A skewed sex ratio can have significant implications, including a marriage squeeze where men have
to delay their marriage due to fewer women of marriageable age. It can also lead to an increase in
violence and human trafficking, as well as social consequences such as practices like dowry and
bride price, which can result in dowry deaths and disrupt family peace. Domestic violence may also
increase, while patriarchal practices can be reinforced, and sexual assaults and crimes may rise. In
some states, such as Punjab and Haryana, brides are imported from other states due to the lack of
women.
There are several solutions to the declining sex ratio in India, including involving civil society in
social movements, implementing stringent laws like the PCPNDT, promoting attitudinal change,
celebrating the birth of girl children, ensuring inheritance rights, and increasing the presence of
women in physical and mental spaces. By taking these steps, India can begin to address this
longstanding issue and ensure a brighter future for all its citizens.
India must invest in policies to ensure women are not missing in the workforce to shed its "Missing
Women" tag coined by Amartya Sen. Successful campaigns like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao should be
encouraged and made available even in rural areas, with ASHA workers playing a major role.
Educating and sensitizing the youth regarding the importance of gender balance is also essential.
35
Question 6.
(a) Bring out the main features of farmers' movements in Modern India. (20
Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with a brief historical background of Farmers Movement in modern India
 Discuss in detail main features of farmers' movements in Modern India.
Solution
The struggle of farmers in India has been documented in various phases, including the early
agitations from 1857 to 1921, which involved numerous revolts and movements against different
issues. The emergence of Kisan Sabhas between 1922 and 1946 was a movement that started in Bihar
to protest against the Zamindari system. The post-independence period saw the emergence of
organized farmer movements, such as the Bhartiya Kranti Dal and the Bhartiya Lok Dal in the 1960s
and 70s. Significant turning points were marked with the founding of the Shetkari Sangatana under
Sharad Joshi's leadership and the Karnataka Rajya Ryat Sangh under M. D. Nanjundaswamy's
leadership in 1980.
The farmers' movements in modern India have been characterized by several key features,
including:
1. Calls for Equitable Pricing: Farmers' demands for fair prices are at the heart of their
movements, with claims that middlemen and traders are exploiting them, and the call for a
minimum support price (MSP) to ensure fair payment. The second key demand during the
2020-21 farmers' protests was for an assured Minimum Support Price (MSP).
2. Strategies of Protesting: To draw attention to their demands, farmers' movements in India
have used a range of protest tactics such as marches, demonstrations, road blockades, and
strikes, while also using social media to organize and mobilize.
3. Regional diversity: The regional diversity of these movements has made it challenging to
build a unified national farmers' movement, with different groups in different regions often
leading the charge.
4. Political Associations: Farmers' movements in India have often been associated with political
parties, making it difficult for them to remain non-partisan and independent. The BKU, for
example, has close ties to the Communist Party of India (Marxist), while the Shetkari
Sanghatana has been associated with the Bharatiya Janata Party.
5. Impact of Gender: Rajni Palriwala has argued that women's participation in these movements
has challenged traditional gender roles and given women a greater voice in public life.
Eventhough the Women farmers have been integral to these movements, but they have also
faced discrimination and marginalization.
6. Historical Background: The Green Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, which led to negative
environmental and health effects, has informed demands for sustainable and organic farming
practices. According to Gadgil rising farmer Movement in India that can be attributed to
capitalist adventure like green revolution and growth of co – operative in Indian agriculture.
7. Land ownership and tenancy: Land ownership and tenancy have also been important issues
36
in farmers' movements, with small and marginal landholders often struggling to access credit
and government support, and tenant farmers being excluded from subsidies.
8. Opposition to Corporate Control: Recent farmers' movements, such as the protests against
the new farm laws passed by the Indian government in 2020, have also been characterized
by resistance to corporate influence in agriculture. Farmers argue that the new laws will lead
to greater control by agribusiness corporations, and that this will be detrimental to small
farmers.
9. Intersection of Caste and Farmers Movement: Chandra Bhan Prasad has written on the
intersection of caste and farmers' movements in India. He argues that caste has been a
significant factor in shaping farmers' movements, as marginalized and oppressed castes are
often overrepresented in the agricultural sector.
10. Support for Other Social Causes: Farmers' movements in India have often sought to build
solidarity with other social movements, such as workers' unions, environmental groups, and
women's organizations. This has led to the formation of broader alliances and coalitions,
which have been able to exert greater pressure on the government and policy makers.
11. Government Crackdown and Violence: Farmers' movements in India have often faced
repression and state violence. Protests have been met with police brutality, and leaders have
been arrested and detained.
12. Symbolism and Cultural Expressions: Farmers' movements in India have often used
symbolism and cultural expressions to articulate their demands and create a sense of
solidarity. This has included the use of traditional clothing, music, and dance, as well as the
display of regional and national flags and symbols. Anand Chakravarti who studied the
farmers' movement in Uttarakhand and has argued that this movement is driven by a sense
of identity and community, as well as a desire for autonomy and self-determination.
13. Emphasis on Sustainable Agriculture: Agroecology and sustainability have been key focuses
for many farmers' movements, with the promotion of organic and natural inputs, traditional
seeds and crop varieties, and biodiversity.
14. Concerns over Land Acquisition and Displacement: Large-scale infrastructure and
development projects have led to displacement and loss of livelihoods for farmers, leading
to calls for greater protection of land rights and meaningful consultation and participation in
decision-making
15. Youth Mobilization: Recent farmers' movements in India have seen a significant mobilization
of young people, including students and urban youth.
The farmers' movements in modern India are the result of various challenges and concerns that
farmers face on a daily basis. The movements have been successful to some extent in bringing
attention to these issues and demanding policy changes to support the interests of farmers. The
farmers' movements are an essential aspect of Indian democracy and have the potential to drive
significant change in the agriculture sector.
37
(b) Discuss the sociological aspects of movements for separate States. (15
Marks)
Approach
 Introduce the answer by mentioning the various factors that lead to movement for separate
state.
 Explain with example the sociological aspects that underlie the various movements for
separate States in India.
 Mention the impacts both positive and negative of such movements.
Solution
Movements for separate states are often rooted in deep social and cultural differences that separate
groups of people. These movements are sparked by a range of issues, including political and
economic marginalization, cultural differences, and perceived injustices. Sociological aspects play a
significant role in the emergence, development, and impact of such movements.
1. The historical context is an important factor in the emergence of regionalism movements. In
India, regionalism began with the constitutional reforms of the early 20th century, and the
establishment of regional parties like the Justice Party in Chennai and the Akali Dal in Punjab.
After independence, the democratic government aimed for nation-building on the principles
of democracy, secularism, national unity, and social justice, but regional competition for
development led to the emergence of regional politics.
2. The reorganization of states on a linguistic basis was a crucial factor in the development of
regional politics in India. While many factors contributed to the creation of new states,
language was the most significant force. The reorganization of 28 states into 14, along with
centrally administered territories, and the creation of new states like Gujarat and
Maharashtra were primarily based on linguistic considerations. However, other factors like
culture, ethnicity, historical and political reasons, and social distinctiveness were also
considered. Nevertheless, language remained the most important factor in the reorganization
of states and contributed to the growth of linguistic regionalism in Indian politics.
3. The influence of caste on linguistic regionalism is exemplified by the case of Tamil Nadu,
where the non-Brahmin movement played a significant role in promoting Tamil regionalism.
Non-Brahmin castes in the Tamil-speaking region came together to challenge the
unquestioned dominance of Brahmins in the economy, society, and politics, leading to the
growth of Tamil regionalism.
4. While religion does not usually play a significant role, it can be a factor in cases where it is
combined with linguistic homogeneity or economic deprivation. In the case of Punjab, the
demand for Punjabi Suba had religious overtones, invoking loyalty towards Sikh religion. In
Tamil Nadu, casteism reinforced linguistic regionalism.
5. Most demands for new states are based on allegedly unfair distribution of development
benefits and expenditure in multi-lingual states. The demands for separate states in instances
such as Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, and Bodoland are mainly due to economic deprivation,
making economic factors the prime importance in regional politics.
6. One of the most important aspects of movements for separate states is the concept of identity.
These movements often arise from a deep sense of identity and attachment to a particular
group, such as a linguistic or ethnic group. Such movements are often driven by a desire to
protect or preserve that identity, and to resist the perceived cultural homogenization of the
dominant group.
38
In this sense, movements for separate states are often an expression of a collective identity,
and a desire to maintain a distinct cultural and social existence. An example of a movement
for a separate state based on the concept of identity in India is the demand for a separate state
of Gorkhaland in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal. The Gorkha community in the region
has been demanding a separate state for decades, citing cultural and linguistic differences
with the Bengali-speaking population of West Bengal.
7. Movements for separate states often arise in response to perceived injustices or
discrimination against a particular group, where the dominant group holds most of the
political and economic power. These movements aim to challenge the power imbalance and
create more equitable societies. However, the establishment of a separate state can also create
new forms of power and inequality, where newly-formed states may have a dominant ethnic
or linguistic group that could lead to the marginalization of other groups. An example of
such a movement was the demand for a separate state of Telangana, which gained
momentum due to perceived political and economic marginalization of the region by the
dominant Andhra Pradesh state government.
8. One of the factors that contributed to the emergence of regional and parochial tendencies in
India was the selfish interests of some politicians. After India gained independence in 1947,
various political parties started competing for power at the national and regional levels. In
this struggle for power, some politicians resorted to tactics that were aimed at enhancing
their own authority and prestige, even if it meant weakening the authority of the central
government or the state governments.
Movements for separate states in India had both positive and negative impacts.
Positive Impact:
1. One of the main positive impacts was that they recognized and gave voice to the unique
cultural, linguistic, and historical identities of different regions.
2. They also provided better representation and governance to smaller regions that may have
been neglected or marginalized by larger states.
3. In addition, separate states created new opportunities for historically marginalized groups
to gain access to political power and economic resources, promoting greater social justice.
Negative Impact:
1. Movements for separate states led to divisive politics, pitting one region against another and
creating tensions between different linguistic, cultural, and ethnic groups.
2. The process of creating separate states caused economic disruption, including job losses and
income reduction.
3. The creation of separate states also created administrative challenges, leading to duplication
of efforts, higher costs, and inefficiencies in governance.
4. Finally, the establishment of a separate state created new power dynamics, which could lead
to the marginalization of certain groups and the emergence of new forms of inequality.
Any demand for a separate state should be carefully evaluated on the basis of its social, economic,
and political implications, and a balance should be struck between the need to recognize regional
diversity and the need to maintain the unity and integrity of the country.
39
(c) Explain the inter-linkages between poverty, deprivation and inequality.

(15 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce with defining poverty and deprivation.
 Show inter-linkages between poverty and deprivation; poverty and inequality; and
inequality and deprivation.
 Provide some alternate views.
 Provide conclusion that offers actionable solutions to the problem of slums.
Solution
Poverty refers to a lack of resources or income necessary to meet one's basic needs, such as food,
shelter, and healthcare. Deprivation, on the other hand, refers to a lack of access to basic necessities,
social opportunities, and resources that are considered essential for a decent standard of living.
The inter-linkages between poverty and deprivation can be seen in several ways.
1. Firstly, poverty can lead to deprivation, as individuals and communities living in poverty
often lack access to basic resources such as adequate housing, education, and healthcare.
These deprivations can then exacerbate poverty, as individuals struggle to meet their basic
needs without access to essential resources.
2. Secondly, deprivation can also lead to poverty. For example, individuals who lack access to
quality education and training opportunities may have difficulty finding well-paying jobs,
which can lead to long-term poverty. Similarly, individuals who lack access to affordable
healthcare may struggle with health problems that prevent them from working, leading to
financial instability and poverty. One key finding of 'The Great Smoky Mountains Study' is
that changing economic opportunities explain much of the movement into and out of poverty
over time. The study found that individuals who experienced upward mobility, moving out
of poverty over time, did so largely through gaining access to better-paying jobs and
educational opportunities.
3. Further, poverty and deprivation can interact in complex ways, creating a cycle of
disadvantage that is difficult to break. For example, children growing up in poverty may lack
access to quality education and healthcare, which can limit their opportunities for upward
mobility and perpetuate the cycle of poverty and deprivation into adulthood.
Inequality refers to a situation in which resources and opportunities are distributed unevenly
among different individuals or groups.
The inter-linkages between poverty and inequality can be seen in several ways.
1. Firstly, inequality can contribute to poverty by limiting access to resources and opportunities
for certain individuals or groups. For example, individuals from Scheduled Caste, Schedule
Tribes and other Minorities communities may face discrimination in the labor market,
limiting their access to well-paying jobs and contributing to their poverty. Diane Pearce, who
coined the term "Feminisation of Poverty," argues that women represent a disproportionate
percentage of the world's poor not as a consequence of lack of income, but due to deprivation
of capabilities and gender biases.
2. Secondly, poverty can also contribute to inequality, as individuals living in poverty often lack
40
the resources and opportunities necessary to participate fully in society. This can lead to a
lack of social mobility, as individuals from poor backgrounds may struggle to access
education and training opportunities that would allow them to move up the socioeconomic
ladder.
3. Additionally, poverty and inequality can interact in complex ways, with each reinforcing and
exacerbating the other. For example, individuals living in poverty may lack access to
healthcare, leading to poor health outcomes that can further limit their opportunities for
upward mobility.
Further inter-linkages between deprivation and inequality can be seen in several ways.
1. Firstly, inequality can contribute to deprivation by limiting access to resources and
opportunities for certain individuals or groups. According to Bourdieu, inequality is not just
about economic factors, but also about cultural and social factors that shape individuals'
access to resources and opportunities.
2. Secondly, deprivation can contribute to inequality, as individuals who lack access to basic
resources and opportunities may struggle to participate fully in society. This can limit their
opportunities for upward mobility and perpetuate existing inequalities. Weber emphasized
the role of power and privilege in perpetuating inequality, and the need to address these
issues through political action and social reform.
3. Additionally, deprivation and inequality can interact in complex ways, with each reinforcing
and exacerbating the other. For example, individuals who lack access to affordable housing
may be forced to live in overcrowded and unsafe conditions, which can negatively impact
their health and well-being. This can lead to further inequality, as individuals with poor
health outcomes may struggle to access education and employment opportunities.
However, regarding the triad of poverty, inequality, and deprivation, there are other perspectives
to consider.
1. Merton, for instance, posits that poverty in modern societies is often relative, as he discusses
in his reference group theory.
2. Similarly, Oscar Lewis, who coined the term "Culture of Poverty," argues that the
impoverished not only lack resources but also internalize a value system that perpetuates
poverty. This occurs due to the worldview, aspirations, and character of children who grow
up in impoverished environments.
3. Firestone suggests that biology contributes to inequality because women are responsible for
bearing children, which renders them dependent on men, as well as infants who are
dependent on women.
To break the cycle of poverty, inequality, and deprivation, several strategies can be employed such
as increasing access to education and skills training, promoting inclusive economic growth,
implementing social protection programs, addressing discrimination and social exclusion,
empowering communities, and addressing systemic issues. It requires a comprehensive and
intersectional approach to address the root causes and promote social justice.
41
Question 7. Answer the following questions in not more than 200 words each: -
15+20+ 15=50
(a) Write an analytical note on slums in cities. (15 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce answer with definition of slum.
 Give reasons for creation of slums in cities.
 Provide the analysis of thinkers on problem of slums.
 Provide conclusion that offers actionable solutions to the problem of slums.
Solution
The Census of India 2011 has defined "slum" as a compact area of at least 300 people or about 60 to
70 households, with poor housing conditions, lack of basic amenities, and insufficient infrastructure.
According to the census, a slum can be identified by the following characteristics - inadequate or
poor quality of housing, congestion, lack of basic amenities, insecure residential status, social and
economic marginalization.
Aashish Bose defines a slum as a "densely populated urban settlement, predominantly of the poor
or lower-income group, characterized by overcrowding, poor housing, inadequate basic services,
and lack of tenure security." He further explains that slums are areas where housing units are unfit
for human habitation, and basic services such as water, sanitation, and electricity are lacking or
inadequate.
The growth of slums in cities of India can be attributed to various factors. One major reason is rural-
urban migration in search of better economic opportunities. Lack of affordable housing in cities and
inadequate urban planning have also led to the creation of slums. The absence of basic services like
sanitation, water supply, electricity, and waste management, along with low wages and
unemployment, have made it difficult for slum residents to afford formal housing. Political factors,
poor governance, and the informal economy have also contributed to the growth of slums in India.
Jan Breman has suggested that slums are often the consequence of the exploitation of migrant
workers and the lack of affordable housing. Meanwhile, Mike Davis has contended that slums are
not solely a product of poverty, but also of the global capitalist system. He believes that the growth
of slums is due to the failure of neoliberal economic policies and the exploitation of the working
class. In a field study, Victor D’Souza from Chandigarh University found that the slum population
is predominantly made up of SC/ST groups. Further thinkers believe that, in a society that is based
on the division of labor with varying rewards and prestige attached to different positions, it is
natural for some people to live at the bottom of the social hierarchy, just as others will be placed at
the middle and upper levels. Oscar Lewis who is known for his study of poverty and slum life in
Mexico City coined the term "culture of poverty" to describe the values, beliefs, and attitudes that
are common among those living in poverty in urban slums. He argued that this culture of poverty
is passed down from generation to generation and contributes to the perpetuation of poverty in
slum communities. Lewis also emphasized the importance of understanding the social and
economic context in which slum communities exist in order to develop effective solutions to address
poverty and inequality.
Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh has put forth the argument that slums are complex social and economic
systems, consisting of a range of informal networks and economic activities, rather than mere places
of poverty and hopelessness.
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In his book "Shadow Cities: A Billion Squatters, A New Urban World," Robert Neuwirth argues that
slums can be thriving and resilient communities, where residents devise their own solutions to the
challenges they encounter.
In his book "The Mystery of Capital," Hernando de Soto claims that the informal economy in slums
can foster innovation and entrepreneurship. He asserts that slum dwellers own valuable assets that
are not recognized by formal legal systems, such as property rights, and that recognizing these
assets can result in economic growth. Stewart Brand, in his book "How Buildings Learn," suggests
that slums can be environments that are "self-organizing and adaptive," where residents alter their
homes and surroundings to meet their requirements. He proposes that this process of "incremental
improvement" can lead to the development of new and innovative solutions to urban issues.
The issue of slums in cities is complex and requires multifaceted solutions. Governments can
address the problem by providing affordable housing, upgrading slum areas, creating job
opportunities, involving slum dwellers in decision-making, addressing root causes, empowering
communities, providing basic services, encouraging formal employment, regularizing land tenure,
supporting social enterprises, and building social capital. These measures can improve living
conditions, reduce poverty and health hazards, and promote economic development and social
well-being.
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(b) Discuss the problems of working women in India. (20 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce answer by briefly mentioning the status of working woman in India.
 Explain the various problems the working woman have to face in India in workspace as well
as in domestic sphere.
 Mention some positive steps taken to solve the problems of working women in India.
Solution
The status of working women in India is a complex issue, with a range of economic, social, and
cultural factors impacting their ability to participate fully in the workforce. Despite some progress
in recent years, women in India continue to face significant challenges related to economic
empowerment, unequal pay, workplace discrimination, and social norms that perpetuate gender
inequality.
1. One of the biggest problems is the lack of economic empowerment, which is reflected in the
low labour force participation rate for women in the country. According to World Bank, the
global labour force participation rate for women is just over 50% compared to 80% for men.
In India, the Labour Force Participation Rate for males is 57.5% in 2020-21 while the female
Labour Force Participation Rate is up to 25.1% in 2020-21. Women are underrepresented in
senior managerial positions and overrepresented in low paying jobs, with only 19% of firms
having a female senior manager globally, according to Oxford Survey.
2. This imbalance in job opportunities results in unequal pay for women, with a gender pay gap
of 34% in India, according to a recent ILO report. This means that women get 34% less than
men for performing the same job with the same qualifications. The gap between female and
male wages is highest for non-agricultural tasks, the new and growing source of
employment.
3. The glass ceiling effect also affects working women in India. Despite making up almost half
of the country's population, women still earn on average 79% of what men earn, hold only
5% of Fortune 500 CEO positions, and represent on average 17% of global board positions.
As per Mckinsey report, women were overlooked for promotion even in companies like
Google for their reproductive choices.
4. The long workday for women is another challenge that affects their economic empowerment.
Counting all forms of work - economic activity and care work or work in cooking, cleaning,
child care, elderly care - a woman's workday is exceedingly long and full of drudgery. The
total hours worked by women (in economic activity and care) ranged up to a maximum of 91
hours (or 13 hours a day) in the peak season, according to the FAS time-use survey. No
woman puts in less than a 60-hour work-week.
5. Safety issues are another concern for working women in India. They face concerns about
safety and harassment at the worksite, both explicit and implicit. This leads to a hostile work
environment that hinders their progress.
6. Social norms also contribute to the challenges faced by working women in India. Social norms
about household work are against women's mobility and participation in paid work.
Childbirth and taking care of elderly parents or in-laws account for the subsequent points
where women drop off the employment pipeline.
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7. The cultural baggage about women working outside the home is so strong that in most
traditional Indian families, quitting work is a necessary precondition to the wedding itself.
When increases in family incomes are there, due to the cultural factors, women leave the
work to take care of the family and avoid the stigma of working outside.
8. Social norms and stereotypes also impact working women in India. Men are classified as
"breadwinners," and women pursuing jobs are called "career women." Most of the unpaid
work is seen as women's job, according to the Oxford University Survey. Deeply ingrained
biases exist among both men and women against genuine equality, according to PISA test
data. The notion that "boys fare better at maths" is unfounded, yet this belief still exists.
In recent years, India has taken several steps to address the problems faced by working women.
1. One of the major initiatives has been the introduction of various legal measures and policies
aimed at promoting gender equality in the workplace. For example, the Sexual Harassment
of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act was enacted in 2013 to
provide a safe and secure working environment for women.
2. Additionally, the Maternity Benefit Act was amended in 2017 to extend the duration of paid
maternity leave from 12 weeks to 26 weeks, providing women with greater job security and
flexibility in balancing work and family responsibilities.
3. Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 ensures that men and women are paid equally for the same
work or work of equal value. It prohibits discrimination on the basis of gender in matters of
recruitment, training, promotion, and transfers.
4. The Indian government has introduced gender budgeting, which ensures that resources are
allocated to programs and schemes that benefit women. This approach helps in reducing the
gender pay gap by ensuring that women are given equal opportunities and access to
resources.
5. The government has also launched several schemes and programs to promote women's
economic empowerment, such as the Stand-Up India scheme, which provides financial
support to women entrepreneurs. The Mahila E-Haat platform has been launched to promote
women's entrepreneurship and facilitate the online sale of products made by women.
6. In addition to these legal and policy measures, there has been increased awareness and
activism around women's rights and gender equality in India. Civil society organizations and
advocacy groups are working to promote gender equality in the workplace and address
issues such as unequal pay, workplace discrimination, and gender-based violence.
While progress has been made, there is still a long way to go in addressing the problems faced by
working women in India. Continued efforts to promote gender equality and women's
empowerment in the workplace will be essential in addressing these issues and ensuring that
women are able to participate fully in the workforce.
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(c) What are the main causes of female mortality in India? (15 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining female mortality and providing some recent data on it.
 Give reasons/causes of female mortality in India.
 Provide conclusion that offers actionable solutions.
Solution
Female mortality in India refers to the number or proportion of deaths among females in the Indian
population over a specific period of time. This can be expressed as a mortality rate or a mortality
ratio, which compares the number of deaths among females to the total number of females in the
population or to the number of deaths among males in the population. India has a relatively high
female mortality rate compared to many other countries.
India has a high female mortality rate, and there are several reasons for this.
1. One significant factor contributing to female mortality in India is maternal mortality.
Maternal mortality refers to deaths related to pregnancy and childbirth. S.V. Subramanian in
his research, has identified several social factors that contribute to the high maternal
mortality rate in India. These include poor access to healthcare, low education levels, poverty,
and gender inequality.
2. Another contributing factor is poor access to healthcare. Many women in India lack access to
quality healthcare, including maternal healthcare services, which can lead to delayed
diagnosis and treatment of health conditions and limited access to essential medications.
3. Malnutrition is also a significant problem in India, particularly among women and children.
Malnutrition can increase the risk of mortality due to a range of health complications,
including infections and chronic diseases.
4. Gender discrimination is another factor that contributes to high female mortality rates in
India. Women often face discrimination and limited access to education, employment, and
healthcare, which can limit their ability to make decisions about their health and well-being
and can contribute to poorer health outcomes.
5. Violence against women is a significant problem in India and can have severe physical and
psychological health consequences. Veena Das in ‘Mirrors of violence’ says that atrocities
against women are manifestation of culturally constructed boundaries / patriarchal
construct.
6. Honour killing are generally carried out by family members against women who are
perceived to have brought shame or dishonour to the family, often through actions such as
marrying outside of their caste or religion, engaging in premarital sex, or refusing to submit
to arranged marriages.
7. Child marriage is another common practice in many parts of India, particularly in rural areas.
Amartya Sen in his book "The Argumentative Indian," argues that child marriage often leads
to early pregnancy, which can limit a girl's education and opportunities for employment, and
can also increase the risk of maternal mortality.
8. Inadequate sanitation and hygiene practices can increase the risk of infectious diseases and
other health problems, particularly among women and children. Women in rural areas of
India may have limited access to clean water, sanitation facilities, and hygiene education.
46
9. Women in India often have limited access to nutritious food during pregnancy, which can
increase the risk of maternal and infant mortality. This is particularly true for women from
marginalized communities and those living in poverty.
10. Cultural beliefs and practices can also contribute to high female mortality rates in India.
Amartya Sen in ‘The Missing Million Women’ puts excess female mortality to a general
preference for sons, which in turn traced it to either higher expected return to the labour of
male over female children or anticipated old-age support from sons within the patrilineal
kinship system.
11. Limited access to family planning services can lead to unintended pregnancies and a higher
risk of maternal mortality. Women in India may have limited access to contraception and
family planning services due to cultural and social barriers, as well as limited availability of
services in rural areas.
12. Non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancer are becoming
increasingly common in India, and women are disproportionately affected. These diseases
can lead to premature mortality, particularly if they are not detected and treated early.
13. Women in India often use traditional cooking methods that rely on solid fuels such as wood,
dung, and crop residues. Exposure to indoor air pollution from these fuels can increase the
risk of respiratory diseases and other health problems, particularly for women who spend a
lot of time cooking indoors.
14. Rural-to-urban migration in India can lead to poor living conditions and limited access to
healthcare services, particularly for women who may face discrimination and limited social
support in urban areas.
15. Climate change is exacerbating a range of health problems in India, including malnutrition,
infectious diseases, and heat-related illnesses. Women are particularly vulnerable to these
health risks, as they often have limited access to resources and are responsible for much of
the household labor.
16. Limited access to education, particularly for women and girls, can limit opportunities for
employment, healthcare, and empowerment. Women with limited education may also have
limited knowledge of basic health and hygiene practices, which can increase the risk of
mortality.
17. Lack of access to safe drinking water is a major public health problem in India, particularly
in rural areas. Women and girls are often responsible for collecting water for their
households, which can be time-consuming and physically demanding. Lack of access to safe
drinking water can also increase the risk of waterborne illnesses, which can be
Reducing female mortality in India requires various strategies, including improving access to
healthcare, education, and family planning, laws on violence against women, promoting mental
health services, and improving sanitation and hygiene. Addressing poverty and harmful social and
cultural norms can also help improve women's health outcomes and reduce female mortality.
However, as Patricia Jeffery said the root cause of female mortality in India is gender discrimination,
and that addressing this issue requires a shift in cultural attitudes towards women.
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Question 8.
(a) Analyse the role of communalism in undermining democracy in India.
(15 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining communalism.
 Mention the types communalism and major events of communalism in India.
 Then describe how communalism has undermined democracy with examples. (Should be the
major part of answer)
 Conclude by providing some solution to the problem of communalism.
Solution
Communalism refers to the use of social traditions to mobilize people for personal or vested
interests. This may involve exploiting religious or cultural differences between different
communities to gain political or social power.
Bipin Chandra has identified three types of communalism: liberal communalism, communal
communalism, and extreme communalism. Liberal communalism occurs when different religious
communities share similar secular interests, but have different religious interests. Communal
communalism occurs when both the secular and religious interests of different communities are
different. Extreme communalism occurs when both the secular and religious interests of different
communities are different, but the two communities cannot coexist.
There have been several instances of communal violence in India after independence, including the
Sikh riots of 1984, the demolition of the Babri Masjid in 1992, the Gujarat riots in 2002, the
Kandhamal riots in 2008, the Muzaffarnagar riots in 2013 and the Delhi Riots of 2020.
Communalism is a divisive ideology that can have many negative effects on democracy.
1. It can create a polarized society, where people view others who do not belong to their group
as the "other". This can create deep divisions and make it difficult to build consensus around
important issues.
2. Moreover, communalism can lead to violence as individuals or groups may use their identity
as a justification for attacking those who do not belong to their group. This can undermine
the rule of law and make it more difficult to maintain peace and order in society.
3. Communalism can also lead to the exclusion of certain groups from the political process, as
their interests and concerns may be dismissed as less important than those of the dominant
group. This can result in a lack of representation and a feeling of disenfranchisement among
marginalized groups. For example, the demolition of the mosque in Ayodhya in 1992 led to
communal riots in several parts of the country. The demolition was followed by the exclusion
of the Muslim community from the political process, as they were seen as sympathizers of
the perpetrators of the demolition.
4. In addition, communalism can undermine democratic institutions, such as the judiciary,
media, and civil society organizations. This can lead to a lack of accountability and
transparency, as well as erosion of checks and balances that are essential to the functioning
of democracy.
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5. Communalism can also hinder the policy-making process, as groups may prioritize their own
interests over the common good. This can lead to a lack of cooperation and compromise,
making it difficult to address complex issues and find solutions that benefit all members of
society. For example, communal tensions often arise when it comes to the allocation of
reservations to various religious and caste groups.
6. Moreover, communalism can erode the trust between different groups in society, making it
more difficult to establish common ground and work towards shared goals. This can lead to
a breakdown in communication and cooperation, and make it more difficult to build a
cohesive society. For example, the incident of Babri Masjid demolition in 1992 led to a deep-
seated distrust between these two religious’ communities.
7. Furthermore, communalism can limit freedom of expression, as individuals may feel
pressure to conform to the views of their own group, and may face backlash or even violence
if they express opinions that are perceived as contrary to the group's interests. One example
of communalism limiting the freedom of expression in India is the controversy surrounding
the film "Padmaavat" in 2018.
8. Communalism can also promote authoritarianism, as groups may seek to impose their views
on others through force or coercion. This can undermine democratic institutions and lead to
the concentration of power in the hands of a few. For example, Emergency period declared
by the Indian government between 1975 and 1977 saw an increase in the use of authoritarian
tactics such as censorship, forced sterilization, and the suspension of civil liberties, all in the
name of promoting the national interest. This use of authoritarianism was often justified by
invoking the idea of communal unity and the need to protect the country from internal
threats.
9. In addition, communalism can reduce social mobility, as groups may prioritize the interests
of their own members over those of others, leading to unequal access to opportunities and
resources. This can make it more difficult for individuals to achieve upward mobility and can
perpetuate existing inequalities in society. An example of communalism reducing social
mobility in India is the caste system.
10. Rajni Kothari argued that communalism is a form of identity politics, and that it has been
used by political parties to mobilize support among particular religious or ethnic groups.
This can lead to a situation where individuals are encouraged to see themselves primarily as
members of a particular group, rather than as citizens of a broader society.
11. Additionally, communalism can encourage extremism, as individuals may become more
radicalized in their beliefs, and more willing to use violence to achieve their goals. This can
lead to a situation where democratic norms and values are challenged, and the use of force
becomes more acceptable as a means of achieving political change. An example of
communalism encouraging extremism in India is the rise of radicalization and terrorism in
the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The conflict in Kashmir has been fueled by religious and
communal divides between the Muslim-majority population and the Hindu-majority
government, leading to a rise in violent extremism among some segments of the population.
12. Furthermore, communalism can limit representation, as political parties may prioritize
candidates from particular communities, rather than selecting candidates based on their
abilities and qualifications. This can lead to a situation where certain groups are
overrepresented in political institutions, while others are underrepresented.
49
13. Finally, communalism can undermine human rights, as individuals may be targeted based
on their religious, ethnic, or linguistic identity, rather than on their individual actions. This
can lead to situations where people are denied basic rights and freedoms, such as the right to
free speech or the right to a fair trial. One example of communalism undermining human
rights in India is the exodus of Kashmiri Pandits from the Kashmir Valley in the late 1980s
and early 1990s.
Bipan Chandra argued that communalism is a product of the failure of Indian democracy to address
the needs and aspirations of all sections of society, and that it has been used by political parties to
create vote banks. Some ways to address the problem of Communalism include promoting
secularization and reducing the role of religion in society. To achieve this, both civil society and
politicians need to work together. Politicians should refrain from using religion in their political
discourse and set a positive example for the public, while civil society should avoid being swayed
by irrational religious sentiments. Instead, people should shift their focus to more tangible and
secular issues such as development, education, health, and growth.
50
(b) What is the Dalit movement? Examine the Issues highlighted by it. (20
Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by briefly explaining the nature of Dalit Movement.
 Then describe in chronological order the Dalit Movements that took place in India and what
issues it raised.
 Give the positive impact of the movement.
 Provide the criticism or limitations of the movement.
Solution
The Dalit movement is a complex and diverse movement, which aims to eradicate caste-based
discrimination, atrocities, and untouchability. It is not a homogeneous movement but a mix of many
movements taking place simultaneously in different parts of the country.
During the pre-independence period, the Dalit movements incorporated religious-cultural
ideologies to gain self-respect and honor, and raised awareness about Dalit rights, including
untouchability. The Satyashodhak Samaj in Pune led by Jyotiba Phule, SNDP Movement in Kerala,
Mahar Movement in Nagpur led by Ambedkar, and Temple Entry Movement in Kerala are some of
the examples of such movements. The Harijan Movement by Gandhi was also a significant
movement during this time.
After independence, the Dalit movement shifted its focus towards seeking political and economic
rights and equality, such as universal adult franchise and reservations in educational and political
institutions, as enshrined in the Constitution framed under Ambedkar's guidance.
The emergence of the first generation of Dalit leadership, including educated middle-class
professionals such as Ambedkar, challenged the dominant political parties and cultural ethos,
especially Congress.
In the 1970s and 1980s, the Dalit movement took a radical turn, especially in Maharashtra through
organizations like 'Dalit Panthers' (1972) and 'Dalit Sangharsha Samiti' (1973) in Karnataka. These
movements, influenced by the ideologies of Ambedkar and Marxism, aimed to spread their ideas
through debates and discussions in public spaces such as tea-shops, offices, and libraries. Dalit poets
and writers provided critique to the exploitative caste structure, and the movement saw
participation from all exploited groups, including peasants, Dalits, backward classes, and workers.
They raised issues of women, political and economic exploitation, and the purity-pollution concept.
After the radical turn of the Dalit movement in the 1970s and 80s, there have been several
developments in the movement. One of the most significant changes was the emergence of new
leadership from the grassroots level. These leaders came from various backgrounds, including
educated professionals, farmers, and workers. They brought a new perspective to the movement
and focused on issues such as land reform, access to education, and employment opportunities.
Another notable development was the expansion of the movement beyond the boundaries of
Maharashtra and Karnataka. The Dalit movement spread to other states, including Tamil Nadu,
Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar.
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In the 1990s, the Dalit movement saw a resurgence with the rise of the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)
in Uttar Pradesh. The party, founded by Kanshi Ram and led by Mayawati, aimed to provide a
political platform for Dalits and other marginalized groups.
In recent years, the Dalit movement has continued to evolve and adapt to new challenges. One of
the major issues facing the movement today is the rise of Hindutva, a right-wing Hindu nationalist
movement that seeks to impose a uniform Hindu identity on Indian society. The Dalit movement
has been at the forefront of the fight against Hindutva and its attempts to marginalize and oppress
Dalits and other marginalized communities.
The Dalit movement in India was able to achieve legal protection through the enactment of several
laws that criminalize caste-based discrimination and violence. It has increased the political
representation of Dalits in national and state governments, raised awareness about the
discrimination and violence faced by Dalits, and promoted greater consciousness and solidarity
among them. The movement has successfully secured land rights for Dalits, improved their access
to education and employment opportunities, challenged traditional caste-based hierarchy. The
movement has played a key role in introducing and expanding the reservation policy in India and
promoting the empowerment of Dalit women. It has fostered a sense of unity and solidarity among
Dalits and helped to revive and promote Dalit culture and literature. The movement has had a global
impact, inspiring similar movements for social justice and human rights in other parts of the world,
for example the recent resolution passed in Seattle in America that bans caste discrimination.
Despite its positive impacts some scholars argue that the movement has remained confined to the
political sphere, and has failed to address the structural and cultural aspects of caste discrimination.
It is also criticized for its narrow focus on reservations and protective discrimination, rather than
addressing the root causes of caste oppression. Moreover, the movement is often fragmented and
lacks a unified voice, which hinders its effectiveness.
According to Gail Omvedt, although the "post-Ambedkar Dalit movement" challenged some of the
most profound forms of oppression and exploitation faced by Dalits, it ultimately failed to pave the
way for long-term social transformation and mobility. Dipankar Gupta in his work, also pointed out
that the Dalit movement has struggled to achieve its goals in the face of resistance from dominant
castes and the limited resources available to it.
In conclusion, the Dalit movement in India is a diverse and complex movement that has evolved
over time. It has made significant strides in raising awareness about Dalit rights, eradicating caste-
based discrimination and violence, and promoting greater consciousness and solidarity among
Dalits. Though Dalit movement has been criticized for failing to address the root causes of caste
oppression and being confined to the political sphere, it has had a global impact and continues to
adapt to new challenges in striving towards its goals of social transformation and mobility.
52
(c) Discuss the salient features of right to education. (15 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce by briefly mentioning what is Right to Education Act.
 Mention some of the important provisions/features of the act.
 Explain the significance of the act.
 Provide the criticism of the act.
Solution
The Right to Education Act, passed in August 2009 and enforced in 2010, made education a
fundamental right for every child in India aged 6 to 14 years old. The Act ensures free elementary
education, admission, attendance, and completion for all children in this age group, particularly
those from economically weaker sections of society.
The Right to Education Act provides for free and compulsory education to children until they
complete their elementary education in a nearby school. It obligates the government to ensure
admission, attendance, and completion of education for children aged 6 to 14 years old. The Act
provides for admission of non-enrolled children to a class appropriate for their age, and specifies
the duties of governments, local authorities, and parents. It establishes standards for pupil-teacher
ratios, infrastructure, and teacher training, and prohibits mental harassment, physical punishment,
screening procedures, capitation fees, and private tuition by teachers. The Act also emphasizes the
importance of developing a curriculum that is child-centric, child-friendly, and consistent with
constitutional values, and promotes the all-round development of the child.
The Right to Education Act (RTE) has several significances. It recognizes education as a fundamental
right of every child, which is essential for the overall development of an individual and society. The
RTE Act is an attempt to address social inequalities and promote social justice by ensuring that every
child, regardless of their background, has access to quality education.
Sociologists such as Pierre Bourdieu and Max Weber have emphasized the role of education in
reproducing social inequalities. According to Bourdieu, the education system is an important site of
social reproduction, where social inequalities are reinforced and reproduced through the
transmission of cultural capital. Weber, on the other hand, emphasized the role of education in the
formation of social status groups and the reproduction of class-based inequalities.
The RTE Act attempts to address these issues by providing access to education for all children,
regardless of their social background. It aims to reduce the gap between rural and urban areas in
terms of educational opportunities, as well as promote social inclusion by providing 25%
reservation for economically disadvantaged and socially marginalized groups in private schools.
Additionally, the RTE Act recognizes the importance of participatory democracy and governance
in elementary schools, by mandating the formation of School Management Committees (SMCs).
This promotes the involvement of parents and communities in the education system, which is
crucial for the success of any education policy.
Overall, the RTE Act has significant sociological implications for promoting social justice, reducing
social inequalities, and improving access to education for all.
One major criticism of the RTE Act is that it does not adequately address the root causes of
educational inequality in India, such as poverty, caste-based discrimination, and social hierarchies.
53
While the Act provides for certain provisions such as reservations for socially disadvantaged groups
in private schools, it fails to address the fundamental societal inequalities that perpetuate
educational inequity.
Sociologists like Amartya Sen and Andre Beteille have argued that the quality of education in India
is closely linked to socio-economic factors such as poverty, social hierarchies, and gender
discrimination. According to them, a more comprehensive approach that addresses these
underlying issues is needed to ensure equitable access to education for all.
Another criticism is that the Act has been poorly implemented and has not been able to achieve its
stated goals. Thinkers like Krishna Kumar have argued that the Act was rushed through without
adequate consideration of its implementation and has led to bureaucratic hurdles, corruption, and
inefficiency. This has resulted in poor quality education, particularly in rural areas and among
marginalized groups.
Furthermore, the 25% reservation for EWS in private schools has been criticized for perpetuating
social segregation and reinforcing inequalities, rather than promoting social integration.
Sociologists like Yogendra Yadav have argued that this policy has failed to achieve its intended goal
of providing equal opportunities for all students and has instead created a two-tier education
system.
Overall, thinkers have criticized the RTE Act for its narrow focus on legal and policy changes,
without addressing the deeper structural inequalities that underlie educational inequity in India.
The Right to Education Act has taken significant steps towards promoting social justice and
reducing social inequalities by recognizing education as a fundamental right for every child in India.
Despite criticisms regarding its implementation and effectiveness, the Act's emphasis on
participatory governance, reduction of rural-urban disparities, and inclusion of economically
disadvantaged and socially marginalized groups in private schools demonstrates a commitment to
creating a more equitable education system. As such, the RTE Act remains a crucial step towards
ensuring access to quality education for all children in India, and a beacon of hope for a more just
and inclusive society.
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Mains 2014
Section A
Question 1. Write short notes with a sociological perspective on the following in
about
(a) Gandhi’s efforts on communal harmony. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by highlighting the role of Gandhi and backdrop in which he worked for
communal harmony.
 Discuss the various efforts he took to preserve communal harmony.
 Discuss the impact of his effort on Indian society and around the world.
 Conclude with the relevance of work in today's time.
Solution
Mahatma Gandhi, known as the Father of the Nation in India, was a leader who played a crucial
role in the country's independence movement. Along with his efforts towards India's freedom
struggle, he also devoted himself to promoting communal harmony in the country.
India was facing significant communal tensions during Gandhi's time, and the divide and rule
policy of the British had created a severe crisis in the country. The Hindu-Muslim divide was a
crucial issue that the nation had to deal with.
In this context, Gandhi made numerous significant contributions towards communal harmony. He
believed that interfaith dialogue had the power to promote understanding and harmony among
different religious communities. Hence, Gandhi regularly met with leaders of different religions,
encouraging dialogue between them. His philosophy of non-violence was another critical aspect of
his efforts towards communal harmony. Gandhi believed that peaceful protests could bring about
change without further dividing communities through violence. He promoted social and cultural
events that brought people from different communities together, encouraging them to celebrate
each other's festivals and traditions to promote understanding and respect for diversity. Gandhi's
Satyagraha, or non-violent resistance, was also used to address issues of communal conflict. His
campaigns like the Champaran Satyagraha, the Kheda Satyagraha, and the Salt Satyagraha
mobilized people from different communities to fight for their rights. Moreover, he advocated for
communal unity and solidarity among different religious groups, emphasizing the importance of
focusing on shared values and working together towards a common goal. Gandhi was a vocal critic
of communalism and sectarianism, speaking out against divisive forces and working towards
creating an inclusive society that respected all religions and communities.
The impact of Gandhi's efforts towards communal harmony on Indian society was significant. His
emphasis on communal unity and solidarity helped to break down the barriers that existed between
different religious communities, promoting social cohesion. The legacy of his philosophy of non-
violence and peaceful coexistence continues to inspire people not only in India but also around the
world. Furthermore, his advocacy for communal harmony has become an integral part of India's
cultural and social fabric. According to T.K. Oommen, Gandhi's emphasis on communal harmony
helped to create a sense of national identity in India, while Dipankar Gupta argued that it helped to
break down caste barriers.
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Similarly, M.N. Srinivas in his book "Caste in Modern India" contended that Gandhi's philosophy
of non-violence and his efforts towards communal harmony helped to challenge the rigid
hierarchies of the caste system.
According to Yogendra Singh, Gandhi's approach to communal harmony was based on his
understanding of the spiritual and moral dimensions of human existence. He argued that Gandhi's
vision of a harmonious society was not limited to India but extended to the entire world. Thus
Gandhi's efforts empowered marginalized communities, strengthened democracy, fostered national
identity, and influenced global movements. Ultimately, his message of communal harmony and his
efforts towards peaceful coexistence helped to reduce communal tensions in India and create a more
peaceful and harmonious society.
Overall, Gandhi's efforts towards communal harmony had a far-reaching social impact in India and
beyond. His vision of a harmonious society that respects diversity and promotes peaceful
coexistence remains an important part of India's cultural and social fabric.
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(b) Modernization of Indian traditions. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce with definition of Modernization.
 Give historical background on Modernization in India.
 Give Yogendra Singh's view on Modernization of Indian Tradition.
 Analyse the phenomenon of Modernization of Indian traditions with example.
Solution
Modernization refers to the process of social, economic, and political transformation that involves
the adoption of modern values, technologies, and institutions. It involves the shift from traditional
ways of life to more modern and rational ways of living.
Before the British rule the traditional Indian society was organized on the principles of hierarchy,
holism, continuity, and transcendence. When British rule was established in India, the western
tradition had already undergone a change and embraced modern values such as individualism,
equalitarianism, humanism, and rationalism. This contact with the modern tradition of the west
produced modernizing consequences for India, and the modernization of Indian tradition began
with westernization. Initially, westernization only contributed to the emergence of a western sub-
culture with limited impact, but with the expansion of education, mass media, transport and
communication, and other changes initiated by the British, the modernization process became more
comprehensive and started to spread.
Yogendra Singh attempted to analyze the impact of modern Western culture on India, examining
the changes it brought about at both cultural (great tradition & little tradition) and structural levels
(Macro structure & micro structure). At the level of great tradition, the British influence led to the
development of modernity, the establishment of a universal legal system, the creation of modern
judicial administration, the spread of nationalism, democracy, politicization, and mass
communication, as well as the growth of new scientific education and means of communication. At
the level of little tradition, the adoption of Western lifestyle resulted in changes in etiquette, dress,
language, etc. At the macro structure level, there was a rise in a new progressive-thinking elite class,
urban professional middle class, Indian bourgeoisie, and growth of party system and bureaucracy
with bureaucratic elite. However, the micro-structure remained largely unchanged, with kinship,
caste, village, regional, and religious communities remaining unaltered.
Thus, the process of modernization in India had a dual character, with traditional micro-structures
coexisting alongside modern macro-structures. Therefore, the idea that tradition and modernity are
opposing forces in the study of social change in India is misplaced. While some scholars have
characterized tradition and modernity as polarities, this is not the case in India. Instead, tradition
and modernity coexist superficially, with modernity being selectively adopted in a top-down
process. Traditional micro-structures and identities have been revised for modern purposes,
resulting in a neo-traditionalism trend that strengthens traditional ties such as kingship, caste,
region, and religion. As modern structures remain weak, there is a general trend towards religious
revivalism, and the party system uses caste networks for political mobilization. Therefore, tradition
and modernity are not opposing forces but rather can coexist in the process of social change in India.
In conclusion while traditional micro-structures coexist with modern macro-structures, tradition
and modernity are not opposing forces but rather coexist in a neo-traditionalism trend that
strengthens traditional ties.
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(c) Types of kinship systems in India. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce with definition of Kinship System
 Describe the Types of Kinship Systems in India.
 Describe the variation in the Kinship systems of India.
Solution
The kinship system refers to a set of people who are recognized as relatives based on blood
relationships (consanguinity), marriage relationships (affinity or conjugal), and also relationships
based on adoption or place. These relationships are socially constructed and vary across cultures
and societies, and they play an important role in shaping social structures and relationships within
families and communities.
In India, the kinship system is often classified on the basis of descent method used. The descent
criterion can be traced either through males (patrilineal) or females (matrilineal), or through both
parents (bilateral). Indological accounts differentiate kin groups in India based on various cultural
notions, in addition to the linguistic and caste-based classifications. Some of these kinship systems
include:
Sapinda group: This group comprises people who are related to each other through the common
ancestor within five generations.
Sarika group: This group consists of people who are related to each other through a common female
ancestor, who could be a grandmother, great-grandmother, or even further back.
Kula: This refers to a larger kin group that includes several families with a common ancestor.
Gotra: This is a patrilineal group of people who trace their descent from a common male ancestor.
Members of the same gotra are considered to be siblings and therefore cannot marry each other.
These kinship systems are deeply ingrained in Indian society and have a significant impact on the
social, economic, and cultural lives of people.
Irawati Karve, a renowned anthropologist, in her book 'Kinship Organization in India' (1952),
divided India into four cultural zones based on various factors such as kinship terms, language,
descent and inheritance, patterns of marriage and family, and other cultural values.
She highlighted various similarities and dissimilarities in marriage patterns, based on certain
criteria such as the rule of marriage, endogamy and exogamy rules, matrilocal and patrilocal
practices, and kinship terminology.
In North India, the kinship system is characterized by negative rules of marriage, whereas in South
India, positive rules of marriage are more prevalent. North Indian kinship systems practice village
exogamy, while most marriage alliances in South India occur within a small kin group, and there is
almost no territorial exogamy.
In some south Indian castes like Nayars, matrilocal traditions exist, while among Khasi tribals of
Meghalaya, matrilineal and matrilocal kinship practices are popular.
Kinship terminology in North India emphasizes the separation of kin related by blood from those
related by marriage, while in South India, kinship terminology emphasizes the symmetry of
relationships between affines.
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For example, in North India, the term "bhai" (brother) is used to refer to a male sibling, while "jija"
(brother-in-law) is used to refer to the husband of a sister. In contrast, in South India, the term "anna"
is used to refer to both a male sibling and the husband of an older sister, emphasizing the symmetry
of the relationships between the two.
Overall, the sociological perspective on kinship systems in India recognizes their dynamic and
multifaceted nature, which is shaped by cultural, social, and historical factors. It emphasizes the
need for an in-depth understanding of these systems to appreciate the nuances of Indian society and
culture.
59
(d) Features of caste system. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce with definition of Caste System
 Discuss the features of caste system (include perspectives of sociologists, mention
contemporary changes)
Solution
The caste system is a hierarchical social structure prevalent in India, in which people are divided
into hereditary groups based on their birth and occupation. It originated from the Vedic period and
was later reinforced by the Hindu religious texts. The caste system defines social and economic
status and determines social interactions and opportunities for individuals.
The primary characteristic of the caste system is based on the principle of purity and pollution.
However, Ghurye has defined six features of the system, while other scholars have identified
various other features. Bougle has identified heredity occupation, hierarchy, and mutual repulsion
in terms of pollution and purity as the three core features. On the other hand, Dumont has
considered hierarchy and the separation of pollution and purity as the main characteristics of the
caste system.
Some Commonly Understood Features are as below:
1. Hierarchy: The Brahmins were placed at the highest position in theory, as per religious texts
and Brahminical values. While Ghurye and Srinivas both recognized hierarchy as the
primary principle of caste, Srinivas believed that this hierarchy was symbolic and that in
different regions, castes that were considered ritually lower might hold dominance.
2. Caste Based Occupation: The division of occupations was based on the principles of purity
and pollution. For instance, the purest Brahmins were assigned roles such as teaching and
preaching, while the Avarnas had to carry out polluted tasks like scavenging. However, in
reality, such a system of occupational differentiation has never been fixed. There were times
in India's history when it was governed by rulers who did not belong to the Kshatriya caste.
3. Endogamy: Endogamy within castes and exogamy outside the gotra are commonly observed
practices in the caste system. Hypergamy, where a woman marries a man of higher caste, is
allowed, but hypogamy, where a man marries a woman of lower caste, is not allowed. This
feature has remained persistent in modern times, as it is rooted in personal beliefs and
customs that are less influenced by laws and regulations.
4. Segmental Organization: Castes are further divided into subcategories, meaning that they
typically have sub-castes, and in some cases, these sub-castes may have additional
subcategories as well.
5. Common Name and Common Decent: Frequently, both sub-castes and castes can be traced
back to a shared mythological figure.
6. Feeding and Social Intercourse Restrictions: Smritis have established rules regarding inter-
dining and distinctions between cooked and uncooked food. Social interaction was also
restricted in a similar manner. However, following India's independence, the government
has deemed these limitations illegal, and the constitution prohibits them.
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7. Civil and Religious Disabilities: In the past, there existed distinct wells and educational
institutions, and obtaining consent from the upper castes was mandatory for building a
permanent structure. Additionally, religious limitations-imposed constraints on entering
temples and engaging in rituals. While these restrictions are officially prohibited by the
government, some are still covertly practiced.
8. Social Mobility: Although caste is commonly regarded as a rigidly fixed social structure,
scholars such as Srinivas have illustrated that there were avenues for upward mobility, as
evidenced by the concept of Sanskritization. Other means of social advancement included
royal sponsorship, religious conversions, and census operations.
9. In addition to these aspects, historical records indicate that the caste system was highly
unequal, with certain castes experiencing significant advantages while others were relegated
to a life of perpetual toil and subservience. Moreover, during the post-Vedic era, caste became
increasingly ascriptive, meaning that it was essentially impossible for an individual to alter
or shift their assigned caste.
Overall, the caste system is a highly rigid and stratified social structure, with many features that
have persisted over time despite efforts to reform or abolish it. While some of these features have
loosened somewhat in modern times, caste still plays a major role in many aspects of Indian society,
including marriage, occupation, and political representation.
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(e) G. S. Ghurye’s Indological approach to understand society in India. (10

Marks)
Approach
 Introduce with briefly explaining Indological approach.
 Explain Ghurye's Indological approach in his study of castes, tribes, family and kinship,
religion, culture and civilization, and national unity and integration.
 Provide criticism of Ghurye's Indological approach
Solution
The Indological approach to studying Indian society and culture rests on the belief that it is unique
and cannot be understood within the framework of European sociology. This approach uses
historical and comparative methods and relies on texts such as ancient history, religious
manuscripts, and classical literature of ancient Indian society to analyze social phenomena. This
approach is known as the "textual view" or "book view" of Indian society and gives more importance
to the culture than the empirical structure of Indian society.
The Indological approach was used in the early formative years of Indian sociology and social
anthropology by several scholars including G. S. Ghurye, B. K. Sarkar, and Iravati Karwe. Ghurye
is known as the Father of Indian sociology and made significant contributions to the study of Indian
society in areas such as castes, tribes, family and kinship, religion, culture and civilization, and
national unity and integration.
Ghurye's attributional approach to understanding caste involves combining historical texts, field
work, and cultural perspective. He viewed caste system from a historical, comparative, and
integrative perspective, identifying six structural features: segmental division, hierarchy, lack of
choice of occupation, privileges or prohibitions, commensality, and restrictions on marriage. For
him endogamy is the most important feature, as it maintains caste hierarchy.
G.S. Ghurye's views on tribes were both general and specific, as he worked on specific tribes such
as "Mahadev Kolis" and also wrote a general book on Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India. He believed
that the majority of tribes were already Hinduized, making isolation impossible. Instead, he argued
that tribes should be assimilated into Hindu castes, as they were essentially "backward caste
Hindus" due to imperfect integration into Hindu society. In his later works on north-eastern tribes,
Ghurye documented secessionist trends and felt that they needed to be held in check to prevent
damage to the country's political unity.
Ghurye believed that the relationship between caste and kinship is close, as exogamy and endogamy
are based on kinship, and the effective unit of caste is constituted by kinsmen. He identified three
types of marriage restrictions in Indian society, which shape the relationship between caste and
kinship: endogamy, exogamy, and hypergamy. Exogamy can be divided into two parts: spinda or
prohibited degrees of kin, and sept or gotra exogamy.
Ghurye believed that religion is central to human culture and behavior in society. He has written
several books on the role of religion, including Indian Sadhus, which discusses the sociography of
various sects and religious centres in India. Ghurye highlights the paradoxical nature of
renunciation in India, where Sadhus are supposed to be detached from all social conventions but
have played a role in guiding Hindu society.
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Ghurye believed that culture grows by diffusion, and he had faith in the power of man to preserve
the best of old culture while creating new culture. He was concerned with the evolution of Hindu
civilization, which he termed a complex civilization, and emphasized that the process of
acculturation is more relevant than diffusion. Ghurye also analyzed the caste system and how it was
developed by Brahmins and spread to other sections of the population.
Ghurye's identified five sources of danger for national unity: the Scheduled Castes, the Scheduled
Tribes, the Backward Classes, the Muslims, and linguistic minorities. Ghurye believed that cultural
unity in India is the result of Brahmanical endeavours and that the major institutions of Hindu
society originated from the Brahmins and were eventually accepted by other communities.
G.S Ghurye's work has been criticised for many reasons. These criticisms include his Brahminical
point of view on caste, the value-loaded concept of integration and assimilation in relation to tribes,
being seen as an armed chair theorist, and his view that SC, ST, OBC, and Muslims were a threat
despite their participation in INM. Other criticisms include the failure of Indology to consider
contemporary changes and the contradictory explanations given by different Indologists.
Additionally, Ghurye's emphasis on religious texts as a source of cultural values was challenged by
the reality on the ground, and his work mainly focused on Hindu culture to the exclusion of others
in India.
Overall, Ghurye's Indological approach has contributed to the study of Indian society and culture,
but it is important to recognize its limitations and the need for a more inclusive and dynamic
approach to sociology in India
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Question 2.
(a) Analyse the different views on integration and autonomy of tribes in
India. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Provide a brief overview of the tribal population in India and their history of integration with
the mainstream society.
 Discuss the policies adopted by the colonial governments with respect to tribes.
 Discuss the three main approaches considered for tribal development in Independent India.
 Provide current scenario in terms in integration and autonomy.
Solution
Throughout history, tribal communities have upheld their unique social, political, and economic
systems, which have largely remained separate from mainstream society. However, in India, a range
of approaches have been employed to tackle issues facing tribal populations, including granting
autonomy, promoting assimilation, and facilitating integration.
The British government had a policy of isolation and neglect towards the tribal population in India
during the colonial period. They also introduced laws that restricted the movement of tribes and
their access to resources, which led to their exploitation and displacement. The policy of "criminal
tribes" led to stigmatization and marginalization.
The establishment of few welfare institutions intended to "civilize" the tribes and integrate them
into mainstream society had limited impact due to neglect. These policies had long-lasting effects
on the tribal population in India.
Various perspectives were presented regarding tribal policy after India gained independence.
The policy of isolation / autonomy:
 Verrier Elwyn proposed a policy of isolation or autonomy for Indian tribes, aimed at
preserving their culture and preventing exploitation. The policy suggested that by keeping
outsiders at bay, the tribes could maintain their distinct identity and avoid the harmful effects
of integration with the larger society. The isolationist side argued that tribals needed
protection from traders, moneylenders and Hindu and Christian missionaries, all of whom
were intent on reducing tribals to detribalized landless labor. The constitution makers sought
to uphold this policy through the fifth and sixth schedules of the constitution.
The policy of assimilation:
 Assimilationists argued that tribes in schedule areas should be integrated into the larger
society based on a vision of a liberal state with no social distinctions or hierarchies. They
rejected terms like scheduled, reserved, or excluded areas as colonial baggage and advocated
for uniform administration in independent India. GS Ghurye criticized the constitution
makers for the autonomy provisions as it worked against national integration and could fuel
secessionism. Ghurye considered tribals as backward Hindus, who had internalized the
Hindu rites and rituals, but not the Hindu epistemology. According to him, tribal and Hindu
cultures have undergone a cultural fusion, with mainstream Hindus worshipping tribal Gods
like Kali and Shiva, and tribals adopting many Hindu rituals.
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 Ghurye favoured the gradual assimilation of tribes with Hindu society as he considered it
beneficial for national integration.
The policy of integration:
 Integrationist's proposed protecting the distinct culture of tribes while integrating them into
mainstream society. Nehru implemented a policy of integration to create a responsible
partnership between tribes and non-tribes. This progressive acculturation allows for the
tribals to have equality, upward mobility, and economic viability while being close to the
national mainstream. The Constitution has two commitments in respect of scheduled tribes,
which are to protect their distinctive way of life and to bring them at par with the rest of the
nation to integrate them into national life while protecting them from social injustice and all
forms of exploitation and discrimination. Nehru's Panchsheel aimed to find a middle path
between isolation and assimilation for tribal integration. It proposed respecting tribal rights
in land and culture, training locals for development work, avoiding excessive administration
and external intervention, and evaluating success based on human character development
rather than statistics or money spent.
Xaxa suggests that while tribal integration was constitutionally prescribed in post-independence
India, it has not been implemented effectively. Despite lofty plans like as suggested by Elwin that
there be special blocks in first Five Year Plan (FYP) for tribal development, consequent adoption of
‘Tribal Sub Plan’ since 5th FYP and ‘Diversified Approach’ since 9th FYP have all proved
inadequate. Instead, inconsiderate developmental process has posed a threat to their identity and it
has not been for tribes, but at the cost of tribes and they are reduced to second class citizens. While
linguistic factions are successful in carving out their own states, tribals are still struggling for
meaningful autonomy.
However, some concessions are made in form of Schedule 5th and 6th to tribals and recent progress
like Darjeeling Hill Council being given as more autonomy in 12 are some signs of state doing its
extra bit towards tribal autonomy. Further the Forest Rights Act (2006) also recognizes the rights of
forest-dwelling communities, particularly Scheduled Tribes, to access and manage forest resources.
It grants individual and community rights over forest lands, aims to prevent forced evictions, and
provides a legal framework for settling disputes.
Overall, the issue of integration and autonomy of tribes in India is complex and requires a nuanced
approach that balances the need for social and economic development with the preservation of tribal
identities and cultural practices.
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(b) Discuss the social background of Indian nationalism. (20 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce with the concept of Indian Nationalism.
 Discuss various social factors that led to Indian Nationalism.
Solution
The concept of Indian nationalism pertains to the movement towards gaining independence from
British colonial rule, and the formation of a distinct Indian identity and nationhood. This movement
developed over time and was a key factor in India's eventual attainment of independence. The social
background of Indian nationalism is intricate and varied, with numerous factors playing a part in
its emergence and development.
AR Desai's Marxist approach to the study of Indian nationalism identifies the economic structure of
society as the root cause of nationalism. The emergence of new classes and the conflict of interests
between them due to the change in the economy under British rule led to social change and class
struggle. The classes in India were divided into two groups: those who benefited from British rule,
and those whose interests were opposite to those of the British. The establishment of British rule
brought about changes in the economy, such as the commodification of land and the emergence of
new land tenure systems, leading to the emergence of new classes in rural areas such as Zamindars,
peasants, tenants, and landless labourers. These classes, except for the Zamindars, faced exploitation
at the hands of the British, with tenants facing frequent evictions and peasants facing high revenue
demands.
As modern industries developed, new classes such as workers and capitalists emerged. The
capitalists recognized the importance of self-government to create favourable conditions for their
growth, such as protection from imports and access to cheap capital. Meanwhile, workers
experienced exploitation and realized that only a national government could improve their working
conditions. Consequently, their class interests conflicted with those of the British.
As education and modernization grew, new professions emerged, such as teachers, lawyers, and
doctors, creating a new middle class. This class demanded self-government to benefit themselves
and provided leadership to the freedom movement, helping to develop a subjective consciousness
of objective reality. Desai asserts that the new middle class played a crucial role in leading the mass
movement for Indian independence. He suggests that all classes who clashed with the British or
benefited from their withdrawal supported the freedom movement, while those like zamindars,
who profited from British rule, opposed it and supported the British.
Religion also played a significant role in shaping Indian nationalism. Hinduism and Islam, the two
dominant religions in India, both influenced nationalist movements and the vision of an
independent India. Hindu nationalism, represented by organizations like the Hindu Mahasabha
and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh, promoted a vision of India as a Hindu nation. Muslim
nationalism, represented by the All-India Muslim League, promoted the idea of a separate Muslim
state, which eventually led to the creation of Pakistan.
Caste relations, class distinctions, and gender roles also contributed to the rise of Indian nationalism.
The Indian National Congress and other nationalist organizations sought to address these social
issues, promoting equality and social justice as core values.
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Mahatma Gandhi, one of the most prominent leaders of the Indian independence movement,
advocated for social and economic reforms, including the abolition of the caste system and the
promotion of women's rights.
Thus, the development of Indian nationalism was significantly influenced by various social factors,
including British colonialism, religious and economic factors, and social structures. An
understanding of these factors is crucial in comprehending the modern India's development and
the challenges that it faces in promoting equality, social justice, and economic growth.
67
(c) Define Patriarchy. How does it impact the overall entitlement of girl
child in India? (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce with definition of Patriarchy.
 Discuss the impact of patriarchy on the rights of girl child in India.
 Provide some measures taken to deal with the issue.
Solution
of life such as the family, economy, and governance. Women, on the other hand, are considered
inferior to men and are often subjected to discrimination and unequal treatment. Patriarchy is
associated with gender stereotypes, the perpetuation of traditional gender roles, and the
normalization of male supremacy and authority over women.
Gender-based discrimination and violence is one of the most significant impacts of patriarchy
on girls in India.
 In "Mirrors of Violence," Veena Das argues that violence against women is a result of
culturally constructed boundaries and patriarchal constructs.
 Practices such as female infanticide, child marriage, and female genital mutilation are
prevalent and rooted in patriarchal attitudes that view girls as inferior to boys. As a result,
girls are more likely to experience domestic violence, sexual harassment, and rape compared
to boys.
 UNICEF reports that 47% of India's women aged 20-24 were married before they turned 18,
and 40% of child marriages in the world occur in India alone.
 Education and employment opportunities for girls are also affected by patriarchy. Girls are
less likely to attend school, especially in rural areas, and are more likely to drop out early due
to traditional gender roles that prioritize their domestic duties over education.
 Girls also face significant barriers to entering the workforce, especially in male-dominated
fields.
 Moreover, patriarchal attitudes often result in girls being denied basic human rights,
including healthcare and nutrition. Boys are often given preference for access to healthcare
and nutrition over girls in some communities, leading to higher rates of malnutrition and
illness among girls.
 Patriarchy also limits the ability of girls to make choices about their own lives, such as whom
they marry, when they marry, and whether they want to work or pursue higher education.
Girls are often pressured to conform to traditional gender roles and marry at a young age,
which can limit their opportunities for personal and professional growth. Control over
women's sexuality is also more stringent in patriarchal societies.
 The impact of patriarchy on girls is further compounded for those belonging to marginalized
communities, such as Dalits, Adivasis, and Muslim girls, who face multiple forms of
discrimination based on their caste, religion, and gender.
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According to Indira Jai Singh, in India the laws related to entitlements are influenced by patriarchy
rather than gender equality, as demonstrated by the Hindu Marriage Act. For example, the grounds
for divorce in this act are based on adultery, which must be proven in court.
To combat patriarchy and promote gender equality in India, legal provisions such as the Protection
of Women from Domestic Violence Act and government schemes like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao and
Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana are implemented. Civil society initiatives such as the "Bell Bajao" and
"Dark is Beautiful" campaigns, education, economic empowerment, and media and entertainment
also help in promoting gender-sensitive attitudes and behaviors.
In conclusion, patriarchy has a significant impact on the entitlements and opportunities of girls in
India, leading to gender-based discrimination and violence, limited education and employment
opportunities, and restricted personal freedoms. Legal provisions, government schemes, civil
society initiatives, education, economic empowerment, and media and entertainment can all play a
role in combating patriarchy and promoting gender equality.
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Question 3.
(a) Give a sociological analysis of the problems of migrant urban poor. (20
Marks)
Approach
 Introduce your answer with some data related to migrant urban poor.
 Discuss the various issues faced by the migrant urban poor.
Solution:
India's urban population is expected to grow by 300 million due to rural-urban migration by 2030.
The success of India's urbanization plans depends heavily on how well these migrants are integrated
into urban society. However, there are several issues facing the urban poor migrants that need to be
addressed.
Here are some of the key issues that migrants in India often face:
1. Identity issue: One of the most significant challenges faced by migrants in India is the lack of
proper identification. Many migrants do not possess valid identification documents, which
can make it difficult for them to access government services or avail themselves of legal
protection.
2. Political rights deprived: Migrants often find themselves excluded from the political process
and deprived of basic political rights, such as the right to vote or run for public office. This
can further compound their sense of marginalization and disenfranchisement.
3. Economic rights deprived: Migrants may not be able to avail themselves of government
schemes and entitlements, which are often linked to proof of residency or citizenship. This
can leave them vulnerable to poverty, exploitation, and destitution. The National Sample
Survey (NSS) found that internal migrants in India are denied political rights such as voting
and economic rights such as access to government schemes.
4. Informal sector: These poor migrants are mostly engaged in the informal sector with little or
no social security provided by the state and hence they became more vulnerable.
5. Lack of acceptability in the host society: Migrants from certain regions or ethnic backgrounds
may face discrimination or lack of acceptance in the host society. For example, North
Easterners in India may be subject to racial slurs and harassment, which can make it difficult
for them to integrate into mainstream society.
6. Threat to migrant culture: There is always a threat to poor migrants' way of life and culture
as it is assimilated in mainstream society in urban areas. This led to alienation of these
migrants from mainstream society.
7. Homelessness: Many migrants in India live in informal settlements, such as slums or on the
streets, which lack basic amenities and services. This can leave them vulnerable to health and
safety risks and contribute to their sense of social exclusion.
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8. Health and sanitation: They mostly live in slum dwellings as Marxist scholars put out that
their needs are overlooked in the planning and vision of urban development which is meant
for the have’s section of society.
9. Vulnerability of women as domestic help: Female migrants, particularly those who work as
domestic help, may be subject to exploitation, harassment, and abuse. They may not have
access to legal protections or be able to assert their rights in the workplace.
10. Child rights: Basic education is denied to child and cases of child labour increases in urban
area. Illiteracy affects 57.8% of female migrants and 25.8% of male migrants (Census, 2011).
11. Socio-economic Background: Data suggests that daily wage labourer in cities & migrant
labourers comprise largely of the OBC, SC, and ST communities.
12. Easy prey for criminals, traffickers, prostitution rackets: Migrants may be at increased risk of
criminal activity, such as trafficking or forced labor. This can further exacerbate their
vulnerability and make it difficult for them to break free from poverty and exploitation.
13. Many become bonded labor: Some migrants may be forced into bonded labor, which can
involve working long hours for low pay and being subject to physical and emotional abuse.
14. Compromised family life: Migrants may have to leave their families behind or be separated
from them for long periods. This can contribute to a sense of isolation and loneliness, and
make it difficult for them to maintain strong family ties.
15. State neglect: At the beginning of the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-2012), there was an urban
housing shortage in India of 24.7 million. Ninety-nine per cent of this shortfall pertained to
the economically weaker sections and lower income groups in which migrants typically fall.
According to the U.N. report titled "Social Inclusion of Internal Migrants in India," internal
migrants are a marginalized group that has been overlooked.
Following measures can be taken to deal with the problems of Migrants at the destination as well
as the source of migration.
At the Destination:
1. Remove the necessity of domicile status to avoid work discrimination and provide affordable
housing, employment, and healthcare for migrants.
2. Give special consideration to migrant children for admission to schools under the Right to
Education and use local bodies and NGOs to upskill migrants.
3. Frame policies separately for household and individual migrants and make microfinance
available for migrants.
4. Establish a legal cell at the central and state levels to protect wages and create a database to
track migrant labourers dispersed across the country.
5. Provide targeted components and a special outreach plan for migrants within public services
and government programmes.
6. Expand MGNREGS to urban areas to provide work for the needy and sensitize and instruct
policymakers, employers, and financial institutions about the barriers that migrants face in
obtaining public services.
At the Source:
1. Increase investment in agriculture to make it profitable and set up small-scale industries in
villages to provide employment.
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2. Improve schools, hospitals, and recreational infrastructure in village/town areas and
implement land reforms, prevent land degradation, and promote 2nd generation green
revolution.
3. Build Panchayats' competence to maintain a migrant worker database.
Overall, the problems faced by migrant urban poor are complex and multifaceted, requiring a
comprehensive and multi-pronged approach to address the various structural factors that
contribute to their marginalization and exclusion in society. Most importantly an acceptance of the
permanence of the migrant population is critical to better planning, provisioning, and integration
into India's urban development.
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(b) Discuss the problems of religious minorities in India. (20 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce by defining Minorities in general and in Indian context.
 Discuss the general problems faced by religious minorities in India.
 Discuss the specific problems faced by religious minorities in India.
Solution
The Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities described a
minority group as one that is numerically inferior to the rest of the population and in a non-
dominant position. The Indian Constitution lacks clear criteria to define minority status. In 1992, the
National Commission for Minorities Act allowed the government to decide minority status, which
included Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, and Jains.
Some of the general problems faced by minorities in India include
1. Low literacy: Many minority communities face low literacy rates due to factors such as
poverty, lack of access to education, and social and cultural barriers. For example, Muslims
are ‘below’ the national average in literacy and education. Most Muslims in urban areas are
artisans. They consider it beyond their means and a waste of time to send their children to
schools.
2. Economic Backwardness: The Sachar Committee Report (SCR) has stated that the Muslim
community “exhibits deficits and deprivation in practically all aspects of development.”
3. Identity: Minorities often face issues related to their identity, such as suspicion and
discrimination based on their religion, language, or ethnicity. For example, the markers of
Muslim identity like a beard, burqa or hijab frequently attract suspicion and derision in
public spaces because of the cultivation of the image of “Muslim Fundamentalist” in common
consciousness.
4. Political representation: Despite constitutional provisions for the representation of minorities
in the political process, minority communities often face challenges in achieving adequate
representation and political power.
5. Identity in transition: Some minority communities, such as the Kashmiri Pandits, face
challenges related to their identity in transition, such as displacement, migration, and loss of
cultural heritage.
6. Ethnocentrism: The majority community in India often shows ethnocentrism, which can lead
to marginalization and discrimination of minority communities.
7. Problem of preserving culture: Minority communities face challenges in preserving their
unique cultural heritage and traditions in the face of dominant cultural forces.
8. Violence communal tensions and riots: Minority communities are often the targets of
communal violence and riots, which can result in loss of life and property, and a breakdown
of social cohesion.
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9. UCC: The proposal for a Uniform Civil Code, which would impose a uniform set of laws for
all citizens regardless of religion, has been a controversial issue for minority communities in
India, who fear that their personal laws and traditions may be undermined.
Jagganath Pathy has identified four dimensions of problems related to religious minorities, which
include subordination in terms of physical and economic power; deprivation in terms of material
resources, employment, and education; inferiority where the majority culture is celebrated; and
distinctiveness which is often visibly apparent.
Some of the specific Problems of the Minorities are
1. Christians: Religious conversions have assumed a very sensitive form in India and
missionaries are often alleged of forced conversions and are subjected to attack. Despite
discrimination against the Dalit Christians, they do not have provision for reservation like
the Buddhist or Sikh Dalits.
2. Sikhs: The sex ratio among Sikhs is poor despite relatively high affluence of the community.
The Khalistan movement has also led to tension in the community and increased the
suspicion between the state and the community.
3. Parsis: They are the most affluent minority community. However, the 2011 census found that
the population of Parsis have declined by 18% to 57,264 in a decade, virtually reducing them
to the status of urban tribes.
4. Muslims: They lag behind a great deal in human development parameter. They also face
challenges of stereotyping and ghettoization and lack of representation in power.
The state has taken several measures to deal with the problems of religious minorities in India,
some of which include:
1. The Indian Constitution recognizes the right of religious and linguistic minorities to establish
and administer educational institutions of their choice.
2. The National Commission for Minorities Act was enacted in 1992 to safeguard the interests
of minorities and to empower them to promote their educational, social, and economic
development.
3. Various schemes have been introduced to promote the welfare of minorities, such as the
Prime Minister's 15-Point Programme for the Welfare of Minorities and the Multi-Sectoral
Development Programme.
4. The government has also provided financial assistance to minority students for education
through various scholarships and schemes.
5. Special courts have been set up to handle cases related to communal violence and other
crimes against minorities.
6. The government has launched campaigns to promote communal harmony and national
integration.
7. The government has also taken steps to protect the cultural heritage of minorities, such as by
preserving and restoring their religious and historical monuments.
In conclusion, the problems faced by religious minorities in India are complex and multifaceted.
While some measures have been taken by the state to address these issues, there is still much work
to be done to ensure the protection and equal treatment of all citizens regardless of their religion. It
is important for the government and society as a whole to work towards fostering a culture of
inclusion and respect for diversity to create a truly harmonious and equitable society.
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(c) Write some of the important social reforms in India for the removal of
untouchability. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the practice of untouchability.
 Provide the important social reforms in India for the removal of untouchability before and
after Independence.
 Describe the impact of the social reforms.
Solution
Untouchability is a discriminatory social system where certain castes called as Dalits are deemed
inferior and excluded from mainstream society. These castes face various obstacles such as limited
access to education, employment opportunities, and public spaces, and also endure physical and
emotional abuse. The origin of this practice is based on the Hindu caste system, which categorizes
individuals into specific social and economic positions determined by their birth.
Ghanshyam Shah classifies the Dalit movements into reformative and alternative movements. The
former tries to reform the caste system to solve the problem of untouchability. The alternative
movement attempts to create an alternative socio-cultural structure by conversion to some other
religion or by acquiring education, economic status and political power. Both types of movements
use political means to attain their objectives.
Some of the important social reforms in India for the removal of untouchability before Independence
includes:
1. Formation of Brahmo Samaj in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, which aimed at social reform
and eradication of social evils like untouchability.
2. Social reformers like Jyotirao Phule and Savitribai Phule founded Satyashodhak Samaj in
Maharashtra in 1873, which was a social reform movement for the upliftment of Dalits and
other oppressed communities.
3. The Indian National Congress, established in 1885, included the abolition of untouchability
as one of its objectives.
4. B.R. Ambedkar, an intellectual and social reformer, founded the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha
in 1924, which aimed at working for the welfare of Dalits and the oppressed.
5. The Harijan Sevak Sangh, founded by Mahatma Gandhi in 1932, aimed at the upliftment of
Dalits and the removal of untouchability.
6. Poona Pact of 1932, an agreement between Dr. B.R. Ambedkar and Mahatma Gandhi, which
ensured reserved seats for Dalits in legislative assemblies and other elected bodies.
7. Temple Entry Proclamation Act, 1936 passed in Travancore, which allowed Dalits and other
oppressed castes to enter Hindu temples.
Some of the important social reforms in India for the removal of untouchability after Independence includes:
1. The Constitution of India, which came into effect in 1950, made untouchability illegal and
provided safeguards for the protection of the rights of the Dalits.
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2. The Indian government has implemented a reservation system to provide better educational
and employment opportunities for Dalits.
3. The Prevention of Atrocities Act, enacted in 1989, provides for the punishment of crimes
against Dalits and other oppressed communities.
4. The National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights founded that works towards the protection
of the rights of Dalits and the elimination of untouchability.
5. The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to address issues of social and economic
inequality in India, including the problem of untouchability. It recommended quotas for the
admission of Dalits to educational institutions and government jobs.
The social reform movement succeeded in raising awareness about the injustices of untouchability
and mobilizing public opinion against it. The movement also led to the introduction of several legal
measures to abolish untouchability, including the Untouchability (Offenses) Act of 1955 and the
Constitution (Scheduled Castes) Order of 1950, which granted reserved seats in government jobs
and educational institutions to Dalits.
Overall, the impact of the social reform movement in the removal of untouchability in India was
significant. It helped to challenge the deeply ingrained caste system and promote social equality
and justice, paving the way for a more inclusive and equitable society. However, despite these
efforts, discrimination against Dalits and other marginalized communities still persists in India
today, highlighting the need for continued advocacy and activism.
To sum up, a number of social reforms were instrumental in eradicating the practice of
untouchability in India. These initiatives were designed to confront prejudiced customs, foster
fairness and impartiality, and offer positive measures for communities that were historically
marginalized. Although notable headway has been made, there is still a considerable distance to
travel to combat discrimination and guarantee the complete integration and empowerment of every
community in India.
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Question 4.
a) Discuss the status of women among the emerging urban middle class. (20
Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by explaining briefly the nature of the emerging urban middle class.
 Elaborate on the status of women in terms of the development they have undergone and
challenges they still face.
 Provide some measures taken to deal with the challenges.
Solution
The urban emerging middle class refers to a group of people who have experienced significant
economic growth and social mobility in recent years. This group is typically characterized by their
education, professional skills, and increased earning power. The urban emerging middle class in
India is a diverse group, encompassing people from different regions, religions, and castes.
They are generally concentrated in urban areas and are engaged in professional, technical, and
managerial occupations. They often work in the service sector, including IT, finance, and healthcare,
and have access to better opportunities for career advancement and higher salaries.
The current status of women among the emerging urban middle class is a mixed one.
 On the positive side, there has been a significant increase in the number of women from the
emerging urban middle class in India who are pursuing higher education and specialized
skills training. This trend is opening up a wider range of professional opportunities for
women, enabling them to enter non-traditional fields such as STEM that were previously
male-dominated. Additionally, many women in this group are breaking traditional gender
roles by delaying marriage and having children, and prioritizing their careers and personal
goals.
 As a result, women in the emerging urban middle class in India are becoming more
financially independent and able to make their own financial decisions, which gives them
more control over their lives and greater self-confidence. Some companies are also
implementing policies that promote gender equality and support women in the workplace,
such as flexible work arrangements, maternity and paternity leave, and mentorship
programs for women.
 Finally, women in this group are taking on leadership roles in various fields, such as politics,
business, and media, which promotes women's visibility and representation in these areas.
For example, in the 1950s, women contested elections in around 7% of constituencies, but by
the 2010s, women were competing in 54%of constituencies.
These positive trends indicate a significant shift towards greater gender equality and
empowerment of women in the emerging urban middle class in India.
However, women in the emerging urban middle class still face significant challenges. They are often
expected to fulfil traditional roles as wives and mothers, even as they pursue their careers.
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Leela Dube thus argued that the emerging middle class in India was not necessarily conducive to
greater gender equality, as women were often expected to balance traditional gender roles with the
demands of modernity. They also face discrimination and bias in the workplace and have fewer
opportunities for career advancement than men. Furthermore, women in this group are often
expected to balance work and family responsibilities, which can limit their professional growth and
earning potential. This has impact on the female labour force participation. According to World
Bank data, the female labour force participation rate has declined from 32% in 2005 to 19% in 2022.
Other challenges faced by women in the emerging urban middle class include limited access to
healthcare and inadequate legal protection from discrimination and violence. Many women in this
group also face societal pressure to conform to traditional gender roles, which can limit their choices
and opportunities. A woman’s identity is seen to be largely dependent on her marital status. While
women are selecting fashionable clothing, it appears that their freedom and independence is only
superficial, as marriage and motherhood continue to be seen as the most essential objectives, with
all choices being made to align with these goals. Uma Chakravarti thus argued that the emerging
middle class in India is often characterized by a narrow and exclusionary vision of modernity, which
does not necessarily challenge traditional gender roles and hierarchies.
However, the States have also taken significant steps to improve the status of women through legal
reforms, education, employment, health initiatives, and awareness campaigns. Legal reforms such
as the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act and the Sexual Harassment of Women at
Workplace Act aim to protect women's rights.
Education initiatives like the Right to Education Act provide free education for children, and
employment initiatives like the Maternity Benefit Act provide paid maternity leave. Health
initiatives like the National Health Mission provide free healthcare services for women in rural
areas, and awareness campaigns like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao promote gender equality. Further,
schemes like SHG՚s and reservation policy have played a major role in creating channels for women
empowerment and have enabled them to take independent decisions in family, marriage and work
places. Despite these efforts, gender equality in India still needs more progress.
In conclusion, while the emerging urban middle class in India has seen progress in terms of
education and employment opportunities for women, there are still significant challenges in terms
of social and cultural attitudes towards women's roles and status. Further efforts are needed to
promote gender equality and empower women in all areas of Indian society.
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(b) Describe the impact of land reforms on the peasants of Indian society.
(20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce India's historical context and need for land reforms
 Elaborate on the key land reform measures.
 Discuss its positive impact on peasant and overall agrarian social structure.
 Discuss the limitations of the Land Reforms and its impact on peasant and overall agrarian
social structure.
Solution
Land reforms in India were initiated to address unequal land distribution and landlessness,
prevalent due to centuries of colonial rule and feudal practices. The reforms aimed to redistribute
land, provide security of tenure, abolish intermediaries, ensure equitable access to land, and provide
fillip to ‘modernization of agriculture’ and increase ‘agriculture productivity’. So, broadly the
objectives were to usher in an egalitarian society, stop exploitation in all forms.
The major land reform included abolition of intermediaries, which aimed to eliminate the
middlemen between landowners and tenants; land ceiling laws, which aimed to limit the maximum
amount of land that an individual or family could own; and tenancy reforms, which aimed to
provide security of tenure to tenants and to regulate the relationship between landlords and tenants.
The land reforms also included the distribution of surplus land to the landless and marginalized
sections of the society and the provision of credit and other support services to small and marginal
farmers.
Land reforms were used as a political tool to bring about changes in the agrarian class structure.
Numerous sociological studies have examined the notable patterns of change in the agrarian
social structure. These include:
1. Redistribution of land to the landless and marginalized sections has led to changes in land
ownership patterns and increased land ownership among the previously landless.
2. The abolition of intermediaries has provided security of tenure to tenants and has reduced
their exploitation by intermediaries and landlords.
3. Land ceiling laws have restricted land concentration and prevented the accumulation of large
landholdings by a few individuals or families.
4. The implementation of tenancy reforms has ensured fair and equitable access to land and
provided legal protection to tenants from arbitrary evictions.
5. The provision of credit facilities and access to markets has improved the economic conditions
of peasant farmers and has provided them with opportunities to invest in farming and
increase their productivity.
6. The increased bargaining power of peasant farmers has enabled them to negotiate better
prices for their produce and to resist exploitation by middlemen and traders.
7. Land reform measures have helped in reducing poverty and inequality in rural areas, and
have empowered peasant farmers by providing them with greater control over their land and
resources.
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8. Land reforms have also played a significant role in the empowerment of women by providing
them with greater access to land and resources, and by recognizing their rights as farmers
and landowners.
However, the Land Reforms also had great many limitations as mentioned below -
1. The actual measures taken for land reforms in India have not matched the ideology projected
during the freedom struggle. As a result, there has been no significant socialist
transformation in the agrarian class structure.
2. B.C. Joshi summarized the post-independence trends in the agrarian class structure, which
saw the decline of feudal customary tenancies and their replacement with more exploitative
lease arrangements.
3. The taking over of zamindars' and absentee landlords' estates was subject to payment of
compensation, limiting transfer of land to only rich tenants.
4. Land Ceiling Acts were largely ineffective, as landowners used "benami transfers" to divide
land among relatives and maintain control.
5. Land reforms in India did not completely eradicate landlordism as it only removed the top
layer of landlords. Upper/middle peasants colluded with the land revenue and
administrative machinery, exploiting loopholes in the law, exemptions, and delays in the
judicial process to block the progress of reforms.
6. Although some states have ensured minimum wages for agricultural labor, redistribution of
land has not increased productivity levels due to the lack of inputs and better agricultural
practices.
7. Other Land Reform Movements, such as the Bhoodan Movement and operation Barga, had
limited success. According to Jan Bremen, land reform led to a shift from patronage to
exploitation occurred.
8. The failure of land reforms has led to the rise of extremist movements such as the PWG in
Telangana and the Maoist communist center in Bihar, as well as inter-caste tensions.
9. The nation's current crises such as farmer suicides, agrarian unrest, and increased Naxal
violence (in Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh) can be attributed to the inadequate
implementation of land reforms.
10. According to Vyas, the political leadership has failed to effectively implement land reform
policies, which has allowed the nexus between land, class, and political domination to persist.
11. Arvind Das and Anand Chakravarty have highlighted in their work the hegemonic link
between dominant castes, landholders, and power in regions such as Purnia district of Bihar.
Similarly, Daniel Thorner finds that even after the implementation of land reforms, the nexus
between land and caste remains unchanged.
12. P. Sainath argues that despite six decades of independence, land reforms have not been
effectively implemented, yet Special Economic Zones (SEZs) have been established in just six
months.
Overall, it is still contended that the agrarian system, while having undergone significant changes
from the colonial era to the present day, is still highly uneven. This arrangement restricts
agricultural productivity and necessitates true land reforms to not only stimulate agricultural
expansion but also eliminate rural poverty and establish social equity.
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(c) What is the idea of ‘Indian village’ Explain. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce by briefly mentioning the significance of the village in Indian society.
 Discuss various views on the idea of Indian village.
 Briefly mention the significance and the changes in the conception of Indian villages in
contemporary time.
Solution
The Indian village has a significant role in the country's cultural, social, and economic history,
serving as the cornerstone of Indian society with an agrarian-based economy, traditional customs,
and a close-knit community. It continues to hold a special place in the country's collective
consciousness, even in contemporary times, viewed as the backbone of the nation's agrarian
economy and rural way of life. Thus, understanding the idea of the Indian village, its evolution, and
significance in contemporary India is crucial.
During the colonial era, the concept of the 'Indian Village Community' was shaped by the writings
of colonial administrators and ethnographers such as Charles Metcalfe, Henry Maine, and James
Mill. These writers described the Indian village as a politically autonomous and economically self-
sufficient 'republic' with communal land ownership, social harmony, patriarchal governance, and
surrounded by hostile neighboring villages. Such a portrayal of the Indian village as unchanging
and isolated entities led some Marxist scholars to argue that British rule unintentionally broke the
stagnation of Indian society built on unchanging village communities.
According to the Orientalists, the Indian village was an ideal social structure that had a caste-based
hierarchy with functional integration between different occupational groups. However, numerous
village studies conducted by Indian sociologists and anthropologists during the 1950s and 1960s
have challenged this view.
These studies, based on extensive fieldwork, have concluded that the Indian village was never self-
sufficient. Instead, it has been argued that the Indian village-maintained links with the larger society
and centers of Indian civilization through migration, trade, administrative linkages, inter-regional
markets, caste networks, pilgrimage, fairs, festivals, and other activities.
According to Andre Beteille, the village he studied (Sripuram) was not fully self-sufficient in the
economic sphere. Similarly, M. N. Srinivas challenged the colonial notion of Indian villages while
conducting field studies in Rampura, Mysore, arguing that villages maintained social, political, and
economic ties at the regional level. Indian sociologists considered villages the most representative
unit of Indian social life and a crucial source of identity for residents. However, they rejected the
portrayal of villages as unchanging, atomistic entities as it distorted the empirical reality of Indian
society.
The notion of Indian villages being a homogeneous structure with complete functional integration
and social harmony between different occupational groups was challenged by empirical evidence
gathered from village studies. S. C. Dube, while conducting field-work in Shamirpet village,
identified six factors that contributed to status-differentiation or inequality in the village
community: caste and religion, land-ownership, wealth, position in government service and village
organization, age, and distinctive personality traits.
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He observed that while the village presented itself to the outside world as a unified and compact
entity, there were "groups and factions" within the settlement. Village studies provided detailed
accounts of caste, class, and gender differences in the social life of the village.
M. N. Srinivas criticized the colonial view of the caste system in Indian villages, arguing that it was
not a closed and rigid system, but allowed for some mobility, especially in the middle regions.
Indian sociologists and anthropologists, through their village studies, also challenged the idea that
Indian villages were homogeneous, instead highlighting social differentiation and ties with urban
areas. The unity-reciprocity framework used to understand Indian villages did not negate the
presence of social inequality based on caste, class, and gender, and the colonial view reduced Indian
village life to an ideological category that did not reflect reality.
The idea of the Indian village has significant implications for the larger society. The idea of the
Indian village has also been used to promote various social and political agendas, such as rural
development, decentralization, and empowerment of local communities. However, the village as a
social unit faces several limitations and challenges in contemporary times, such as the impact of
globalization and modernization, migration, and environmental degradation. According to RK
Mukherjee, in capitalist India, urban areas form the basic structure of society, while villages are
considered to be the recipients of this structure.
On the other hand, Y. Singh suggests that due to various factors such as Islamization and
Westernization, Indian society is undergoing rapid changes, and villages can no longer be seen as
microcosms of India.
To conclude, the concept of the Indian village is an essential aspect of Indian society and culture.
Despite its enduring presence, villages are facing various challenges in contemporary times that
threaten their sustainability. As India continues to evolve and develop, it is crucial to critically reflect
on the strengths and limitations of the village as a social unit and find ways to address the challenges
it faces while preserving its unique cultural heritage.
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Section - B
about 150 words each:
a) Trends of Infant Mortality Rate among Females. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Define the concept of infant mortality rate and how it is calculated.
 Explain the current trends and patterns of infant mortality rate among females.
 Identify the social and structural factors that influence infant mortality rate among females.
Solution
Infant mortality is the death of a child less than one year of age. In India, the Infant Mortality Rate
(IMR) among females is calculated as the number of female infants who die before reaching the age
of one year, per 1,000 live female births in a given year.
The Sample Registration System (SRS) Statistical Report, revealed that in 2011, all states except for
one had a higher infant mortality rate for female infants than male infants. However, the infant
mortality rate for girls finally equalised to the rate for boys in 2020 as per SRS 2020. In 16 states, the
infant mortality rate remained higher for female infants than male infants, but since 2011 the gap
has significantly reduced. In rural India, even though the gap between the infant mortality rate
between female infants and male infants has reduced, the female infant mortality rate remained
marginally higher than the male infant mortality rate. For 2020, an IMR of 28 was recorded for both
male and female infants, unlike ten years ago, when the male IMR was 43 and female IMR was
considerably higher at 46, according to the SRS report from 2011.
Factors responsible for infant mortality can be categorized into two groups: biological and socio-
economic.
Biological factors that influence foetal and neonatal mortality rates include maternal age, birth order,
inter-birth intervals, and multiple births. Several social and structural factors contribute to the
higher infant mortality rate among females in the country.
One of the primary factors is gender bias. Many families in India prefer male children over female
children, which can result in neglect or mistreatment of female infants, leading to a higher risk of
infant mortality. Poverty is another significant factor contributing to infant mortality in India. Poor
families often lack access to quality healthcare, clean water, and adequate nutrition, which can lead
to poor health outcomes for both mothers and infants. This, in turn, can result in a higher risk of
infant mortality.
India has a shortage of healthcare providers, particularly in rural areas. This can make it difficult
for women to access quality prenatal and postnatal care, leading to complications during pregnancy
and childbirth. Malnutrition is another significant issue in India, particularly among women and
children. Malnourished women are more likely to experience complications during pregnancy and
give birth to low-birth-weight infants, who are at higher risk of mortality.
Lack of access to clean water and sanitation facilities can increase the risk of infection for both
mothers and infants, leading to complications and mortality. Education is a key determinant of
health in India, particularly for women. Women who are educated are more likely to access
healthcare and make informed decisions about their health and the health of their children.
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Certain cultural practices in India, such as early marriage and dowry, can increase the risk of
complications during pregnancy and childbirth, leading to infant mortality. Finally, there are
regional disparities in infant mortality rates in India. Some states have much higher rates of infant
mortality than others, often due to differences in healthcare infrastructure and access to resources.
The State has taken measures to address the high infant mortality rate among females. The National
Health Mission aims to improve access to quality healthcare, and initiatives like the Janani Suraksha
Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Surakshit Matritva Abhiyan promote institutional deliveries and
antenatal care. The Integrated Child Development Services program addresses malnutrition, and
policies like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao initiative tackle gender bias.
Overall, addressing these social and structural factors is crucial for reducing the infant mortality
rate among females in India. This can involve improving access to healthcare, increasing education
and resources for women, addressing gender bias, and promoting policies and programs that
support maternal and child health.
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b) Domestic Violence Act, 2005. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Define domestic violence and provide context on its prevalence in India.
 Give reasons for domestic violence from a sociological perspective.
 Discuss the objectives and provisions of the Domestic Violence Act.
 Impact and limitations of the Act.
Solution
The United Nations defines gender- based violence as “any act of gender-based violence that results
in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, or mental harm or suffering to women, including threats
of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private
life.” According to the latest report by the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5) 29.3% married
Indian women between the ages of 18-49 years have faced domestic violence/or sexual violence.
From a sociological perspective, it is important to recognize that domestic violence is not just an
individual problem, but also a social problem. It is rooted in larger societal issues such as gender
inequality, power imbalances, and cultural norms that perpetuate violence against women.
Gender-based violence is perpetuated by unequal power relations between men and women that
have existed for centuries. This inequality is reinforced by the control of women's sexuality and the
cultural ideology that defines gender roles. Violence against women is often justified through
customs, traditions, and religion, which punish women for violating cultural norms. The persistence
of the belief that violence against women is a private matter hinders efforts to eradicate this violence.
Conflict and militarization have also been linked to an increase in violence against women, with
women's suffering often overshadowed. Finally, government inaction in preventing and ending
violence against women is a significant contributor to the tolerance of such violence throughout
society.
In response to a long-standing demand by women's rights groups to address the issue of domestic
violence the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005 was enacted. Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act of 2005 is a comprehensive legislation aimed at protecting
women from domestic violence and abuse. Its provisions include appointing protection officers,
issuing protection orders, providing compensation to the victim, counselling both the perpetrator
and victim, and imposing penalties on the perpetrator.
It has helped to bring domestic violence out of the realm of personal or private matter and made it
a matter of public concern. The Act has raised awareness about the issue, leading to a greater
understanding of its impact and the need for prevention and intervention. The Act has empowered
women to speak out against domestic violence and seek help. It has provided them with a legal
framework to protect their rights and seek justice. However, the Domestic Violence Act 2005 faces
challenges and limitations including: ineffective implementation due to lack of awareness,
inadequate resources and training; cultural attitudes that condone domestic violence; social stigma
and ostracization of women who report abuse; limited scope as it only covers violence within
marriage or cohabitation; and weak penalties that may discourage victims from reporting and
perpetrators from stopping abuse.
Thus, addressing the problem of domestic violence requires a systemic approach that involves
changing societal attitudes and beliefs, as well as providing support and resources for victims.
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c) Dynamics of Contemporary Dalit movements. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce by briefly giving the historical background of the Dalit movement in India.
 Describe the contemporary dynamics of the Dalit movement
 Conclude by highlighting intersectionality and changing scope of Dalit movement.
Solution
The Scheduled Castes (SCs) or Dalits have been historically marginalized and excluded in social,
economic, and political spheres. The mobilization of SCs dates back to the colonial era when
reformers like Jyotirao Phule and BR Ambedkar advocated for Dalit rights. Ambedkar played a
crucial role in drafting the Indian Constitution, which included provisions for affirmative action and
reserved seats for SCs. Since then, the Dalit movement in India has taken various forms, including
socio-cultural, economic, and political phases, such as the Republican Party of India, Mahar
Movement, Dalit Panther, and Bahujan Samaj Party Movement.
There are multiple ongoing movements within the larger Dalit movement, which have their own
specific goals, strategies, and tactics. Some of them are as follows:
1. Bhim Army is a Dalit rights organization founded in 2015 in Uttar Pradesh, India, with the
objective of protecting and restoring the dignity of Dalits through direct action based on
confrontation.Besides its protests against caste-based violence and prejudice, and it has also
opposed the Citizenship Amendment Act that supported protests by Muslim community.
2. The suicide of Rohith Vemula in 2016 sparked a nationwide movement for "Justice for
Rohith" and highlighted the discrimination and injustice faced by Dalit students in higher
education, including being labelled with derogatory terms and threats of retaliation.
3. The Koregaon Bhima Incident in 2018 was a clash between upper-caste and Mahar Dalits
during the celebration of the Anglo-Maratha War. The police arrested five Dalit activists and
accused them of being Left-Wing activists. The incident highlights the struggle of Dalits to
restore honour and the caste structure's discriminatory nature.
4. The Dalit women's movement, which emerged in the 1990s, highlights the intersection of
caste and gender and works towards the empowerment of Dalit women. For example, the
"Gulabi Gang" in India, founded by a lower caste woman, fights against gender-based
violence and supports the education of girls.
5. The Dalit LGBTQIA movement works towards the inclusion and acceptance of Dalit
LGBTQIA individuals in both the Dalit and LGBTQIA communities. For example, the "Dalit
Queer Project" in India provides a platform for Dalit LGBTQIA individuals to share their
stories and experiences.
6. The Dalit community which arguably is under-represented in the Indian mainstream media,
with the awakening of platforms like Twitter and Facebook, has been using the respective
platforms to educate people about the idea of India that Dr. Ambedkar envisioned. Along
with other popular platforms, YouTube, too has paved a way for the oppressed masses to
voice their grievances and agitate through various short films, lectures and documentaries.
The epitome of these efforts is the channel Dalit Camera Ambedkar, which speaks about the
Dalits and oppressed.
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7. Anti-caste consciousness and advocacy has surged in America in the last decade, with Dalit
and anti-caste activists leading a movement in the South Asian American diaspora to
educate, agitate, and organize. Several institutions of higher education, including Brandeis
University, Brown University, and the University of California Davis, have added caste to
their non-discrimination policies, and Seattle has become the first U.S. city to ban caste
discrimination.
8. In recent times the process of organised mass conversion of Dalits to Buddhism can be seen
intensifying in various part of the country.
Thus, the contemporary Dalit movement highlights the ongoing struggle for equality and social
justice in various speres of Indian society, as well as the intersectionality of caste with other forms
of oppression such as gender and sexuality. It also illustrates the power of collective action and
social media in challenging systems of oppression and mobilizing marginalized groups towards
political and social change in India and abroad.
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d) Impact of privatization on educational disparities. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Introduce by explaining what you understand by privatization of/in education.
 Briefly discuss the existing disparities in education.
 Analyse the impact of privatization on educational disparities using sociological theories.
 Provide specific examples of how privatization has impacted educational disparities in
different contexts.
 Conclude by providing potential solutions for reducing educational disparities.
Solution
Privatization in education means transferring ownership, control, and funding of educational
institutions from the government to private individuals, organizations, or corporations. This
includes privately-owned schools, public-private partnerships, and market-based principles. It aims
to improve educational outcomes, but can also create inequalities and prioritize profit over equity.
There are significant disparities in education, both globally and within countries. These disparities
can be seen in differences in access, quality, and outcomes. Access to education is not equal for
everyone. Children from low-income families or marginalized communities often face barriers to
accessing education, such as lack of financial resources, distance to schools, and discrimination.
According to conflict theorist, privatization of education may increase educational disparities as
private schools tend to cater to the elite, who can afford their high fees, and provide better
educational resources and opportunities. This may lead to greater inequality in education outcomes
between the rich and poor, as well as between different racial and ethnic groups. The focus on profit-
making may also result in the exclusion of marginalized groups and the neglect of their educational
needs.
Functionalist, on the other hand, argue that privatization may improve educational quality and
reduce disparities by introducing competition and efficiency in the education system. Private
schools may provide higher quality education, better resources, and more opportunities, which can
lead to better educational outcomes. According to IHDS survey, around 75% of urban and 50% of
rural students prefer private schools. However, this assumes that all individuals have equal access
to these private schools, which is often not the case.
As per Symbolic interactionist privatization may reinforce existing social hierarchies and symbols
of status and prestige associated with private education, which can further widen educational
disparities between different social groups. For example, private schools may be seen as a symbol
of elite status, which may reinforce existing social hierarchies and inequalities.
In India, privatization has had varying impacts on education. Private coaching centres and tuition
classes have widened the gap in academic performance between students who have access to them
and those who do not. On the other hand, edtech companies have made educational content more
accessible to students in remote areas and those who cannot afford traditional coaching classes.
However, there are concerns about the quality of online tutoring services and the reliance on
technology for education, which may exacerbate existing educational disparities.
As reversing privatization is not possible the focus should be on the potential solutions for reducing
educational disparities and promoting equitable access to education. These includes government
regulation and oversight of private institutions, increased funding for public schools in
underprivileged areas, public-private partnerships, providing scholarships and financial aid to
underprivileged students, promoting the use of technology, and addressing broader social issues
such as poverty and discrimination.
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e) Rural landless labourers and development induced displacement. (10

Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by highlighting socio-economic background of rural landless labourers.
 Mention the factors responsible for development induced displacement.
 Give the conflict and functional perspectives on development induced displacement.
 Discuss the impact of development induced displacement on rural labourers.
 Conclude by providing potential solutions for development induced displacement.
Solution
Rural landless laborers in India are people who work in agriculture or other rural industries but do
not own land. They work for daily wages and are often belong to marginalized communities such
as Dalits, Adivasis, and other backward castes, and are often considered to be at the bottom of the
social and economic hierarchy. They are particularly vulnerable to development-induced
displacement, where their land and livelihoods are taken away for development projects
Development-induced displacement can be caused by various factors such as construction of dams,
highways, industrial projects, urbanization, mining activities, and tourism development. These
projects often require large areas of land, which can lead to the displacement of people who rely on
that land for their livelihoods. Additionally, government policies and land acquisition laws can also
contribute to development-induced displacement.
From a conflict perspective, displacement can be seen as a consequence of power struggles between
the state, corporations, and the marginalized communities. The dominant groups, driven by
economic interests, are responsible for displacement and the resulting social inequality. From a
functionalist perspective, development-induced displacement can be seen as a necessary step
towards progress and modernization. The development projects aim to improve the economy,
infrastructure, and standard of living for the larger society. Displacement can be seen as a temporary
sacrifice for the greater good of the community, and the affected people can be compensated for
their losses.
Development-induced displacement can have significant impacts on rural landless labourers, as
they often have limited options for livelihoods and are particularly vulnerable to forced
displacement. Some of the impacts include:
1. Loss of land: Displacement can result in conversion of self-cultivators to non-agricultural or
landless wage laborers.
2. Loss of livelihoods: Rural landless labourers rely on access to common property resources
such as forests, water bodies, and grazing lands for their livelihoods. Development projects
such as dams, mines, and industrial parks can result in the loss of these resources, leaving
them with limited options for earning a living.
3. Disruption of social networks: Forced displacement can result in the breakdown of social
networks and community ties, which are important sources of support and assistance for
rural landless labourers.
4. Decreased access to basic services: Rural landless labourers may lose access to basic services
such as healthcare, education, and sanitation, which are often tied to their place of residence.
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5. Psychological impacts: Displacement can also have significant psychological impacts, such
as anxiety, depression, and trauma, particularly among vulnerable populations such as
women and children.
6. Marginalization: Displacement can result in the marginalization and exclusion of rural
landless labourers from the mainstream development process, further exacerbating their
already precarious socio-economic position.
7. Other impacts: Displacement can result in early marriage of girl children due to uncertain
future, isolation and weakening of joint family systems, distress migration to towns and
cities, decreased population growth in rural areas, growth of slums and shanty towns,
cultural conflicts with the urban population.
8. Mridula Singh has, in her 1992 study, concluded that rehabilitation policies are often blind to
rights of women. Often unmarried adult daughters and abandoned women are considered
dependent and no separate rehabilitation consideration is given.
Since development is necessary for overall growth and prosperity of the country there is a need of
robust policy solutions to address development-induced displacement. This includes strict
adherence to land acquisition laws, recognition of land rights of marginalized communities,
strengthening of gram sabhas' role, establishing an independent regulatory body, promoting
sustainable development, participatory rehabilitation, conducting impact assessments, and
providing legal aid to affected communities.
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Question 6
(a) What are the main features of the second wave of Women’s movement in
the Indian context? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Provide a brief background on the women's movement in India.
 Define what is meant by the second wave of the women's movement.
 Describe the key features of the second wave of the women's movement in India.
 Conclude the answer by highlighting its significance in the context of women's rights and
empowerment.
Solution
The women's movement in India has a long history of activism, advocacy, and organizing for
women's rights and empowerment. The second wave of the women's movement emerged in the late
1970s and lasted until the early 1990s. This period saw a surge of feminist activism and advocacy
for women's legal, political, and social rights.
The second wave of the women's movement in India was characterized by a more radical and
assertive approach to feminism. It was a period of increased visibility and activism, as well as
greater awareness of women's issues and concerns.
The second wave of the women's movement in India had several distinguishing features that set it
apart from the first wave.
One of the significant changes was the focus on securing legal and political rights for women.
Women activists demanded equal pay, access to education and employment, and protection from
domestic violence. Additionally, the movement fought for greater representation of women in
politics and public life, challenging the patriarchal norms that limited women's participation and
leadership.
Another major achievement of the second wave was the passage of the Dowry Prohibition Act in
1986, which made the giving and taking of dowry a criminal offense. This victory was the result of
the persistent campaigning by women's rights activists against the practice of dowry.
The second wave was more inclusive and intersectional than the first wave, recognizing the
diversity of experiences among women and the ways in which gender intersects with other forms
of oppression, such as caste, class, and religion. Women activists acknowledged that women's
experiences of oppression are shaped by multiple factors, and that any meaningful feminist
movement must take into account the intersecting nature of these factors. Consequently, the second
wave was more diverse and inclusive, with women from different backgrounds and communities
coming together to fight for their rights.
Another feature of the second wave was the surge in grassroots mobilization, with women
organizing themselves at the community level to address issues such as dowry, domestic violence,
and sexual harassment. Women's groups and NGOs played a key role in organizing these
movements, providing women with the resources and support they needed to challenge patriarchal
norms and values.
The second wave also utilized the media to raise awareness about women's issues and to challenge
patriarchal norms and values.
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Women's magazines, newspapers, and television shows became important platforms for feminist
discourse, providing women with a voice and a means of expressing their concerns.
The second wave involved a critique of patriarchal culture, with women challenging the dominant
cultural narratives that reinforce gender stereotypes and perpetuate discrimination against women.
Women's groups and activists organized protests, demonstrations, and cultural events to challenge
patriarchal values and to promote alternative, more empowering representations of women.
The second wave in India also emphasized reproductive rights, with women demanding access to
contraception and abortion, as well as greater control over their bodies and fertility. This was
particularly important in the context of the population control policies that were being implemented
at the time, which disproportionately affected women from marginalized communities.
Moreover, the second wave was marked by a growing awareness of global feminist movements and
a greater emphasis on solidarity with women's movements in other parts of the world. Women's
groups and activists in India participated in international conferences and forums, sharing their
experiences and strategies with women from other countries and learning from the struggles of
women elsewhere.
Finally, the second wave of the women's movement in India had a significant impact on policy and
law, with many of the demands and concerns raised by women's groups and activists being
incorporated into legislation and government policies. For instance, the National Commission for
Women was established in 1992, in response to the demands of women's groups, and has since
played a key role in advocating for women's rights and empowerment.
In conclusion, the second wave of the women's movement in India was a significant moment in the
country's history, marked by a range of features that helped to challenge patriarchal norms and
values and advance the cause of gender equality. While there were limitations to the movement,
including its middle-class bias and limited attention to the concerns of marginalized women, its
legacy continues to inspire feminist activism in India and around the world.
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b) Discuss the ‘Chipko movement’ as an example of eco-feminism. (20

Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by explaining the concept of Eco-Feminism.
 Explain what was Chipko Movement.
 Establish the link between the Chipko movement and eco-feminism
 Give an alternate view on this.
Solution
Eco-feminism is a philosophy and social movement that links the oppression of women and the
exploitation of the environment. It argues that the domination of women and the domination of
nature are interrelated, and that the subjugation of one is intimately tied to the subjugation of the
other. Eco-feminists believe that the patriarchal system that subordinates women also allows for the
exploitation and degradation of the natural world. Eco-feminism emphasizes the importance of care,
compassion, and interconnectedness in our relationships with both people and the environment.
The Chipko movement was a nonviolent environmental movement that originated in the Indian
state of Uttarakhand (then part of Uttar Pradesh) in the 1970s. The movement was a response to the
deforestation that was causing environmental degradation and threatening the livelihoods of local
communities, particularly in the rural mountainous regions. The term 'Chipko' means 'to hug' or 'to
cling to', and the movement is so named because of the practice of villagers, particularly women,
embracing trees to prevent them from being cut down by commercial loggers. The Chipko
movement was started by a group of women from the village of Mandal in the Chamoli district of
Uttarakhand who were protesting against the felling of trees in a nearby forest. The Chipko
movement spread rapidly to other parts of India and became a symbol of grassroots environmental
activism. The movement was characterized by its nonviolent, Gandhian methods, including hunger
strikes, marches, and protests.
The Chipko Movement as described by Vandana Shiva is most often specifically cited as the
beginning of ecofeminism. The Chipko movement can be linked to eco-feminism as women played
a central role in the movement. By hugging the trees, the women of the Chipko movement were
symbolically embracing and protecting the environment.
This was a powerful statement that challenged the dominant patriarchal discourse that considered
women as passive and powerless. The Chipko movement exemplifies ecofeminism by showing how
the exploitation of women and the exploitation of the environment are interlinked. Women who are
often the primary caregivers in their communities are particularly affected by environmental
degradation. Hence, women's empowerment and environmental protection are inseparable issues.
The Chipko movement was successful in bringing attention to the environmental issues facing rural
communities in India, and it helped to initiate a broader movement for sustainable development
and conservation in India. It also led to the establishment of a number of environmental
organizations and initiatives in India, and it continues to inspire environmental activism around the
world today.
Some scholars have argued that ecofeminists systematically downplayed the role of men in the
Chipko movement and underreported the instances of men in leadership positions and controlling
direction within the movement.
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Other scholars contend that the peasants were not primarily motivated by a desire to protect the
trees themselves, but rather to utilize their produce for sustenance and survival, in the subsequent
years, the movement shifted its focus towards more extensive ecological concerns. These included
the joint preservation and administration of forests, as well as the dissemination of technologies that
rely on renewable energy sources.
Overall, the Chipko movement was a significant event in the history of environmental activism, not
just in India but also around the world. It brought attention to the importance of preserving forests
and protecting the environment, while also challenging traditional gender roles and empowering
women to take an active role in environmental activism.
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c) Discuss the impact of globalization on the workers in the Informal sector.

(10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining the term Globalization.
 Explain briefly what is informal sector.
 Discuss the positive and negative impact of globalization on the workers in the Informal
sector.
 Conclude with actionable solution that can mitigate the negative impacts.
Solution
Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness and integration of economies, societies,
and cultures around the world. It is driven by advances in technology, transportation, and
communication, which have made it easier and cheaper to move goods, services, and information
across borders.
The informal sector comprises economic activities that are not regulated by the government or
covered by formal labor laws. It includes self-employed workers and small businesses that operate
outside of formal employment relationships. Informal sector workers lack job security, social
protections, and access to benefits. This sector is a significant part of many developing economies,
particularly in low- and middle-income countries.
The adoption of open market policies in various countries has led to increased interaction between
nations through globalization, resulting in foreign direct investment and immigration that affect the
informal sector. The benefits of globalization include economic growth and wealth distribution
through import and export processes and the creation of superior job opportunities through
technology and transportation advancements. Additionally, foreign investment and international
trade bring opportunities for economic development and modernization through cross-cultural
exchange. Private foreign investment in poorer countries can also increase employment
opportunities, particularly in the informal sector where there is a large supply of semi-skilled or
unskilled laborers who provide cheap labor and subsidize business expenses.
However, the current trend among companies is to reduce the number of permanent employees and
outsource their work to smaller companies or home-based workers. This outsourcing is happening
on a global scale for multinational companies, and developing countries such as India are providing
cheap labor. Small companies are forced to keep wages low and often have poor working conditions
to compete for orders from larger companies. Trade unions also struggle to organize themselves in
these smaller firms.
The majority of the informal sector workforce consists of individuals who migrated from their
villages to cities in search of better-paying jobs, leaving agriculture behind. These workers are often
overworked and paid substandard wages. Employers prefer hiring them due to their cheap labor
and the ease of hiring and firing them. These workers have no social security and rely solely on their
families to take care of them in their old age.
Globalization has also resulted in international migration, such as many Indians moving to Gulf
countries for work in construction and services sectors. Although globalization has helped reduce
total unemployment by creating opportunities in the informal sector, these jobs do not offer secure
employment.
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Globalization has wide-ranging impacts on different aspects of civilization, leading to dependence
of developing countries on developed ones and widening the gap between wealthy and deprived
countries. According to Goldsmith, globalization will destroy employment and local communities,
with third-world countries unlikely to benefit from this process. It can also result in imperialistic
tendencies, as James Petrask argues that globalization is just another form of imperialism.
In order to mitigate the negative impacts of globalization on the informal sector, we have to ensure
robust policy solutions that includes supporting local SMEs, providing education and training
programs for informal workers, promoting unions and cooperatives, implementing policies to
protect worker rights, strengthening labor regulations, and prioritize worker well-being.
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Question 7.
a) What are the demographic projections for the ageing population (60+) for
the next decade? What are the implications for formulating policy for them?
(20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining the term ageing and providing data on the projections for the ageing
population for the next decade.
 Discuss the issues faced by aged population.
 Provide the policy recommendation to deal with the problem of ageing population.
Solution
Clark Tibbitts defines ageing as the survival of a growing number of people who have completed
the traditional adult roles of making a living and childrearing. In India, 60 has been mostly accepted
for the purpose of classifying aged persons. India’s elderly population (aged 60 and above) is
projected to touch 194 million in 2031 from 138 million in 2021, a 41 per cent increase over a decade,
according to the National Statistical Office (NSO)’s Elderly in India 2021 report.
The ageing population presents both medical and sociological challenges. The elderly is at a high
risk of infectious diseases, and the demographic transition in India varies across different states due
to socio-economic development, cultural norms, and political contexts. This makes it difficult for
policymakers to provide geriatric care that considers all these factors. As a result, elderly care is
becoming an important issue for both the public and private sectors, requiring solutions to various
social issues such as:
1. Infrastructure Deficiency: As the aging population grows and chronic diseases become more
prevalent, there will be an increasing need for improved physical infrastructure for elderly
citizens. Insufficient physical infrastructure is a significant obstacle to providing comfort and
care to the elderly.
2. Shifting Family Dynamics: India's traditional joint family system has historically safeguarded
the social and economic well-being of the elderly. Traditional values in Indian society have
emphasized respect and care for the elderly. However, with the growing prevalence of
nuclear families in recent years, the elderly is likely to experience emotional, physical, and
financial insecurity in the future.
3. Lack of Social Support: The elderly in India is particularly vulnerable due to inadequate
government spending on social security programs. In urban areas, the elderly depends
heavily on hired domestic help to meet their basic needs in an increasingly crowded and
chaotic city. This has led to increased social isolation and loneliness.
4. Social Inequality: The elderly population is heterogeneous, with a rural-urban divide. Rural
elderly people are less vulnerable than their urban counterparts, in part due to the continued
prevalence of joint family values. However, not all elderly people receive the same level of
support as the government categorizes them based on caste and other socio-cultural factors.
In one study, it was found that elderly women were the poorest, had the lowest income per
person, the highest negative affective psychological conditions, the lowest likelihood of
having health insurance coverage, and the lowest consumption expenditure.
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5. Availability, Accessibility, and Affordability of Healthcare: With the trend towards nuclear
families, elder care management is becoming increasingly challenging, particularly for adult
children who are responsible for their parents' well-being. Managing home care for the
elderly is a major challenge due to the small, unorganized service providers that offer
suboptimal care. Health insurance coverage in India is primarily limited to hospitalization.
The concept of geriatric care is an area that has been largely neglected in the country. Most
government facilities, such as day care centers, old age homes, counselling, and recreational
facilities, are located in urban areas.
6. Economic Dependence: Elderly individuals who live with their families are largely
dependent on the family's economic capacity for their economic security and well-being.
Elderly individuals often lack financial protection, such as sufficient pensions or other forms
of social security in India. Poverty is the most significant challenge facing older persons,
which increases the risk of abuse. Due to their financial dependence, elderly individuals are
vulnerable to infections and have low priority for their own health. Pradeep Kumar Panda,
in his study of Orissa found that increasing economic strains of family lead to poor care of
adults in family.
The problem of ageing in India can be addressed through various solutions such as providing
universal health coverage and developing geriatric care programs. This step would ensure that the
elderly receive proper healthcare and assistance in their old age. Additionally, increasing
government spending on social security systems will also be beneficial. This would provide the
elderly with financial protection and support during their later years. Another important solution
is to develop age-friendly infrastructure and community-based support systems. This would help
to create a more supportive environment for the elderly. Furthermore, developing policies to
increase financial protection and employment opportunities for the elderly would also be helpful.
Talcott Parsons also argued that society need to find roles for older people consistent with advanced
age. This would ensure that the elderly have sufficient financial resources and the opportunity to
stay active in the workforce if they desire.
Investing in research and data collection is also crucial to better understand the problems faced by
the elderly and develop targeted solutions. Additionally, increasing public awareness and advocacy
for the elderly is important to create a society that is more empathetic and supportive towards them.
Implementing a National Policy for older persons is also a necessary step to uplift their economic
status. The policy should focus on creating opportunities for the elderly to contribute to society and
lead fulfilling lives. Finally, opening more geriatric centres for their health and wellness is a vital
step towards ensuring that the elderly have access to quality healthcare.
All these solutions should be implemented in accordance with the Maintenance & Welfare of
Parents & Senior Citizens Act of 2007 to ensure that the elderly is protected and their rights are
respected. With concerted efforts, it is possible to create a society that values and supports its elderly
citizens.
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b) What are the possible underlying causes of the spurt of increased violence
against women in public spaces in the last decade? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining Violence against Women.
 Provide recent data on violence against woman in public spaces.
 Discuss the underlying reason for the spurt of increased violence against women in public
spaces.
 Provide the policy recommendation to deal with the problem of violence against woman.
Solution
United Nations declaration, 1993, defined violence against women as “any act of gender-based
violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering
to a woman, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivations of liberty, whether
occurring in public or private life”.
A recent study conducted for the Sakshamaa Initiative of Centre for Catalyzing Change (C3), by The
Urban Catalysts, shows that of the women reporting harassment, 75 percent experienced
harassment on streets and 19 percent at bus stops.
"Violence" is seen by Sylvia Walby as one of the six patriarchal structures that undermine woman's
position in society. There are several possible underlying causes that could contribute to the increase
in violence against women in public spaces. Some of them are:
1. Cultural attitudes that prioritize male dominance can lead to the normalization of violence
against women, with media depictions portraying women as objects of male desire and
contributing to male entitlement to harass or assault women in public spaces.
2. Socioeconomic factors, including limited access to education, housing, and healthcare, can
leave marginalized women, including those in low-wage and precarious jobs, at greater risk
of violence in public spaces, especially if working late at night or in isolated locations.
3. Political instability and conflict can lead to increased violence against women in public spaces
due to law-and-order breakdown and disrupted social norms and gender roles.
4. Advances in technology and social media create new opportunities for harassment and
stalking of women in public spaces, potentially increasing vulnerability due to tracking and
monitoring.
5. Ineffective laws and policies for preventing violence against women in public spaces,
inadequate enforcement of existing laws, insufficient resources for support services, and lack
of public education campaigns may all contribute to the problem.
6. Toxic masculinity, which values aggression and the suppression of emotions, can lead to
violence against women as a way to exert power and control.
7. Lack of safe and accessible public spaces, including poorly lit, deserted, or poorly serviced
areas, can increase women's vulnerability to violence.
8. Objectification of women in public spaces, treating their bodies as public property and
sexualizing them, may increase the likelihood of harassment and assault.
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9. Women may be at a higher risk of violence when perpetrators are under the influence of
drugs or alcohol. These substances can lower inhibitions and impair judgment, leading to an
increase in violent behaviour. In some cases, perpetrators may use substance abuse as a
justification for their actions.
10. Violence against women in public spaces can also be linked to mental health issues and
trauma, such as PTSD and depression. Perpetrators may use violence as a coping mechanism
or to assert power and control over others.
11. The lack of bystander intervention in situations where violence against women is occurring
can contribute to the problem. People may fail to intervene due to fear of retaliation, lack of
awareness of how to help, or a belief that it is not their responsibility
12. Women experiencing violence in public spaces may face barriers to reporting or seeking
justice, including fear of retaliation, lack of trust in the justice system, or lack of support from
legal or institutional resources. As a result, the perpetrator is able to escape consequences for
targeting others.
13. Police officers are also less sensitized and the cases involving crimes against women have the
longest backlog, accounting for nearly 89.6% of all cases. Further the rate of conviction is
likewise relatively low.
To address increased violence against women in public spaces, the following recommendations can
be considered: raise public awareness, strengthen laws and policies, increase access to justice,
improve public spaces, encourage bystander intervention, promote gender equality, and provide
comprehensive support services for survivors. Further school and educational interventions are
needed, including comprehensive sexuality education, to address discriminatory attitudes and
beliefs. Also, there is a need of improving measurement of the various forms of violence suffered by
women, including those who are most marginalised, through strengthening data collecting and
investing in high-quality surveys on violence against women. The state should also make the
consequences of breaking these rules very clear to the general people
With the rise of public awareness, including among women, there has been an increase in the
reporting of crimes in contemporary times. Nevertheless, there remains a significant number of
incidents that go unreported, which underscores the presence of entrenched gender discrimination
in Indian society.
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c) How do caste and class come together in creating the category of extreme
poor? (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining Caste and Class.
 Explain how caste and class intersect to create extreme poverty.
 Explain the intersectionality with other identities that leads to extreme poverty.
 Conclude the answer with actionable solution to the problem of poverty and discrimination.
Solution
Caste is a hierarchical social system found in India and other cultures, where people are born into a
fixed social group based on their ancestry, often associated with specific occupations. Higher-caste
individuals typically have greater access to education, wealth, and political power, leading to
discrimination against lower-caste individuals.
On the other hand, class is a system of social stratification based on economic factors such as income,
wealth, and education. It sorts individuals into different social classes based on their economic
status, with higher classes typically enjoying greater access to resources and opportunities.
Caste and class intersect in creating extreme poverty through a complex interplay of economic,
social, and cultural factors. Individuals belonging to lower castes often face significant economic
and social disadvantages, such as limited access to education, healthcare, and employment
opportunities, which can contribute to their poverty. Similarly, those belonging to lower economic
classes also face barriers to social mobility and access to resources, including education, jobs, and
healthcare.
The intersection of caste and class can reinforce and amplify these disadvantages, creating a cycle
of poverty that is difficult to break. According to Kathleen Gough, there is caste-class nexus which
is highlighted by interconnections between caste, marriage and kinship on one hand and forces of
production and production relations on the other. Similarly, Joan Mancher argues that caste system
is effectively used as a tool of economic exploitation as well by dominant castes. Discrimination
based on caste can limit economic opportunities and perpetuate poverty for generations, while
economic inequality can further entrench caste-based discrimination and limit access to resources.
For example, members of lower castes may be concentrated in low-paying jobs, such as manual
labor or sanitation work, that provide little opportunity for social mobility. These jobs often lack job
security, social protections, and safe working conditions, contributing to the persistence of poverty
among lower-caste individuals.
Further caste and class can intersect with other social identities such as race, gender, and religion in
creating extreme poverty. Individuals who belong to multiple marginalized groups may experience
compounded discrimination and disadvantages, leading to greater levels of poverty. For instance,
in India, Dalit women who belong to the lowest caste and have limited economic resources often
face compounded discrimination based on their gender, caste, and economic status. They are
subjected to social exclusion, violence, and limited access to education and healthcare. Similarly,
indigenous communities in many parts of the world face discrimination based on their ethnicity and
economic status, which can perpetuate their poverty.
In order to deal with extreme poverty and discrimination based on caste and economic status or
other identities, Government should promote equal access to education and healthcare, strictly
implement anti-discrimination policies, support small business development, encourage land
reform, and strengthen social safety nets. These solutions require a multifaceted approach to
address the root causes of poverty and discrimination.
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Question 8.
(a) ‘Many caste conflicts are between castes which are close to each other on
the hierarchical scale.’ Give a sociological explanation for this phenomenon.
20 marks
Approach
 Introduce by acknowledging the statement and noting the regular occurrence of caste
conflicts.
 Explain the nature of caste system that creates inequality and resentment.
 Give reasons as to why caste conflicts are more often between castes which are close to each
other on the hierarchical scale.
 Conclude the answer with actionable solution to the problem of caste conflict.
Solution
Caste conflicts between castes that are closely placed on the hierarchical scale are a common
occurrence in India, and have been observed for a long time. From a sociological perspective, this
can be attributed to the inherent nature of caste and its functioning within the Indian society.
The caste system in India is a hierarchical structure that is determined by birth and cannot be altered.
It is founded on the principles of purity and pollution, where the Brahmins, positioned at the
pinnacle of the hierarchy, are considered the most pure, while the Dalits, at the bottom, are viewed
as the most polluted. There are many other castes that lie between these two extremes, each with
their own distinct place in the hierarchy. A significant characteristic of the caste system is the
practice of endogamy, which means that people are expected to marry within their own caste. This
reinforces the boundaries between castes and ensures that caste identities are perpetuated over time.
Furthermore, it contributes to the continuation of caste-based inequalities, as people from lower
castes are not permitted to marry into higher castes and thus are unable to elevate their social
standing.
Considering this backdrop, it is expected that caste-based conflicts in India arise between castes that
are adjacent on the hierarchical ladder. When castes are located closely to each other in the social
hierarchy, they may experience a sense of insecurity and rivalry towards each other, leading to a
competition for power and influence in their immediate surroundings. For instance, a dispute may
emerge between two castes that are contending for political dominance in a specific village or
locality.
Furthermore, castes placed in proximity to each other on the hierarchical scale tend to share
comparable social and economic attributes. They may hold similar positions in the local economy
or possess comparable levels of education and resource access. Such similarities can create rivalry
and tension between the two groups as they compete for the same opportunities and resources.
Also, the feeling of relative deprivation is another significant factor that contributes to caste conflicts
among similar castes. Relative deprivation refers to the perception of being oppressed or
disadvantaged compared to others who seem to be more privileged. When two castes that are close
to each other in the hierarchical system compete for resources and opportunities, both groups may
experience a sense of relative deprivation if they believe that the other group has an advantage over
them. This sense of inequality can trigger emotions such as resentment, anger, and frustration,
which can escalate into conflict between the two groups.
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Moreover, castes that are positioned near each other on the hierarchical scale may engage in status
competition, attempting to attain a higher social status. This drive for status can lead to conflict
between the castes. For instance, two castes may compete with each other to organize a more
extravagant wedding or to build a larger and more showy temple.
To tackle caste conflicts, the state must implement policies that promote education and employment
opportunities, and incentivize inter-caste marriages to foster social cohesion. Legal and social
reforms that challenge the rigid caste system are also necessary to reduce conflicts and build a more
inclusive society.
103
b) ‘Tribal conflicts based on ethnic differences often camouflage a struggle

for political and economic advantage.’ Substantiate with examples. (20
Marks)
Approach
 Define tribal conflicts based on ethnic differences.
 Explain the nature and reason for the camouflage.
 Provide examples of such conflict and the underlying reasons.
 Discuss the impacts of the conflict.
Solution
Tribal conflicts based on ethnic differences are conflicts that arise between different tribal or ethnic
groups due to perceived differences in culture, language, religion, or other factors. Often, tribal
conflicts are seen as being rooted in ancient historical rivalries, which can make them difficult to
resolve.
However, tribal conflicts are not always what they seem. In many cases, they can serve as a
camouflage for a deeper struggle for political and economic advantage. In such cases, ethnic or tribal
differences are used as a cover to disguise the true motivations behind the conflict. This is because
it is often easier to mobilize people around a shared cultural identity than it is around political or
economic interests.
There are many examples of tribal conflicts in which political and economic interests are the
underlying causes. One example is the conflict between the Khasi and Garo tribes in Meghalaya,
India. The conflict between these two tribes is often portrayed as being rooted in ethnic and cultural
differences. However, closer examination reveals that the real cause of the conflict is a struggle for
control over the state's resources, such as coal and limestone deposits.
The Khasi tribe, which is more politically and economically dominant, has been accused of using its
power to block the Garo tribe from accessing these resources.
Another example is the conflict between the Naga and Meitei tribes in Manipur, India. This conflict
is often presented as a historical rivalry between two ethnic groups. However, the underlying cause
of the conflict is a struggle for political power and economic control. The Nagas have long
demanded greater autonomy and control over their resources, while the Meiteis, who hold more
political power, have resisted these demands.
The implications of this phenomenon are significant. Tribal conflicts can have a devastating impact
on economic development, political stability, and social cohesion. Tribal conflicts can be a significant
drain on economic resources, both in terms of direct costs associated with violence and instability,
as well as indirect costs associated with reduced investment and economic activity.
It can have implications beyond national borders, particularly in cases where neighbouring
countries have ethnic or tribal links to the groups involved in the conflict. It can lead to human rights
abuses, including extrajudicial killings, forced displacement, and sexual violence. Thus, when tribal
conflicts are used as a cover for political and economic interests, they can perpetuate inequality and
perpetuate cycles of violence.
Policymakers must recognize the true motivations behind tribal conflicts and work to address the
root causes of the conflicts. This can be done through promoting inclusive governance, addressing
economic disparities, and fostering inter-ethnic dialogue. Only by addressing the underlying causes
of tribal conflicts can we hope to achieve lasting peace and stability.
104
c) Who are the elites? Discuss their roles in bringing social transformation.
(10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by explain the concept of Elite with example
 Explain how Elites play an important role in bringing about social transformation
 Briefly explain how the same elites may prevent social transformation.
Solution
Elites are a group of people with significant social, economic, and political power in society, usually
distinguished by their wealth, status, and influence. They play a crucial role in shaping the direction
and functioning of society, and are typically part of the upper class or elite stratum of society, with
privileged access to resources and opportunities not available to most people. The elite groups for
example in India include business tycoons, politicians, bureaucrats, celebrities, wealthy individuals
from upper castes, etc.
Elites play an important role in bringing about social transformation by influencing public opinion,
policy-making, and advocating for change.
1. Political leaders: They can enact laws that promote equality and social justice. For example,
B.R. Ambedkar, a political leader and social reformer, played a key role in drafting India's
constitution and advocating for the rights of Dalits.
2. Intellectuals: Intellectual elites can shape public opinion by promoting new ideas and values.
For example, Mahatma Gandhi, an intellectual and social reformer, led India's non-violent
struggle for independence and promoted the principles of non-violence and peaceful
coexistence.
3. Business leaders: Business elites can promote social transformation by supporting social
causes and investing in social programs. For example, Ratan Tata, the former chairman of
Tata Group, supported various social initiatives, including rural development and education.
4. Religious leaders: Religious elites can play a significant role in promoting social
transformation by advocating for social justice and equality. For example, Swami
Vivekananda, a Hindu monk and social reformer, advocated for religious tolerance, social
equality, and women's empowerment.
5. Media professionals: Media elites can shape public opinion by influencing the way news is
reported and interpreted. For example, N. Ram, the former editor-in-chief of The Hindu,
played a crucial role in exposing corruption and advocating for accountability in the Indian
government.
6. Academics: Academic elites can promote social transformation by conducting research and
generating new knowledge on social issues. For example, Amartya Sen, a Nobel laureate and
economist, has conducted extensive research on poverty, inequality, and development, and
has advocated for policies that promote social justice.
7. Artists and writers: Artists and writers can promote social transformation by creating works
of art and literature that challenge prevailing norms and values. For example, Rabindranath
Tagore, a poet, novelist, and social reformer, promoted education, women's rights, and
cultural diversity through his writing.
105
8. Social activists: Social activists can promote social transformation by mobilizing public
opinion and advocating for social change. For example, Medha Patkar, a social activist and
environmentalist, has worked to protect the rights of marginalized communities and
promote sustainable development.
9. Cultural elites: Cultural elites can promote social transformation by promoting cultural
diversity and challenging stereotypes. For example, Aamir Khan, a Bollywood actor and
filmmaker, has used his celebrity status to advocate for social causes and challenge social
norms through programmes like Satya Meva Jayate and Paani Foundation.
10. Human rights activists: Human rights elites can promote social transformation by advocating
for the rights of marginalized communities and promoting equality. For example, Arundhati
Roy, a writer and human rights activist, has worked to promote the rights of women, Dalits,
and other marginalized groups.
However, elites in society can also prevent social transformation by using their power and influence
to maintain the status quo and resist change. There are several ways in which elites can do this.
Firstly, they can control the narrative by shaping how social issues are portrayed in the media and
public discourse, which can limit the scope of social transformation. Secondly, elites can use their
influence to block policy change that threatens their interests or the status quo. Thirdly, they can
use their economic power to maintain the status quo and resist efforts to reduce economic
inequality. In addition, elites can prevent access to education and other resources that can empower
marginalized communities and promote social transformation. They can also suppress dissent and
silence voices that challenge the status quo, promote cultural conformity, and resist efforts to
challenge traditional norms and values. Furthermore, elites can use their power to divert attention
from social issues and focus on other concerns, exploit social divisions and conflicts to maintain
their power, and promote apathy and cynicism towards social issues to discourage activism and
social transformation.
Lastly, they can suppress innovation and new ideas that challenge the status quo or threaten their
interests. All of these tactics can be used by elites to prevent social transformation and maintain the
status quo.
Ultimately, the role of elites in bringing social transformation depends on their values and priorities.
While some may use their power and resources to promote positive change, others may actively
work to resist it. As such, it is important to hold elites accountable for their actions and push for
greater transparency and democratic participation in decision-making processes.
106
Mains 2015
Section A
about 150 words each: 10*5=50
(a) Verrier Elwin’s views on freedom for the tribals (10 Marks)
 Basic idea related to Verrier Elwin
 Elwin’s views on Tribal freedom
 Other views on tribal autonomy
 Conclusion
Verrier Elwin was a British-born anthropologist and social worker who dedicated his life to
studying and empowering tribal communities in India. He was a strong advocate for the rights of
these communities and believed that they should be granted greater autonomy and allowed to live
according to their own cultures and traditions.
Elwin’s views on Tribal freedom
 Tribals should be given autonomy and control over their own affairs. He believed that the
government and other outside forces had historically oppressed the tribals and that they
needed to be allowed to govern themselves in order to achieve true freedom. He argued for
the establishment of tribal councils that would have decision-making powers over their own
communities.
 One of the main tenets of Elwin’s philosophy was the importance of preserving the cultural
and social identity of tribal communities. He believed that these groups had unique ways
of life that were in danger of being lost as modernization and industrialization spread across
India.
 Elwin believed that the current system of education in India was too focused on Western
ideals and did not take into account the unique cultures and traditions of these communities.
Instead of imposing a Western-style education on them, Elwin advocated for a system of
education that was based on their own traditions and values.
 He believed that tribal communities should be given greater control over their own
environment, as they were the ones who were most directly impacted by its exploitation or
degradation.
Other views on tribal autonomy
 The integrationist advocated for the integration of tribals into mainstream society in order to
overcome the developmental gap. For Ghurye tribes are 'backward Hindus,' their seclusion
is the main reason of their social backwardness, and they must be integrated into greater
society.
 According to assimilationists such as L.P.Vidyarti, tribe-caste interlinkage is referenced in
early Sanskrit scriptures - the Vedas have Nishads who sought caste rank, the Ramayana has
Shabri, and the Mahabharta has Ghatotkacha and Eklavya.
107
 After independence Jawaharlal Nehru adopted the approach of controlled integration and
gave the idea of ‘Tribal Panchsheel’. It means inclusion of tribal communities in different
spheres of education, employment and administration without any imposition of the
mainstream society
Overall, Verrier Elwin’s views on freedom for the tribals were grounded in a deep respect for their
cultures and traditions. He saw these communities as being uniquely poised to offer valuable
lessons to the rest of the world, and believed that their rights to self-determination and cultural
preservation should be respected and upheld.
108
(b) Jyotirao Phule as an agrarian radical. (10 Marks)

 Introduction about Jyotirao Phule
 Phule as agrarian radical
 Conclusion
Jyotirao Phule is widely recognized as one of the foremost social reformers in Indian history,
particularly for his efforts to improve the conditions of the country’s agriculturists. He is considered
to be one of the earliest advocates of the rights of the oppressed and marginalized communities in
India, particularly the lower castes and women. Phule was also an agrarian radical who believed
that the Indian peasantry was oppressed and exploited by the upper-caste landlords and the British
colonial government.
Phule as agrarian radical
 Phule believed that the traditional agricultural practices of India were keeping farmers
trapped in poverty and misery, and that fundamental changes were needed in order to
improve their lives.
 One of the main targets of Phule’s criticism was the system of caste-based land tenure,
which he saw as one of the main causes of rural poverty. Under this system, landlords (many
of whom were from the upper castes) owned vast tracts of land, often acquired through
inheritance or conquest, which they rented out to tenant farmers at exorbitant rates. For their
part, tenant farmers (many of whom were from the lower castes) were- often trapped in
perpetual debt, which they passed down from generation to generation.
 Phule believed that the only way to break this cycle of exploitation was to challenge the entire
system of caste-based land tenure. He argued that land belonged to all those who worked
on it, and that no one had the right to claim ownership simply by virtue of their caste or
birth. In particular, he called for the redistribution of land so that all farmers could have
access to it, regardless of their caste or social status.
 Finally, it is worth noting that Phule’s advocacy for the rights of the Dalits was closely
connected to his views on agrarian reform. By advocating for land redistribution and the
adoption of scientific farming practices, Phule believed that he could help to break down the
barriers that kept the Dalits trapped in poverty and oppression.
In conclusion, Jyotirao Phule's agrarian radicalism was informed by his deep concern for the welfare
of the Indian peasantry and his belief in the importance of land ownership, education, and social
justice. He saw the zamindari system as a major obstacle to the progress and development of the
peasantry and advocated for their liberation from the clutches of the landlords and the colonial
government. His vision of social reform was driven by a commitment to egalitarianism and the
establishment of a more just and equitable society in India.
109
(c) Louis Dumont’s perspective on Indian caste system. (10 Marks)

 Basic introduction of louis Dumont
 Dumont’s ideas on caste system
 Criticism of Dumont’s ideas
 Conclusion
Louis Dumont presented his caste analysis under a "structuralist" paradigm that is derived from the
theory of Levi Strauss. He saw the caste system as a balance of opposition and complementarity
of pure and impure (pollution). According to Dumont, caste is more than simply a structural
system; it is an ideology that exists on a Pan-Indian scale. That is to say, all groups in India are
influenced by the purity-pollution ideology.
Dumont’s ideas on caste system
Basic principles of Dumont’s explanation of caste system are -
 Holism - he means that caste is not simply a collection of individual identities, but rather an
all-encompassing worldview that shapes how people think, act, and relate to one another. In
this sense, caste is not something that can be reduced to a single aspect of social life, but rather
a holistic system of beliefs and practices that permeates every aspect of Indian society.
 Hierarchy-Dumont also believed that Indian society is deeply hierarchical in nature, with
different castes occupying different positions on the social ladder.
 Pure and Impure - He argued that this hierarchy is based on a fundamental distinction
between the “pure” and the “impure”, with the Brahmins (priestly caste) considered the most
“pure” and the Dalits (formerly known as “untouchables”) considered the most “impure.”
This hierarchy is reinforced by a system of strict rules and regulations governing marriage,
occupation, and social interaction between different castes.
Criticism
 This is a cultural perspective based on ancient texts. M.N. Srinivas referred to these points as
textual and rejected them.
 G.S. Ghurye chastised Louis Dumont for interpreting Indian texts to further a disguised
colonial purpose. According to him, Dumont attempted to argue that Indians have always
been a non-equal and unequal community, but westerns are equal and egalitarian.
 T.N. Madan believed that pollution and purity were not the basis of the Caste System's
hierarchy because, with the exception of a few Brahmins (Nambudari, Saryupari, Kanyikubj),
all Brahmins are non-vegetarians, whereas many Vaishya Castes are vegetarians, yet
Brahmins are ranked first and Vaishyas are ranked last.
Conclusion
The concept of the Caste System held by Louis Dumont is described as a 'culture particularistic'
stance. He attempted to identify the uniqueness of the Caste System (based on purity and pollution)
and claimed that it could be found nowhere else. Though he neglected other aspects of the genesis
and existence of the Caste System, the manner in which he identified and articulated it is regarded
as one of the most legitimate perspectives on the Caste System
(d) How far Gandhi was trusted by the untouchables? (10 Marks)
110
 Brief introduction of Gandhian idea
 Why untouchables trusted Gandhi
 Concerns related to Gandhi among untouchables
 Conclusion
Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of India's struggle for independence, was known for his advocacy of
non-violent resistance and his commitment to social justice. However, his relationship with the
untouchables, also known as Dalits, was complex and often contentious. While Gandhi spoke out
against the caste system and worked to improve the social and economic conditions of the
untouchables, his efforts were met with skepticism and mistrust by many in the Dalit community.
Why untouchables trusted Gandhi
 One of the main reasons why Gandhi was trusted by many Dalits was his vocal opposition
to untouchability and his support for their inclusion in Indian society. He famously referred
to the Dalits as “Harijans” or “children of God,” and argued that they should be treated
with the same respect and dignity as anyone else.
 He also advocated for greater educational and economic opportunities for the Dalits, arguing
that this was key to breaking down the barriers of caste and ending their marginalization.
 He advocated for the entry of untouchables in the temple and public spaces.
Concerns related to Gandhi among untouchables
 Some of Gandhi’s actions and statements raised concerns among Dalit activists and leaders.
For example, his views on the issues of caste and untouchability were often seen as being
insufficiently radical or even regressive. He believed that caste-based identities were deeply
rooted in Indian culture and could not simply be abolished overnight, and he often argued
that the caste system could be reformed from within rather than being dismantled
completely.
 In addition, some of Gandhi’s actions regarding the Dalits were seen as paternalistic or
even condescending. For example, he famously undertook a hunger strike to protest against
the separate electorate for Dalits proposed by the British Government in 1932, but some Dalit
activists saw this as an attempt to impose his own views on the community rather than
recognizing their own agency and autonomy.
 Moreover, Gandhi's approach to untouchability was also criticized for being too
individualistic and based on personal reform rather than collective action. Ambedkar
argued that the untouchables needed political power and representation to bring about
meaningful change, rather than relying on the goodwill of upper-caste leaders.
Gandhi's views on the caste system and the untouchables evolved over time. In his early years, he
held traditional views about the caste system. However, he later came to see the caste system as a
social evil that needed to be abolished, and he advocated for the rights and welfare of the
untouchables. Overall, the extent to which Gandhi was trusted by the untouchables is a matter of
debate and interpretation, and depends on a range of factors, including historical context, cultural
background, and personal experiences.
(e) Feminization of poverty. (10 Marks)
111
 Explain the concept
 Major reason for feminization of poverty
 How to check feminization of poverty
 Conclusion
The term "feminization of poverty" refers to the trend of women being disproportionately
represented among the world's poor. Women are more likely than men to live in poverty, and they
also experience poverty differently. This phenomenon has been recognized by scholars and policy
makers around the world, and it has become a significant area of concern in the fight against poverty
and inequality.
Major reason for feminization of poverty
 Women often have limited access to education and employment opportunities. This means
that they are more likely to be employed in low-paying and insecure jobs, or to work in the
informal economy, which is often characterized by low wages and poor working conditions.
 Women are also more likely to experience discrimination and gender-based violence,
which can contribute to their economic insecurity. For example, women may face barriers
to accessing credit, property ownership, or other resources that are essential for economic
security.
 Women often bear the brunt of caregiving responsibilities, which can limit their ability to
participate in the workforce or pursue other economic opportunities. This can result in lower
earnings and less financial security.
How to check feminization of poverty
 Bina Agarwal - Argues that poverty reduction efforts must address the gendered nature of
poverty and that economic empowerment of women through land and property rights,
access to credit, and education is crucial for reducing poverty among women.
 Neera Desai - Highlights the intersectionality of gender, caste, and class in the feminization
of poverty, and argues that a rights-based approach that addresses structural inequalities is
necessary to address the issue.
 Jayati Ghosh argues that the feminization of poverty is a consequence of neoliberal economic
policies and calls for policy interventions to address the issue.
 Uma Chakravarti highlights the role of patriarchy and gender discrimination in the
feminization of poverty, and calls for a feminist approach to poverty reduction that addresses
these issues.
The feminization of poverty has serious implications for women's health, education, and overall
well-being. Women who live in poverty are more likely to experience malnutrition, illness, and
limited access to healthcare. They may also be more vulnerable to gender-based violence and other
forms of exploitation. Hence we need comprehensive approach to improve the wellbeing of ‘aadi
aabadi’ of the country.
112
Question 2.
(a) Is caste system changing, weakening or disintegrating in India? (20
Marks)
 Brief overview of the caste
 Weakening of caste system
 Relevance of caste system
 Conclusion
The caste system in India has a long history, and it has been a source of social, economic, and
political inequality for centuries. Caste, or "jati," is a localized, hereditary, and endogamous social
group in India. It is linked to specific occupations and occupies a specific position in the local caste
hierarchy. Interactions between castes are regulated by concepts of purity, pollution, and
restrictions on sharing meals within castes. While the caste system is still a powerful force in Indian
society, there are signs that it is changing, weakening, and disintegrating in some ways.
Weakening of caste system
 Employment opportunities - One of the most significant changes in the caste system has
been the rise of the middle class, which has led to a new set of social and economic
relationships that are not based on caste. As more people have gained access to education
and employment opportunities, they have become less reliant on traditional caste networks
for social and economic support. This has led to greater social mobility and a blurring of caste
boundaries in some areas.
 Urbanization and globalization –
o As more people move to cities and participate in global markets, they are exposed to
new ideas and lifestyles that challenge traditional caste norms and practices. This has
led to a greater openness and tolerance of different lifestyles and social identities.
Ghurye links urban growth to changes in caste, such as decreased reverence for
Brahmins and weakened inter-caste taboos.
o According to Kingsley Davis (1951), the characteristics of anonymity, congestion,
mobility, secularism, and constant change in urban areas make it extremely difficult
for the caste system to function effectively. The rigidities associated with the caste
system are being questioned and challenged as urban life continues to evolve.
 legal and constitutional measures - affirmative action policies have been implemented to
ensure that historically disadvantaged castes have access to education, employment, and
political representation. Such measures have played an important role in reducing caste-
based discrimination and promoting social justice.
 Education: Increased literacy rates and access to education have played a crucial role in
challenging the traditional notions associated with caste. Education empowers individuals
to question social hierarchies and promotes a more inclusive mindset.
 Inter-caste marriages: Inter-caste marriages have become more common, especially among
younger generations. Such unions challenge traditional caste boundaries and contribute to
the blurring of caste distinctions.
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How caste is still relevant
 Occupational Segregation:
o Jodhka and Newman explain the persistent stereotypical beliefs of hiring committees
towards their potential candidates.
o Thorat & Newman asserts that caste remains the most important factor in allocation
of labour in India. E.g. 98% manual scavengers are from lower castes.
 Untouchability and Social Exclusion: Despite being legally abolished, practices of
untouchability, where certain castes are considered impure and "untouchable," are still
prevalent in some parts of rural India. People from marginalized castes often face
discrimination, restricted access to public spaces, and exclusion from social and religious
events.
 Caste associations and organisations are founded to bring concerns of particular caste social,
political, and economic conflicts to the attention of the government, in order to seek justice
and a decent existence. According to Rudolph & Rudolph "Caste associations aimed to have
their own members nominated for elected office, working via existing parties or founding
their own; to maximise caste participation and influence governmental bodies".
 Caste and electoral politics - All political parties place a high value on the caste component
when selecting candidates, allocating seats, and canvassing support for their nominees in
elections. No one can deny N.D. Palmer's observation that "Caste concerns are accorded
enormous weight in the selection of candidates and in the appeals to voters during election
campaigns." Jat candidates are fielded in seats dominated by Jats.
 Social Hierarchies and Discrimination: Caste-based social hierarchies are still prevalent,
with higher castes enjoying privileges and social status, while lower castes face
discrimination and marginalization. Social interactions, particularly in rural areas, can be
governed by strict caste norms and customs, limiting mobility and opportunities for
individuals from lower castes.
In conclusion, the caste system in India has been a deeply ingrained social structure with far-
reaching implications for social, economic, and political inequality. Factors such as increased
education, urbanization, globalization, legal measures, and inter-caste marriages have contributed
to the erosion of traditional caste boundaries and the promotion of social mobility and equality.
However, the caste system's persistence is evident in occupational segregation, untouchability
practices, social hierarchies, and caste-based politics. The transformation of the caste system remains
an ongoing process, with both the weakening and the continued relevance of caste coexisting in
contemporary India.
114
(b) Give some of the important studies relating to the structural changes in
the Indian family system. (20 Marks)
 Basic idea of family
 Factors for change in family system
 Studies related to structural changes in family system
The family refers to a social unit consisting of individuals who are connected through kinship,
marriage, or adoption. Families are typically characterized by emotional bonds, shared
responsibilities, and mutual support
The family structure in India has undergone significant changes over the past few decades.
Traditionally, Indian families were joint families, where several generations lived together under
the same roof. However, due to various social, economic, and cultural factors, the structure of Indian
families has changed.
Factors for change in family system
 Economic Factors: The shift from agricultural to non-agricultural occupations and the
increase in employment opportunities in urban areas have led to a breakdown of the joint
family system. For example, the introduction of cash transactions and diversification of
occupational opportunities have resulted in residential separation from ancestral homes.
 Educational Factors: Education has led to mobility among family members, with many
individuals settling in other cities and towns for education and employment opportunities.
This often leads to breaking up of the joint family household structure
 Legal Factors: Legislations regarding employment, education, marriage, and property have
also impacted the family system. For instance, labor laws passed for the benefit of employees
have reduced the economic reliance of family members on the joint family for support For
example, the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 provided equal rights to women in matters of
inheritance, resulting in a shift towards smaller family units.
 Urbanization: Urbanization has also played a significant role in changing family structures.
The migration of people from rural to urban areas has led to the adoption of an urban way
of life, which includes increased availability of educational and health facilities. Limited
availability of living space in cities has also led to the separation of family members
 Cultural Factors: Changing cultural values and attitudes have also contributed to the
transformation of family structures. For example, the emphasis on individualism and nuclear
family units has led to a decrease in the prevalence of joint family structures in many parts
of India.
Some of the important studies related to structural changes in family system
 A.M. Shah conducted a study in Gujarat where households were divided into two
categories: Simple and Compound. Simple households were those that consisted of either the
entire or a part of the parent's family. On the other hand, Complex households were those
that comprised two or more parental families or a combination of one or more parental
families.
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 Patricia Uberoi explores the impact of modernization, urbanization, and globalization on
the Indian family system. It argues that these processes have led to changes in family
formation patterns and a shift from extended to nuclear families.
 Milton Singer, in his study on the Indian joint family, found that despite changes in living
conditions, the joint family remains the norm among industrial entrepreneurs. While social
mobility has increased and ritual practices have decreased in significance, the joint family
system has not transformed into isolated nuclear families. Instead, a modified joint family
structure has emerged in urban industrial settings, where even members from the ancestral
home or village move into the urban area.
 Similarly, Kolenda's study suggests that industrialization strengthens the joint family due
to economic support, the need for more hands in a family enterprise, or kin helping each
other in upward mobility.
 The Indian Human Development Survey (IHDS): The survey has documented changes in
household composition, including a decline in extended family households and an increase
in nuclear families, as well as changes in gender roles and patterns of labor force
participation.
 Women and Family in India by Neera Desai and Usha Thakkar: How women’s lives and
roles are changing within the Indian family system. It examines the impact of factors such as
education, employment, and migration on women’s lives and their roles within the family.
Overall, these studies highlight the complex and dynamic nature of the Indian family system, which
is transforming in response to the changing socioeconomic and cultural context of the country. They
provide important insights into the factors that are driving these changes and the ways in which
they are impacting Indian families and their members.
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(c) Broadly compare the kinship system of North and South India. (10
Marks)
 Brief idea about Iravati karve’ work
 Comparison between North and South kinship system
 Conclusion
In order to determine a regional pattern of social behaviour, Iravati Karve performed a comparative
study of four cultural zones in Indian culture. Karve discovered a link between the languages
spoken in a given location and the sort of kinship structure that existed there.
She split India into different linguistic zones and discovered that family practises within each zone
had a high degree of commonality while striking variances existed between kinship systems in
different zones. Karve categorised India into four kinship zones based on these linguistic regions: I
Northern Zone, (ii) Central Zone, (iii) Southern Zone, and (iv) Eastern Zone.
Comparison between North and South kinship system
 Family structure: In North India, extended family households are more common, with
multiple generations living together in the same household. In South India, nuclear families
are more prevalent, with parents and children living together in a separate household.
However, this pattern is changing in both regions due to urbanization, migration, and
changes in economic opportunities.
 Marriage patterns: In North India, arranged marriage is the dominant form of marriage, with
parents and extended family members playing a significant role in the selection of partners.
In South India, there is greater emphasis on individual choice in marriage, and love marriages
are becoming more common. However, arranged marriage is still prevalent in many
communities in South India.
 Lineage: In North India, patrilineal descent is the dominant pattern, with inheritance passing
from father to son. In South India, there is greater variation in lineage patterns, with some
communities practicing matrilineal descent and others practicing patrilineal descent.
 Kinship terminology: There are some differences in the way kinship is conceptualized and
expressed through language in North and South India. For example, in North India, the terms
"mama" and "mami" are often used to refer to maternal uncle and aunt, while in South India,
the terms "periyappa" and "periamma" are more commonly used.
That being said, it is worth noting that these are broad generalizations, and there are many regional
and sub-regional differences in the kinship systems of North and South India. Rapid social and
economic changes in recent decades have also led to significant transformations in family structures
and kinship systems across the country. However, these broad comparisons can provide a glimpse
into the diversity and complexity of kinship systems in India.
117
Question 3.
(a) Discuss the paradigm of modernization of Indian tradition in anaylzing
social change in India. (20 Marks)
Yogendra Singh in his famous book- "Modernisation of Indian tradition” contradicts all the previous
approaches to modernity on three grounds precision, objectivity and integration (IPO) They are not
backed by valid and reliable research and are usually overcome with the biases. As a result, none of
the social change theories are able to explain the complete reality and are unable to construct an
integrated picture of social change.
Yogendra Singh ‘s Paradigm - Modernisation of Indian Tradition
Sources of Cultural Structure (Abstractions) Social Structure (Reality)

Change
Little Tradition Great Micro Structure Macro

Tradition Structure
Heterogenetic 1. Islamisation 1. Secondary 1. Role 1. New Political

2.Westernisation Islamisation Differentaition institutions
Secondary (JF->NF->JF) (Bureaucracy,
2.
industry)
Westernisation 2. Family,Castes,
subcaste,etc. 2. New structures
3. New (Bureaucracy,
Industry, Elites)
Legitimisations
(village, caste,
power)
Orthogenetic Orthogenetic Cultural 1. Migration 1. Elite circulation

Sanskritisation Sanskritisation Renaissance 2. Population 2. Succession of
(Buddhism shift kings
|Jainism,
Bhakti 3. Pattern 3. Rise & Fall of
Movement) Recurrence (JF -> cities
NF ->JF)
He explains changes on the basis of source, type and he level at which makes an impact.
He borrows Singer's (Little tradition and great tradition) theory to explain orthogenetic (Micro to
Macro) and heterogenetic changes (Macro to Micro).
For example-Buddhism, Jainism, Bhakti etc- introduced changes at the micro level and slowly they
expanded to macro level-->This process which is from micro sphere to macroscopic changes, it is
orthogenetic change
Rise of Islam in India- Led to conflict between 2 great traditions. So, Islam started conversions to
strengthen its little tradition ways. But Hindu people had great admiration for Sanskritic ways, so
paradoxically it led to change of Islam (S.E. Asia -> Milder Islam.: influence of Buddhism)
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The Change was clearly visible in the appearance of caste in Islam. Heterogenetic change- PEST
analysis (PESTEL change)
With regards to heterogenetic changes, he makes a list of changes encountered by Indian society
under the influence of modernity.
Not only for British, Islam but also educated and dynamic society of the world
From outside sources, affecting macro institutions like in Polity, Economy....
PESTL modernity leads to value modernity (which is individualism, achievement based, rationality,
secularism and liberty) (Y. Singh -> Different people adopting change differently according to their
needs.
Different places are impacted differently by these factors. People adopt to forces to modernity
selectively depending on their needs and expertise
Criticism
JPS Oberoi says that Indian & western modernity’s are very similar.
In his book "European modernity" - Indian modernity and European modernity comes from the
same principles- by rejecting religion (Indian modernity does not come selectively)
Dalit movement can be compared with Protestant movement
Conclusion
By talking about the Structural transformation of Indian society on the one hand, and changes in
culture, values and norms on the other, a holistic picture of modernization in India is presented by
Yogendra Singh in his study.
His understanding of social change can be applied to understand the various changes witnessed in
the present times. Example- understanding the cultural and structural changes out of the increasing
digitization. (It has brought changes in values -reducing tolerance to corruption in government
processes, structural – online classes instead of migration for coaching).
119
(b) What is patriarchy? How does it affect the child socialization pattern in
India? (20 Marks)
 Definition of Patriarchy
 How patriarchy impacts child socialization
 How to address the issue of patriarchy in India and its impact on child socialization
 Conclusion
Patriarchy refers to a social system in which men hold primary power and authority, and women
are excluded from positions of power and are subordinate to men in all areas of life, including the
family, economy, politics, and culture.
Simone de Beauvoir argued that patriarchy is a social construct that is perpetuated through gender
norms and stereotypes. Sylvia Walby has developed a comprehensive theory of patriarchy, which
takes into account its different forms and the ways in which it intersects with other forms of
oppression.
Patriarchy is a global phenomenon that affects all societies, but its form and degree of intensity
varies across different cultures and regions. Examples of patriarchy in Indian society include gender
discrimination in employment, unequal pay for men and women, limited access to education and
healthcare for women, gender-based violence and harassment, and the perpetuation of gender
stereotypes and roles in the media and popular culture.
How patriarchy impacts child socialization
 Feminist sociologist Leela Dube argues that patriarchy in India is reinforced through the
socialization of children into gender roles. She notes that boys are socialized to be dominant,
competitive, and aggressive, while girls are socialized to be submissive, passive, and
nurturing. These gender roles are reinforced through socialization practices such as dress
codes, toys, and games, as well as through parental attitudes and behaviors.
 Patricia Uberoi has written extensively on the impact of patriarchy on child socialization in
India. She argues that the process of socialization reinforces gender stereotypes and
reinforces gender-based inequalities. For example, she notes that girls are often given less
attention and affection than boys, and are socialized to be dependent on men for emotional
and financial support.
 Patriarchy also affects the education of children in India. Boys are often given more
opportunities to attend school, and are encouraged to pursue careers in fields such as
engineering, medicine, and law, while girls are often limited to traditional roles such as
teaching or nursing.
 Ashis Nandy argues that patriarchy has a profound impact on the psychological
development of children, leading to feelings of powerlessness and dependency.
Overall, sociologists have highlighted the profound impact of patriarchy on child socialization
patterns in India. Patriarchy reinforces gender-based inequalities, perpetuates gender stereotypes,
and reinforces the subordination of women to men. It is important to recognize the harmful effects
of patriarchy and work towards creating a more equitable and just society.
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How to address the issue of patriarchy in India and its impact on child socialization
 Education and awareness: Raising awareness about the impact of patriarchy on child
socialization patterns can help to challenge and change patriarchal values and norms. This
can be done through education programs and awareness campaigns that promote gender
equality and challenge patriarchal norms.
 Empowerment of women: Empowering women through education, training, and access to
resources can help to challenge and change patriarchal values and norms. When women are
empowered, they can become role models for their children and help to challenge and change
gender roles and expectations.
 Role modelling: Parents and caregivers can challenge patriarchal norms and values by
modelling gender equality in their own behavior and interactions with children. By
promoting gender equality and challenging gender stereotypes, parents and caregivers can
help to reshape child socialization patterns and promote gender equality.
 Policy and institutional change: Government policies and institutional practices that
perpetuate gender inequality can be reformed to promote gender equality and challenge
patriarchy. For example, policies that prioritize education and development for girls and
women can help to challenge patriarchal values and promote gender equality.
Overall, patriarchy is a complex and deeply ingrained social system that continues to have a
profound impact on various aspects of Indian society. The issue of patriarchy and its impact on child
socialization in India requires a multi-faceted approach that involves education, empowerment, role
modeling, and policy and institutional change.
121
(c) Discuss the problems of elderly in India. What are the different
perspectives to solve their problems? (10 Marks)
According to India's National Elderly Policy, an old age person is someone who is over the age of
60. According to the 2011 Population Census, India has over 104 million senior people. The World
Health Organization predicts that India's senior population would reach 227 million by 2050. Many
of the government's initiatives may be undermined by an increase in our older population and
increased demand on pension systems.
Theoretical perspectives of Ageing
 According to the disengagement theory, people gradually disengage from social life as they
age and approach the old stage. According to the Functionalist viewpoint, the current duties
of the elderly will be done more efficiently by the younger generation.
 Age-Stratification theory — societal structure impacts individuals and larger strata of the
elderly. E.g. In many parts of the world, elderly people are treated with dignity and respect,
but in others, they are viewed as a burden.
 Role theory - Over the course of a person's life, he or she takes on a variety of roles. The
Hindu concept of an ‘ashram’ is related to the concept of ageing and it is divided into four
categories: Brahmacharya (student), Ghastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest walker/forest
dweller), and Sannyasa (renunciate)
Problems associated with old age
 Social
o Conventional values and institutions are being eroded and adapted, resulting in a loss
of intergenerational links that were once the hallmark of the traditional family.
o An increase in violence against the elderly in major cities.
o Retirement disillusionment, Feelings of impotence, loneliness, uselessness, and
isolation are major issues among elderly people.
 Financial
o Retirement and the elderly's reliance on their child for basic necessities; a sudden
surge in out-of-pocket treatment expenses.
o Pension financing is inadequate: India spends only 1% of its GDP on pensions. In their
current structure, India's income support systems are incapable of caring to the
elderly, notwithstanding the fact that they account for only 8.6 percent of the
population.
 Health
o Multiple disabilities are common among the elderly, with the most common being
blindness, locomotor problems, and deafness.
o Mental sickness caused by senility and neurotic. In rural hospitals, there are no
geriatric care facilities.
 Elderly women issues:
o They will be subjected to gender discrimination for the rest of their lives. Widowhood
dominates the position of women over the age of 80 and above.
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o The existence of a widow is filled with strict moral norms, with integral rights
relinquished and liberties bypassed. For e.g. Famous widow ashrams in Vrindavan
How to address the issues of elderly people
 Traditional approach, which emphasizes the role of the family in providing support to the
elderly. According to this approach, the elderly should live with their children or relatives,
who are responsible for their care. While this approach can provide social and emotional
support to the elderly, it may not be feasible for those who are financially insecure or have
limited access to basic amenities.
 Welfare approach, which emphasizes the role of the state in providing support to the elderly.
According to this approach, the government should provide financial assistance, healthcare,
and other basic amenities to the elderly. In India, the government has launched various
schemes to address the needs of the elderly, such as the National Social Assistance
Programme (NSAP) and the Integrated Programme for Older Persons (IPOP). However,
these schemes have limited coverage and face implementation challenges.
 Community-based approach - Scholars such as S.R. Sankaran and S.K. Mishra highlight the
importance of community-based care and support for the elderly population, which can help
reduce social isolation and promote their overall well-being. In India, various non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) and community-based organizations (CBOs) have
emerged to address the needs of the elderly.
For example, HelpAge India is an NGO that provides healthcare, livelihood support, and
advocacy for the elderly.
 Empowerment approach - Scholars such as V. Kalyana Sundaram and Rajib Dasgupta
emphasizes the role of the elderly themselves in addressing their problems. According to this
approach, the elderly should be empowered to participate in decision-making and take
charge of their lives. This can be achieved through education, training, and awareness-raising
campaigns. In India, various organizations such as the Elder Citizens' Welfare Association
(ECWA) and the Silver Innings Foundation are working to empower the elderly through
training, advocacy, and awareness-raising.
In conclusion, the elderly in India face significant challenges, including economic insecurity, social
isolation, inadequate healthcare, and ageism. To solve these problems, different perspectives must
be considered, including strengthening the social security system for the elderly, promoting
intergenerational solidarity, and promoting age-friendly policies. By addressing these challenges,
we can ensure that the elderly in India can live with dignity and respect.
123
Question 4.
(a) Discuss Marxist approach to the analysis of Indian nationalism. (20
Marks)
Structure
 Introduction
 AR Desai on emergence of nationalism
 Explanation on Marxist approach and how colonialism was responsible for it
 Critique of Marxist approach by Yogendra Singh
 Conclusion
Nationalism in India arose due as a result of plurality of factors. A.R Desai traces the history of rise
of Indian Nationalism as the product of numerous action and interaction of many subjective and
objective social forces which evolved in the historical process during the British period. The
application of Historical materialism gave a new perspective in understanding Indian social reality
A.R Desai uses historical-dialectical model in his sociological study of emergence of Indian
Nationalism. The dialectical history of India that he presents very clearly shows that tradition have
roots in India’s economy and production relations. His work The Social Background of Indian
Nationalism is regarded for both its Marxist orientation and cross fertilization of sociology and
history.
According to him, India’s nationalism is the result of the material conditions created by the British
colonialism. The Britishers developed new economic relations by introducing industrialization and
modernization. The economic relationship is predominantly a stabilizing factor in the continuity of
traditional institutions in India, which would undergo changes as these relations change.
According to Desai Britishers radically changed the economic structure of the Indian society by
establishing a centralized state, commoditized land and codified a pan-India legal system. This
resulted into growth of new social systems and new social forces that came into conflict with British
Imperialism and became the basis for development of Nationalism.
Substitution of feudal economy by the capitalist economy was accomplished by the capital class of
Britain and not by any indigenous class. The British also led to emergence of new land relations and
modern industries leading to the destruction of self-sufficient village economy.
Industrialization in spite of its unbalanced character played a very revolutionary role in the life of
people. It led to the consolidation of unified national economy. It also brought the existence of
modern cities which became centers of modern culture and from where all the progressive cultural
movements emanated.
In a nutshell the emergence of new social class was the direct consequence of new social economy,
a new type of state system and administrative machinery and spread of new education. They were
primarily the offspring of the new capitalist economic structure which developed in India as a result
of British conquest and the impact on her of the British and world economy. In due course of time
these new social classes became conscious of certain common interests which led to the growth of
nationalism.
A.R. Desai’s definition of tradition is a watershed. He does not trace it from caste, religion and ritual.
The dialectal history of India that he presents very clearly shows that traditions have their roots in
India’s economy and production relations. Despite merit of the dialectical approach applied by A.R.
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Desai in the definition of tradition, Yogendra Singh argues that the merits are not without their
weaknesses.
The critique of Yogendra Singh is “The important limitation of the dialectical approach for studies
of social change in India is the lack of substantial empirical data in support of its major assertions,
which are often historiographic and can easily be challenged”.
In theoretical terms, however, this approach can be most viable for analysis of the processes of
change and conflict in India provided it is founded upon a sound tradition of scientific research.
Despite this limitation, some studies conducted on this model offer useful hypotheses, which can
be further tested in course of the studies on social change.
125
(b) What are the basic tenets of Hindu religion? Is Hinduism based on
monotheism or polytheism? (20 Marks)
 Introduction of Hinduism
 Basic tenets of hindu religion
 Scholars views on Hinduism
 Hinduism as polytheistic in nature
 Hinduism as Monotheistic perspective:
 Conclusion
Hinduism is a complex and diverse religious and cultural tradition that originated in the Indian
subcontinent and has evolved over thousands of years. From a sociological perspective, Hinduism
can be understood as a multifaceted social and religious system that encompasses a wide range of
beliefs, practices, rituals, and cultural norms. It does not have a single, universally accepted set of
tenets, as different schools of thought and regional variations within Hinduism can emphasize
different aspects. Nevertheless, there are some core concepts and principles that are commonly
found in Hinduism.
Some key tenets of Hinduism are-
 Belief in Dharma: Hinduism places a great emphasis on the concept of dharma, which refers
to the moral and ethical principles that govern human behavior.
 Belief in Karma: Hindus believe in the concept of karma, which holds that a person's actions
in this life will determine their destiny in the next.
 Purusharth- "Purushartha" is a concept from Hindu philosophy that encompasses the four
essential goals of human life: Dharma (duty/righteousness), Artha (wealth/prosperity),
Kama (desire/pleasure), and Moksha (liberation/spiritual enlightenment). It guides
individuals towards a balanced and meaningful existence, fulfilling both worldly and
spiritual aspirations.
 Ashrams - Ashrams are the four stages of life in Hinduism: Brahmacharya (student life),
Grihastha (householder life), Vanaprastha (retired life), and Sannyasa (renunciate life). They
provide a framework for individuals to fulfill their duties, pursue spiritual growth, and
gradually detach from worldly attachments, ultimately seeking liberation or Moksha.
 Belief in Reincarnation: Hindus believe in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, and that a
person's actions in this life will determine their status in the next.
 Worship of Multiple Gods: Hinduism is known for its worship of multiple gods and
goddesses, each of whom represents different aspects of the divine.
Scholar’s views on Hinduism
 Swami Vivekananda emphasized the importance of self-realization and the pursuit of truth
and righteousness as central tenets of Hinduism.
 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, a prominent philosopher and scholar, highlighted the concept of
dharma as a key principle of Hinduism.
 A.K. Coomaraswamy, an art historian and philosopher, emphasized the importance of the
spiritual and mystical aspects of Hinduism, including the practice of yoga and meditation.
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 T.N.Madan argued that Hinduism is not a fixed and static religion, but is constantly evolving
and adapting to changing social and cultural contexts.
 Yogendra Singh: analyzed the impact of modernization on traditional Hindu practices and
beliefs, and argued that Hinduism is undergoing significant changes in response to broader
social and economic transformations.
Hinduism as polytheistic in nature
There is a debate among scholars about whether Hinduism can be characterized as monotheistic,
polytheistic, or something else entirely.
 Multiple Deities: Hinduism recognizes a vast array of deities, each representing different
aspects of the divine. These deities are worshipped and revered by Hindu devotees.
Examples include Brahma (the creator), Vishnu (the preserver), Shiva (the destroyer),
Lakshmi (goddess of wealth), Saraswati (goddess of knowledge), and many more.
 Henotheism: Hinduism allows for the worship of a single deity without denying the
existence of other deities. Followers may focus their devotion on one particular deity while
acknowledging the existence of others. This concept is known as henotheism, which is a form
of polytheism.
 Iconography and Rituals: Hinduism places great importance on rituals and ceremonies that
involve the worship of multiple deities. Temples are adorned with numerous idols
representing various gods and goddesses. Devotees engage in elaborate rituals to honor and
communicate with these deities, indicating a polytheistic belief system.
 Epics and Mythology: Hindu scriptures, such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, depict
a rich tapestry of gods and goddesses interacting with humans and influencing the course of
events. These epics contain stories of numerous deities and their distinct roles and
personalities. The inclusion of multiple divine beings in these narratives reinforces the
polytheistic nature of Hinduism.
Hinduism as Monotheistic perspective:
 Ultimate Reality: Hindu philosophy acknowledges the concept of a supreme, ultimate reality
known as Brahman. This divine essence is considered the source and foundation of all
existence. Some argue that all the deities in Hinduism are manifestations or aspects of this
ultimate reality.
 Advaita Vedanta: The Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy propounded by Adi
Shankara interprets Hinduism in a monistic or non-dualistic manner. According to this
perspective, the various deities worshipped in Hinduism are ultimately an illusion (maya),
and the true essence of reality is non-dual Brahman
 Upanishadic Teachings: The Upanishads, philosophical texts forming the core of Hindu
thought, emphasize the oneness and unity of all existence.
o This monistic perspective suggests that the various gods and goddesses are mere
manifestations of the same divine essence.
Hinduism cannot be easily categorized as either monotheistic or polytheistic, but rather represents
a complex blend of both traditions, along with other elements such as animism and ancestor
worship. Wendy Doniger correctly points out that that Hinduism is a diverse and complex religion
that cannot be understood through a single lens, and that its interpretation is always subject to
contestation and negotiation.
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(c) Why is it necessary to implement PCPNDT Act in India? (10 Marks)

 Introduction of PCPNDT act
 Views on PCPNDT
 Reason to implement the PCPNDT Act
 Issues related to PCPDNT
 Conclusion
The Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act was enacted in India in
1994 to regulate the use of prenatal diagnostic techniques for sex determination and to prevent the
practice of female feticide, which had become a major problem in many parts of the country. The
act prohibits the use of these techniques for sex determination, and it also provides for the regulation
of genetic counseling centers, genetic laboratories, and ultrasound clinics.
Views on PCPNDT
 Leela Visaria - Argues that the PCPNDT Act has had a positive impact in reducing the
number of sex-selective abortions and improving the sex ratio in some parts of India, but that
enforcement of the act needs to be strengthened.
 Ashwini Deshpande - Argues that the PCPNDT Act alone cannot solve the problem of
gender-based violence and discrimination in India, and that broader social and economic
changes are necessary.
 Sharmila Rege - Criticizes the PCPNDT Act for focusing too narrowly on the issue of sex
selection, while ignoring broader issues of gender inequality and violence against women.
 Tulsi Patel - Argues that the PCPNDT Act has helped to raise awareness of the issue of female
feticide and has contributed to a broader public discourse on gender discrimination in India
Reason to implement the PCPNDT Act
 According to a study published in The Lancet medical journal in 2018, approximately 63
million women are 'missing' in India due to sex-selective abortions, resulting in a skewed sex
ratio of 918 females per 1,000 males. The PCPNDT Act seeks to address this issue by
regulating the use of prenatal diagnostic techniques and ensuring that they are only used for
medical reasons and not for determining the sex of the foetus.
 One of the major reasons why the PCPNDT Act is necessary in India is the widespread
practice of gender discrimination. Many families in India prefer male children over female
children, and this preference is often based on social and economic factors. For instance, sons
are seen as having greater earning potential and are expected to provide financial support
for their parents in old age. In contrast, daughters are often viewed as a financial liability, as
they are expected to be married off and may not contribute to the family income.
 the practice of sex-selective abortion is a violation of women's reproductive rights and human
rights. Women should have the right to choose whether or not to have a child, and the sex of
the child should not be a factor in that decision.
 The implementation of the PCPNDT Act in India has had a positive impact on the sex ratio
in some areas. For instance, the state of Haryana, which had one of the lowest sex ratios in
India, has shown improvement in recent years. The sex ratio in Haryana increased from 879
females per 1,000 males in 2001 to 914 females per 1,000 males in 2011.
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Issues related to PCPDNT
 One of the major issues is the prevalence of illegal sex determination tests and sex-selective
abortions, which continue to be practiced in many parts of the country. There have been
instances where medical professionals have been involved in conducting illegal sex
determination tests and facilitating sex-selective abortions.
 Lack of proper implementation and monitoring of the Act. There have been several cases
where the authorities have failed to take action against those violating the provisions of the
Act.There have also been instances where the authorities have been reluctant to take action
against influential people or groups involved in sex-selective practices.
 Some healthcare professionals have raised concerns that the provisions of the Act may lead
to a decline in the use of diagnostic tests for medical purposes, as they fear that they may be
wrongly accused of conducting illegal sex determination tests.
In conclusion, the implementation of the PCPNDT Act is necessary to address the problem of female
foeticide and to ensure gender equality in India. However, there are several issues related to its
implementation that need to be addressed, including the prevalence of illegal sex determination
tests and sex-selective abortions, etc. Efforts need to be made to strengthen the implementation of
the Act and to create awareness about the importance of gender equality.
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Section B
Question 5.
(a)Important components of National Education Policy in India. (10 Marks)
 Basic introduction of National Education policy
 Components of national education policy – School education and higher education
 Issues related to National education policy
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, announced by the Ministry of Human Resource
Development, aims to transform India's education system to meet the demands of the 21st century.
It addresses issues like poor literacy and numeracy outcomes in primary schools, reducing dropout
rates in middle and secondary schools, and adopting a multi-disciplinary approach in higher
education.
The policy also focuses on early childhood care, curriculum restructuring, assessment reforms,
teacher training, and performance evaluation. NEP 2020 provides a comprehensive framework for
elementary to higher education and vocational training, with the goal of transforming the education
system by 2040.
Components of National education policy
School Education
 Recognizing that over 85% of a child's cumulative brain development happens before the age
of 6, the existing form of 10+2 structure will be altered to a new 5+3+3+4 structure, with a
solid foundation of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) from age 3.
 The curriculum for each topic will be simplified to its fundamental elements in order to
encourage critical thinking and inquiry-based, discovery-based, and analysis-based learning.
There is option for vocational training as well as internships during the school year.
 Wherever practicable, the medium of teaching will be mother tongue (local
language/regional language) until at least Grade 5, but preferably until Grade 8 and beyond.
The policy embraces the three-language formula; however, the three-language formula will
be more flexible, and no language will be imposed on any state.
 While continuing board examinations for grades 10 and 12, the proposal advises
eliminating the necessity for coaching classes. Board examinations will be revised to focus
on basic abilities and competences rather than memorization.
Higher Education
 The fundamental goal of this higher education strategy is to stop higher education
fragmentation by converting higher education institutions into big interdisciplinary
universities, colleges, and HEI clusters/Hubs, each with 3,000 or more students. According
to policy, all higher education institutions should strive to become interdisciplinary by
2040.
 The undergraduate degree will last three or four years, with numerous exit choices
available with relevant credentials.
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 An Academic Bank of Credit (ABC) will be formed to digitally record academic credits
obtained from various recognised HEIs so that degrees from a HEI can be granted taking
credits gained into consideration. HEIs will be able to offer a variety of Master's programme
designs.
 To make high-quality higher education opportunities available to all persons -
o By allocating adequate money for the education of socioeconomically disadvantaged
groups (SEDGs).
o Improve gender equality in HEI admissions
o Improve access by building high-quality HEIs in aspirational districts and Special
Education Zones
o The policy aims to boost the Gross Enrollment Ratio in Higher Education to 50%
(currently 26.3%) by 2035.
o The policy reiterates the government's decision to establish the Higher Education
Commission of India (HECI) as a single umbrella organisation for all higher education
in India (excluding medical and legal education).
What are the issues with the new education policy?
o According to Meenakshi thapan - The NEP 2020 also states that teaching in one's
native tongue is "preferred." While many people feel that early childhood education
in the mother tongue is important, it would be problematic in a place like
Chhattisgarh, where Chhattisgarhi is just one language and there are several spoken
dialects. So, will separate schools have distinct mother tongues? How will the material
alter depending on the state and dialect or language?
o Who will decide the content - According to Michael Apple, a curriculum theorist,
knowledge selection for curriculum is a result of people with authority. This means
that people in a given culture at a given moment select what is important to educate
future learners, so strengthening their position of power. Do we recognise this feature
in the conceptualization of knowledge and are we aware of the struggles of society's
marginalised and oppresse
o Homogenisation of education – due to globalization and other forces there is rise of
job-oriented education and less focus on the subjects that are critique the modern
setup. E.g. rise of STEM and decline of Social sciences. Postmodernism opposes the
homogenisation of educational systems. They consider modern education to be
oppressive to many pupils, particularly minority groups, and believe that school's
"factory production-line mind-set" destroys creativity.
o Use of technology can increase gap between various sections of the society. Pierre
Bourdieu introduces the notion of cultural capital, which specifies class systems in
addition to economic, social, and symbolic capital. The education system aids in the
replication of cultural capital, and hence in the preservation of a comparable
framework of power connections and symbolic linkages between classes. This
guarantees that the disparity between classes persists.
o There is a mismatch between the skills taught in schools and the employment
accessible. This critical topic has received little attention in policy.
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o There has been minimal debate on new-age technologies such as artificial intelligence,
cyber security, and so on, despite the fact that these disciplines dominate world
knowledge and employment space
The NEP 2020 is a promising policy that aims to create a comprehensive and flexible education
system aligned with the needs of the 21st century and the Sustainable Development Goals. It is
important to recognize that a strong public education system is vital for empowering individuals,
but focusing solely on training for the existing exploitative economic structure without addressing
the trajectory of capitalistic development may result in increased insecurity and inequality. While
the policy's intent is commendable, its success ultimately depends on effective implementation.
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(b) Main objectives of Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP). (10 Marks)

 Brief overview of Tribal Sub-Plan
 Objectives of Tribal Sub-Plan
 Challenges related to tribal sub plan
 Conclusion
The Tribal Sub-Plan was established in the fiscal year 1974-75 with the aim of promoting
development in regions with a significant tribal population. The Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) is a
development strategy implemented by the Government of India to tackle the unique socio-economic
challenges faced by tribal communities.
According to B.D. Sharma the Tribal Sub-Plan is an essential tool for promoting the overall
development of tribal communities. It provides a framework for targeted investments and
interventions to address their unique socio-economic challenges.
Objectives of Tribal Sub-Plan
 Education and healthcare: The TSP focuses on improving educational and healthcare
facilities in tribal areas, aiming to enhance literacy rates and overall well-being. For example,
under the TSP, initiatives like setting up residential schools for tribal children or
establishing healthcare centres in tribal areas are implemented to improve their socio-
economic conditions.
 Infrastructure development: It aims to develop basic infrastructure such as roads, bridges,
irrigation facilities, and electrification in tribal regions to bridge the developmental gap.
 Empowering Tribal Communities: The TSP is all about empowering tribal communities by
giving them a say in decision-making processes and strengthening their self-governance
institutions. It wants to give these communities control over their resources, traditional
knowledge, and cultural heritage.
For instance, the TSP may provide resources and training for capacity building and
governance in tribal areas.
 Preserving Tribal Culture and Identity: The TSP recognizes how important it is to preserve
the culture, language, and traditions of tribal communities. It wants to support and protect
their unique art, crafts, music, dance, and other cultural practices.
Challenges:
 Implementation Issues: One major challenge is that the government departments and
agencies sometimes don't get their act together and don't coordinate well.
 Inadequate funding: Insufficient allocation of funds often hampers the effective
implementation of the TSP, limiting its impact on tribal communities.
 Diversion of funds: a significant portion of the funds allocated for the Tribal Sub Plan
(TSP) has been redirected to different sectors and purposes. Furthermore, some of these
funds have also been lost due to their improper utilization or the failure of administrative
machinery.
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 Land and Resource Rights: Tribal folks often face land alienation and don't get proper
recognition of their land and resource rights. This can lead to displacement, loss of
livelihoods, and cultural dislocation.
 Lack of accountability and transparency: The TSP has been criticized for a lack of
accountability and transparency in its functioning. There is often a lack of monitoring and
evaluation mechanisms to ensure that the allocated funds are being utilized effectively. This
lack of transparency has created room for corruption and inefficiency, diminishing the
impact of the plan.
 Lack of representation - A Comptroller and Auditor General audit report in 2015 had
highlighted that plans for schemes were being formulated without specific consideration of
tribal beneficiaries as required under TSP.
The Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) was established with the objectives of promoting socio-economic
development, poverty alleviation, education, healthcare, infrastructure development, and
preservation of tribal culture. However, challenges such as fund diversion, inadequate funding,
inefficient administration, lack of participation, and insufficient monitoring have hindered its
effectiveness. To uplift tribal communities and preserve their identities, it is crucial to address these
issues and then TSP can become a powerful tool for inclusive development and empowerment of
tribal communities nationwide.
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(c) Effect of displacement through development on the rural landless and

marginal farmers. (10 Marks)
 Brief explanation of displacement
 Views on displacement
 Impact of displacement on rural landless and marginal farmers
 Conclusion
Displacement is defined as the involuntary removal or relocation of individuals or communities
from their original habitat, residence, or social environment due to various factors such as
development projects, conflicts, natural disasters, or social changes. It refers to the forced uprooting
of individuals from their familiar surroundings, disrupting their social networks, livelihoods, and
sense of belonging.
Displacement through development projects can have profound effects on rural landless and
marginal farmers. These farmers, who often rely on agricultural activities for their livelihoods, find
themselves particularly vulnerable when their land is taken away or rendered unusable due to
large-scale development initiatives such as industrialization, infrastructure projects, or urban
expansion.
Views on displacement
 Das and Tewari, 2014: Dams are responsible for displacing approximately 66% of the
population, leading to the submergence of agricultural lands.
 Jean Drèze: Rehabilitation measures and policies based on the Land Acquisition Act often
focus narrowly on compensation alone.
 Hansen and Oliver-Smith, 1982: Estimates range from 14 million to 57 million displaced
persons, with over 62% belonging to Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs).
Impact of displacement on rural landless and marginal farmers
 Loss of Livelihood:
o Displacement disrupts the farmers' means of subsistence by depriving them of access
to their primary source of income and sustenance.
o The loss of fertile land, which is their primary asset, leads to the erosion of their
traditional farming practices and denies them the opportunity to engage in productive
agricultural activities.
o As a result, they often face unemployment, underemployment, or forced migration to
urban areas in search of alternative livelihoods.
o E.g. The construction of large dams, such as the Sardar Sarovar Dam, in the Narmada
Valley has resulted in the displacement of numerous landless and marginal farmers.
These farmers lost their agricultural lands and livelihoods, leading to economic
distress and social dislocation.
 Economic Vulnerability:
o The displacement of rural landless and marginal farmers exacerbates their economic
vulnerability.
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o Without adequate compensation or alternative income-generating opportunities, they
are pushed into poverty and become dependent on precarious and low-paying jobs.
o Disrupted social networks and reduced access to credit, markets, and resources
further marginalize them economically, trapping them in a cycle of poverty and
deprivation.
 Social Dislocation:
o Displacement often leads to the breakdown of social ties and community cohesion.
Rural landless and marginal farmers, who rely heavily on their social networks for
support and cooperation, experience a loss of social capital as they are uprooted from
their communities.
o Relocating to unfamiliar areas or resettlement colonies, they face challenges in
integrating into new social networks and may experience social exclusion and
discrimination.
 Political Marginalization: Displacement often highlights power imbalances and exacerbates
the political marginalization of rural landless and marginal farmers. Their limited access to
decision-making processes and policy formulation perpetuates their marginalization and
reinforces the unequal power dynamics between the affected communities and the
authorities responsible for the development projects.
In conclusion, displacement through development has far-reaching consequences for rural landless
and marginal farmers. The loss of livelihoods, economic vulnerability, social dislocation,
environmental impacts, and political marginalization are some of the key challenges they face.
Recognizing these effects is crucial for formulating policies that ensure the fair treatment, protection,
and rehabilitation of these marginalized groups.
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(d) Issues relating to the informal labour market in urban India. (10 Marks)
 Overview of informal labour market
 Key features of the unorganized labor sector in India
 Issues related to informal labor in India
 Conclusion
India has an estimated 450 million informal workers, constituting 90 percent of the total workforce,
with an annual addition of 5-10 million workers. These workers, such as street sellers, ragpickers,
moneylenders, and brokers, operate in the informal economy, characterized by irregular working
hours and low wages.
Key features of the unorganized labor sector in India
 Easy Entry and Low Entry Barrier: Keith Hart's research highlights that the informal sector
allows anyone, regardless of their skills, to engage in day labor and other informal work.
 Social Stratification: the unorganized labor force is often stratified based on caste and
communal factors. Bremen highlighted how exploitation in labor markets kept low-caste
and tribal workers at the bottom of social structures, hindering their access to education,
healthcare, and social mobility.
 Support for Migrants: The informal sector largely consists of immigrant labor, providing
livelihood opportunities for individuals migrating from rural areas in search of work in
urban centers.
 Vulnerability to Indebtedness: Due to meager earnings, workers in the unorganized sector
are prone to indebtedness and bondage, as their income is insufficient to cover basic
necessities.
 Limited Attention from Trade Unions: Unorganized workers receive inadequate attention
and representation from trade unions.
 Inadequate Labor Laws and Regulations: There is a lack of effective labor legislation and
regulations governing the unorganized sector.
Issues related to informal labor in India
 Long working hours: Informal workers often exceed labor and regulatory norms, negatively
impacting their social and family lives, especially for women laborers.
 Inadequate physical environment: Lack of proper sanitation facilities in the unorganized
sector poses health risks for workers.
 Insufficient social security benefits: Informal sector workers lack social security protections,
making them vulnerable to economic and political shocks.
 Vulnerability to economic shocks: Casual workers are particularly susceptible to economic
shocks as they often engage in low-skilled, low-paying jobs.
 Structural disadvantages: Illiteracy and lack of skills leave informal workers more
vulnerable to exploitation.
 Lack of collective bargaining power: Informal workers lack organized labor unions, which
hampers their ability to demand better wages and working conditions.
 Abuse of domestic workers: Domestic workers within the informal labor sector are often
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subject to abuse, including physical and sexual violence, within households.
The informal sector in India is a vital pillar of the economy, and the overall well-being of the
population largely depends on improving the conditions for the millions of informally employed
individuals. Enhancing the situation for workers in the informal sector is crucial for achieving
inclusive growth. Given the low incomes earned by these workers, it becomes essential for the
government to implement measures that establish minimum wages specifically for the informal
sector.
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(e) How far Srinivas Sanskritization is modernizing force or traditionalizing

force in understanding the changes in caste system? (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define Sanskritization.
 Discuss how Sanskritization can be considered a modernizing force traditionalizing force.
 Consider how regional and temporal variations influence whether Sanskritization acts as a
modernizing or traditionalizing force.
 Conclude.
Solution:
While studying the Coorgs of South India, he formulated the concept of ‘Brahminisation’ to
represent the process of the imitation of life-ways and ritual practices of Brahmins by the lower-
caste Hindus.
The concept was used to interpret changes observed through field study. It later led to a higher-
level concept, ‘Sanskritization’, Brahminic model as frame of reference had limitations (copying of
life ways and rituals of other higher castes also).
Book- Social change in Modern India (1966) - Though referring mainly to the processes of cultural
imitation, has a built-in structural notion, that of hierarchy and inequality of privilege and power,
since the imitation is always by the castes or categories placed lower in social and economic status.
Sanskritization- It is the process by which a ‘low’ caste or tribe or other group takes over the custom,
ritual, beliefs, ideology and style of life of a high and, in particular, a ‘twice born’ (dwija) caste. The
Sanskritization of a group has usually the effect of improving its position in the local caste hierarchy.
Sanskritization can be considered a modernizing force traditionalizing force:
1. Modernizing Aspects of Sanskritization: Sanskritization, as conceptualized by M.N.
Srinivas, can be viewed as a modernizing force due to its association with the adoption of
modern education and occupations. B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on education as a means of
empowerment aligns with the modernizing aspect of Sanskritization, as individuals from
lower castes seek education to break traditional social barriers and pursue contemporary
opportunities.
2. Traditionalizing Aspects of Sanskritization: Conversely, Sanskritization can be seen as a
traditionalizing force as it reinforces existing social hierarchies. The emulation of higher caste
customs may perpetuate traditional norms, rituals, and social roles. G.S. Ghurye's work on
caste dynamics highlights how Sanskritization might contribute to the preservation of
traditional cultural and social norms within the caste system.
3. Economic Modernization through Sanskritization: The adoption of higher caste
occupations as part of Sanskritization can contribute to economic modernization. Andre
Beteille's theories on class and social structure are relevant in understanding how changes
in occupational patterns associated with Sanskritization may lead to economic progress and
the emergence of new economic roles within the caste system.
4. Preservation of Traditional Economic Roles: On the other hand, Sanskritization may also
reinforce traditional economic roles associated with specific castes. M.N. Srinivas himself
acknowledged that the process might not always lead to significant economic changes.
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Recent sociological examples, such as studies by scholars like S. Irfan Habib, could illustrate
how economic changes associated with Sanskritization may vary across regions and
communities.
5. Cultural Modernization and Changes in Lifestyle: Sanskritization involves the adoption of
higher caste customs, which can lead to cultural modernization. Dipankar Gupta's work on
social change emphasizes the role of changing lifestyles in modernization. The adoption of
new customs, clothing, and dietary habits through Sanskritization reflects cultural shifts
within the caste system.
6. Regional Variations and Temporal Changes: The impact of Sanskritization may vary across
regions and time periods. Louis Dumont's theory of hierarchy and equality in caste systems
provides a framework to analyze how regional variations influence whether Sanskritization
acts as a modernizing or traditionalizing force. Temporal changes in societal attitudes and
economic structures also shape the nature of Sanskritization.
Regional and temporal variations influence:
1. Louis Dumont's Hierarchy and Equality: Louis Dumont's theory on hierarchy and equality
in caste systems provides a theoretical framework to understand regional variations in the
impact of Sanskritization. In regions where hierarchical values are strong, Sanskritization
might reinforce traditional norms, acting as a traditionalizing force. In contrast, regions with
a more egalitarian outlook may experience Sanskritization as a modernizing force by
facilitating social mobility.
2. Dipankar Gupta's Notions of Social Change: Dipankar Gupta's work on social change is
relevant to assessing temporal variations in the impact of Sanskritization. Temporal changes
in societal attitudes and values may influence how Sanskritization is perceived. In
contemporary times, Sanskritization might be more aligned with modernizing forces,
breaking traditional barriers, compared to historical contexts.
3. Amartya Sen's Capability Approach: Amartya Sen's capability approach helps analyze how
Sanskritization influences the capabilities and freedoms of individuals in different regions
and periods. Regions with a broader understanding of capabilities might experience
Sanskritization as a modernizing force, expanding opportunities, while others may see it as
a traditionalizing force if it reinforces limited capabilities.
4. Historical Changes and Economic Transformations: Consider historical changes and
economic transformations in different regions. For example, regions undergoing rapid
industrialization and economic development may witness Sanskritization as a modernizing
force, facilitating entry into new occupations. In contrast, regions experiencing economic
stagnation may perceive it as reinforcing traditional economic roles.
5. Regional Examples of Sanskritization: Explore specific regional examples to illustrate the
impact of Sanskritization. For instance, recent sociological studies in southern regions of
India might highlight how Sanskritization interacts with strong regional identities and
influences whether it acts as a modernizing or traditionalizing force in specific communities.
6. Cultural and Religious Dynamics: Examine the cultural and religious dynamics in different
regions. G.S. Ghurye's insights into the cultural aspects of caste systems can be applied to
understand how Sanskritization interacts with local cultures. Temporal changes in religious
practices and cultural norms may shape whether Sanskritization is perceived as modernizing
or traditionalizing.
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In conclusion, the assessment of M.N. Srinivas's Sanskritization as a modernizing or traditionalizing
force in understanding changes in the caste system hinges on a nuanced interplay of regional,
temporal, and contextual factors. While Sanskritization's adoption of higher caste customs may
signify modernization through education and new occupations in certain instances, it can also
perpetuate traditional social hierarchies and norms.
Therefore, Sanskritization emerges as a complex sociological phenomenon, embodying elements of
both modernization and traditionalization, emphasizing the need for a comprehensive and context-
specific analysis in the study of caste dynamics in India.
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Question 6.
(a) Discuss the impact of post-1970 feminist movement on Indian middle
class. (20 Marks)
 Introduction of feminist movements
 Sociological view on women movements
 Major Demands of the Women's Movement:
 Challenges and Ongoing Struggles of women movements
 Impact of post-1970 feminist movement on the middle class
 Conclusion
Women's movements are defined as deliberate and unified efforts aimed at addressing a distinct set
of issues and requirements that are unique to women. The contemporary women's movement in
India, spanning from 1975 to the present, has played a crucial role in highlighting gender issues and
advocating for the upliftment of women in society. The post-1970 feminist movement also had a
significant impact on the Indian middle class, bringing about transformative changes in gender
relations, women's rights, and societal attitudes
Sociological view on women movements
 Neera Desai's perspective on women's movements emphasizes their goal of achieving
equality and liberation for women, which necessitates sensitivity towards the issues that
impact women's lives, as well as the need for a cohesive and unifying ideological thread
among the various units involved.
 Gail Omvedt's Categorization women movements into –
o Women's Equality Movements: Seek equal treatment for women within existing
economic, political, and family structures. Do not directly challenge the sexual
division of labor.
o Women's Liberation Movements: Directly challenge the sexual division of labor.
Strive to dismantle the existing economic, political, and family structures. Focus on
achieving women's liberation.
 Sangari and vaid argued that movements by working class and peasant women have a
greater potential for democratizing patriarchal power relations than the modernizing
movements.
Major Demands of the Women's Movement:
 Elimination of harmful practices like child marriage, sex-selective abortions, and dowry-
related violence.
 Striving for equality not only for the sake of justice but also for holistic development.
 Focus on the economic empowerment of women.
 Encouraging shared responsibility for childbearing as a social obligation.
 Recognition of household work as a contribution to national productivity.
 Challenging the notion that marriage and motherhood should limit women's opportunities.
 Linking women's emancipation to social emancipation.
 Advocating for temporary measures to ensure de facto equality.
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Challenges and Ongoing Struggles:
 Issue of intersectionality - The feminist movement in India faces challenges arising from the
country's vast diversities, including class, caste, sexuality, and disability.
 As certain regions develop at a faster pace, increased social and economic inequality gives
rise to new problems, such as sexual harassment at the workplace and in public transport.
 NGOisation of movements - The NGOs, comprising full-time professional or trained "staff,"
rather than grassroots political organizations, were perceived as making significant decisions
on behalf of the entire women's movement.
Impact of post-1970 feminist movement on the middle class
 Women's Empowerment: The increase in women's workforce participation within the Indian
middle class can be seen in the data from the National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO).
According to the NSSO, the female labor force participation rate in urban areas increased
from 15.7% in 1977-78 to 20.8% in 2011-12.
 Changing Gender Roles: The feminist movement's influence on changing gender roles
within middle-class households can be observed in the increased involvement of men in
domestic work. A study by Desai and Andrist (2010) found that Indian men's participation
in housework increased between 1986 and 2005, with middle-class men showing the
highest increase.
 Women in Professional Careers: The feminist movement encouraged women to pursue
professional careers and break traditional stereotypes. Today, more women from the Indian
middle class are working in diverse fields such as medicine, law, engineering, finance, and
information technology. For example, women like Chanda Kochhar (former CEO of ICICI
Bank) and Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw (founder of Biocon Limited) have achieved significant
success in their respective fields.
 Education and Employment Opportunities: The impact of the feminist movement on
education and career opportunities can be seen in the increased enrollment of girls in schools
and higher education institutions. According to the Ministry of Education, the Gross
Enrollment Ratio (GER) for girls in secondary education increased from 47.7% in 2001-2002
to 78.9% in 2019-2020.
 Legal Reforms and Gender Equality: The feminist movement's impact on legal reforms can
be observed in the introduction of the Sexual Harassment of Women at Workplace
(Prevention, Prohibition, and Redressal) Act in 2013. This legislation provides a legal
framework to address workplace harassment, ensuring safer environments for women in the
middle class.
 Cultural and Attitudinal Shifts: The feminist movement has contributed to changing social
attitudes regarding gender equality within the middle class. A study by Choudhary (2014)
found that middle-class women in India have experienced a shift in their aspirations,
challenging traditional gender norms and seeking greater autonomy and agency.
In conclusion, women's movements in contemporary societies, including India, have played a
crucial role in advocating for gender equality and women's rights. These movements have focused
on addressing the specific challenges faced by women, aiming to transform societal structures and
norms to promote equality and empower women from all backgrounds, including the middle class.
By challenging traditional norms and advocating for equal rights, these movements have had a
profound impact on the lives of women in the middle class and have paved the way for a more
inclusive and equal society.
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(b) What are the major concerns of ethnic identity and religious identity in
India? (20 Marks)
 Brief in introduction of Indian diversity
 Concerns of ethnic groups
 Issues faced by religious communities
 Ways to address concern of ethnic and religious groups
 Conclusion
India is renowned for its remarkable cultural diversity and commitment to preserving the rights of
its individuals, irrespective of their socio-cultural disparities. T.K Oommen emphasizes the
significance of maintaining cultural pluralism without assimilation as a vital aspect of genuine
nation-building. This diversity is evident in the presence of multiple races, religions, ethnic
identities etc.
The Indian Constitution, particularly through Article 14, 19, and 21, actively safeguards the rights
of various ethnic and religious identities. However, despite these constitutional protections, certain
regions of India continue to witness social discrimination and other related concerns faced by
religious and ethnic groups.
Concerns of ethnic groups
T.K. Oommen opines that the ethnic group is a group of people who share a common history,
tradition, language and lifestyle, but are uprooted from and/or unattached to a homeland. Various
concerns of ethnic groups are –
 Caste Discrimination and Marginalization: Caste discrimination remains a significant issue
in India, despite legal efforts to address it. Lower-caste individuals often face social,
economic, and educational disadvantages. Instances of caste-based violence and
discrimination, such as the Una incident in Gujarat in 2016, highlight the persistent
challenges.
 Indigenous Rights and Land Disputes: Indigenous communities in India, often referred to
as Adivasis, face struggles to preserve their cultural identity and secure land rights.
Displacement due to development projects, conflicts over forest lands, and inadequate
representation are ongoing concerns. The Niyamgiri Hills case involving the Dongria
Kondh tribe and the Vedanta mining project is an example.
 Language Politics and Regional Identities: Language plays a significant role in ethnic
identities in India. Language-based movements and conflicts have emerged, such as the
demand for a separate state of Telangana or protests over language policies in states like
Tamil Nadu. These movements reflect the challenges faced by linguistic minorities and the
struggle for linguistic identity.
 North-Eastern Identity and Integration: The northeastern states of India have distinct ethnic
identities and cultural diversity. People from this region often face stereotypes,
discrimination, and feelings of alienation in other parts of the country. Instances of racial
profiling and attacks on northeastern students in metropolitan cities have brought attention
to this issue.
 Political Representation and Power Imbalances: Ensuring adequate political representation
and addressing power imbalances among different ethnic groups is an ongoing concern.
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Marginalized communities often face obstacles in accessing resources, opportunities, and
equitable representation in political decision-making processes
Issues faced by religious communities
 Assertiveness of majority community or Rise of majoritarinism
o Biased propaganda against minority communities. Use of social media platform to
promote animosity and hatred against communities.
o Nasreen Fazalbhow argues that social and political assertion of majority community
took the face of Gujrat riots and Babri Masjid Demolition threatening the cultural
pluralism in India.
o Cynthia Keppley Mahmood talks about the clash between hindus and Sikhs, where
Sikhs asserted a separatist Khalistan movement against the assertion of Hinduism
 Problem of integration
o Carrying out of practices that are not considered societally acceptable by the majority
- Eg. Muslims practice polygamy, beef eating which is frowned upon by Hindu
majority
o Presence of separatist forces, power hungry leaders and strong sectarian identities
among religious groups that try to increase the gap between communities.
 Problem of security
o Insecurity to their life, assets and wellbeing. E.g. Communal violence, manifest and
latent violence by right wing and fundamentalist groups
o Arbitrary arrest of members of a specific religious group after terrorism attacks and
numerous cases of lynching on mere suspicion of beef eating.
 Problem of equity and discrimination –
o Relative deprivation in comparison to other communities. Lack of representation and
involvement in decision making and governance. According to the findings of the
Sachar Committee, the situation of Indian Muslims was reported to be worse than that
of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. This has led to a sense of neglect among
the Muslim community, who feel that their concerns have not received adequate
attention.
o Low involvement in mainstream education, high poverty, limited access to high status
providing occupations, shoddy housing facilities, improper rehabilitation in case of
displacement and limited political representation. E.g. - The converted Christians in
India mostly were of lower caste background, who still struggle to get reservations as
Dalit Christians leads to lesser participation in employment and education sector.
Ways to address concern of ethnic and religious groups
 Promotion of constitutional values and principles – different provision of the constitution
like Fundamental rights, DPSP, Preamble talks about brotherhood and fraternity.
 Secularization of Religious institutions – involvement of religious institutions in education,
hospital. It will promote cohesion and also tolerance in the society.
 Concept of ‘civic religion’ – it focusses on celebrating the values and ideas which binds
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different communities in the society. E.g. celebrating national festivals like Independence
Day, Republic day, or taking pride in national flag etc.
 Ramachandra guha talks about promoting the secular values through cricket and other
leisure activities.
 Focus on inter-community collaboration as everyday life needs supports from different set
of individuals. E.g. after muzzafarnagar riots local communites of jats and muslims
understood the value of each other in maintain stability in the society and also economic
aspect of their relations.
 India’s constitutional diversity cannot be sustained by governments alone but requires
collective commitment from an impartial judiciary, a scrupulous media, civil society activists,
and an alert citizenry.
In conclusion, India's remarkable cultural diversity and commitment to preserving the rights of its
individuals are evident. However, concerns faced by ethnic and religious groups highlight the need
for continued efforts to ensure true inclusivity and equality. Discrimination based on caste,
marginalization of indigenous communities, language politics, and power imbalances remain
challenges that must be addressed. Similarly, the rise of majoritarianism, problems of integration
and security, and issues of equity and discrimination affect religious communities. To address these
concerns, promoting constitutional values, secularization of religious institutions, fostering inter-
community collaboration etc. are essential. Through these measures, India can strive towards a
society that truly celebrates diversity and upholds the rights of all its citizens.
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(c) How serious is the problem of trafficking against women and children
in India? (10 Marks)
 Brief introduction related to trafficking
 Causes of Trafficking:
 Solutions to Combat Trafficking:
 Conclusion
Article 23 of the Indian Constitution explicitly prohibits the trade of individuals. It falls under the
Fundamental Rights section and prohibits both the trafficking of human beings and other
comparable forms of forced labor. While there is no precise definition of trafficking, it can be
described as the compulsory or deceitful transportation of a person, followed by their exploitation
for commercial purposes.
Trafficking against women and children is a deeply serious and pervasive problem in India, with
far-reaching societal consequences. According to the 2021 NCRB Report, India witnessed a 28%
increase in trafficking cases, with 2,877 children trafficked. On average, around eight children were
trafficked daily. Furthermore, these figures only represent registered cases, indicating a much larger
unregistered trafficking problem.
Causes of Trafficking:
 Gender Inequality and Patriarchy: The deeply entrenched patriarchal norms in Indian
society contribute to the vulnerability of women and girls.
o Dr. Bandana Pattanaik emphasizes the specific challenges faced by women and girls,
exploring how gender norms, power dynamics, and intersecting forms of
discrimination contribute to their vulnerability
o For example, the Devadasi system in some regions of India involves the religious
practice of dedicating girls as young as seven years old to deities, but it has been
exploited as a cover for trafficking and sexual exploitation.
 Socioeconomic Factors: Poverty and lack of opportunities create fertile ground for
traffickers. Dr. Ravi Kant has highlighted the role of economic vulnerabilities in making
individuals susceptible to exploitation and has advocated for comprehensive strategies that
address the structural inequalities contributing to trafficking
 Caste and Social Discrimination: The Dalit community, facing social discrimination and
limited access to resources, is particularly vulnerable to trafficking. In states like Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, Dalit women and girls have been trafficked and forced into bonded
labor in industries such as agriculture and brick kilns.
 Armed Conflict and Displacement: Regions affected by armed conflict or natural disasters
disrupt social structures and leave women and children displaced, making them highly
vulnerable to trafficking..
Solutions to Combat Trafficking:
 Legal and Policy Measures: The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, along with amendments
and the introduction of specialized anti-trafficking units, demonstrates India's commitment
to addressing trafficking. For instance, the establishment of the Anti-Human Trafficking
Units (AHTUs) in various states has improved coordination and investigations.
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 Preventive Measures: NGOs like Bachpan Bachao Andolan (BBA) have launched grassroots
awareness campaigns and educational initiatives to prevent child trafficking. BBA's "Child
Friendly Villages" project empowers communities to identify and address child trafficking
risks proactively.
 Socioeconomic Empowerment: Initiatives like the National Rural Livelihood Mission
(NRLM) aim to uplift marginalized communities by providing access to skills training and
livelihood opportunities. Such programs enhance resilience and reduce vulnerability to
trafficking.
 Rehabilitation and Support Services: Organizations like Prajwala offer comprehensive
rehabilitation programs, including shelter, counseling, healthcare, and vocational training for
survivors. Prajwala's "Second Chance" program has helped survivors reintegrate into society
successfully.
In conclusion, while trafficking remains serious and pervasive problem in India, there are positive
steps being taken to combat it. Through legal measures, preventive initiatives, socioeconomic
empowerment, and comprehensive rehabilitation programs, progress is being made to protect and
support survivors. By addressing the root causes of trafficking, such as gender inequality, poverty,
and social discrimination, we can create a society where every individual is valued, empowered,
and free from exploitation. Together, we can build a future where the rights and dignity of all are
safeguarded, fostering a society of equality, justice, and compassion
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Question 7.
(a) Discuss B. R. Ambedkar as a wise democrat. (20 Marks)
 Introduction of B.R.Ambedkar
 Meaning of Democarcy in Ambedkar’s ideas
 How Ambedkar promoted democratic ideas
 Conclusion
Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, also known as Babasaheb Ambedkar, was a prominent Indian jurist, economist,
social reformer, and politician. He played a crucial role in shaping modern India's democratic
system and tirelessly fought against social discrimination and inequality.
Meaning of Democarcy in Ambedkar’s ideas
 Morality: Ambedkar thought that, in addition to the cornerstones of equality, liberty, and
fraternity, democracy should be considered ethically. He investigated the caste system,
Hindu social structure, religion, and Indian history through moral analysis. Ambedkar
maintained that society should not have any obvious inequities or oppressed groups.
Privileges should not be concentrated in one group while obligations are distributed to
another.
 Balancing Individualism and Fraternity: He was sceptical of excessive individualism and
thought that a peaceful society required a balance of independence and brotherhood.
 The Importance of Practicality: He used logic and critical thinking to examine every issue
because he believed that a topic must first pass the logic test before being rejected, altered, or
changed.
 Constitutional Morality: For Ambedkar, constitutional morality was a requirement for
preserving a democratic system in a country. He felt that democracy could only be sustained
by the rejection of hereditary authority, laws that represented all people, people's
representatives, and a State that has the people's trust.
How Ambedkar promoted democratic ideas
 Emphasis on Equality: Ambedkar strongly believed in the principles of equality and worked
tirelessly to eradicate social inequalities prevalent in Indian society. As the architect of the
Indian Constitution, he ensured that the fundamental rights and safeguards were enshrined
to protect the rights of all citizens, irrespective of their caste, religion, gender, or
socioeconomic status.
 Advocacy for Universal Suffrage: Ambedkar was a staunch advocate for universal
suffrage, believing that every adult citizen should have the right to vote. His efforts paved
the way for democratic representation and equal participation in the political process.
 Promotion of Social Justice: Ambedkar's struggle for social justice was a cornerstone of his
democratic principles. He fought against the caste-based discrimination deeply rooted in
Indian society and worked towards the upliftment of marginalized communities. His efforts
led to the inclusion of provisions in the Indian Constitution that aimed to promote social
justice, such as reservations in educational institutions and government jobs for
historically disadvantaged groups.
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 Commitment to Constitutionalism: Ambedkar's commitment to constitutionalism is evident
in his role as the chairman of the drafting committee of the Indian Constitution. He
envisioned a robust constitutional framework that would uphold democratic principles and
provide a legal framework for the governance of India. His efforts resulted in the creation of
a comprehensive and inclusive constitution that serves as the backbone of India's democracy.
 Gender Equality: Ambedkar strongly believed in the principle of gender equality and
advocated for the rights and empowerment of women. He saw the existing Hindu personal
laws as discriminatory and oppressive towards women, particularly regarding issues such
as marriage, divorce, and property rights. He considered the reform of these laws essential
for promoting gender justice and social progress.
 Individual Liberty: Ambedkar recognized the importance of individual liberty within a
democratic framework. This includes the freedom of expression, thought, and association, as
well as the right to live a dignified and fulfilling life.
Overall, Ambedkar's relentless struggle for equality, social justice, human rights, and his
instrumental role in drafting the Indian Constitution demonstrate his deep commitment to
democratic values. His vision and actions continue to inspire generations and contribute to the
ongoing journey of democratic progress in India.
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(b) Discuss the main features of farmers’ movements in Independent India.

(20 Marks)
 Introduction of farmer’s movements
 Evolution of farmer’s movement
 Features of farmer movements
 Issues related to farmer movements
The farmers' movement in India, which began in the 1970s and gained traction in the 1980s. In
contrast to previous mobilisations that mostly comprised small and marginal peasants as well as
landless agricultural labourers battling against zamindars and landlords, the farmers' movement
has primarily concentrated on the demands of rural society's upper layer.
According to A.R.Desai, movements previous to independence were mostly peasant, but
movements following independence were primarily farmer. Dipankar Gupta talks about the two
kinds of agricultural movements. First, there are peasant movements, which are agrarian
movements led by impoverished agricultural labourers and marginal farmers. Second, landowners'
agricultural movements are referred to as farmer's movements..
Evolution of farmer’s movement
 During the Colonial period, early peasant movements sought to address immediate
problems like as excessive taxes and zamindar exploitation. Peasant movements were
increasingly structured and joined the nationalist movement in the 1920s.
 Post-independence India has seen two types of peasant or farmer movements. Peasant
movements spearheaded by Marxists and Socialists, include the Telangana Movement (1946-
51), the Tebagha etc. Farmers' movement in Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Punjab,
and Gujarat led by wealthy farmers.
 The 1980s saw the beginning of the New Farmers' Movement in general. This was the decade
when farmers in the green revolution region began to band together behind political
organisations and politicians. According to P.C. Joshi, the developments generated a new
commercially minded affluent peasant class who were both proprietors and renters. They
had the means and the foresight to pursue commercial agriculture.
Features of farmer movements –
 Demands
o Lower prices for inputs such as seeds, fertilisers, and insecticides.
o Lower power and water rates.
o Elimination of land revenue and imposition of a tax based only on output.
o Waiver of loans owing by farmers to the government, banks, and cooperative societies
as a result of the government's unjustifiable tax system and poor prices.
o Implementation of crop insurance.
 The techniques of the farmers' movement in several states have been compared to those of
the civil disobedience movement.
 It arose when trade conditions were skewed against agriculture, agricultural revenue was
declining, and input costs were out of reach for farmers, and so on.
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 They transcend locality and embrace internationalism, going beyond national boundaries.
 The movements promote united struggles and reject categorizing social groups based on
economic positions. The movements view all social categories as poor, as biased government
policies have led to increasing poverty in rural areas.
 The focus of the movements is on remunerative prices for agricultural commodities, which
they believe will alleviate rural poverty and backwardness. E.g. Shetkari Sanghathana
under Sharad Joshi for remunerative prices for agricultural commodities, particularly for
onion.
 The new farmers' movements perceive exploitation as rooted in the larger market system,
extending beyond local markets to the global or national markets.
Issues related to farmer movements
 They had no radical agenda from inside, for example, they never cared to seek radical land
reforms, nor were they worried about atrocities committed against marginalised groups,
especially Dalits, in the countryside.
 It is sometimes asserted that the New Farmers movement is heavily biased toward market-
oriented farmers rather than subsistence farmers. For example, their arguments in favour
of debt forgiveness, remunerative prices, recognising agriculture as a business, eliminating
tractor loans, and so on eventually benefited the big or the rich/middle peasantry or farmers.
 Internal conflicts and contradictions within the movements have hindered their effectiveness
in achieving their goals. Movements are never movements for or by all caste groups. E.g. In
Karnataka, the Raitha Sangha was predominantly dominated by two dominating castes:
the Lingayats and the Vokkaligas.
 The operational areas of the movements were confined to localities where rich or market-
oriented farmers resided, limiting their reach and impact on a wider scale.
The farmers' movements, whether old or new, represent the urgent efforts of farmers, especially
those in the middle and upper echelons who heavily depend on the market, to protect themselves,
agriculture, and food security in the country. These movements have had a significant impact on
the agrarian system. However, challenges such as landlessness and the concentration of power
among a few groups in agricultural relationships persist. To ensure the future success of the farmers'
movement in India, it is crucial to build a broader network of diverse stakeholders within the
agrarian establishment.
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(c) To what extent the Muslim Personal Law Board is in agreement with
Islamic feminist agenda. (10 Marks)
 Brief introduction
 Issues between AIMPLB and Islamic Feminist agenda
 Conclusion
The All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB) and Islamic feminists in India have significant
differences and disagreements regarding the feminist agenda within an Islamic context. The
AIMPLB represents a conservative interpretation of Islamic law and traditions, while Islamic
feminists seek to challenge patriarchal norms and advocate for gender equality within Islamic
principles.:
Issues between AIMPLB and Islamic Feminist agenda
1. Triple Talaq (Instant Divorce): One of the key areas of contention is the practice of triple
talaq, where a Muslim man can divorce his wife by pronouncing "talaq" (divorce) three times.
Islamic feminists argue against this practice, considering it discriminatory and a violation of
women's rights. In contrast, the AIMPLB initially defended the practice and resisted efforts
to outlaw it. However, in 2017, the Supreme Court of India declared triple talaq
unconstitutional, overriding the AIMPLB's position.
2. Age of Marriage: Islamic feminists advocate for raising the minimum age of marriage for
women to ensure their well-being, education, and empowerment. They argue that early
marriages often lead to negative consequences for girls, such as curtailed education and
health risks. The AIMPLB, on the other hand, has been resistant to raising the age of marriage,
stating that it should be based on Islamic principles and traditions.
3. Polygamy: Islamic feminists argue for restrictions on polygamy, seeking to ensure that it is
practiced responsibly and with the consent of all parties involved. They advocate for stricter
conditions, such as requiring the husband to prove his ability to treat all wives equitably. The
AIMPLB, while acknowledging the need for fairness, generally supports the practice of
polygamy as allowed by Islamic law and opposes any significant changes to existing
regulations.
4. Women's Rights and Leadership: Islamic feminists push for greater women's rights and
participation in religious leadership and decision-making roles within the Muslim
community. They advocate for women's inclusion in mosque management, religious
teaching, and serving as Islamic scholars. The AIMPLB has been resistant to significant
changes in this regard, maintaining a more traditional view of gender roles within religious
institutions.
These examples highlight the substantial disagreements between the AIMPLB and Islamic feminists
in India. While Islamic feminists seek to reinterpret Islamic principles to promote gender equality
and women's rights, the AIMPLB generally adheres to conservative interpretations of Islamic law
and resists significant changes to existing personal laws. It is important to note that there are also
diverse opinions within the Muslim community, with some individuals and organizations
supporting feminist interpretations of Islam and advocating for reforms that align with gender
equality and women's empowerment.
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Question 8.
(a) Analyze Gandhi as a moralist, ascetic and man of action through his Hind
Swaraj. (20 Marks)
 Background of Hind Swaraj
 Gandhi as Moral reformer
 Gandhi as Ascetic
 Gandhi as Man of actions
 Criticism of gandhian thoughts
Hind Swaraj was written Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi in 1909. In it, he discusses Swaraj,
contemporary culture, mechanisation, and other topics. It is written in the manner of a conversation
between the reader and the editor of a journal/newspaper.
Hind Swaraj primarily addresses two issues: (a) a critique of contemporary civilization, and (b) the
nature and form of Indian Swaraj, as well as the means and techniques for achieving it.
Gandhi as moral reformer
 When Gandhi speaks about civilisation, he is essentially referring to a society's way of life,
which is based on its core ideals. As a result, he believes that people's ideals must be
transformed in order to develop a better sort of society. Notably, he is not opposed to all
technology or the pursuit of "bodily welfare"—rather, he condemns England's insistence on
prioritising worldly goals above spiritual ones. In other words, he is worried with the
balance of many values.
 On modern professions and education – He questioned the role of lawyers, doctors and
modern education system and argued that these are working on the principles of greed and
profit. For him, the primary goal of education should be to teach us how to manage our
senses and to instil ethical behaviour in our lives. He criticises the newly emerging elite, a
by-product of the Macaulay educational system, for enslaving India.
 On parliament – While England claims to be a democracy; Gandhi believes that the English
government mistreats the English people in the same way that the Indian government
mistreats the Indian people. He recognises that officials were acting in their own self-
interest, not for the sake of the people. Divorced from ethics or morality, the modern self or
the individual is left to the play of self-interest, greed, competition, exploitation, brute force,
violence, etc.
 On Swaraj- He makes the fundamental point that just transferring power from British to
Indian hands would not result in real swaraj. He continues, "Swaraj would have to be
experienced by every one of us." Gandhi also uses the term swaraj to refer to the Indian
people's right to self-government. In other words, the home-rule that Indians would
accomplish would be real only to the degree that they were effective in being 'self-
governing' persons.
Gandhi as ascetic
 Before Gandhi Indian ascetics were seen as mainly individuals who are outside the
materialistic world and lives spiritual life outside the society. But Gandhi mixed the
elements of both the world.
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 He interpreted methods of Satyagraha, ahimsa, swadeshi as ascetic and ritualistic practices
but directed them towards acquiring socio-political goals. He goes on to say that moral
behaviour is nothing more than gaining' mastery over one's thoughts.'
 According to Gandhi his ascetic methods like Satyagraha, self-harm are morally superior to
the physical violence.
 He identifies core values of Indian civilization as limits to self-indulgence in terms of
luxuries and pleasures, an emphasis on ancestral profession, rural life, and moral control of
sages over kings, a prohibition on unnecessary competitiveness, and a preference for small
scale technologies and decentralised polity.
Gandhi as man of actions-
 He goes into great detail on the concept of passive resistance, called Satyagraha. He defines
passive resistance as a technique of obtaining rights by enduring "personal pains." He
supports the employment of soul power here by inference on the basis of the idea of 'relative
truth.'
 He also claims that passive resistance is not a "weapon of the weak." Rather, it is a weapon of
the powerful. He adds that a truly passive resistor must practise 'absolute chastity,' accept
'voluntary poverty,' 'follow truth,' and 'cultivate fearlessness.'
 In all of his moments the primary tool of protest was Satyagraha, there was no space for
violence in gandhian methodology.
 Although he was a Hindu, Gandhi is careful not to declare any single religious doctrine
truer than or superior to any other. Rather, by emphasizing the common values that underlie
all religions, Gandhi encourages his readers to think of themselves as united across religious
lines, not divided by them. Of course, the common feature he sees in all Indian religions is
a proper balance between material and spiritual goals.
Criticism of gandhian thoughts
 Nehru questioned the primacy given to villages in Gandhian thoughts and preferred
industrialization based model for the economic development of the country.
 Ambedkar criticised Gandhi for overlooking the evils of village life like caste system and
untouchability and accused him for posting a romanticised picture of village affairs.
 Many revolutionaries contended that Gandhi's thought and practise of Satyagraha,
nonviolence, and self-suffering were unworkable anti-violent oppression measures. The
Gandhian approach, according to them, is "other-worldly" and "anti-humanist."
Conclusion
Gandhi emphasised that it is the ability for moral or ethical behaviour that elevates the human
person beyond the beast, and that the advancement of human civilisation should therefore be
judged on the scale of ethics, rather than sheer materialism, utilitarianism, or raw force. However
his ideas had been challenged and argued that his ideas are not founded on a realistic appraisal of
human nature that takes into accounts all human goals, wants, and frailties. It appears to be a little
utopian for the typical man.
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(b) Human development approach affirms that education and health-care

growth are more important than economic growth. Discuss this issue in the
light of post-liberalized Indian society. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Define human development and definition of education.
 Explain how development approach affirms that education and health-care growth are more
important than economic growth.
 Explain issue in the light of post-liberalized Indian society.
 Conclude.
Solution:
In 1990 the first Human Development Report introduced a new approach for advancing human
wellbeing. Human development – or the human development approach - is about expanding the
richness of human life, rather than simply the richness of the economy in which human beings live.
It is an approach that is focused on people and their opportunities and choices.
Human development focuses on improving the lives people lead rather than assuming that
economic growth will lead, automatically, to greater wellbeing for all.
Education
Education is fundamental to development and growth. The human mind makes possible all
development achievements, from health advances and agricultural innovations to efficient public
administration and private sector growth. For countries to reap these benefits fully, they need to
unleash the potential of the human mind. And there is no better tool for doing so than education.
Human development approach asserts the importance of education and health-care growth over
economic growth:
1. Amartya Sen's Capability Approach: Sen argues that education and health are
instrumental in expanding people's capabilities, enabling them to make meaningful choices
and participate fully in society. Example: In India, the expansion of educational
opportunities and health-care access aligns with Sen's approach, fostering capabilities and
empowering individuals.
2. D.P. Mukerji's Social Development: Mukerji argues that education and health contribute
to the social development of a nation, leading to a more equitable and just society. Example:
The improvement of public education and healthcare in India can be seen as efforts towards
achieving social development, reflecting Mukerji's perspective.
3. Structural-Functionalism and A.R. Desai: A.R. Desai, influenced by structural-
functionalism, emphasizes the interdependence of social institutions for societal well-being.
Education and health-care systems are viewed as crucial institutions contributing to the
overall functioning of society. Example: Examining the symbiotic relationship between
educational institutions and healthcare systems in India aligns with the structural-
functional perspective.
4. Gender and Development Perspective: Feminist scholars within the Human Development
Approach argue that education and healthcare are essential for women's empowerment
and gender equality. Gender disparities are addressed through initiatives that focus on
female education and healthcare access.
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Example: The Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (Save the daughter, Educate the daughter)
campaign in India exemplifies efforts to address gender imbalances through education.
5. B.R. Ambedkar's Emphasis on Education: B.R. Ambedkar, highlighted the transformative
power of education in overcoming social inequalities. Education is seen as a means of
empowerment, breaking the chains of caste-based discrimination. Example: Initiatives like
scholarships for marginalized communities and reservations in educational institutions
reflect Ambedkar's vision of using education for social upliftment.
6. Critical Perspective of Gail Omvedt: Omvedt argues that development should address the
needs and aspirations of the marginalized, with education and health being central to this
inclusive approach. Example: Grassroots movements advocating for educational and
healthcare rights for tribal communities in India align with Omvedt's critical perspective.
Issues:
1. Social Inequalities and Access to Education: Despite economic growth, there exists a
persistent gap in access to quality education, leading to social inequalities. Andre Beteille's
theory of social stratification highlights how disparities in educational opportunities can
perpetuate social hierarchies. Example: The digital divide in post-liberalized India, where
access to online education is unevenly distributed, exacerbates existing educational
disparities.
2. Public Health and Economic Disparities: Economic growth doesn't necessarily guarantee
improvements in public health, contributing to health disparities. The Health Transition
Theory by T.K. Oommen emphasizes the complex interplay between economic
development and health outcomes. Example: Despite economic progress, the prevalence of
diseases like malnutrition in certain regions reflects the inadequacies in health-care
development.
3. Quality of Education and Employability: The focus on economic growth often sidelines
the quality of education, impacting graduates' employability. M.N. Srinivas, underscores
the importance of education in preparing individuals for their roles in society. Example:
India's demographic dividend is compromised when graduates lack the skills needed for
the evolving job market due to deficiencies in the education system.
4. Gender Disparities in Education and Health: Despite progress, gender-based disparities
persist in both education and health care. Leela Dube's work on gender and patriarchy
highlights how societal norms influence women's access to education and health services.
Example: Unequal access to healthcare and education for women in certain regions
continues to impede the overall development of society.
5. Commercialization of Education and Health Services: The post-liberalized era has seen
the commercialization of education and healthcare, limiting access for marginalized
communities. Ashis Nandy's critique of commodification in society raises concerns about
the impact of profit-driven models on essential services. Example: The proliferation of
private educational institutions with high fees excludes many from quality education,
exacerbating socio-economic disparities.
6. Environmental Sustainability and Health: Unbridled economic growth may contribute to
environmental degradation, impacting public health in the long run. Ramachandra Guha's
perspective on the socio-environmental dynamics emphasizes the interconnectedness of
economic activities and ecological well-being.
Example: The environmental costs of rapid industrialization in certain regions contribute to
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health issues, underscoring the need for sustainable development.
In the context of post-liberalized Indian society, the human development approach emphasizes the
significance of education and healthcare growth over mere economic expansion. While economic
growth is undeniably vital, the human development perspective contends that true progress
should be measured by the improvement in the overall well-being of individuals.
Therefore, the post-liberalized era in India requires a balanced approach that prioritizes human
development alongside economic prosperity for comprehensive and enduring progress.
(c) Write a brief note on the freedom of press. (10 Marks)

158
 Introduction about freedom of press
 Why freedom of press is important.
 Challenges to Press Freedom
 Conclusion
The Freedom of Press is a fundamental pillar of democracy, ensuring the dissemination of
information, promoting transparency, and holding those in power accountable. In the Indian
context, the Freedom of Press is protected under Article 19(1)(a) of the Indian Constitution, which
guarantees the right to freedom of speech and expression. This provision recognizes the vital role
played by the press in a democratic society and grants journalists the freedom to report and express
their opinions without fear of censorship or reprisal.
Why freedom of press is important.
 Media, including print, broadcast, and digital platforms, plays a pivotal role in Indian society.
It acts as a watchdog, scrutinizing the actions of the government, public officials, and
institutions.
 Amartya sen argues that a free and diverse media environment is crucial for fostering
democratic societies, enabling citizens to access information, exchange ideas, and challenge
prevailing norms and policies.
 Furthermore, a free press acts as a check on power, exposing corruption, human rights
violations, and social injustices that might otherwise remain hidden.
 Media acts as a catalyst for social change, raising awareness and mobilizing public opinion.
Challenges to Press Freedom
 The concept of "manufactured consent" is associated with Noam Chomsky and his
collaborator Edward S. Herman. It refers to the idea that mass media, through various
mechanisms, shape and manipulate public opinion to align with the interests of the powerful
and maintain existing power structures.
 Chomsky argues that while freedom of the press is considered a cornerstone of democracy,
the media landscape is heavily influenced by concentrated corporate and state power, which
can limit the true extent of press freedom.
 Additionally, legal mechanisms such as defamation laws and censorship regulations can
restrict the free flow of information. There are also laws like the Official Secrets Act, sedition
laws etc that can potentially curtail press freedom.
 Instances of attacks, harassment, and violence against journalists further hinder press
freedom.
Conclusion:
The Freedom of Press in India is a cornerstone of democracy, empowering citizens with information,
enabling public debate, and fostering accountability. However, challenges such as media ownership
concentration, political pressures, and legal restrictions persist. It is essential to protect and
strengthen press freedom, ensuring that journalists can perform their duties without fear of reprisal.
Responsible journalism remains vital in upholding a vibrant, informed, and democratic society in
India.
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Mains 2016
Section A
each: 10x5=50 marks.
(a) Salient features of A.R. Desai's Marxist Sociology 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce answer by explaining what Marxist sociology entail.
 Discuss the salient features of A.R. Desai's Marxist Sociology.
 Conclusion
Solution
Akshay Ramanlal Desai was a pioneering figure in the application of Marxist sociology to Indian
society. His work, "Social Background of Indian Nationalism," provides a detailed view of Indian
society from a Marxist perspective.
The salient features of A.R. Desai's Marxist Sociology include the following.
 Dialectical Historical Approach: Desai employed a dialectical historical approach to
understand Indian society. This method allowed him to analyze social phenomena in relation
to their historical development, emphasizing the interplay between contradictory forces and
the dynamics of change.
 Materialistic Basis: Desai gave less importance to culture and religion in understanding
Indian society. Instead, he focused on tracing social traditions in terms of material relations,
particularly the economic structure and productive relations.
 Influence of Economic Structure: Desai viewed Indian society and its traditions as heavily
influenced by the underlying economic structure. He emphasized the role of productive
relations in shaping social structures and institutions.
 Class Analysis: Desai believed that British colonial rule in India destroyed pre-capitalist
forms of production relations. Land revenue and tenure system of the British led to formation
of new classes and hence capitalist mode of production was introduced in India by the British.
This transformation also affected the agrarian structure and led to the emergence of colonial
capitalism.
 Systemic View: Desai saw society in systemic terms, conforming to a model of economic
interpretation of the superstructure. For example, his village studies emphasized a deeper
understanding of the socio-political setup based on the network relations woven around
land. Here, he identified the Jajmani system as exploitative.
 Intersectionality: Desai argued that the disappearance of the structural reality of caste would
be a significant milestone for Indian society to progress to a higher level. He saw caste as a
hindrance to social development and advocated for its eradication.
 Colonial Capitalism and Nationalism: Desai attributed the rise of Indian nationalism to the
materialistic conditions created by British colonial rule.
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He argued that the introduction of the capitalist mode of production in Indian agriculture
led to peasant struggles and the emergence of nationalist sentiments.
 Anti-Bureaucratic and Anti-Imperialist Vision: Desai envisioned an Indian society that was
both anti-bureaucratic and anti-imperialist. He advocated for a socio-political system that
resisted bureaucratic control and challenged imperialist domination.
 Political Engagement: Desai supported Trotsky's formula of permanent revolution, which
posits that a successful socialist revolution in a developing country like India would require
the active participation of the working class, along with a thorough transformation of social
and economic structures.
 Marxist Solution for Post-Independence India: Desai went beyond academic discourse and
believed that a Marxist approach was the solution to the problems faced by post-
Independence India. He saw Marxism as a framework that could guide the transformation
of Indian society towards a more equitable and just system.
In conclusion, A.R. Desai's Marxist Sociology presents a comprehensive and insightful analysis of
Indian society. A.R. Desai's contributions to Marxist sociology not only deepen our understanding
of Indian society but also provide a framework for envisioning a more equitable and transformative
future.
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(b) Significance of Village Studies in Indian Sociology. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Mention some important work on village studies in India.
 Significance of village studies in Indian Sociology.
 Conclusion
Solution
Historically, village studies have been integral to the field of Indian sociology. Pioneering
sociologists such as M.N. Srinivas, G.S. Ghurye, and Louis Dumont conducted extensive research
on rural communities, laying the foundation for this area of study. Their seminal works, such as
Srinivas' "The Remembered Village" and Ghurye's "The Village in India," highlighted the
importance of understanding the village as a microcosm of Indian society.
Significance of village studies in Indian Sociology:
 The earlier colonial scholars like Metcalfe depicted Indian villages as closed, isolated
systems, portraying them as unchanging, self-sufficient entities with communal land
ownership and social harmony. However, anthropological studies conducted in the 1950s
and 1960s by Indian sociologists and anthropologists contested this notion and revealed a
more nuanced reality.
 Scholars like Andre Beteille and M.N. Srinivas demonstrated that Indian villages were not
atomistic, unchanging entities but were part of wider entities, maintaining social, political,
and economic ties at the regional level. While the village was undoubtedly the most
representative unit of Indian social life and a significant source of identity for its residents, it
was important to recognize its connections and interdependencies with the larger society.
 The empirical findings of village studies also challenged the notion of complete social
harmony and functional integration within Indian villages. Scholars like S.C. Dube
identified factors such as caste, religion, land ownership, wealth, and position in government
service, age, and distinctive personality traits that contributed to status differentiation or
inequality within village communities. These studies highlighted the existence of groups,
factions, and differences based on caste, class, and gender within the village social fabric.
 Additionally, scholars like M.N. Srinivas introduced concepts like "Sanskritization" and
"dominant castes" to critique the colonial understanding of caste in Indian villages. They
emphasized that while the idealized model of the Varna system portrayed caste as a closed
and rigid system, empirical evidence showed that there was room for social mobility and
variation, particularly in the middle regions.
 Moreover, village studies contribute to evidence-based policy formulation and
development initiatives. The insights gained from these studies aid in designing targeted
interventions, rural development programs, and policies that address the specific needs and
challenges faced by rural communities.
Overall, village studies conducted by Indian sociologists and anthropologists effectively countered
the colonial ideological categorization of Indian villages, revealing the empirical reality that was far
more complex and interconnected. These studies showcased the unity and reciprocity within village
communities while acknowledging the existence of social differentiation, inequality, and horizontal
ties between villages and urban areas.
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(c) Isolationism' as a dominant feature of colonial tribal policy. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Explain isolationis
 Views on Isolation
 Details of the isolationist policies
 Conclusion
Solution
The policy of isolationism emerged as a dominant feature of colonial tribal policy, which had a
profound impact on tribal communities in India. Here, isolationism refers to the intentional
separation of tribal communities from the broader society and their confinement to specific
geographic areas.
Colonial view on isolation
 According to Hutton's isolationist viewpoint, tribal must be defended from traders,
merchants, moneylenders, and others who seek to reduce tribal to landless labourers.
 A British anthropologist Elwin, believed that tribes could only grow along the lines of their
"own genius" without disrupting their social and cultural life. They promoted the concept of
autonomy, as well as self-government rights
Major Isolationist policies:
 In the first phase (1782-1827), specific administrative arrangements were experimented with
in the Rajmahal hills, where the revolt of the Paharias against Hindu Zamindars prompted
the administrator, Cleveland, to provide civil and criminal jurisdiction to local elders of the
hill. However, corruption and mismanagement led to the failure of this experiment.
 The second phase (1855-1919) witnessed the creation of Santhal district after the Santhal
rebellion. The 1861 act brought tribal areas under special administration, granting officers
special civil and penal powers.
 Regarding forest policies, Lord Dalhousie declared teak as state property, and restrictions
were imposed on the collection of Minor Forest Produce (MFP). Formal forest policies were
declared in 1855, and subsequent acts gradually transformed forests from common property
to state property. The rights of forest dwellers were diminished, leading to their alienation
from forest resources.
 In the third phase (1919-1947), partially excluded areas required the Governor to seek advice
from village administrators, while wholly excluded areas allowed the Governor to act at his
discretion. The fear of tribal participation in the freedom struggle led to the policy of isolating
tribal communities.
Overall, the colonial policy of isolationism had significant implications for tribal communities,
particularly regarding land rights, forest access, and cultural preservation. Understanding the
historical context and the subsequent developments in forest and tribal policies is crucial for
comprehending the challenges faced by tribal populations in present-day India.
163
(d) Anti-Brahmanical movements during the colonial period. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Define the concept of Anti-Brahmanical movements.
 Enumerate some of the important anti-Brahmanical movements.
 Discuss the sociological implication of these movements.
 Conclusion
Solution
During the colonial period in India, there were significant anti-Brahmanical movements that
emerged as a response to the social, cultural, and economic dominance of the Brahmin caste. The
influence of Western education, exposure to democratic principles played a significant role in
challenging Brahmanical authority. These movements were also fuelled by social reformers who
aimed to dismantle caste-based inequalities and promote social justice.
MSA Rao categorized these backward caste movements into three types:
 Brahmins vs Non – Brahmins (Shudra – Dalit together)
 Brahmins & upper Non–Brahmins vs lower Non – Brahmins (excluding Dalits) (also called
as OBC movement)
 Dalit vs All
Some of the important anti-Brahmanical movements included the following.
 Dalit movement: Led by leaders like Ambedkar, it fought against social exploitation and
caste disabilities, specifically targeting Brahminism.
 Satya Shodak Samaj: Founded by Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, this movement aimed to liberate
non-Brahmins from Brahmanism by rejecting Vedic traditions and Aryan heritage.
 Dravida Kazhagam movement: Based in Tamil Nadu, it rejected Brahmanical Aryan religion
and culture, embracing and promoting Dravidian culture and religion.
 SNDP movement: Associated with the Ezhavas of Kerala, it advocated for a new religion
and established parallel religious institutions to challenge the dominance of Brahmanical
Hinduism.
Sociological implication of these movements:
 Both Omvedt and Herald Gould view the Sathya Sodak Samaj as a transgressive movement
rather than a reformative one, serving as the foundation for the dalit movement led by
Ambedkar.
 David Hardiman further argues that the Sathya Sodak Samaj and Ambedkar's initiatives
were influential in the emergence of subaltern movements in Western India.
 Gail Omvedt views the self-respect movement as an anti-Hindu and anti-Brahmin protest
against the socio-cultural and economic dominance of Brahmins.
 T.K. Oommen sees it as a non-Brahmin pursuit of progressive modernity. M.N. Srinivas
suggests that non-Brahmins sought secular power as Brahmins monopolized Sanskritisation.
 According to Utsula Sharma, in her book "The Dynamics of Caste," the SNDP movement is
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seen as a protest movement rather than a reformative one. On the other hand, M.S. Rao
argues that the SNDP movement brought about changes in the structure of caste, rather than
simply changing the caste structure itself.
Thus, the anti-Brahmanical movements had significant sociological implications. They challenged
the social order, leading to changes in social consciousness and inter-caste relations. These
movements played a crucial role in shaping the discourse on caste, identity politics, and social justice
in contemporary India. They paved the way for social mobility and the assertion of rights for
marginalized communities.
165
(e) Patriarchy as a form of dominance. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Provide a brief definition of patriarchy.
 Patriarchy functions as a form of dominance.
 Impact of patriarchy as a form of dominance.
 Conclusion
Solution
of life such as the family, economy, and governance. Women, on the other hand, are considered
inferior to men and are often subjected to discrimination and unequal treatment. Patriarchy is
associated with gender stereotypes, the perpetuation of traditional gender roles, and the
normalization of male supremacy and authority over women.
Patriarchy as a form of dominance
 Gender Roles: Assigning specific roles and expectations based on gender, reinforcing male
superiority and female subordination. According to Blood and Hamblin, despite women's
increased participation in the labour force, important family decisions are still made by men.
And the mother-housewife role is still the most important.
 Socialization: Instilling and reinforcing gender norms through family, education, and media,
perpetuating patriarchal values.
 Power Imbalances: Concentrating power in the hands of men, limiting women's access to
authority and decision-making. According to research done by Blood and Wolfe, the wife's
power within the family tends to vary according to how closely her pay check matches her
husband's.
 Resource Control: Men's greater access to resources, wealth, and opportunities, reinforcing
gender inequalities.
 Violence and Oppression: Using violence and discrimination to maintain control, enforcing
compliance with patriarchal norms. "Violence" is seen by Sylvia Walby as one of the six
patriarchal structures that undermine woman's position in society. In "Mirrors of Violence,"
Veena Das argues that violence against women is a result of culturally constructed
boundaries and patriarchal constructs.
 Social/Cultural Justifications: Justifying gender inequalities through biological
determinism, tradition, and religion. For example, Uma Chakravarty argues that Brahminical
tradition glorified obedient woman as 'Pativrata' or loyal to husband and hence put a veil on
gender discrimination. She calls it Brahminical patriarchy.
 Patriarchal Bargain: It refers to strategic choices made by women in patriarchal societies to
gain limited benefits or protection. It involves compromising or conforming to traditional
gender roles in exchange for security or acceptance. It is seen as a survival strategy but can
reinforce gender inequality.
 Systemic discrimination: Patriarchy perpetuates systematic discrimination against women,
resulting in unequal opportunities and outcomes.
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 Reproductive control: Patriarchy seeks to control women's reproductive rights and choices,
limiting their autonomy over their own bodies. Tanya Evans highlights that women are
considered as a property of the husband. Additionally, Sylvia Walby argues that sexually
active woman is labelled negatively in patriarchal society.
 Institutional reinforcement: Patriarchy is reinforced by societal institutions, including laws,
policies, and cultural norms, that maintain male dominance and female subordination. Indira
Jai Singh argues that all laws of entitlements based on patriarchy than gender equality.
Impact of patriarchy:
 It obstructs girls' access to education and employment opportunities. In rural areas, girls
encounter obstacles in attending school and often drop out early due to societal expectations
linked to gender roles. Moreover, they face challenges in pursuing careers in male-dominated
fields.
 Patriarchal norms further deprive girls of essential rights, such as healthcare and nutrition,
as boys are given preferential treatment in some communities. Consequently, girls experience
higher rates of malnutrition and illness.
 Additionally, patriarchal attitudes curtail girls' freedom to make choices about marriage,
work, and higher education. These limitations are even more pronounced for marginalized
communities like Dalits, Adivasis, and Muslim girls, who endure additional discrimination
based on their caste, religion, and gender.
In summary, patriarchy greatly influences society. To address this issue and foster gender equality,
various measures can be taken. These include implementing legal frameworks, government
initiatives, civil society programs, educational reforms, economic empowerment efforts, and
promoting inclusive media and entertainment. By actively addressing patriarchy, we can work
towards a more equitable and just society.
167
Question 2.
(a) How has B.R. Ambedkar identified the features of caste system? How is
it different from the mainstream treatment of caste features? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce B.R. Ambedkar work on the caste system in India.
 Discuss the key features of the caste system as identified by Ambedkar.
 Compare Ambedkar's perspective with the mainstream treatment of caste features.
 Explain Ambedkar's critique of the mainstream treatment of caste and its limitations.
 Conclusion
Solution
B.R. Ambedkar submitted a paper titled "Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis, and
Development" during his time at Columbia University. This paper delved into an extensive analysis
of the caste system in India, exploring its origins, functioning, and evolution.
He emphasized several key features of the caste system which include:
 Hierarchical Organization: Ambedkar identified the caste system as a system of graded
social inequality, with castes arranged in a hierarchical order. Individuals are born into
specific castes and remain within those boundaries throughout their lives.
 Endogamy: Ambedkar highlighted the practice of endogamy, which refers to marrying
within one's own caste. This practice reinforces social boundaries and restricts inter-caste
interactions, perpetuating caste divisions. According to Ambedkar caste is superimposition
of endogamy over exogamy. Caste according to him is the parcelling of an already
homogeneous unit.
 Untouchability: Ambedkar recognized the existence of untouchability, where certain castes,
particularly the so-called "lower castes" or Dalits, face severe social discrimination and are
considered impure or untouchable.
 Occupational Restrictions: Ambedkar identified the imposition of occupational restrictions
based on caste. Certain occupations are traditionally associated with specific castes, limiting
social mobility and reinforcing occupational segregation. He considered caste system as
division of labourer instead of division of labour.
Comparison with mainstream treatment of caste:
 The mainstream approach often upheld the hierarchical system, whereas Ambedkar strongly
criticized this perspective and revealed its limitations. According to Ambedkar, the
mainstream treatment of caste failed to acknowledge the inherent inequality and oppression
deeply rooted in the caste system.
 For example, Gandhi viewed untouchability as the problem and not caste as such. Ambedkar
believed that caste went beyond being a mere social division and instead operated as a system
of social, economic, and political subjugation, systematically marginalizing certain castes and
denying them basic human rights. He argued that caste was not merely a social custom but
a deeply ingrained system of power and hierarchy that necessitated radical reform.
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Ambedkar's critique of mainstream treatment of caste:
 The mainstream treatment of caste often focused on superficial actions like social reforms or
symbolic gestures, without addressing the underlying structural inequalities. Ambedkar
criticized these surface-level approaches and advocated for comprehensive socio-political
reforms, including legal protections and affirmative action policies, to dismantle the caste
system and uplift marginalized communities.
 Ambedkar also highlighted the limitations of the mainstream discourse on caste, which
frequently perpetuated the dominant caste's narrative and suppressed the voices and
experiences of marginalized communities. He called for the empowerment and
representation of Dalits and other oppressed castes, asserting their right to speak for
themselves and actively participate in decision-making processes.
In conclusion, Ambedkar's critique of the mainstream treatment of caste centered around the failure
to recognize the systemic oppression, the tendency to view caste as a cultural rather than a structural
problem, the reliance on superficial measures, and the marginalization of perspectives from
oppressed communities. He urged for radical reforms and sincere efforts to dismantle the caste
system and achieve social justice and equality.
169
(b) Discuss Andre Beteille's account of the relationship between caste, class
and power as a change from symmetrical to asymmetrical one. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce Beteille's work
 Discuss Beteille's analysis of caste, class, power.
 change from symmetrical to asymmetrical one
 Conclusion
Solution
In his whose book "Class, Caste, and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore Village”
Andre Beteille adopts a Trinitarian approach, similar to Weber, considering class, status, and power
as interrelated forces in society.
Beteille’s study on Sripuram village in Tanjore district
The research focuses on the shifting patterns of social stratification in a multi-caste village. The social
life of the village was defined by its separation into three caste groups: Brahmins, middle-level Non
Brahmins, and Adi-Dravidas (the lower caste) in his portrayal of the village, he concedes that it is
not confined, but rather exists as a civilization exposed to outside influences and circumstances.
 The physical structure of the village:
o Physically, the village is separated into three distinct sections: Agraharam, Kudiana
streets, and Cheri. These geographical distinctions are significant because they are
associated with social ideals.
o All of the Brahmin dwellings are located in the Agraharam. It is the focal point of their
social life. A non-Brahmin does not normally enter the agraharam unless he has a
specific business.
o The Cheri is also isolated from the rest of the community. The Brahmins typically do
not enter or travel through the cheri, which they consider dirty.
o The Non-Brahmin dwellings are located between the agraharam and the cheri, and
are organised in a series of streets that lack the symmetry of either the agraharam or
the cheri.
 The Caste Structure:
o Brahmins have historically been significantly more mobile than other groups, and a
Brahmin caste has a far larger territorial range than a Non-Brahmin caste. Those at the
bottom of the untouchables are both economically and socially disadvantaged.
o The Brahmins hold far more land than the Non-Brahmins, who in turn own
significantly more land than the Adi-Dravidas. Many Brahmins are mirasdars, and
none of them participate in real agriculture or other menial tasks. Almost all of the
Adi-Dravidas labour in agriculture or other menial jobs, and no Adi-Dravidas from
Sripuram possess land in the village.
o Non-Brahmins fall somewhere in the middle since they own land and engage in real
farming as well as other menial labour.
 Economic organization and Social Class:
o The economy of Sripuram, like that of the rest of Tanjore villages, is concentrated
entirely on rice agriculture via massive irrigation.
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o Economic interdependence results from prohibitions on particular castes from
partaking in specific occupations. As a result, the Brahmin must rely on the Non-
Brahmin to plough his property because a Brahmin cannot touch a plough without
losing his caste position.
o Similarly, other village level labourers (such as washermen, potters, ironsmiths,
leatherworkers, and so on) do tasks that are forbidden to other caste groups, resulting
in a web of economic and ceremonial interdependence.
 The distribution of Power
o Beteille believes Political parties and local politics appear to have a two-way
interaction. On the one hand, parties prefer to operate in terms of the local vernacular,
selecting candidates from the locally prominent caste, for example. Local disputes, on
the other hand, eventually adapt to and align with larger conflicts between political
parties.
o In this study, he examined the changes in caste, class, and power relations brought
about by the external intervention of factors such as formal education, the availability
of caste-free occupations, and the commoditisation of land, which has allowed land to
be purchased and sold.
Change from symmetrical to asymmetrical one
 In the past, there was a strong alignment between caste hierarchy, class hierarchy, and power
hierarchy in India. Factors such as geographical mobility, western education, new
occupational structures, modernization, and political developments have led to a
disconnection between caste, class, and power.
 Lower castes have gained political power, leading to their increased presence in the political
sphere. The politicization of caste, as observed by MN Srinivas and Rajni Kothari, has
made caste an integral aspect of Indian politics. Caste has become politicized and plays a
significant role in candidate selection, voting patterns, leadership positions, and the
distribution of ministerial portfolios.
 Economic opportunities, administrative patronage, and positions of power offered by new
institutions and leadership have transformed the dynamics of caste, class, and power.
 The introduction of democracy, land reforms, and other measures has significantly
influenced the relationship between caste, class, and power.
 The relationship between caste, class, and power is no longer solely based on ideology but
has become a matter of utility and convenience. The distribution of power has become
dynamic, and the traditional relationship between caste and power has been reversed in
certain aspects.
As a result, the relationship between caste, class, and power described by Beteille is now
asymmetrical, characterized by distributed privileges and deprivation, rather than cumulative
privileges and deprivation.
Andre Beteille adapted Weber's conceptual framework of class, position, and power to analyze the
Indian context, moving beyond the traditional focus on caste structure. His work emphasizes the
need for a nuanced analysis that considers the interplay between caste, class, and power dynamics.
Beteille's theory recognizes the complexity of social stratification and highlights the evolving nature
of power and privilege in Indian society. By incorporating class and power into the analysis, Beteille
provides a more comprehensive understanding of the changing dynamics within the Indian rural
stratification structure.
171
(c) Analyse the major components of Land Reform Acts. Show their
effectiveness in curbing rural inequality. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Brief overview of the Land Reform
 Discuss the major component of Land Reform Acts.
 Assess the impact of Land Reform Acts in addressing rural inequality.
Solution
Land reforms in India were initiated to address unequal land distribution and landlessness,
prevalent due to centuries of colonial rule and feudal practices. The reforms aimed to redistribute
land, provide security of tenure, abolish intermediaries, ensure equitable access to land, and provide
fillip to ‘modernization of agriculture’ and increase ‘agriculture productivity’. So, broadly the
objectives were to usher in an egalitarian society, stop exploitation in all forms.
Major component of land reforms:
 Abolition of Intermediaries: By the time India gained independence, intermediaries such as
Zamindars, Talukdars, Jagirs, and Inams dominated the agricultural sector. Soon after
independence, some governments passed legislation to abolish the Zamindari system.
 Tenancy Reforms- Tenants may not be evicted without cause. They can only be evicted in
conformity with the law. The primary goal of such Acts was to make rents fair and
reasonable. In certain places, rules have been implemented that allow the tenant to buy the
leased land after paying a fee to the landlord. As a result of these policies, almost 40 lakh
renters have already obtained ownership rights to 37 lakh hectares of land. They have
improved both economically and socially.
 Land holdings ceiling - The third and most essential phase in land reform is the installation
of a land holdings ceiling. A ceiling on land holdings is limiting the quantity of land that a
person or family can own.
 Consolidation of Holdings- Consolidation of Holdings refers to combining a farmer's
multiple small parcels of land spread around the community into one compact block, either
by acquisition or exchange of land with others.
 Co-operative farming - In this system, farmers pool their modest holdings for cultivation in
order to gain the benefits of large-scale farming. The benefits of scientific farming and the
adoption of new prospective technologies may be realized; cooperative farming creates the
groundwork for robust democracy, self-help, and mutual aid.
 Bhoodan Movement - The Bhoodan Movement was spearheaded by Acharya Vinoba Bhabe.
He collected land from the rich landlords and distributed that to the landless.
 Land record compilation and updating - Land record compilation and updating are required
for the efficient implementation of land reform programs.
Positive impacts:
 Redistribution of land to the landless and marginalized sections has led to changes in land
ownership patterns and increased land ownership among the previously landless.
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 The abolition of intermediaries has provided security of tenure to tenants and has reduced
their exploitation by intermediaries and landlords.
 The provision of credit facilities and access to markets has improved the economic
conditions of peasant farmers and has provided them with opportunities to invest in farming
and increase their productivity.
 The increased bargaining power of peasant farmers has enabled them to negotiate better
prices for their produce and to resist exploitation by middlemen and traders.
 Land reforms have also played a significant role in the empowerment of women by
providing them with greater access to land and resources, and by recognizing their rights as
farmers and landowners.
Limitations:
 B.C. Joshi summarized the post-independence trends in the agrarian class structure, which
saw the decline of feudal customary tenancies and their replacement with more exploitative
lease arrangements.
 The taking over of zamindars' and absentee landlords' estates was subject to payment of
compensation, limiting transfer of land to only rich tenants.
 Land Ceiling Acts were largely ineffective, as landowners used "benami transfers" to divide
land among relatives and maintain control.
 Land reforms in India did not completely eradicate landlordism as it only removed the top
layer of landlords. Upper/middle peasants colluded with the land revenue and
administrative machinery, exploiting loopholes in the law, exemptions, and delays in the
judicial process to block the progress of reforms.
 Although some states have ensured minimum wages for agricultural labor, redistribution of
land has not increased productivity levels due to the lack of inputs and better agricultural
practices.
 Arvind Das and Anand Chakravarty have highlighted in their work the hegemonic link
between dominant castes, landholders, and power in regions such as Purnia district of Bihar.
Similarly, Daniel Thorner finds that even after the implementation of land reforms, the nexus
between land and caste remains unchanged.
In summary, Land Reform Acts played a critical role in tackling rural inequality and advancing
social justice in India. However, it is essential to consistently invest efforts and implement effective
policies to enhance the implementation of these acts. By doing so, we can ensure their lasting impact
in creating a just and inclusive rural society in India.
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Question 3.
(a) Bring out the significance of the difference between family and
household. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduction of household and family
 Difference between household and family
 Mention other factor apart from caste that also play role in Indian politics.
Solution
Households and families are the fundamental units of analysis in demography. They are frequently
used interchangeably; however there is a distinction between the two. It is critical to understand
that families and households are not the same thing, with a household merely referring to one or
more people living in the same dwelling. A family, on the other hand, is defined as at least two or
more people related by ceremonial and/or biological ties, living together or in frequent contact.
Sociological explanation of Family:
The family is the fundamental unit of society. Language, behavioural tendencies, and social
conventions are all learned in the family during childhood. The family is, in some ways, the
universal group. It exists in tribal, rural, and urban communities, as well as among adherents of
various religions and civilizations.
Various perspectives on family are-
 Functionalist - According to Murdock (1949), the family serves four basic functions in all
societies: sexual, reproductive, economic, and educational (socialization). Parsons argues that
every family in every society serves two 'fundamental and irreducible' functions: primary
socialisation of children and adult personality stabilisation.
 Marxist - According to Engels, the necessity for the family originated when civilizations
began to respect private property. Family promotes the economy's objectives — in this case,
the creation of property ownership – while subjecting women to uneven power dynamics at
home.
 Feminist - Delphy and Leonard regard the family as a patriarchal structure in which women
do the majority of the work while males reap the majority of the benefits. Furthermore, this
patriarchal ideology emphasises the significance of the mother-housewife position for
women and the breadwinner role for the family as justification for violence against women.
Sociological dimension of household
A household is made up of all the people who live in a single dwelling. A household is often a
collection of people who live together under one roof, regardless of blood or kinship ties. However,
the majority of them are families. However, a sizable proportion could be students living in flats,
persons who have moved out of their parents' homes and are living independently, or foreign
workers living together.
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 A.M. Shah in his famous work The Household Dimension of Family emphasizes on the
study of the household dimension of the family. Shah describes household as a strictly
commensal (eat together) and co-resident group. For Shah, ‘family’ is a concept and
‘household’ is an empirically experienced entity. Shah talks about phases of household
development - A household may experience progression and or regression on the basis of
birth, adoption, marriage, death etc.
 Kolenda consistently worked towards clarifying issues about family and household. She has
proposed 12 types of classificatory scheme in her comparative study of the Indian joint
family.
Difference between family and household
 Social dynamics: It helps us understand how social relationships, roles, and interactions
shape society. In a family, all members are related to each other through kinship ties, such as
parent-child, sibling, or spousal relationships. In contrast, members of a household are not
necessarily related to each other. They may be friends, roommates, or individuals sharing a
living space without any familial connection.
 Roles and Responsibilities:In a family, members have certain obligations, duties, and
responsibilities towards each other, often based on social norms and cultural expectations.
For example, parents are responsible for the well-being and upbringing of their children, and
spouses have mutual obligations to support and care for each other. In non-family
households, such as shared housing or cohabiting arrangements, the members do not
necessarily have duties or responsibilities towards each other beyond shared expenses or
basic household chores.
 Changing Living Arrangements: The distinction becomes particularly relevant in studying
changing living arrangements and household compositions. Societal shifts such as increasing
rates of cohabitation, single-parent households, or multi-generational living arrangements
can impact social structures and have implications for policies, and the overall functioning
of society.
 Demographic Analysis: The distinction is crucial in demographic studies. It allows
researchers to track demographic trends, such as changes in family size, household
composition, and patterns of living arrangements. This information is essential for
policymakers.
 Economic and Social Changes: The distinction helps us to understand and track economic
and social changes since the composition of households can be influenced by economic and
social changes. For example, in liberal societies, there may be an increase in unmarried
couples living together without formal marriage. Higher divorce rates could result in more
single-person households. Economic crises may lead to adult individuals returning to live
with their parents. These changes highlight how living arrangements within households can
shift due to various factors. Sociologist argue that due to various factors like population
growth, increasing longevity, greater pressure on land and housing, the average size of
household has actually been increasing.
 Classification: The distinction helps us to classify these units which help us in its further
analysis. For example, families encompass various types, including nuclear families (parents
and their children), extended families (multiple generations living together), and single-
parent families (one parent and their children).
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On the other hand, households can be classified into two types: family households, which
consist of a family and may include additional non-family members, and non-family
households, which consist of individuals who are not related to each other. Furthermore, in
his field study in Gujarat, A. M. Shah classified households into two groups: simple and
compound.
 Policy Implications: Understanding the distinction between families and households has
policy implications in areas such as social welfare, housing, education, and healthcare.
Policies designed to support families may need to consider the diverse range of household
arrangements and the specific needs of individuals living in non-traditional family
structures.
 Comparative Analysis: Distinguishing between families and households allows for
comparative analysis across different societies and cultures. Sociologists can examine
variations in family systems, living arrangements, and household structures to understand
how social, economic, and cultural factors shape family and household dynamics across
different contexts.
Household performs many functions of the family. Both may overlap each other but conceptually
they are distinct and separate. Family is closely linked with marriage and blood relations while
household per se is mainly residential unit. Thus kin and residence rules distinguish between family
and household.
In summary, it is essential to recognize and understand the distinction between families and
households for several reasons. By grasping the difference, we can gain a deeper understanding of
social structures and how they influence individuals and societies.
176
(b) Elucidate the concepts of 'majoritarianism' and 'minoritarianism' in

accentuating communal tensions in India. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define majoritarianism and minoritarianism.
 Role in communal tensions.
 The impact of communal tensions.
 Conclusion
Solution
Majoritarianism is a political philosophy or ideology with the agenda asserting that a majority based
on a religion, language, social class, or other category of the population, is entitled to a certain degree
of primacy in society, and has the right to make decisions that affect the society. On the other hand,
Minoritarianism is sometimes used to describe rule by a dominant minority such as an ethnic group
delineated by religion, language, or some other identifying factor.
Views on Majoritarianism and Minoritarianism
 Ashis Nandy has offered critical perspectives on Hindu majoritarianism in India,
highlighting its implications for democracy, pluralism, and social harmony. Nandy's views
on Hindu majoritarianism emphasize the need for a nuanced understanding of Hindu
identity and a rejection of any form of religious chauvinism.
 Critics argue that majoritarianism is not only a Hindu phenomenon. They claim that any
religion that holds the majority in a state can perpetuate majoritarianism. For instance, there
is a majoritarianism of Muslims in Kashmir.
 Minoritarianism in Indian context refer to the practice of appeasement of minority groups
through vote bank politics. This refers to the strategy employed by some political parties to
cater to the demands and interests of specific minority communities in order to secure their
votes.
 Critics of minoritarianism argue that such practices can create divisions based on religious
or communal lines and undermine the principles of equal representation and governance for
all citizens.
Accentuation of communal tensions:
 Majoritarianism can lead to the suppression of minority voices, the denial of their rights,
and a sense of exclusion. Minority groups may feel marginalized, oppressed, or treated as
second-class citizens.
 On the other hand, minoritarianism can lead to resentment among majority groups. The
interplay between majoritarianism and minoritarianism can exacerbate communal tensions.
 When one group dominates or feels threatened by the other, it can result in a cycle of
resentment, distrust, and conflict. Communal violence, polarization, and social divisions can
arise as a consequence. Examples of such communal tensions in India include instances of
religious riots, mob violence, and hate crimes targeting minority communities.
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Impacts of communal tensions:
 Violence and loss of life: The Gujarat riots in 2002 resulted in widespread violence, leading
to the deaths of thousands of people.
 Property damage and displacement: Communal tensions have often led to the destruction
of homes, businesses, and places of worship, as seen in the aftermath of the Babri Masjid
demolition in 1992.
 Social divisions and polarization: Communal tensions deepen social divisions, as witnessed
in instances where communities become segregated and mistrustful of each other. They lead
to social division along religious and ethnic lines, creating an "us versus them" mentality.
 Political exploitation: Communal tensions are sometimes exploited for political gain, with
political parties using divisive rhetoric and communal sentiments to consolidate their
support base.
 Economic consequences: Communal tensions can negatively impact economic development,
as investor confidence declines and business activities are disrupted, as seen in instances of
communal violence affecting trade and tourism.
 Human rights violations: Communal tensions often lead to human rights violations,
including incidents of targeted violence, hate speech, and religious persecution, infringing
upon the fundamental rights and freedoms of individuals and communities. Attack on
religious functions of other communities – recent attacks on church in various parts of the
country, attack on muslims for performing namaz in gurugram.
In summary, the impact of majoritarianism and minoritarianism on communal tensions in India is
significant. It is essential to address and alleviate these tensions in order to promote a society that is
diverse, inclusive, and embraces pluralism.
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(c) Comment on the increasing significance of caste in politics. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Brief introduction of caste politics
 Caste politics in independent India
 Aspects of Caste politics
 Impact of caste politics
Solution
Caste is a significant factor in influencing Indian politics. Politics is influenced by caste, and politics
is influenced by caste. Caste and democratic politics appear to be diametrically opposed concepts:
caste is a strict hierarchical stratified structure based on birth, whereas democratic politics defends
the principles of equality, freedom, and justice. Rajni Kothari stated that the search for power inside
caste groupings or among castes resulted in the politicisation of caste.
Relation between Caste and Politics
 According to Andre Beteille, Indian politics has continuously attempted to negotiate the
loyalty liberal spirit and communal consciousness.
 In his book Caste in Indian Politics, Rajni Kothari argues that in newly independent
democratic India, caste and politics are linked in three ways:
o Secularisation of caste occurred, which expanded the role of caste from a traditional
community identity rules and rituals to a larger phenomenon that was used in caste
mobilisation for secular proposes of power and employment.
o Integration, caste not only distinguishes people based on their caste identity, but it
also integrates people on a smaller scale, forming their loyalties to specific groups.
o Consciousness, he believes that caste enters politics by being conscious of its identity
and becoming politicised, which strengthens community consciousness.
Various aspects of caste politics and identity formation
 Castes, socialisation, and leadership - Different caste groups have loyalty to various political
parties and ideologies. Individuals are naturally influenced by caste groupings and casteism
as they develop their political orientations, attitudes, and beliefs. 'Caste values' and caste
interests have an impact on socialisation, and hence on political thought, consciousness, and
engagement. The process of leadership recruitment is influenced by caste. In Haryana,
leadership is provided by either the Jats or the Bishnois or Brahmins. Andhra Pradesh's state
leaders are the Reddys, Kammas, and Valamas.
 Caste and Party Politics: Some political parties have a clear caste foundation, while others
rely on certain caste groups indirectly. The DMK and AIADMK are Tamil Nadu's non-
Brahmin, anti-Brahmin political parties.
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 While the BSP relies heavily on the support of the Scheduled Castes, the support of high caste
Hindus and the trade sector is very crucial for BJP. Paul. R. Brass refers to it as a "coalition
of castes," in which all parties study the composition of the constituency and evaluate which
candidate should be elected as the representative based on caste identification.
campaigns."
Impact of caste politics
 Caste as a Divisive and Cohesive Factor in Indian Politics: Caste functions in Indian politics
as both a divisive and a unifying factor. It serves as a foundation for the creation of various
interest groups in the Indian system, each of which strives for power with every other group.
It may sometimes lead to an unhealthy quest for control and operate as a dividing force. It is,
however, a source of solidarity among members of disparate groups and serves as a cohesive
force.
 Reservations- Caste-based reservations are accused for preserving caste-based identities in a
contemporary society that prioritises merit-based equal opportunity for education and
employment. . According to Christopher Jaffrelot, caste has evolved from a system to an
interest group. He emphasises how caste-based reservations aided in the transformation of
caste into interest groups.
 Identity and representation - In his book Who Wants Democracy, Javeed Alam notes that
lower castes see caste politics as an empowering instrument. According to Jaffrelot and
Kumar, identity politics has secured the presence of lower and marginalised castes in Indian
politics.
 Castelessness and Privilege — Modern caste politics primarily emphasises lower caste
assertiveness and associates caste-based politics with marginalised groups. Traditional
higher castes might lay claim to the concept of 'castelessness.' According to Satish
Deshpande, this is due to higher castes' 'invisibility' and lower castes' 'hyper-visibility.'
180
Question 4.
(a) How is the tribal question related with the issues of integration and
autonomy in modern India? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Brief introduction of tribal situation
 Debate of integration or isolation
 Issues faced by the tribals
 Rise in tribal assertion
 Conclusion
Solution
Article 342 of the Indian constitution refers to scheduled tribal communities, who account for 8.6
percent of India's population (Census, 2011). There are around 700 notified ST groups, which differ
in terms of religion, families, and so on.
India has a complex tribal population. There is developmental debate regarding tribal with the issue
of balance between isolation and integration since independence. The autonomy aspect of the policy
aims to preserve their culture and prevent exploitation. It suggests that by limiting the influence of
outsiders, the tribes can maintain their distinct identity and avoid the negative impacts of
integration with the larger society. On the other hand, the integration component aims to protect
the unique culture of the tribes while facilitating their integration into the mainstream society.
Debate of integration or isolation
 According to Hutton's isolationist viewpoint, tribal must be defended from traders,
merchants, moneylenders, and others who seek to reduce tribal to landless labourers.
 A British anthropologist Elwin, believed that tribes could only grow along the lines of their
"own genius" without disrupting their social and cultural life. They promoted the concept of
autonomy, as well as self-government rights.
 Whereas the integrationist advocated for the integration of tribals into mainstream society in
order to overcome the developmental gap. For Ghurye tribes are 'backward Hindus,' their
seclusion is the main reason of their social backwardness, and they must be integrated into
greater society.
 According to assimilationists such as L.P.Vidyarti, tribe-caste interlinkage is referenced in
early Sanskrit scriptures - the Vedas have Nishads who sought caste rank, the Ramayana has
Shabri, and the Mahabharta has Ghatotkacha and Eklavya.
 After independence Jawaharlal Nehru adopted the approach of controlled integration and
gave the idea of ‘Tribal Panchsheel’. It means inclusion of tribal communities in different
spheres of education, employment and administration without any imposition of the
mainstream society
Challenges and issues
Despite various constitutional safeguards and other development measures the tribal communities
had faced severe discrimination and they are-
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 Lack of representation - tribal communities hardly have any say in policies and programmes
related to them.
 Issue of ‘Jal, Jangal and Jameen’ as tribal lands are acquired by the government for ‘national
development’ and economic growth of the nation. Scholars like Virginus XaXa explained
how big projects had reduced tribes to second class citizens.
 Problem of stigma and social discrimination e.g. criminal tribe’s act.
 Deficit in governance - Acts like AFSPA and incident like Nagaland killings promote
suspicion.
 Committees like Dhebar commission and Xaxa committee explain how tribal communities
are poor in almost all social indicators, problem of eviction and displacement still persists,
social discrimination still prevalent throughout the country
Rise of tribal assertion
 Niyamgiri movement, which was led by dongria tribe in Orissa against mining companies.
The hasdeo forest movement in Chhattisgarh against coal mining is another example of tribal
identity and unity.
 The Pathalgadi movement of Jharkhand forced the government to withdraw its controversial
order related to land rights
 Various groups in the North East protested against the Citizenship amendment Act as it will
promote migrant population in their region.
 The demands for political autonomy and extension of the 6th Schedule to tribal areas had
been raised by numerous communities.
 On the political front the rise of Bhartiya Tribal party in Gujarat and Rajasthan showcase the
rise of political awareness among the ST communities.
 In recent years, there have been several demands for tribal autonomy, including demands
for the creation of tribal-majority states, greater representation in government and other
institutions, and the recognition of tribal cultural and economic rights, recognition of separate
Sarana Religious Code for tribal population.
Overall, the issue of integration and autonomy of tribes in India is complex and requires a nuanced
approach that balances the need for social and economic development with the preservation of tribal
identities and cultural practices.
182
(b) Comment on the factors behind the changing status of women in urban
India. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by highlighting historical position of woman and broad change in status that we
see today.
 Discuss factors behind the changing status of women in urban India
 Discuss the major issue woman still faces.
 Conclusion
Solution
The status of women in urban India has undergone a remarkable transformation in recent decades.
From historically marginalized and restricted roles, women in urban areas are now experiencing
increased empowerment, agency, and opportunities. As urbanization and social changes continue
to shape the landscape, women are progressively challenging societal expectations, achieving
educational milestones, participating in the workforce, and actively engaging in decision-making
processes.
These change in status of women especially in urban India can be attributed to
several factors, as discussed below:
 Education: The improvement in women's status in urban India can be attributed to increased
access to education. The literacy rate of women has significantly increased, with urban areas
showing higher literacy rates compared to rural areas. The literacy rate of women in India
has increased by 68 per cent - up from 9 per cent at the time of Independence to 77 per cent
at present. Urban areas in India have fared better than rural areas in terms of literacy rate.
The literacy rate in rural India is 67.77 per cent as against 84.11 per cent in urban India. The
rise in female literacy has empowered women, enabling them to pursue higher education,
seek better employment opportunities, and participate more actively in society.
 Legal reforms: Legal reforms have played a crucial role in improving the status of women in
urban India. Laws addressing issues such as dowry harassment, domestic violence,
workplace harassment, and female infanticide have been enacted. The introduction of stricter
punishments for crimes against women, as well as easier separation from estranged
marriages, has provided women with legal protections and avenues for seeking justice.
According to the 2011 Census, the urban divorce rate (0.89%) is slightly higher than the rural
rate (0.82%), but by a wafer-thin margin.
 Women's movements and activism: Women's movements and activism have been
instrumental in advocating for gender equality and women's rights. Organizations such as
the National Federation of Indian Women, All India Women's Conference, and self-help
groups have raised awareness, fought against gender-based violence, and challenged societal
norms that perpetuate gender discrimination. These movements have empowered women to
voice their concerns, demand their rights, and bring about social change.
 Healthcare and reproductive rights: Women's healthcare and reproductive rights have seen
positive developments, especially in urban India. Efforts have been made to improve
maternal healthcare, access to family planning services, and reproductive health education.
Government programs such as Janani Suraksha Yojana and Pradhan Mantri Matru
Vandana Yojana provide financial assistance and support to pregnant women, ensuring
better access to quality healthcare.
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 Ownership of property: An overall increase was observed in women’s ownership (alone or
jointly with others) of land and property in India, with 43.3% women reporting ownership in
the latest NFHS round as compared to 38.4% in NFHS-4 (2015-16). Studies have shown that
property ownership has a positive impact on women’s bargaining positions within
households, as well as their economic and nutritional well-being. The rise in women's
ownership reflects a shift in societal attitudes towards recognizing and protecting women's
rights to property.
 Technology and digital empowerment: Technology and digital empowerment have played
a significant role in transforming the status of women in urban India. Increased internet
penetration and access to smartphones have provided women with information,
communication tools, and digital platforms for education, entrepreneurship, and
networking. Women are utilizing technology to bridge gaps, challenge stereotypes, and
create opportunities for themselves.
 Changing family dynamics: Family dynamics in urban India have witnessed shifts towards
more egalitarian arrangements. Women's influence in decision-making within households
has increased, indicating greater agency and participation in shaping family matters. This
shift in family dynamics reflects a changing mindset and recognition of women's abilities and
contributions. According to the latest round of NFHS data, 88.7% women in India are now
able to exercise influence in decision-making within households as compared to 84% women
in 2015. 91% women in urban India reported enjoying greater agency in contrast to 87.7% of
their rural counterparts.
However, there are still issues present in society that do not help the cause of
women, whether in urban or rural India.
 Employment: Female participation rates in labor force declined from 34.1 per cent in 1999-00
to 27.2 per cent in 2011-12, and wide gender differences in participation rate also persists.
 Scarcity of resources - According to J.C. Cadwell, when there is a food shortage,
unfavourable sociocultural attitudes operate against women, harming their nutrition, health,
and death. Additionally, social and cultural conventions sometimes prevent women from
consuming nourishing non-vegetarian cuisine, which results in nutritional deficiencies.
 Patricia Uberoi - Purdah or ghunghat ritual activities create a symbolic border between
personal and public locations.
 Digital Divide: While the pandemic has increased digital adoption in India, it has also
widened the existing gender digital divide. In 2020, men were 15% more likely to own a
mobile phone in India and 33% more likely to use the internet as compared to women,
according to the Mobile Gender Gap Report, 2021.
 Violence: Violence against women both inside and outside of their family has been a crucial
issue in the contemporary Indian society. The condition of widows is one of the most
neglected social issues in India. Because of widowhood the quality of life is lowered for many
Indian women etc.
Addressing these challenges requires continued efforts from all stakeholders to ensure equal
opportunities, rights, and protections for women in urban India. By promoting gender equality and
addressing these remaining issues, urban India can further advance the status and well-being of its
women, leading to a more inclusive and equitable society for all.
184
(c) What accounts for the growth and consolidation of the middle classes in
modern India? (10 Marks)
Approach
 General definition of Middle Class.
 Factors responsible for growth and consolidation of the middle classes.
 Issues concerning the middle class
 Conclusion
Solution
Despite extensive study, there is no commonly agreed definition of the middle class; some scholars
define it in terms of its link to the means of production, while others define it in terms of relative
salaries or spending patterns. The middle class has notably evolved as a strong, influential, and
dominating element of society, determining the nation's economy, polity, culture, education, and
social interactions based on money, social status, education, occupation, and consumption.
Common characteristics of the middle class include moderate to high income, higher education
levels, a wide range of occupations, and a focus on cultural and social values such as education,
professional achievement, and upward mobility.
The growth and consolidation of the middle classes in modern India can be
attributed to several factors:
 British colonial legacy: B.B. misra explained that because of British rule classes emerged in
India. In Misra’s viewpoint the British attempted to create a class comparable to their own to
assist the former in the administration of the country. The aim of the British was to create a
class of imitators and not originators of new values and methods.
 Caste and kinship networks: Caste and kinship networks provide social support,
opportunities for collaboration, and access to resources. Pawan Verma talks about
domination of upper castes in early middle class formation.
 Education: Andre Betteile conceptualised the emergence of middle class in India as result of
introduction of modern education and job opportunities under the colonial government.
 Aspirations: The middle class in India is driven by aspirations for upward mobility and an
improved quality of life. This translates into a focus on savings, investment, and a desire for
homeownership and other symbols of social status.
 Middle-class values: Middle-class values in India, like importance of education, hard work,
ambition, financial responsibility, entrepreneurship, social mobility, and adaptability, fuel
the growth and consolidation of the middle class.
 Welfare Measures: After independence, through reservation policies, central planning, and
expanded education, the focus was on uplifting the deprived sections and states. As a result,
the middle class witnessed a significant increase in numbers. Many communities benefited
from reservation policies, gaining political power as well. For example, the Dalits under the
BSP (Bahujan Samaj Party).
 LPG Reforms: In the post-economic reform era (liberalization, privatization, and
globalization), opportunities for skilled manpower increased. New sectors were opened up,
creating more job opportunities.
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The middle class seized these opportunities and consolidated their numbers. With India
being one of the fastest-growing countries in the world, the middle class is expected to
continue growing.
 Diversification of Occupation: The Indian middle class encompasses a wide range of
occupations, including professionals, managers, entrepreneurs, and skilled workers in
various industries such as IT, finance, and healthcare. This diversification of occupations
contributes to the growth and consolidation of the middle class.
Issues concerning the middle class
 Caught between 'traditional' and 'modernity' - in an economic sense, the emerging middle
class wants to replicate Western ideas and practises while culturally adhering to tradition.
Dominance of same-caste marriages, for example, or a surge in religious intolerance and
hostility
 An increase in 'Alienation' - As a result of over-competitiveness and a lack of assistance,
many employees in the corporate sector are experiencing alienation, depression, and other
mental difficulties.
 Women's Status - Women's engagement in public spheres has expanded in recent years,
although there are still limits to their liberty and empowerment. For example, there is a rise
in sexual harassment and lower income than male peers.
 The stereotypical roles of male as "breadwinner" and woman as "nurturer". Contradiction
in middle-class ideals; they are modern in commercial choices, yet concepts remain ingrained
in tradition, for example, women's identity still revolves around mother and wife rather than
as an individual entity
In summary, the growth and consolidation of the middle class in modern India can be attributed to
various factors. However, it is important to acknowledge that the middle class is not a
homogeneous group, and there can be conflicts and inequalities within it. Understanding the
complexities and nuances of the middle class in India requires a multidimensional perspective and
consideration of diverse factors at play.
186
Section B
Question 5. Write short notes with a sociological perspective on the following, in
about 150 words each: 10x5=50 marks
(a) Privatization of education and increasing inequalities (10 Marks)
Approach
 Explain Privatisation in education.
 Relationship between privatization and increasing inequalities
 Impact of inequality in education
 Conclusion
Solution
Privatization in education means transferring ownership, control, and funding of educational
institutions from the government to private individuals, organizations, or corporations. This
includes privately-owned schools, public-private partnerships, and market-based principles. It aims
to improve educational outcomes, but can also create inequalities and prioritize profit over equity.
There are significant disparities in education, both globally and within countries. These disparities
can be seen in differences in access, quality, and outcomes. Access to education is not equal for
everyone. Children from low-income families or marginalized communities often face barriers to
accessing education, such as lack of financial resources, distance to schools, and discrimination.
Relationship between privatization and increasing inequalities:
 Conflict theorists argue that privatization in education can exacerbate educational
disparities, as private schools predominantly serve the elite who can afford high fees. These
schools often provide better educational resources and opportunities, leading to unequal
educational outcomes between the rich and the poor, as well as different racial and ethnic
groups. The profit-oriented approach of private schools may also result in the exclusion of
marginalized groups, neglecting their educational needs.
 On the other hand, functionalists contend that privatization can improve educational quality
and reduce disparities by introducing competition and efficiency. Private schools may offer
higher quality education, better resources, and more opportunities, leading to improved
educational outcomes. However, this perspective assumes equal access to private schools,
which is often not the case for everyone, creating further inequalities.
 From a symbolic interactionist viewpoint, privatization can reinforce existing social
hierarchies and symbols of status and prestige associated with private education. Private
schools may be perceived as a symbol of elite status, thereby perpetuating social hierarchies
and widening educational disparities among different social groups.
 Feminists argue that privatization can reinforce or exacerbate existing gender inequalities.
The cost of private education can be a barrier for poor families who would prefer to send boy
over girls to schools, further marginalizing girls from low-income backgrounds.
Impact of inequality in education
 Disparity amongst pupils -Groups who have historically lacked access to education have
suffered in school. Children of illiterate parents from rural settings failed to comprehend the
curriculum. Children from vernacular languages, for example, are at a disadvantage in a
variety of competitive tests.
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 Reproduction of dominant culture - when people from the higher stratum dictate education
policy, there will be less place for opposing views and beliefs.
 Promotion of stereotypes- The education system is condemned by feminists like McRobbie
and Sue Lee for fostering gender stereotypes via duplicating feminine duties in females.
 Education commercialization has helped the parallel system of coaching classes. The
middle and even lower classes spend a fortune on their children's education by enrolling
them in either coaching sessions or online classes. Kota in Rajasthan is a great illustration of
how coaching schools have become factories.
As reversing privatization is not possible the focus should be on the potential solutions for reducing
inequalities and promoting equitable access to education. These includes government regulation
and oversight of private institutions, increased funding for public schools in underprivileged areas,
public-private partnerships, providing scholarships and financial aid to underprivileged students,
promoting the use of technology, and addressing broader social issues such as poverty and
discrimination.
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(b) Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme for

rural development. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Briefly explain MGNREGA Scheme.
 Positive impact of the scheme on rural development.
 Shortcoming of the scheme
 Conclusion.
Solution
MGNREGA is a social welfare program implemented by the Indian government in 2005 to
provide employment to rural poor households. The program offers 100 days of wage employment
per year to adult members who volunteer to do unskilled manual work through various projects
related to agriculture, water conservation, and rural connectivity. MGNREGA aims to generate
employment, enhance the livelihood security of rural households, and create durable community
assets, making it one of the world's largest social welfare programs.
Positive impact:
 The potential of MGNREGA to alleviate poverty and foster inclusive growth in rural India
has been emphasized by Jean Drèze. It has generated employment opportunities for a
substantial number of rural households, leading to poverty reduction and increased incomes
in rural areas.
 Furthermore, the scheme has played a crucial role in empowering women by providing
them with employment options and promoting their involvement in community decision-
making processes.
 MGNREGA has also been instrumental in creating employment opportunities for socially
marginalized communities, contributing to their economic upliftment.
 Moreover, it has facilitated the development of vital rural infrastructure such as roads,
bridges, and water conservation projects, thereby enhancing the overall quality of life in rural
communities.
 The scheme's emphasis on sustainable practices like afforestation and water conservation has
also made a positive impact on environmental conservation efforts.
 Additionally, MGNREGA has acted as a deterrent to forced migration, particularly during
periods when agricultural work is scarce. By offering job opportunities locally, the scheme
has helped prevent the displacement of rural populations.
Short comings:
 One key concern is the nature of the jobs created under the scheme, which are often unskilled
manual labor. This type of work can lead to various work-related health issues, including
fatigue and back pain.
 Furthermore, critics such as Ashwini Deshpande have highlighted that MGNREGA has
contributed to labor market segmentation to some extent.
 While the scheme has empowered women by providing them with employment
opportunities, it has also been criticized for reinforcing traditional gender roles.
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 Potential discouragement of labor mobility and the creation of dependency on the scheme
due to the provision of guaranteed employment.
 Instances of corruption and mismanagement have been reported, including the issuance of
fake job cards, incomplete projects, and misappropriation of funds intended for MGNREGA.
 Additionally, delayed salary processing for employees working under the scheme has been
a significant problem.
 The scheme's contribution to increased rural wages has resulted in higher input labor costs
for agriculture, which, in turn, has led to an increase in food prices.
In summary, MGNREGA is an essential social welfare initiative that has had a significant impact on
rural development and the reduction of poverty. Nevertheless, the long-term success and viability
of the program will rely on the capacity of policymakers and stakeholders to tackle the social
obstacles linked with the program and ensure its continued commitment to providing opportunities
for underprivileged communities and promoting social equity.
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(c) Different forms of Dalit assertion. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Define Dalit assertion.
 Various forms of Dalit assertion.
 Impact of Dalit assertion.
 Conclusion
Solution
Dalit assertion encompasses the collective endeavors and movements undertaken by individuals
belonging to the Dalit community, which has historically occupied the lowest rung of the Indian
caste system. These efforts are aimed at asserting their rights, confronting social prejudices, and
advocating for equitable treatment and social justice.
Dalit assertion movement:
 The assertion movements by Dalits can be traced back to the colonial period when social
reformers such as Jyotirao Phule and BR Ambedkar began advocating for Dalit rights and
challenging the caste system.
 Following India's Independence, Ambedkar played a significant role in drafting the Indian
Constitution, which included provisions for affirmative action and reserved seats in
educational institutions and government jobs for SCs. Since then, the Dalit assertion in India
has taken various forms, including socio-cultural, economic, and political, with significant
phases such:
 Political Movements: The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in India, led by Kanshi Ram and later
Mayawati, has been a prominent political party representing Dalit interests and advocating
for their rights.
 Social Activism: The Bhim Army, founded by Chandrashekhar Azad, is a grassroots Dalit
organization that has been actively involved in organizing protests and demonstrations
against caste-based discrimination and violence.
 Dalit Cultural Movements: The Dalit Panthers movement in Maharashtra, India, emerged
in the 1970s and aimed to promote Dalit literature, art, and cultural expression to challenge
social norms and create a sense of pride in Dalit identity.
 Dalit Economic Empowerment: The Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry
(DICCI) is an organization that promotes Dalit entrepreneurship and economic
empowerment. It provides support, training, and resources to Dalit entrepreneurs to
establish and grow their businesses.
 Dalit Women's Movements: The All India Dalit Mahila Adhikar Manch (AIDMAM) is a
collective platform that focuses on addressing the specific issues faced by Dalit women. It
works towards ending discrimination, violence, and exploitation faced by Dalit women and
advocating for their rights.
 Dalit Student Movements: The Ambedkar Students Association (ASA) is a prominent Dalit
student organization in universities across India. ASA raises awareness about caste-based
discrimination in educational institutions, organizes discussions and events, and provides
support to Dalit students.
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 Conversion movement: In recent times, there has also been a surge in mass conversion
movements to Buddhism among Dalits, indicating their desire to assert a distinct identity
apart from Hinduism, initially initiated by Ambedkar in the 1950s.
Impact of Dalit assertion movement:
 Socially, it has led to a greater sense of community identity and solidarity, with Dalits being
more vocal in asserting their rights. Scholars like S.M. Michael argued that literature has
played a key role in empowering Dalits and helping them assert their identity.
 Economically, the assertion has led to greater access to education and employment
opportunities, with affirmative action policies ensuring access to reserved seats in
educational institutions and government jobs, improving their economic status.
 Politically, the assertion has led to greater representation in government and a greater say in
the political process. The success of political parties such as the BSP has ensured that the
interests of Dalits are represented at the highest levels of government.
 Scholars like Gail Omvedt argue that the Dalit assertion is not only about fighting for
political rights but also creating a new cultural identity that is free from the shackles of caste.
In summary, the assertion movements of Dalits have significantly impacted their social, economic,
and political status, leading to greater social integration, access to education and employment
opportunities, and greater representation in government.
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(d) Empowerment through 'Right to Education’. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Explain Right to Education Act and provisions
 Explain how the act leads to empowerment.
 Issues related to act criticism of the act.
 Conclusion.
Solution
The Right to Education Act, passed in August 2009 and enforced in 2010, made education a
fundamental right for every child in India aged 6 to 14 years old. The Act ensures free elementary
education, admission, attendance, and completion for all children in this age group, particularly
those from economically weaker sections of society.
It establishes standards for pupil-teacher ratios, infrastructure, and teacher training, and prohibits
mental harassment, physical punishment, screening procedures, capitation fees, and private tuition
by teachers. The Act also emphasizes the importance of developing a curriculum that is child-
centric, child-friendly, and consistent with constitutional values, and promotes the all-round
development of the child.
Empowerment through the act:
 Inclusion and Access: The RTE Act recognizes education as a fundamental right for every
child, ensuring that all children, regardless of their background, have access to quality
education. This promotes inclusivity and empowers marginalized sections of society by
providing them with equal educational opportunities.
 Addressing Social Inequalities: Sociologists like Pierre Bourdieu and Max Weber have
highlighted the role of education in perpetuating social inequalities. The RTE Act aims to
address this by reducing disparities and bridging the gap between rural and urban areas in
terms of educational opportunities. By ensuring access to education for all, it helps to create
a more equitable society.
 Reservation for Disadvantaged Groups: The RTE Act provides a 25% reservation for
economically disadvantaged and socially marginalized groups in private schools. This
reservation empowers these groups by giving them access to quality education in institutions
that were previously inaccessible to them. It helps in breaking the cycle of social exclusion
and provides a pathway for upward mobility.
 Participatory Democracy and Governance: The RTE Act emphasizes the importance of
participatory democracy by mandating the formation of School Management Committees
(SMCs) in elementary schools. This ensures the active involvement of parents and
communities in the decision-making process of schools. By empowering parents and
communities to contribute to the education system, it strengthens the accountability and
effectiveness of the education policy.
 Societal Development: The empowerment of individuals through the RTE Act leads to the
overall development of society. Education equips individuals with knowledge, skills, and
critical thinking abilities, enabling them to contribute meaningfully to society. By providing
equal educational opportunities, the RTE Act promotes human capital development and
contributes to the socio-economic progress of the nation.
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Criticism of the act:
 Geeta Nambissan argues that the Act provides a framework for promoting inclusive
education, but challenges persist in ensuring equal opportunities and quality education for
 Nambissan highlights the need for systematic teacher training programs and professional
development to enhance the quality of education and ensure that teachers are equipped with
the necessary skills and knowledge.
 Another criticism is that the Act has been poorly implemented and has not been able to
achieve its stated goals. Thinkers like Krishna Kumar have argued that the Act was rushed
through without adequate consideration of its implementation and has led to bureaucratic
hurdles, corruption, and inefficiency. This has resulted in poor quality education,
particularly in rural areas and among marginalized groups.
 Complexity of Implementation: Ramanathan highlights the challenges in implementing the
Act, including issues related to infrastructure, teacher quality, and capacity building. The
Act's goals are ambitious, but its successful implementation requires addressing these
complexities.
Despite its limitations 'The Right to Education Act' has taken significant steps towards promoting
social justice and reducing social inequalities by recognizing education as a fundamental right for
every child in India. As such, the RTE Act remains a crucial step towards ensuring access to quality
education for all children in India, and a beacon of hope for a more just and inclusive society.
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(e) Differential sex-ratio and its implications. (10 Marks)

Approach
 Define differential sex ratio.
 Various factors that contribute to differential sex ratios.
 Implications of a differential sex ratio.
 Solutions to problem of differential sex ratio:
 Conclusion
Solution
Differential sex ratio refers to the uneven distribution of males and females within a population. In
India, the sex ratio is the ratio of females to males in a given population. Specifically, it is the number
of females per 1,000 males in the population. The sex ratio in India has been a matter of concern due
to the persistent preference for male children and the practice of sex-selective abortion, which has
resulted in an imbalanced sex ratio in favor of males. As of 2021, the sex ratio in India is estimated
to be 934 females per 1,000 males.
Factors that contribute to differential sex ratios:
 Patriarchal mind-set - In this system, women have less personal autonomy, lower worth,
and thus fewer resources at their disposal, as well as limited influence over the decision-
making process that influences their own lives and status.
 Food and resources –According to J.C. Cadwell during shortage of food the unfavourable
socio-cultural values operate against women as well as girls that ultimately impacts their
health, nutrition and mortality.
 Landholding households might prefer sons over daughters either to protect the land or to
ensure inheritance of the land to sons. A study by Arokiasamy and Goli (2012) found a
positive association between landholding size and Child Sex Ratio in rural India, with land
ownership associated with having more boys than girls.
 Female infanticide - Patriarchal male leadership in the family and community’ support are
at the root of this phenomenon; they are pressurised for infanticide, due to the marriage cost,
family honour, etc. Social stigma, sense of guilt, etc., are less in case of abortion than in
infanticide. This caused a large number of sex-selective abortions.
 Misuse of modern sex selective techniques to reinforce the traditional ideas of society. Even
the providers of such services flouted the law and helped in girl elimination.
 Marriage and dowry - According to B.D. Miller (1981), systematic neglect of female children
in north and northwest India is to be explained partly by the higher cost of marriage in this
region than in south India. Moreover, under patriarchy, the earning of woman is not shared
by her natal family members.
Implication of differential sex ratio:
 A skewed sex ratio can have significant implications, including a marriage squeeze where
men have to delay their marriage due to fewer women of marriageable age.
 Patricia Uberoi highlights how a low sex ratio leads to increased competition among men for
marriage partners, potentially leading to various social issues such as bride trafficking, forced
marriages, and violence against women.
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 Amartya Sen: Sen's article "More than 100 million women are missing" emphasizes the social
and ethical implications of gender disparities caused by sex-selective practices. He argues
that the neglect and discrimination against women resulting from a low sex ratio lead to a
range of social and economic consequences, including increased violence against women and
decreased gender equality.
 Sabiha Hussain:She discusses how a gender imbalance affects women's access to resources,
education, healthcare, and political participation, leading to socio-economic inequalities.
Solutions to problem of differential sex ratio:
 Beti Bachao Beti Padhao Scheme – The scheme was launched in 2015 to address the issue of
decline in sex ratio.
 To Increase sex ratio by preventing sex selection by enforcement of PCPNDT act and legal
action against quacks indulging in illegal abortions.
 Initiatives like Selfie with the daughter to promote awareness
 Education - Ravinder kaur argued that the education level of females can lead to women
empowerment and an increase in informed choices and challenge the prejudiced choice of
males over females
 Bringing on the stories of women role models in public that spreads social awareness of
women empowerment rather than being taken as burden.
 Rollout campaigns on sensitisation towards women and children, making women safety
cells, ensuring the safety of women on public transport systems, making cyber-crime
cells are some other initiatives that need to be taken.
India must invest in policies to ensure women are not missing in the workforce to shed its "Missing
Women" tag coined by Amartya Sen. Successful campaigns like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao should be
encouraged and made available even in rural areas, with ASHA workers playing a major role.
Educating and sensitizing the youth regarding the importance of gender balance is also essential.
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Question 6.
(a) Write a note on the uneven impact of "Green Revolution' on rural society.
(20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by giving a brief overview of Green Revolution.
 Mention positive impacts of the Green Revolution.
 Explain how benefits of green revolution (GR) were not equally distributed.
 Conclusion
Solution
Green Revolution was a government programme of agricultural modernization. It was based on
providing High Yielding Variety or hybrid seeds, along with pesticides, fertilizers and other inputs
to farmers. The Green Revolution was aimed to increase food production, reduce poverty, alleviate
hunger, and improve the overall standard of living in rural areas.
The positive impacts of Green Revolution can be seen as below:
 Increased Crop Production: Green Revolution resulted in a significant increase in grain
output, establishing India as a major agricultural producer.
 Self-Sufficiency in Food: India achieved self-sufficiency in food-grains and reduced the need
for imports. At times, India even had surplus stocks for export.
 Improved Farmers' Income: Green Revolution helped farmers raise their income and invest
in agricultural productivity.
 Industrial Growth: Farm mechanization and increased demand for agricultural inputs
stimulated industrial growth, including agro-based industries.
 Rural Employment: The Green Revolution created job opportunities in both agriculture and
related industries, boosting rural employment.
The impact of the Green Revolution on rural society, however, has been uneven,
as seen below:
Big Farmers vs Small Farmers:
 While the Green Revolution has achieved success in increasing production on large
landholdings, it has also exacerbated economic disparities among big farmers, small and
marginal farmers, and agricultural laborers. Income disparities have widened as a result.
 Only farmers with 10 acres or more were able to take full advantage of the situation,
particularly those who could generate a surplus for the market. These farmers who could
produce and sell excess agricultural products benefited the most from the Green Revolution.
Land Owner vs Tenant Cultivator:
 Tenant cultivators have faced negative consequences due to the increasing trend among large
farmers to reclaim land previously leased to them for self-cultivation, leading to their
displacement into the category of landless laborers.
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 The widespread eviction of tenants and the decline in the area under tenancy have
undermined the progress made through land reforms. As a result, one of the effects of the
Green Revolution has been the significant growth of the agrarian proletariat in certain regions
of the country.
Migrant labourer vs Local labourer:
 The Green Revolution has led to a significant influx of labor migration towards prosperous
regions, particularly the migration of agricultural labor from Bihar and eastern U.P. to Punjab
and Haryana. Consequently, the source areas of migration experience underdevelopment,
further exacerbating regional disparities.
 A seasonal migratory pattern has formed, with thousands of employees moving between
their home towns and more wealthy locations. Jan Breman refers to the migrant labourers
as "footloose labor." Breman's study (1985) demonstrates that migrant landless labourers are
not even paid the "minimum wage." They are chosen over local landless labourers because
they may be exploited and paid lesser salaries.
Dominant caste vs Lower caste:
 The introduction of machinery such as tillers, tractors, threshers, and harvesters resulted in
the displacement of service caste groups. The emergence of new dominant castes is closely
linked to the Green Revolution. Multiple studies have shown that socially backward castes,
specifically Other Backward Classes (OBCs), rather than traditionally landless scheduled
castes, have benefitted significantly.
 Rudolph and Rudolph - As a result of the green revolution, affluent farmers got wealthier,
expanding the rural income disparities. Bullock cart capitalists gave way to tractor-driven
capitalists after the revolution.
Regional Disparity:
 The regions that experienced the technological transformation of the Green Revolution
witnessed significant development, while other areas remained stagnant. The promotion of
the Green Revolution was biased towards the western and southern parts of the country,
resulting in concentrated benefits in specific regions known as the "Green Revolution belts."
 Consequently, agriculture in states such as Bihar, eastern U.P., and dry regions like
Telangana remained relatively underdeveloped. These regions also maintain an entrenched
feudal agrarian structure, where landed castes and landlords hold power over lower castes,
landless workers, and small cultivators.
Gender disparity:
Another important dimension to consider is the gendered impact of the Green Revolution. Women,
particularly those engaged in subsistence farming, faced increased workloads and limited access to
resources. The technological changes primarily targeted male-headed households, further
marginalizing women in rural societies.
To address these issues, it is crucial to adopt a more nuanced and inclusive approach to agricultural
development. This approach should consider local contexts, promote sustainable practices, and
address social and economic inequalities to ensure a more equitable and sustainable future for rural
societies.
198
(b) Discuss the emerging forms of 'inequalities' and 'acute poverty' as major
challenges of social transformation in India. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define the terms "inequalities" and "acute poverty"
 Identify and discuss the emerging forms of inequalities in India.
 Discuss the problem of acute or extreme poverty in India.
 Examine the consequences of inequalities and acute poverty.
Solution
Inequalities can be defined as the uneven distribution of opportunities, resources, and rewards
among individuals or groups in society, leading to differences in various dimensions such as
income, wealth, education, healthcare, and social status. On the other hand, acute poverty refers to
extreme deprivation and a lack of access to basic necessities, including food, clean water, sanitation,
healthcare, education, and housing.
Emerging Inequality:
India experiences economic inequalities, including a widening wealth gap, income disparities, and
unequal resource distribution. It also faces gender inequalities characterized by gaps in education,
employment, wages, and decision-making power. Additionally, it also experiences caste
inequalities in the form of discrimination and limited opportunities for marginalized communities.
Apart from these, the country witnesses emerging forms of inequalities, which include:
 Digital Inequality: With the rapid advancement of technology, access to digital resources
and the internet has become crucial. However, disparities in digital literacy, internet
connectivity, and access to technology contribute to digital inequalities. The richest 60 per
cent Indians are four times more likely to use digital payment facilities than the poorest 40
per cent as per "Digital Divide: India Inequality Report 2022"
 Educational Inequality: With more reliance on private schools and closure of government
run schools, disparities in educational opportunities is on the rise. Unequal access to quality
education, inadequate infrastructure, and limited resources in certain regions or
marginalized communities create educational inequalities.
 Health Inequality: Access to healthcare services, facilities, and resources is not uniformly
distributed in India. Marginalized communities, rural areas, and economically
disadvantaged populations often face barriers to healthcare. The report titled “India
Inequality Report 2021: India’s Unequal Healthcare Story” released by Oxfam India shows
that the socio-economic inequalities seep into the health sector and disproportionately affect
health outcomes of marginalised communities due to the absence of Universal Health
Coverage (UHC).
 Urban-Rural Divide: Disparities between urban and rural areas persist in terms of
infrastructure, access to basic services, employment opportunities, and quality of life. The
rural-urban disparity, as measured by the ratio of urban-to-rural expenditure, has gone up
from 1.63 in 1993-’94 to 2.42 in 2017-’18.
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 Occupational Inequality: Discrimination based on caste, gender, and social background
continues to affect occupational opportunities and mobility. Certain occupations and
industries may remain inaccessible to specific groups, perpetuating occupational
inequalities. The Oxfam India's 'India Discrimination Report 2022' shows that discrimination
causes 100 per cent of employment inequality faced by women in rural areas in labour market
and 98 per cent in urban areas.
Poverty:
However extreme poverty is estimated to have declined 12.3 percentage points between 2011 to 2019
in India, says a World Bank Policy Research Working Paper "Poverty has Declined over the last
decade But Not As Much As Previously Thought". The extreme poverty count fell from 22.5% in
2011 to 10.2% in 2019 and the decline in rural areas was much higher than in urban areas, estimates
the study. A recent International Monetary Fund paper had also suggested that extreme poverty in
India was as low as 0.8% in 2019. The number of poor people in India dropped by about 415 million
over the last 15 years, the Global Multidimensional Poverty Index report has revealed. However,
the country still has the highest number of poor people and children worldwide.
Impact of inequality and poverty:
Inequalities and acute poverty in various dimensions have significant social, economic, and human
impacts. They lead to reduced economic growth and productivity, limited access to resources and
opportunities, social exclusion and discrimination, lost economic potential, inter-generational
transmission of disadvantage, limited opportunities and social mobility, reduced human capital and
skills gap, health disparities and limited access to healthcare, limited job opportunities and income
disparities, and unequal access to basic services and resources.
It is important to address these consequences through targeted policies and interventions to
promote inclusive development, equitable opportunities, and social justice.
200
(c) Discuss the various forms of environmental movements waged in India.

(20 Marks)
Approach
 Overview of the environmental movement in India
 Impact of environmental movements in India.
 Limitations of the environment in India.
 Conclusion
Solution
An environmental movement is a collective effort to address environmental issues and promote
sustainable practices. It involves activism, advocacy, and awareness-raising for the conservation of
natural resources and ecosystems. The goal is to bring about positive change and create a more
environmentally conscious society.
India has witnessed several significant environmental movements that have contributed to the
protection of ecosystems, natural resources, and communities.
Some notable examples include:
 Chipko Movement: It began in the Garhwal Himalaya in April 1973. It involved illiterate
peasants, including men, women, and children, using a unique protest method of hugging
trees to prevent logging for export. Initially, their primary concern was using the trees for
sustenance and survival rather than saving them. Over time, the movement expanded its
focus to include broader ecological issues such as collective forest protection, forest
management, and promoting renewable energy technologies.
 Narmada Bachao Andolan: This movement focused on opposing large dam projects on the
Narmada River. It aimed to protect the rights of local communities and address the issues of
displacement, loss of livelihood, and environmental degradation associated with such
projects.
 Silent Valley Movement: The Silent Valley Movement aimed to protect the Silent Valley
National Park in Kerala from being submerged by a proposed hydroelectric project. The
movement emphasized the importance of preserving biodiversity and respecting the rights
of indigenous communities.
 Save the Western Ghats Movement: The movement focused on conserving the ecologically
sensitive Western Ghats region from unsustainable development practices. It highlighted the
need for biodiversity conservation, sustainable livelihoods, and the protection of indigenous
communities' rights.
 Anti-GM Crop Movements: Various movements have emerged in India against genetically
modified (GM) crops, expressing concerns about their potential environmental impact,
impact on food security, and farmer autonomy. These movements have advocated for
rigorous scientific evaluation, transparency, and caution in adopting GM crops.
Recent environment movement includes:
 Save Dehing-Patkai: A movement against opencast mining in Dehing-Patkai Wildlife
Sanctuary.
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 Save Aarey: Protests against felling of Aarey Colony for Mumbai Metro's car shed.
 Save the Sundarbans: Campaign to protect the world's largest mangrove forest, home to
diverse species.
 #RighttoBreathe Protest: in Delhi saw over 1,500 people gather at Amar Jawan Jyoti, India
Gate on November 5 in response to an environmental crisis with an AQI of 494.
Impacts of the movements:
Environmental movements in India have made notable impacts. They have raised public awareness
about ecological issues and compelled policymakers to address environmental concerns. These
movements have contributed to policy changes, such as the passage of laws related to
environmental protection and sustainable development.
Limitations of the movements:
However, environmental movements in India face several challenges. Vested interests, resistance
from industries, limited resources, and conflicts with development agendas pose hurdles to the
progress of these movements. Sustaining momentum, mobilizing public support, and ensuring
long-term implementation of policies remain ongoing challenges
Despite achieving significant milestones, environmental movements in India continue to face
challenges and require government support and policy reforms. They are still a crucial force in
promoting sustainable development and addressing environmental challenges in the country.
202
Question .7
(a) Write a detailed note on the effects of growing slums in urban areas. (20
Marks)
Approach
 Define what slums are and provide data on increasing prevalence of slums in urban areas.
 Mention the causes of growing slums.
 Talk about effects of growing slums in urban areas.
 Also briefly talk about the importance of slums.
 Conclusion
Solution
The UN defines a slum as a living arrangement in urban areas lacking one or more of these
amenities: durable housing, sufficient living area, access to improved water, access to improved
sanitation facilities, and secure tenure.
According to a report prepared by government committee headed by Dr Pranob Sen, principal
adviser, erstwhile Planning Commission, India’s urban slum population is registering an alarming
rate of growth and was expected to cross 100 million by 2017 from the estimated 75.2 million in 2001.
There are several reasons for the formation of slums such as:
 Slums form due to land squatting by migrants who lack formal housing options.
 The movement of the middle class away from certain areas creates vacant spaces that
eventually turn into slums.
 Slums emerge around sources of low-paying employment, as people settle near their
workplaces.
 Scholars like TB Ramachandran attribute slum formation to the lack of proper urban
planning in Indian cities.
 MSA Rao highlights the role of "Mohalla Culture," where communities develop their own
informal settlements.
 Demographic changes, such as expanding modernity and the decline of agriculture,
contribute to the growth of slums.
 Marxist argue that slum is a conscious creation of political and economic dominant class.
Effects of growing slums:
 Slums attract rural poor by offering a glimpse of city life, while obscuring its hardships. Slum
dwellers are vulnerable to waterborne diseases (e.g., typhoid, cholera) and more serious
conditions like cancer and HIV/AIDS.
 Women and children in slums are particularly susceptible to social issues like prostitution,
beggary, and child trafficking.
 Slum areas are associated with high crime rates due to neglect of education, law enforcement,
and government services.
 Other prevalent problems include hunger, malnutrition, limited education, high infant
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mortality, child marriage, and child labor.
 Victor D՚souza of Chandigarh University in his field study showed that that SC/ST
population predominantly comprise slum population. Thus, the slums also become site of
social segregation.
 Slums are typically associated with informal economic activities, such as street vending or
unregulated labor. While these activities provide income, they often result in low wages, job
insecurity, and exploitation.
 The slum dwellers lack access to formal employment and necessary skills. Thus, the economic
potential of a city may be underutilized due to the exclusion of slum residents from the
formal economy.
 Slums have poor waste management practices, leading to environmental pollution and
health risks. Rapid expansion of slums causes deforestation and depletion of natural
resources as settlements encroach on surrounding areas.
Significance of slums:
 Despite the issues associated with slum formation, slums serve latent functions for society,
such as affordable housing for the poor and migrants.
 Slum settlements accommodate more people in less space and foster solidarity among
residents with common backgrounds.
 They attract rural migrants, serving as a source of cheap labor. Informal shopping areas like
Dharavi market offer affordable goods.
 Slums provide a hub for artisans and contribute to the informal sector, including street
vendors, supporting the economy and enhancing product accessibility.
The effects of growing slums in urban areas are far-reaching, impacting society, the economy, and
the environment. Urgent action is needed to address these challenges. By implementing
comprehensive strategies that prioritize slum upgrading, affordable housing, social and economic
empowerment, and sustainable urban planning, we can mitigate the detrimental effects of slums
and create more inclusive and sustainable cities.
(b) Discuss the changing nature of the problems of working class in the
informal sector of the economy. (20 Marks)
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Approach
 Define the working class and Informal sector.
 Characteristics of the informal sector.
 Key issues that the working class in the informal sector.
 Mention the need for government and policy responses to the issues.
 Conclusion
Solution
The working class consists of people who primarily earn their income through physical labor or
manual work. On the other hand, the informal sector encompasses economic activities that operate
outside formal labor laws or government regulations. This sector usually involves self-employment,
casual labor, and small-scale unregistered businesses.
Characteristics of the informal sector:
The informal sector is characterized by fluctuating employment patterns and a prevalence of casual
and contractual jobs. It is characterized by distinct production structures and work dynamics,
lacking social security measures and welfare regulations. The workplace is scattered and
fragmented and working hours varies, according to the informal agreement between the employer
and workers. Further, the informal sector is marked by low wages and income instability. They often
lack access to formal financial services, leaving them without opportunities for savings or credit.
The working class within the informal sector encounters various significant
issues that have evolved over time.
 According to the Periodic Labour Force Survey, more than 90 percent of workers in India are
engaged in informal work. Among them, rural workers significantly outnumber their urban
counterparts.
 Economic insecurity remains a major concern as these workers are highly susceptible to
fluctuations in market conditions and demand.
 Vendors encounter multiple challenges, including reliance on money lenders, lack of dignity,
delayed payments, underemployment, violence against employees, and oppression and
mistreatment by local authorities.
 The COVID-19 pandemic shed light on the precarious nature of jobs in the informal sector.
While many individuals in the organized sector were able to work remotely, numerous
unorganized sector firms faced closure due to resource shortages and the inability to work
from home.
 Sectors dominated by women tend to have lower wages compared to male-dominated
sectors. For instance, home-based workers and domestic workers receive less than half the
remuneration earned by workers in male-dominated fields like construction. Women in the
informal sector are often concentrated in lower-level occupations.
 Migrant workers, who constitute a significant portion of the informal sector, frequently face
discrimination, xenophobia, and social exclusion, which further exacerbate their
vulnerabilities. Language barriers, cultural differences, and unfamiliarity with local customs
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create additional challenges in their integration into local communities.
 Furthermore, exploitative working conditions persist among the working class in the
informal sector. These workers endure long hours, hazardous environments, and limited
access to labor rights.
Factors contributing to the problems:
 Globalization has fostered intensified competition and a stronger focus on cost reduction,
affecting job stability and income levels.
 Technological progress has simultaneously generated fresh prospects while displacing
traditional jobs, necessitating workers to adapt and acquire new skills.
 Urbanization has also played a role in shaping labor market dynamics, contributing to the
growth of informality within rapidly expanding cities.
 Lack of proper regulations and inadequate enforcement has exacerbated these issues.
Government and policy responses:
 Governments can take action by encouraging formalization through incentives for
registration and streamlining bureaucratic processes.
 Expanding access to social protection is essential, which includes providing health insurance,
retirement plans, and unemployment benefits.
 Strengthening labor laws and enforcement mechanisms is crucial for safeguarding workers'
rights and promoting decent working conditions.
 Furthermore, offering training programs and entrepreneurial support can enhance the skills
and economic prospects of informal sector workers.
To sum up, the evolving dynamics of the labor market are reflected in the changing nature of issues
faced by the working class in the informal sector. Nevertheless, taking proactive measures through
government interventions and policy responses can help resolve and reduce these problems
experienced by the working class in the informal sector.
(c) What are the factors accounting for the resurgence of ethnic identity
movements in India? (10 Marks)
206
Approach
 Define the concept of ethnic identity movements
 Factors accounting for the resurgence of ethnic identity movements.
 Conclusion
Solution
Ethnic identity movements refer to collective efforts by specific ethnic communities or groups to
assert, promote, or protect their distinct cultural, linguistic, and social identities. Ethnic identity
movements often involve mobilization, activism, and advocacy aimed at achieving recognition,
representation, and equal rights for the respective ethnic group within a broader societal context.
India's diverse heritage is marked by numerous ethnic communities, each possessing its unique
cultural legacy. Over centuries of coexistence, a profound sense of ethnic identity has evolved
among these various groups. However, there have been instances in Indian history where these
ethnic groups have mobilized themselves on various grounds.
The rise of ethnic movements in India can be attributed to multiple factors such
as:
 Economic factors and regional disparities play a significant role. Industrialization have often
favored certain ethnic groups or regions, leading to feelings of relative deprivation among
others. This sense of being exploited or left behind can fuel ethnic mobilization. For instance,
the Punjab insurgency in India is often cited as an example of relative deprivation leading to
ethno-nationalism.
 Political centralization and the nation-building efforts of post-colonial societies have also
contributed to the rise of ethnic movements. The early nationalist leadership, in their pursuit
of modernization and unity, often downplayed ethnic differences that had roots in colonial
rule and national mobilization. However, these differences resurfaced as groups sought to
assert their cultural and political identities. The rise of ethnic movements among the
indigenous tribes in Northeast India can be seen as a response to the centralizing policies of
the Indian government, which led to the erosion of their traditional way of life and cultural
identities.
 Historical reasons stemming from the colonial period have also played a role. The colonial
era brought about politico-territorial integration while simultaneously providing
opportunities for cultural and ethnic groups to organize themselves politically. This laid the
foundation for later ethnic mobilization. The demand for separate statehood by the Bodoland
Territorial Council (BTC) in Assam, led by the Bodo community, traces its roots to historical
grievances and aspirations for self-governance based on ethnic identity.
 Additionally, competition for scarce resources, both economic and political, can fuel ethnic
movements. Development and access to resources can strengthen the bargaining power and
organizational capacity of ethnic groups, leading to increased mobilization.
 Further, the illegal migration of people from outside the country has also been a reason for
ethnic movements. The Assam Movement, also known as the Assam Agitation, was a protest
against illegal immigration from Bangladesh, which was perceived as a threat to the
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indigenous communities of Assam. The movement demanded the detection and deportation
of undocumented immigrants.
 Finally, cultural deprivation and the fear of losing cultural identity can also drive ethnic
mobilization. Minority ethnic groups may feel insecure about their position in the face of a
dominant majority and seek to protect and preserve their distinct cultural identities. The
demand for separate statehood in Tamil Nadu by the Dravidian movement reflects a desire
to protect and preserve the cultural identity and language of the Tamil-speaking population
in the face of perceived dominance by the Hindi-speaking north.
The resurgence of ethnic identity movements in India can be attributed to a combination of socio-
political, economic, cultural, and global factors. Understanding these factors is crucial for fostering
inclusivity, addressing grievances, and building a more harmonious and diverse society.
208
Question 8.
(a) Bring out the impact of the declining significance of the agrarian
economy. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Concept of the agrarian economy
 Factors contributing to the decline.
 Impacts of the decline on the agrarian economy.
 Conclusion
Solution
An agrarian economy refers to an economic system in which agriculture plays a dominant role in
terms of employment, production, and contribution to the overall economy. Agrarian economy
involves various interconnected elements such as land ownership, land tenure systems, agricultural
markets, government support programs, agricultural inputs, and rural infrastructure.
Since 1991, the contribution of agriculture to India's GDP has declined by approximately 12-13
percentage points. In 1991, agriculture accounted for around 30% of the GDP, whereas as of 2021, it
contributes around 18%.
Factors contributing to the decline:
 Urbanization and Industrialization: The rapid shift of population from rural to urban areas
due to urbanization and industrialization has reduced the agricultural workforce and
diminished the significance of the agrarian economy.
 Globalization and Trade Liberalization: The liberalization of global trade has exposed the
agricultural sector to increased competition from imports, negatively affecting the economic
viability of traditional farming practices.
 Fragmented Landholdings: The prevalence of small and uneconomical land sizes in rural
areas hampers agricultural productivity and profitability.
 Limited Access to Credit: Farmers face challenges in accessing institutional credit, relying
heavily on informal sources of finance, which hinders their ability to invest in modern
farming techniques, equipment, and inputs.
 Price Fluctuations and Market Instability: The lack of price stability, inadequate marketing
infrastructure, and exploitation by middlemen often lead to low income for farmers and
reduced incentives for agricultural activities.
 Land Degradation and Environmental Concerns: Soil erosion, depletion of natural
resources, water scarcity, and environmental degradation adversely affect agricultural
productivity, especially in regions with unsustainable farming practices.
 Policy Neglect: Inadequate policy support, inefficient implementation of agricultural
schemes, and neglect of rural infrastructure development impede the growth and
sustainability of the agrarian economy.
 Lack of Technological Adoption: Limited access to modern farming technologies,
insufficient extension services, and low levels of technology adoption hinder agricultural
productivity and innovation.
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The impacts of the declining significance of the agrarian economy are varied and
intricate:
 Rural Poverty and Unemployment: The decline in the agrarian economy has led to increased
rural poverty and unemployment as agricultural jobs become scarce and less lucrative.
 Income Disparities: The decline of the agrarian economy has widened income disparities
between urban and rural areas, resulting in economic inequalities and uneven development.
 Migration and Rural-Urban Divide: The decline of the agrarian economy has triggered a
rise in rural-to-urban migration, leading to a rural-urban divide and associated social
challenges, such as overcrowded cities and strained urban infrastructure.
 Loss of Traditional Knowledge and Practices: The decline of the agrarian economy has
resulted in the erosion of traditional agricultural knowledge, practices, and cultural heritage,
impacting local communities and their identities.
 Social Dislocation and Challenges: Rural communities are grappling with social dislocation
and challenges due to the disruption of their traditional way of life, including the loss of
community cohesion, cultural values, and social support systems.
 Social Inequality: The decline of the agrarian economy can reinforce social inequalities,
particularly affecting marginalized groups and lower-caste communities that are often
dependent on agriculture. They face increased vulnerabilities and limited access to resources
and opportunities.
 Identity and Pride: Agriculture has been deeply ingrained in Indian society and culture,
providing a sense of identity, pride, and connection to the land. The decline of the agrarian
economy can impact the collective identity and cultural values of rural communities.
 Family Structure: The transition away from agriculture often leads to changes in family
structures, with increased migration, separation, and fragmentation. There is also a rise in
female-headed households in villages.
 Marriage Patterns: The decline of the agrarian economy influences marriage patterns in rural
areas. Economic instability and reduced income opportunities may result in delayed
marriages or changes in marital preferences.
 Kinship Systems: As rural youth migrate to urban areas, the proximity and frequency of
interactions within extended families decrease, impacting kinship ties, social support
networks, and the transmission of cultural values and traditions.
 Social Tension: The decline of the agrarian economy has contributed to social tensions within
rural communities. Economic distress, unemployment, and income disparities may lead to
increased competition for resources, disputes over land ownership, and social inequalities.
The rise in demand or reservation by the dominant community is a result of the decline in
the agrarian economy.
However, addressing the challenges faced by rural communities and promoting sustainable
development require comprehensive policies that prioritize agricultural reforms, rural
infrastructure development, and social welfare programs. By recognizing the evolving nature of the
agrarian economy, India can work towards ensuring a more inclusive and balanced growth
trajectory for all its citizens.
210
(b) Examine the impact of industrialization and urbanization on family

structure. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Mention the impact of industrialization and urbanization on family structure
 Mention the aspect of family structure that are still intact despite industrialization and
urbanization
Solution
Urbanization and industrialization lead to profound societal transformations, including shifts in
economic systems, demographic patterns, social structures, cultural practices, and the overall way
of life. These changes often involve the growth of cities, increased mobility, technological
advancements, changing family dynamics, and the emergence of new social norms and values.
Industrialization and urbanization have brought about significant changes in family structures and
dynamics, leading to the emergence of various trends and shifts in society:
 Shift to Nuclear Families: Industrialization and urbanization have led to a shift from
extended or joint families to nuclear families. As individuals migrate to urban areas for
employment opportunities, they often form smaller family units consisting of parents and
their dependent children.
 Symmetrical Family: It has contributed to a more egalitarian family structure known as the
symmetrical family. In this type of family, both spouses share household responsibilities and
contribute to the economic well-being of the family.
 Transnational Family: It has facilitated global migration, resulting in the formation of
transnational families. These families are characterized by members living in different
countries or regions due to work or educational opportunities, creating new dynamics and
challenges for family relationships.
 Rise of Cohabitation: It has led to an increase in cohabitation, where couples live together in
a committed relationship without formal marriage. This trend is influenced by changing
attitudes towards marriage, increased focus on personal autonomy, and the desire to test
compatibility before formalizing a long-term commitment.
 Dual-Income Families: With industrialization and urbanization, there has been a rise in
dual-income families (as envisioned by Michael Young and Peer Willmott), where both
partners engage in paid employment. Economic demands and the pursuit of gender equality
have prompted more families to rely on multiple sources of income for financial stability.
 Increase in Single-Parent Households: It has contributed to an increase in single-parent
households, often headed by single mothers. Factors such as divorce, separation, or the choice
to raise a child independently have become more prevalent in urban areas.
 Filliocentric Family: It has shifted the focus of the family from being centred around the
authority of the husband and father (patriarchy) to being centred around the welfare and
needs of the children (fillocentrism).
 Decline in Authority of Elders: With industrialization and urbanization, traditional
hierarchical structures within the family, such as the authority of elders, have weakened.
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The nuclear family model emphasizes autonomy and individual decision-making, reducing
the influence of older generations.
 Same-Sex Families: It has facilitated greater acceptance and recognition of same-sex
relationships, leading to the formation of same-sex families. Legalization of same-sex
marriage and increased societal support have allowed same-sex couples to form committed
partnerships and raise children.
 Cohabitation Before Marriage: It has resulted in an increase in cohabitation before marriage.
Couples now often choose to live together and establish a committed relationship before or
instead of getting married. This trend is influenced by changing attitudes towards marriage,
personal preferences, and economic considerations.
 Brother-Sister Relationship: It has impacted sibling relationships. Increased educational and
employment opportunities for both genders have led to greater equality between brothers
and sisters, fostering more egalitarian relationships and mutual support.
 Decline in Fertility Rates: It has generally been associated with a decline in fertility rates.
Factors such as increased access to education, urban living expenses, and changing societal
values have led to smaller family sizes and lower birth rates in urban areas.
In the context of India, despite urbanization and industrialization, certain
fundamental aspects of family structure have remained relatively unchanged.
 These include the prevalence of arranged marriages, the significance of extended family
networks, the adherence to traditional gender roles and hierarchies, and the continued
importance of caste and community affiliations in marriage alliances.
 Additionally, the practice of joint family living, though less common than in the past, still
exists in certain regions and communities.
But the overall transformations in family structures and dynamics can be attributed to the social,
economic, and cultural changes brought about by industrialization and urbanization. They reflect
the adaptation of families to new circumstances and opportunities in urbanized and industrialized
societies.
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(c) How is ageing becoming an emerging issue in Indian society? (10 Marks)
Approach
 Define the term ageing.
 Discuss the emerging challenges (issues) faced by the elderly population in India.
 Conclusion appropriately
Solution
Clark Tibbitts defines ageing as the survival of a growing number of people who have completed
the traditional adult roles of making a living and childrearing. In India, 60 has been mostly accepted
for the purpose of classifying aged persons.
India’s elderly population (aged 60 and above) is projected to touch 194 million in 2031 from 138
million in 2021, a 41 per cent increase over a decade, according to the National Statistical Office
(NSO)’s Elderly in India 2021 report.
Challenges faced by the elderly population:
The ageing population presents both medical and sociological challenges. The elderly is at a high
risk of infectious diseases, and the demographic transition in India varies across different states due
to socio-economic development, cultural norms, and political contexts. This makes it difficult for
policymakers to provide geriatric care that considers all these factors. As a result, elderly care is
becoming an important issue for both the public and private sectors, requiring solutions to various
emerging issues such as:
 Infrastructure Deficiency for ageing population: As the aging population grows and
chronic diseases become more prevalent, there will be an increasing need for improved
physical infrastructure for elderly citizens. Insufficient physical infrastructure is a significant
obstacle to providing comfort and care to the elderly.
 Shifting Family Dynamics creating insecurity for ageing population: India's traditional
joint family system has historically safeguarded the social and economic well-being of the
elderly. Traditional values in Indian society have emphasized respect and care for the elderly.
However, with the growing prevalence of nuclear families in recent years, the elderly is likely
to experience emotional, physical, and financial insecurity in the future.
 Lack of Social Support: The elderly in India is particularly vulnerable due to inadequate
government spending on social security programs. In urban areas, the elderly depends
heavily on hired domestic help to meet their basic needs in an increasingly crowded and
chaotic city. This has led to increased social isolation and loneliness.
 Social Inequality: The elderly population is heterogeneous, with a rural-urban divide. Rural
elderly people are less vulnerable than their urban counterparts, in part due to the continued
prevalence of joint family values. However, not all elderly people receive the same level of
support as a result of socio-cultural factors. In one study, it was found that elderly women
were the poorest, had the lowest income per person, the highest negative affective
psychological conditions, the lowest likelihood of having health insurance coverage, and the
lowest consumption expenditure.
 Availability, Accessibility, and Affordability of Healthcare: With the trend towards nuclear
families, elder care management is becoming increasingly challenging, particularly for adult
children who are responsible for their parents' well-being.
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Managing home care for the elderly is a major challenge due to the small, unorganized
service providers that offer suboptimal care. Health insurance coverage in India is primarily
limited to hospitalization. The concept of geriatric care is an area that has been largely
neglected in the country. Most government facilities, such as day care centres, old age homes,
counselling, and recreational facilities, are located in urban areas.
 Increasing economic dependence: Elderly individuals who live with their families are
largely dependent on the family's economic capacity for their economic security and well-
being. Elderly individuals often lack financial protection, such as sufficient pensions or other
forms of social security in India. Poverty is the most significant challenge facing older
persons, which increases the risk of abuse. Due to their financial dependence, elderly
individuals are vulnerable to infections and have low priority for their own health. Pradeep
Kumar Panda, in his study of Orissa found that increasing economic strains of family lead to
poor care of adults in family.
 Failure to Reap Demographic Dividend: Rapid ageing at low levels of health and socio-
economic development will reduce prospects of reaping the demographic dividend and push
the state towards getting older before getting richer.
 Regional variation: The southern states of India are experiencing an advanced stage of
ageing compared to the northern states. This has created opportunities for migration from
the northern states to fulfill the labor demand in the south. It is important to create favorable
migration policies to prevent potential tensions based on regionalism.
The United Nations has designated the years 2021-2030 as the "Decade of Healthy Ageing," urging
governments, civil society, international organizations, professionals, academia, the media, and the
private sector to work together to achieve "ten years of concerted, catalytic, and collaborative action
to improve the lives of older people, their families, and the communities in which they live." To deal
with the emerging challenges of an ageing population in India, we should respond positively to the
UN's call to make this decade the decade of healthy ageing.
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Mains 2017
Section A
Question 1. Write short answers with a sociological perspective on the following, in about 150
words each: (10x5=50)
a) Write a critique of the structural and functional perspective used by M.N.
Srinivas in the understanding of Indian society. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define structural and functional perspective used by M.N. Srinivas.
 Acknowledge the strengths of the structural-functional perspective in understanding
Indian society.
 Explain a critique of the structural and functional perspective used by M.N. Srinivas
 Conclusion.
Solution:
M.N. Srinivas, introduced the structural-functional perspective in understanding Indian society.
Grounded in the framework of social structure and functionalism, Srinivas's approach is
exemplified by the concept of "Sanskritization."
According to this perspective, lower caste groups emulate the customs, rituals, and lifestyle of
higher castes in their quest for upward social mobility. The structural-functional lens emphasizes
the stabilizing functions of social institutions and the importance of maintaining social order.
Srinivas's work, particularly his study of dominant castes and social mobility, has significantly
contributed to the understanding of social structures and dynamics in the Indian context, providing
insights into the mechanisms of social change and continuity.
Strengths of the structural-functional perspective:
1. Systematic Analysis of Social Structures: The structural-functional perspective, as used by
M.N. Srinivas, excels in providing a systematic analysis of social structures in Indian society.
His focus on concepts like Sanskritization helps delineate the hierarchical organization of
castes, offering a framework to understand the functioning and stability of this complex
social structure.
2. Identification of Dominant Castes: Srinivas's identification and study of dominant castes
highlight the influential role certain groups play in local power dynamics. His work offers
insights into the functioning of these castes within the broader social framework. Srinivas's
approach helps unravel the intricacies of power structures in villages and regions.
3. Understanding Social Mobility: The structural-functional perspective provides a nuanced
understanding of social mobility through Sanskritization. Srinivas's analysis sheds light on
how individuals and groups navigate caste hierarchies, adapt to customs, and aspire for
upward mobility, offering valuable insights into the mechanisms of social change.
4. Stability-Oriented Framework: The structural-functional perspective, by nature,
emphasizes stability and order in society. In the context of Indian society, this approach is
useful for comprehending the enduring aspects of cultural practices, social norms, and
traditional institutions. A.R. Desai's emphasis on the stability of the joint family system
aligns with this perspective, highlighting its applicability in understanding enduring social
structures.
215
5. Examination of Cultural Continuity: Srinivas's work contributes to the examination of
cultural continuity in Indian society. The structural-functional perspective helps reveal how
cultural practices, rituals, and traditions persist over time, providing a foundation for social
cohesion. This aligns with the work of M.N. Srinivas, who explored the concept of
'Sanskritization' to understand how cultural elements endure across generations.
6. Insight into Village Studies: Srinivas's village studies, employing the structural-functional
perspective, offer valuable insights into the dynamics of rural life. These studies, like his work
on the Coorgs, help uncover the role of social institutions, kinship networks, and religious
practices in maintaining social order within the microcosm of villages, contributing to a
holistic understanding of Indian society.
Critique:
1. Oversimplification of Diversity: A critique of the structural-functional perspective lies in its
tendency to oversimplify the diversity within Indian society. G.S. Ghurye argued that
Srinivas's model, while useful for certain contexts, overlooks the vast cultural, linguistic, and
regional variations in India. Ghurye's criticism underscores the limitation of applying a
uniform framework to a heterogeneous society.
2. Neglect of Conflict and Power Dynamics: Critics argue that the structural-functional
perspective tends to neglect the inherent conflicts and power dynamics within Indian society.
Veena Das, influenced by conflict theory, emphasizes the importance of understanding
social relations and inequalities, challenging the assumption of seamless integration
propagated by the structural-functional model.
3. Limited Gender Perspective: Veena Mazumdar, critique the structural-functional
perspective for its limited analysis of gender dynamics. They argue that Srinivas's model
often overlooks the patriarchal structures embedded in traditional social institutions,
hindering a comprehensive understanding of gender roles and inequalities.
4. Ignores Historical Contexts and Change: The structural-functional perspective is critiqued
for its static nature and inadequate consideration of historical contexts and social change.
Dipankar Gupta argues that this approach does not sufficiently account for the impact of
colonialism, globalization, and urbanization on the dynamics of Indian society, limiting its
explanatory power in contemporary contexts.
5. Ambiguity in Sanskritization: Srinivas's concept of Sanskritization has faced criticism for its
ambiguity and lack of precision. Andre Beteille contends that the concept is often loosely
defined, making it challenging to apply consistently across diverse social contexts. This
ambiguity can lead to subjective interpretations and hinder the reliability of the framework.
6. Ethnocentric Bias: Critics argue that the structural-functional perspective, as applied by
Srinivas, carries an ethnocentric bias by prioritizing certain cultural norms and practices over
others. T.N. Madan suggests that the model may unintentionally reinforce the cultural
hegemony of certain groups, neglecting the perspectives and practices of marginalized
communities.
M.N. Srinivas's structural-functional perspective, although helpful in understanding Indian society,
has faced criticism for oversimplifying complex social realities. It tends to focus on stability,
overlooking conflicts, power dynamics, and the diverse culture of India.
While the structural-functional perspective offers valuable insights, a more complete understanding
of Indian society requires incorporating alternative sociological frameworks that consider diversity,
change, and power dynamics. A nuanced approach, combining various perspectives, is crucial for
a holistic grasp of India's intricate social fabric.
216
b) Which is more significant, the principal of ‘hierarchy’ or the principle of

difference, in inter-caste relations in the present day? (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Begin by defining the terms 'hierarchy' and 'difference' in the context of inter-caste
relations.
 Analyze the present-day inter-caste relations which is more significant, the principal of
‘hierarchy’ or the principle of difference.
 Examine the role of public discourse and media in shaping perceptions of inter-caste
relations.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Hierarchy in Inter-caste Relations:
'Hierarchy' refers to the historically ingrained social stratification prevalent in the caste system. It
entails the structured arrangement of castes based on perceived purity and occupation, resulting in
unequal power dynamics and privileges. The hierarchical order traditionally assigned varying
degrees of social, economic, and political status to different castes, with those at the top enjoying
greater advantages, while those at the bottom faced discrimination and limited opportunities.
Hierarchy in inter-caste relations often perpetuates social inequalities and influences individuals'
life chances based on their caste identity.
Difference in Inter-caste Relations:
The principle of 'difference' in inter-caste relations centers on recognizing and respecting the distinct
identities, cultures, and practices of various castes. This perspective emphasizes acknowledging
diversity within the caste system and appreciating the unique contributions each caste brings to the
socio-cultural landscape. The principle of difference seeks to move beyond the confines of a rigid
hierarchy, encouraging a more inclusive understanding that values the richness of cultural
pluralism. It implies a shift towards dismantling stereotypes and fostering a society that embraces
diversity, allowing individuals from different castes to coexist with mutual respect and equality.
Present-day inter-caste relations:
1. Caste as a Social Institution: Caste, as a social institution, maintains relevance with deep-rooted
structures impacting contemporary interactions, evident through instances of discrimination,
unequal resource access, and enduring social stigmatization under the influence of hierarchical
norms.
2. Legal Interventions and Reservations: Legal interventions, including reservations, aim to
challenge caste-based hierarchies, yet their effectiveness is debated.
Surinder S. Jodhka's studies on reservations reveal that while addressing historical injustices,
these policies may inadvertently perpetuate stereotypes and tensions within inter-caste
relations.
3. Recognition of Differences: Increasing recognition of 'difference' in inter-caste relations is
observed, with efforts to celebrate diversity and challenge stereotypes. M.N. Srinivas's concept
of 'Sanskritization,' when critically viewed, showcases lower castes negotiating identity and
asserting distinctiveness, contributing to a shifting social landscape.
217
4. Grassroots Movements and Activism: Grassroots movements, like the Dalit Panthers, led by
marginalized groups, emphasize equality and the acknowledgment of differences. Gail
Omvedt's studies highlight the impact of such anti-caste movements in challenging hierarchical
structures and advocating for the assertion of Dalit identity.
5. Media Influence on Social Narratives: Media plays a pivotal role in shaping perceptions of
inter-caste relations, influencing public discourse. Anand Teltumbde's research on media
representations of caste reveals how narratives either reinforce hierarchical norms or challenge
them, shaping societal perceptions and engagements.
6. Urbanization and Social Dynamics: Urbanization and changing social dynamics contribute to
a shift in inter-caste relations. Dipankar Gupta's exploration emphasizes how urban spaces
provide opportunities for increased social interaction, eroding traditional hierarchies and
fostering the emergence of more inclusive social networks.
The role of public discourse and media in shaping perceptions of inter-caste
relations:
1. Construction of Social Narratives: Public discourse and media play a crucial role in
constructing social narratives around inter-caste relations. Anand Teltumbde's research
highlights how media representations contribute to shaping public perceptions, either
reinforcing existing hierarchical norms or challenging them.
2. Stereotyping and Stigmatization: Media often perpetuates stereotypes and stigmatization
associated with different castes. The work of Gail Omvedt illustrates how media portrayals
can reinforce negative stereotypes, contributing to the stigmatization of certain caste groups.
3. Agenda Setting and Framing: Public discourse and media act as powerful tools in agenda
setting and framing discussions around inter-caste relations. Dipankar Gupta's studies
emphasize how media can frame narratives, influencing public opinion and policy
discussions on caste-related issues.
4. Amplification of Grassroots Movements: Media can amplify the voices of grassroots
movements challenging caste hierarchies. Examples include coverage of the Dalit Panthers
and their activism, as studied by Gail Omvedt, showcasing how media can contribute to
raising awareness and fostering dialogue on caste-related social issues.
5. Representation of Caste in Popular Culture: M.N. Srinivas's concept of 'Sanskritization' can
be applied to understand how media representations influence the aspirational aspects of
caste identity. Popular culture, including films and television, often reflects and shapes
perceptions of social mobility and status aspirations associated with caste.
6. Social media and Citizen Journalism: With the rise of social media, there is an increasing
role of citizen journalism in shaping perceptions of inter-caste relations. Sharmila Rege's
work on digital activism in India highlights how social media platforms provide alternative
spaces for marginalized voices to challenge mainstream narratives and influence public
discourse on caste-related issues.
In conclusion, while the principle of hierarchy continues to influence inter-caste relations, the
increasing recognition of differences suggests a transformative trend, indicating a nuanced and
evolving sociocultural landscape. A comprehensive understanding necessitates considering both
principles, as their interplay shapes the intricate dynamics of present-day inter-caste relations in
India.
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c) What are the distinct features of Islam as practiced in India, and how have
they changed over time? (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Explain distinct features of Islam as practiced in India.
 Explain evolution of Islam as practiced in India.
 Analyze the challenges posed by the secular nature of the Indian state.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Islam in India is characterized by a unique blend of cultural diversity and religious practices. One
distinct feature is the syncretic nature of Indian Islam, influenced by centuries of interaction with
diverse cultural traditions. Sufism, with its emphasis on mysticism and spiritual experience, plays
a significant role, fostering a pluralistic and tolerant interpretation of Islam.
The concept of "composite culture" is evident, where Islamic practices integrate with local customs,
resulting in a rich tapestry of rituals and traditions. Indian Muslims often engage in a pluralistic
dialogue, embracing the coexistence of various religious beliefs. Additionally, the communal
harmony and shared cultural spaces exemplify the distinctive features of Islam in India,
emphasizing a unique socio-religious synthesis that transcends boundaries and fosters inclusivity.
Evolution of Islam as practiced in India.
1. Syncretism and Cultural Adaptation: The syncretic nature of Indian Islam, integrating Sufi
practices with local traditions. Evolving expressions of syncretism, witnessed in the
continued influence of Sufi music and the celebration of Urs. M.N. Srinivas, known for his
studies on cultural syncretism in India, offers insights into the changing dynamics of
religious practices.
2. Communal Harmony and Interfaith Dynamics: The historical tradition of communal
harmony, with examples like joint celebrations and shared religious spaces. Challenges to
communal harmony in contemporary times, as seen in instances of religious tension and
polarization. Ashis Nandy's work on communalism provides a framework for
understanding the shifts in interfaith dynamics in the Indian context.
3. Social Heterogeneity and Caste Identities: The persistence of caste identities among Indian
Muslims, influencing social interactions and matrimonial practices. Ongoing debates and
discussions on caste dynamics within the Muslim community, reflecting evolving social
awareness. A.R. Desai's insights into caste dynamics in India contribute to understanding
the intersection of caste and religious identity.
4. Economic Disparities and Social Mobility: Socio-economic disparities among Indian
Muslims, shaped by historical factors and economic policies Efforts and initiatives to address
economic disparities and enhance social mobility within the Muslim community. Imtiaz
Ahmad's studies on the socio-economic status of Muslims provide a sociological lens to
analyze changing economic dynamics.
5. Political Representation and Identity Politics: The formation of political identities and
parties representing Muslim interests. Shifting political dynamics, including the emergence
of new political formations and debates on effective political representation.
Andre Beteille's exploration of political sociology helps analyze the changing nature of
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political identity among Indian Muslims.
6. Gender Dynamics and Women's Empowerment: Traditionally, gender dynamics influenced
by cultural and religious norms. Ongoing discourse on women's rights and empowerment
within the Muslim community, with examples of educational initiatives and advocacy. Shah
Bano's case and subsequent debates provide a lens to understand the changing dynamics of
gender within Indian Islam.
The challenges posed by the secular nature of the Indian state.
1. Identity Politics and Religious Fragmentation: The secular nature of the Indian state has led
to the rise of identity politics, with communities mobilizing along religious lines for political
representation. M.N. Srinivas, known for his work on social stratification, provides insights
into the role of identity in Indian society.
2. Communalism and Religious Tensions: Incidents of communal violence and religious
tensions highlight the challenges in maintaining a secular fabric, as seen in various parts of
India. Ashis Nandy's exploration of communalism and identity dynamics contributes to
understanding the complexities of religious tensions.
3. Reservation Policies and Social Justice: The debate over reservations based on caste and
religion reflects challenges in achieving social justice within the framework of a secular state.
B.R. Ambedkar's thoughts on social justice and affirmative action remain influential in
discussions on reservations.
4. Educational Disparities and Access: Disparities in educational access, particularly among
marginalized religious communities, pose challenges to achieving educational equality
within a secular framework. Andre Beteille's studies on education and social inequality
contribute to understanding educational disparities in diverse societies.
5. Media Influence on Secular Discourse: The role of media in shaping public opinion and
sometimes promoting religious biases challenges the secular discourse in the country. Jürgen
Habermas's theories on the public sphere offer insights into the role of media in shaping
societal discourse.
6. Globalization and Cultural Shifts: Globalization and the influence of transnational religious
movements impact local cultures, posing challenges to maintaining a secular ethos. Arjun
Appadurai's work on globalization and cultural flows provides a theoretical framework for
understanding the cultural shifts in a globalized world.
In conclusion, the distinct features of Islam as practiced in India reflect a dynamic interplay of
historical, cultural, and social influences. The syncretic nature, marked by the integration of Sufi
traditions, a pluralistic approach to religious practices, and communal harmony, has been enduring.
However, over time, the landscape has witnessed changes influenced by factors like economic
disparities, political representation, and globalization. The evolution of Islam in India demonstrates
its adaptability and resilience in the face of shifting sociocultural dynamics. Recognizing these
changes is essential for a comprehensive understanding of the diverse and evolving nature of Islam
in the Indian context, providing valuable insights for sociological analysis.
d) How have the struggles against untouchability changed their forms and
perspectives from Gandhian to Ambedkarite positions? (10 Marks)
220
Approach.
 Define untouchability.
 Explain how struggles against untouchability changed their forms and perspectives from
Gandhian to Ambedkarite positions.
 Explain challenges faced in adhering untouchability.
 Conclude.
Solutions:
Untouchability, rooted in the caste system of Hindu society, refers to the social practice of
considering certain individuals or groups as impure and polluting, thereby segregating them from
the rest of society. Those deemed "untouchables" historically faced severe social and economic
discrimination, including restrictions on their occupation, access to public spaces, and even social
interactions.
The practice has its basis in the hierarchical structure of caste, with the stigma associated with certain
occupations and birth determining one's social status. Despite constitutional provisions and
legislative measures to abolish untouchability in India, its remnants persist in various forms,
highlighting the complex interplay between social norms, cultural traditions, and the struggle for
social justice within the country.
Struggles against untouchability changed their forms and perspectives from Gandhian to
Ambedkarite positions.
1. Gandhian Perspective - Emphasis on Moral Persuasion: Mahatma Gandhi advocated for a
non-violent and morally persuasive approach to eradicate untouchability. M.N. Srinivas,
influenced by Gandhian ideas, highlighted the importance of social reform through non-
violent means.
2. Ambedkarite Perspective - Legal and Constitutional Framework: B.R. Ambedkar
emphasized legal and constitutional measures to address untouchability, advocating for
Dalit rights and reservations. Andre Beteille's studies on caste and constitutional provisions
provide insights into the legal dimensions of the struggle against untouchability.
3. Gandhian Approach - Integral Humanism and Village Reconstruction: Gandhi's concept
of Sarvodaya and emphasis on village reconstruction aimed at holistic societal
transformation. D.P. Mukerji, influenced by Gandhian ideals, focused on rural
reconstruction and social upliftment.
4. Ambedkarite Approach - Emphasis on Education and Political Empowerment: Ambedkar
stressed the importance of education and political empowermen for Dalits to break the
shackles of untouchability. G.S. Ghurye's work on caste and education contributes to
understanding the role of education in social transformation.
5. Gandhian Vision - Constructive Work and Gram Swaraj: Gandhi's constructive work
included efforts to eliminate untouchability through activities like cleaning public toilets and
promoting inter-caste harmony. Radhakamal Mukerjee's engagement with Gandhian
constructive work offers insights into its sociological implications.
6. Ambedkarite Emphasis - Annihilation of Caste and Political Assertion: Ambedkar's

"Annihilation of Caste" called for a radical rethinking of social structures, rejecting the caste
system entirely. M.N. Srinivas' reflections on the persistence of caste provide context to
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Ambedkar's call for annihilation.
7. Contemporary Struggles - Intersectionality and Social Movements: Current struggles
against untouchability often incorporate intersectional perspectives, addressing the
interconnectedness of caste with gender, class, and religion. Gail Omvedt contribute to
contemporary discourse by examining the intersectionality of various social movements,
including those against untouchability.
Challenges:
1. Cultural Resistance and Persistence of Traditional Beliefs: Cultural resistance to change
and the persistence of traditional beliefs contribute to the continuation of untouchability.
Suvira Jaiswal's studies on cultural resistance in Indian society offer insights into the
challenges faced in dismantling entrenched practices.
2. Economic Disparities and Occupational Stereotypes: Economic disparities and stereotypes
associated with certain occupations contribute to the perpetuation of untouchability. B.R.
Ambedkar's writings on caste and occupation shed light on the interconnectedness of
economic and caste-based discrimination.
3. Lack of Effective Implementation of Legal Measures: Despite legal provisions against
untouchability, the lack of effective implementation hinders its eradication. Upendra Baxi's
work on law and social justice provides a framework for analyzing the gaps in the
implementation of legal measures.
4. Deep-rooted Social Hierarchies and Caste System: The deep-rooted nature of social
hierarchies and the caste system poses a significant challenge to dismantling untouchability.
Srinivas's studies on the persistence of caste hierarchies inform our understanding of the
challenges embedded in the social structure.
5. Resistance to Social Change and Inter-caste Marriages: Resistance to social change,
particularly in the form of opposition to inter-caste marriages, impedes progress in
eliminating untouchability. M.N. Srinivas' research on social change and marriage patterns
provides insights into the dynamics of inter-caste relationships.
6. Political Exploitation and Caste-based Vote Bank Politics: Political exploitation and the use
of caste-based vote bank politics contribute to the perpetuation of caste divisions and
untouchability. Christophe Jaffrelot's analyses on Indian politics and caste dynamics offer
perspectives on the political challenges in addressing untouchability.
In conclusion, the evolution of struggles against untouchability from Gandhian to Ambedkarite
positions reflects a dynamic trajectory shaped by changing sociopolitical contexts. Gandhian
perspectives initially emphasized moral persuasion, integral humanism, and village reconstruction,
while Ambedkarite approaches focused on legal measures, education, and political empowerment.
Over time, these struggles have expanded to incorporate intersectional perspectives, addressing the
complex web of social inequalities. The journey from Gandhian ideals of non-violence and
constructive work to Ambedkar's calls for the annihilation of caste signifies a shift towards more
radical and systemic transformations.
e) Write a short note on ‘changing means of production and increased rural

poverty’. (10 Marks)
222
Approach.
 Define poverty.
 Explain ‘changing means of production and increased rural poverty’
 Explain how changing means of production help to reduce poverty.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Poverty, is a multifaceted societal phenomenon characterized by the lack of essential resources and
opportunities needed for a minimally decent standard of living. Poverty is not merely an
individual's economic condition but a social construct deeply embedded in structural inequalities.
B.R. Ambedkar's analysis of caste-based discrimination highlights how social hierarchies
exacerbate poverty, while M.N. Srinivas' studies on social stratification emphasize the
interconnectedness of poverty with caste. Additionally, scholars like D.N. Dhanagare explore the
intersectionality of poverty with factors such as class, gender, and rural-urban divides.
1. Agricultural Modernization and Marginalization: The shift in means of production, marked
by agricultural modernization, has led to the marginalization of small and subsistence
farmers. B.S. Baviskar's work on rural transformations highlights the consequences of
modernization on traditional agricultural practices and the resultant challenges faced by
rural communities.
2. Land Fragmentation and Tenure Insecurity: Changing means of production often involve
land fragmentation, leading to reduced agricultural holdings and increased insecurity in land
tenure. M.N. Srinivas' analyses of agrarian relations provide insights into the impact of land
fragmentation on rural poverty and social dynamics.
3. Technological Disparities and Skill Gaps: The adoption of modern agricultural
technologies may exacerbate rural poverty by creating disparities in access to technology and
skill gaps among farmers. Vandana Shiva's studies on technology and agriculture shed light
on how technological changes can either empower or marginalize rural communities.
4. Globalization and Agricultural Distress: Increased integration into global markets can
contribute to agricultural distress, affecting the livelihoods of rural populations. P. Sainath's
work on agrarian crises and globalization provides a critical perspective on the impact of
global economic forces on rural poverty.
5. Migration and Vulnerability: Changing means of production may trigger rural-to-urban
migration, leaving behind vulnerable populations with limited access to resources and
employment opportunities. Arjun Appadurai's concept of "global scapes" helps analyze the
interconnectedness of rural and urban spaces amid changing means of production.
6. Policy Interventions and Inclusive Development: Addressing increased rural poverty
requires sociological perspectives to inform policy interventions that ensure inclusive
development, considering the diverse impacts of changing means of production. Yogendra
Singh's contributions to development sociology provide a framework for understanding the
role of policies in mitigating the adverse effects of changing production patterns on rural
communities.
Changing means of production help to reduce poverty.
1. Diversification and Livelihood Opportunities: Changing means of production, such as
diversification into non-agricultural sectors, can create new livelihood opportunities,
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reducing dependency on traditional farming. B.S. Baviskar's insights into rural
transformations highlight the potential benefits of diversification for alleviating poverty in
agrarian communities.
2. Technology Adoption for Agricultural Efficiency: Embracing modern technologies in
agriculture, such as precision farming and mechanization, enhances productivity and
reduces poverty by increasing yields and income. Vandana Shiva's analyses of sustainable
agriculture acknowledge the positive impact of technology when coupled with ecological
considerations.
3. Market Integration and Income Generation: Integration into broader markets enables rural
producers to access larger consumer bases, leading to increased income and poverty
reduction. M.N. Srinivas' work on agrarian relations provides insights into the positive
outcomes of market integration in transforming rural economies.
4. Skill Development and Human Capital Enhancement: Changing means of production often
involve skill development and education, empowering individuals with the knowledge
needed for diverse economic activities. Amartya Sen's capabilities approach underscores the
importance of education and skill development for poverty reduction.
5. Land Reforms and Equitable Resource Distribution: Implementing land reforms ensures
more equitable distribution of resources, empowering marginalized communities and
reducing poverty. D.N. Dhanagare's work on land reforms provides a sociological
perspective on how policy changes can contribute to poverty alleviation.
6. Inclusive Development Policies and Social Justice: Policies aimed at inclusive
development, guided by sociological perspectives on social justice, can ensure that changing
means of production benefit all sections of society. Yogendra Singh's contributions to
development sociology emphasize the importance of inclusivity in policies to address
poverty in diverse social contexts.
In conclusion, the nexus between changing means of production and increased rural poverty reflects
the complex interplay of economic transformations and social repercussions. While advancements
in technology and market integration hold the potential to uplift rural communities by diversifying
livelihoods and enhancing productivity, the uneven distribution of benefits and the vulnerability of
marginalized populations must be critically addressed. A comprehensive sociological
understanding is imperative to formulate policies that ensure inclusive development, equitable
resource distribution, and sustainable rural transformation.
224
Question 2.
a) The main objective of socio- religious movements during the colonial rule
in India were reforming and synthesizing Hinduism. Write on any two such
important movements. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Explain socio-religious movements.
 Explain two socio- religious movements during the colonial rule in India were reforming
and synthesizing Hinduism.
 Explain Challenges faced in reforming and synthesizing Hinduism.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Socio-religious movements, at the intersection of society and religion, are transformative endeavors
aimed at addressing social issues through religious principles. These movements typically emerge
in response to perceived social injustices, inequalities, or moral crises. These are often led by
charismatic leaders, these movements seek to reform or challenge existing social norms and
structures, drawing inspiration from religious doctrines to advocate for change. Examples include
the Bhakti and Sufi movements in India, which aimed at fostering spiritual equality and
transcending caste divisions.
1. Brahmo Samaj:
The Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in the early 19th century, aimed at reforming
Hinduism by advocating for monotheism, social equality, and the rejection of idol worship and caste
distinctions.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy, often regarded as the "Father of Modern India," was influenced by
Enlightenment ideals and sought to bring about social and religious reforms. His sociological
contributions lie in challenging orthodox Hindu practices and promoting rational thought.
Example: The ongoing discourse on caste-based discrimination and the advocacy for social equality
within Hinduism resonates with the ideals propagated by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the Brahmo
Samaj.
2. Arya Samaj:
Synthesis and Reform: Swami Dayananda Saraswati founded the Arya Samaj in the late 19th
century with a dual objective of synthesizing the Vedic heritage and reforming Hindu society by
opposing idol worship, untouchability, and promoting Vedic teachings.
Swami Dayananda Saraswati, a prominent social and religious reformer, emphasized a return to
the original teachings of the Vedas and the rejection of perceived corruptions within Hinduism. His
sociological contributions lie in the critique of social practices inconsistent with Vedic ideals.
Example: Discussions on revisiting and reinterpreting Vedic scriptures to address contemporary
issues, alongside movements against caste discrimination, echo the socioreligious goals set by
Swami Dayananda Saraswati and the Arya Samaj.
225
3. Rama Krishna Mission:
Spiritual Syncretism: The Rama Krishna Mission, founded by Swami Vivekananda in the late 19th
century, aimed at synthesizing diverse religious paths within Hinduism while emphasizing the
universality of spiritual truths. It sought to foster religious tolerance and social service. Swami
Vivekananda, a disciple of Sri Ramakrishna, contributed to sociological thought by promoting the
idea of harmony among religions and advocating for the service of humanity as a form of worship.
Example: The emphasis on interfaith dialogue and the promotion of humanitarian values by
organizations aligns with the socioreligious vision of the Rama Krishna Mission.
4. Theosophical Society:
Esoteric Synthesis: The Theosophical Society, founded by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky, Henry Steel
Olcott, and Annie Besant in the late 19th century, sought to explore esoteric spiritual traditions,
including aspects of Hinduism, with the aim of fostering a universal brotherhood of humanity.
Annie Besant, a prominent member of the Theosophical Society, played a role in popularizing
Eastern spiritual philosophies in the West. Her sociological contributions include efforts towards
spiritual syncretism and understanding diverse religious traditions. Example: Contemporary
movements exploring the commonalities among various spiritual traditions and advocating for a
universal understanding of humanity resonate with the Theosophical Society's goals.
1. Orthodox Resistance: Traditional orthodox groups within Hinduism often resist reformist
movements that challenge established rituals, caste hierarchies, or traditional practices.
Example: The resistance faced by social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, who challenged
orthodox Hindu practices, encountered opposition from conservative elements.
2. Caste Dynamics: Caste-based structures pose a significant challenge to efforts aimed at
synthesizing Hinduism, as caste identities are deeply ingrained in social and religious
practices. Example: The persistent prevalence of caste discrimination despite efforts by
reformist movements reflects the enduring challenges posed by entrenched caste dynamics.
3. Diversity of Beliefs: Hinduism's vast diversity in beliefs, sects, and practices makes it
challenging to create a unified synthesis, as interpretations of scriptures and religious
principles can vary widely. Example: The coexistence of various sects, each with its own
interpretation of Hindu philosophy, adds complexity to the task of synthesizing a unified
worldview.
4. Regional Variation: Hinduism exhibits significant regional variations, with practices and
traditions differing across different parts of the country. Achieving a pan-Indian synthesis
faces challenges due to this diversity. Example: The diversity in worship practices, rituals,
and festivals across regions reflects the regional variations within Hinduism.
5. Interplay of Politics and Religion: The interplay of politics and religion often complicates
reform efforts, as political agendas may exploit religious sentiments for electoral gains,
hindering genuine reform initiatives. Example: The politicization of religious issues, such as
temple controversies, showcases the challenges faced when attempting to separate religion
from political interests.
6. Globalization and Modernization: Globalization and modernization bring new challenges
to the synthesis of Hinduism, with changing societal norms and values impacting traditional
religious practices. Example: The evolving roles of women, LGBTQ+ inclusion, and changing
family structures challenge traditional norms within Hinduism, requiring thoughtful
navigation for successful synthesis.
226
In conclusion, the socio-religious movements during colonial rule played a pivotal role in reforming
and synthesizing Hinduism, contributing to the dynamic evolution of India's socioreligious
landscape. Movements like the Brahmo Samaj, led by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, and the Arya Samaj,
founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati, exemplified the reformist spirit by challenging orthodox
practices and advocating for a return to Vedic principles.
The transformative impact of such movement’s echoes in contemporary discussions on religious
pluralism, social justice, and the ongoing dialogue about the synthesis of traditional values with the
challenges posed by modernity. The lessons from these historical movements continue to shape the
discourse on Hinduism's adaptability and resilience in the face of societal changes, providing
valuable insights for understanding India's diverse sociocultural fabric.
227
b) Discuss Yogendra Singh's thesis on Modernization of Indian Tradition,

and evaluate its applicability in the present-day context. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Explain Yogendra Singh's thesis on Modernization of Indian Tradition.
 Discuss its applicability in the present-day context.
 Discuss Critique of Yogendra Singh's Thesis.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Yogendra Singh's thesis on the Modernization of Indian Tradition posits that India's path to
modernity involves a dynamic interplay between tradition and modernity, challenging the notion
of a linear transition.
Yogendra Singh argues that modernization in India is not a mere imitation of Western models but
a unique process shaped by the nation's historical and cultural context. He emphasizes the
continuity of certain traditional values and practices, which, instead of eroding, integrate with
modern elements. Yogendra Singh's perspective underscores the significance of indigenous
traditions in shaping the trajectory of modernization, advocating for a nuanced understanding that
acknowledges both continuity and change in India's sociocultural landscape.
Its applicability in the present-day context.
1. Continuity and Change Dynamics: Yogendra Singh's thesis highlights the coexistence of
continuity and change in the process of modernization in India. This perspective remains
relevant today, as India continues to navigate the tension between preserving traditional
values and embracing modernity. Examples include the persistence of caste dynamics
alongside efforts for social equality and justice.
2. Cultural Hybridity: Yogendra Singh emphasizes the emergence of a unique Indian
modernity that incorporates elements from both indigenous traditions and global influences.
In the present-day context, the concept of cultural hybridity is evident in the fusion of
traditional art forms with contemporary expressions, reflecting a dynamic cultural
landscape. For instance, modern Indian literature often draws inspiration from classical
themes.
3. Social Institutions and Change: Yogendra Singh underscores the role of social institutions
in mediating between tradition and modernity. Current discussions on family structures,
gender roles, and marriage norms reveal the ongoing negotiation between tradition and
modern values. Sociological thinkers like M.N. Srinivas and his concept of 'Sanskritization'
contribute to understanding these changes.
4. Globalization's Impact: Yogendra Singh's thesis acknowledges the impact of globalization
on Indian society. Globalization's influence on Indian culture, economy, and lifestyles is
evident today, with the spread of digital technology, international media, and the global
market shaping new patterns of consumption and communication.
5. Religious Pluralism: Yogendra Singh's discusses the role of religion in the modernization
process, emphasizing the coexistence of diverse religious beliefs. In contemporary India, the
coexistence of various religious practices, syncretic traditions, and interfaith dialogues
reflects Singh's insights into how religion adapts to modern challenges.
228
6. Political Modernity: Yogendra Singh's addresses the political dimension of modernization,
emphasizing the need for democratic values. Applicability: Contemporary debates on
democracy, political participation, and governance resonate with Singh's emphasis on
political modernity, with thinkers like Amartya Sen contributing to discussions on the Indian
political landscape.
Critique of Singh's Thesis
1. Critique of Homogenization: Yogendra Singh is criticized for overlooking the diversity
within traditional and modern aspects, leading to a somewhat homogenized view. Dipankar
Gupta's work challenges homogenizing narratives, advocating for an understanding of
social stratification and cultural diversity. Gupta's exploration of 'micro-identities' offers
nuanced insights.
2. Neglect of Local Specificities: Yogendra Singh's approach is accused of neglecting local
variations and specificities in the process of modernization. Veena Das, with her focus on
micro-level studies, critiques grand narratives and emphasizes the importance of local
contexts in understanding social phenomena.
3. Gender Dynamics Oversight: Yogendra Singh's thesis is critiqued for not adequately
addressing gender dynamics in the context of modernization. Feminist scholars like Leela
Dube and Vina Mazumdar provide perspectives on gender and modernization, highlighting
the complexities and challenges faced by women in the changing socio-cultural landscape.
4. Limited Attention to Global Influences: Yogendra Singh's thesis is critiqued for not fully
exploring the impact of global forces on Indian society. Arjun Appadurai's theory of global
cultural flows adds depth to the discussion by highlighting the influence of global media,
migration, and cultural interactions on local societies.
5. Insufficient Attention to Marginalized Voices: Yogendra Singh's work is criticized for
insufficiently addressing the experiences and perspectives of marginalized communities in
the modernization process. B.R. Ambedkar's sociological insights on caste and
discrimination provide an alternative lens to understand how marginalized communities
negotiate modernity, adding depth to Singh's critiques.
6. Underplaying Structural Inequalities: Yogendra Singh's is critiqued for underplaying the
role of structural inequalities in the modernization process.
Andre Beteille's work on social stratification and inequality contributes to the critique by
highlighting how structures of power and privilege impact the trajectory of modernization
in India.
In conclusion, Yogendra Singh's thesis on the Modernization of Indian Tradition remains a seminal
contribution to sociological discourse, offering valuable insights into the complex interplay between
tradition and modernity. While Singh's emphasis on the dual processes of Westernization and
Sanskritization provided a framework to understand societal transformations, its applicability in
the present-day context requires critical evaluation.
The evolving dynamics of globalization, technological advancements, and the diversification of
social identities necessitate a re-examination of Singh's model. Integrating these diverse
perspectives allows for a comprehensive analysis of the multifaceted nature of social change in
contemporary India, transcending the limitations of Singh's original framework.
229
c) What are the changes in the cultural and structural aspects of the caste
system since independence? (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define caste system in India.
 Explain the changes in the cultural and structural aspects of the caste system since
independence
 Discuss the challenges faced for cultural and structural aspects of the caste system.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The caste system in India is a hierarchical social structure based on hereditary groups, determining
individuals' occupations and social status. Comprising four main varnas—Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudras—further divided into sub-castes, it forms a rigid social order. B.R.
Ambedkar, a key architect of the Indian Constitution, criticized the oppressive nature of the caste
system and advocated for its abolition. M.N. Srinivas explored caste dynamics in modern India,
introducing "Sanskritization" to explain how lower castes adopt higher castes' customs for upward
mobility. These scholars have significantly shaped the sociological understanding of the caste
system and its implications in Indian society.
The changes in the cultural and structural aspects of the caste system since independence:
1. Legal Abolition and Reservation Policies: Post-Independence, legal measures were enacted
to abolish untouchability and promote equality. B.R. Ambedkar played a pivotal role in
framing the Indian Constitution, incorporating provisions for the eradication of
untouchability. The reservation policies, based on his vision, aimed at providing affirmative
action for historically marginalized groups, facilitating their entry into educational
institutions and government jobs.
2. Economic Changes and Mobility: Economic transformations have influenced caste
dynamics. M.N. Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization" reflects how economic advancements
and urbanization have led to changes in caste practices. The emergence of a middle class has
challenged traditional occupational roles, fostering social mobility and blurring caste
boundaries.
3. Globalization and Social Change: Globalization has brought about cultural shifts and
challenged traditional norms. Andre Beteille's work on the impact of globalization on caste
highlights how economic liberalization has influenced social structures. Increased access to
education and exposure to diverse cultures through globalization have contributed to
changing attitudes toward caste identities.
4. Education and Empowerment: Educational initiatives have played a crucial role in
challenging caste-based disparities. Scholars like Gail Omvedt have emphasized the
importance of education in empowering marginalized communities. Increased literacy rates
and educational awareness have contributed to questioning and challenging traditional caste
hierarchies.
5. Dalit Assertion and Identity Politics: Dalit movements and identity politics have gained
momentum. The writings of thinkers like B.R. Ambedkar continue to inspire Dalit activism.
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Recent sociological examples include the political assertion of Dalit leaders and the formation
of parties advocating for the rights and representation of marginalized communities.
6. Media and Cultural Representations: Media has played a role in shaping cultural
perceptions and challenging stereotypes. Sociologist Arjun Appadurai's work on media and
globalization is relevant in understanding how media representations influence caste
perceptions. The portrayal of diverse caste narratives in contemporary films, literature, and
digital platforms has contributed to a more nuanced understanding of caste in modern India.
Challenges:
1. Persisting Discrimination and Untouchability: Despite legal measures, discrimination and
untouchability persist. B.R. Ambedkar's writings highlighted the deep-rooted nature of caste
prejudice. Recent sociological studies show instances of untouchability in rural areas,
indicating that social reforms have not completely eradicated these practices.
2. Reservation Controversies and Backlash: Reservation policies have faced challenges and
criticisms. M.N. Srinivas's work on social mobility emphasizes that reservations alone may
not address deep-seated inequalities. Recent controversies over reservation policies, debates
on meritocracy, and concerns about reverse discrimination highlight ongoing challenges in
achieving equitable representation.
3. Economic Disparities and Caste: Caste-based economic disparities persist. Andre Beteille's
observations on the persistence of economic inequalities based on caste are still relevant.
Recent sociological research underscores how lower-caste individuals often face limited
economic opportunities, hindering their upward mobility despite legal provisions.
4. Identity Politics and Fragmentation: Identity politics has led to fragmentation rather than
unity. Gail Omvedt's critiques of identity-based politics are relevant. While Dalit assertion is
crucial, recent examples of intra-caste conflicts and tensions among different marginalized
groups suggest challenges in fostering a unified front against caste-based discrimination.
5. Educational Challenges and Social Stigma: Educational disparities and social stigma
persist. The challenges identified by scholars like Gail Omvedt in ensuring quality education
for marginalized communities are still prevalent. Despite increased access to education,
lower-caste students may face discrimination, creating barriers to academic success and
professional growth.
6. Media Reinforcement of Stereotypes: Media can reinforce stereotypes and perpetuate caste
biases. Arjun Appadurai's insights into media influence on cultural perceptions are pertinent.
Recent sociological analyses reveal instances where media representations may inadvertently
reinforce caste stereotypes, hindering efforts to challenge deep-seated prejudices and
discrimination.
In post-independence India, cultural and structural shifts in the caste system have emerged through
legal measures, economic changes, and globalization, fostering social equality and empowerment.
Despite progress, challenges like discrimination and identity politics persist, highlighting the need
for a comprehensive approach addressing socio-economic, educational, and cultural dimensions to
advance towards a casteless society.
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Question 3.
a) Indebtedness is one of the serious issues leading to farmers’ suicides.
Discuss reasons and suggest solutions. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define concept of suicide.
 Explain how Indebtedness is one of the serious issues leading to farmers’ suicides.
 Suggest solutions to curb issues leading to farmers’ suicides.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The concept of suicide, by Emile Durkheim, extends beyond individual psychology to encompass
social factors influencing self-destructive behavior. Durkheim's seminal work, "Suicide: A Study in
Sociology," classifies suicide into egoistic, altruistic, anomic, and fatalistic categories, attributing
variations to societal integration and regulation. He argues that social structures and norms play a
crucial role in shaping suicide rates, with higher integration reducing suicides.
This sociological perspective underscores the interconnectedness between individual actions and
broader societal dynamics in understanding the phenomenon of suicide.
Indebtedness is one of the serious issues leading to farmers’ suicides.
1. Economic Distress and Agrarian Crisis: Indebtedness is often a consequence of economic
distress in the agrarian sector. Scholars like Vandana Shiva and P. Sainath highlight how
globalization and liberalization have adversely impacted small-scale farmers, pushing them
into cycles of debt due to factors like rising input costs and fluctuating crop prices.
2. M.N. Srinivas's Agrarian Studies: M.N. Srinivas's studies on agrarian issues in India shed
light on the impact of indebtedness on farmers. His work underscores the vulnerability of
farmers to economic pressures, emphasizing how socio-economic factors, including
indebtedness, contribute to distress and suicides in the agrarian community.
3. Government Policies and Agricultural Practices: Government policies and agricultural
practices can exacerbate indebtedness. The Green Revolution's focus on high-yield varieties
and input-intensive farming, as analyzed by sociologist Ashis Nandy, has contributed to
increased costs for farmers, often leading to indebtedness when coupled with unpredictable
market conditions.
4. Vulnerability of Marginalized Farmers: Indebtedness disproportionately affects
marginalized farmers. B.R. Ambedkar's insights into social and economic inequalities are
relevant. Dalit and tribal farmers, facing historical disadvantages, are often more susceptible
to the economic pressures of indebtedness, further exacerbating the agrarian crisis.
5. Globalization and Market Fluctuations: Globalization's impact on agriculture can lead to
market fluctuations affecting farmers. Sociologist Arjun Appadurai's theories on global
cultural flows and their impact on local economies are pertinent. The interconnectedness of
global markets can intensify economic uncertainties for farmers, contributing to indebtedness
and suicides.
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Examples: Recent studies highlight the correlation between indebtedness and farmer suicides.
Research by organizations like the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) in India reveals a strong
link between financial indebtedness and suicides in the farming community. Sociological analyses
of specific cases underscore the urgent need for policy interventions addressing the root causes of
agrarian distress.
Solutions to curb issues leading to farmers’ suicides.
1. Agrarian Reforms and Sustainable Practices: Implement agrarian reforms and promote
sustainable farming practices. M.S. Swaminathan's advocacy for agricultural sustainability,
policies should prioritize ecological balance, crop diversification, and water conservation.
This shift can reduce farmers' dependence on expensive inputs and mitigate the risks of crop
failure.
2. Debt Relief and Financial Inclusion: Introduce effective debt relief mechanisms and
enhance financial inclusion. Amartya Sen's capability approach emphasizes the importance
of empowering individuals. Implementing debt waiver programs and ensuring accessible
credit facilities can alleviate the burden on farmers, providing them with greater economic
agency and reducing the likelihood of suicides.
3. Community-Based Support Systems: Foster community-based support systems and mental
health initiatives. Emphasizing B.R. Ambedkar's focus on social justice, community-driven
initiatives can provide emotional and financial support to distressed farmers. Creating
awareness about mental health issues and offering counseling services can address the
psychological toll of financial hardships.
4. Crop Insurance and Price Stabilization: Strengthen crop insurance schemes and
mechanisms for price stabilization. Amartya Sen's perspectives on development emphasize
the importance of security. Effective insurance coverage and stable crop prices can protect
farmers from financial shocks, enhancing their economic security and resilience against
unpredictable market conditions.
5. Diversification of Income Sources: Encourage diversification of income sources through
allied activities. M.N. Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization" can be applied to promote
economic diversification. Training farmers in allied activities like animal husbandry, agro-
processing, or horticulture can reduce dependency on a single crop and provide additional
income streams.
6. Policy Reforms and Farmer Participation: Include farmers in policy-making processes and
advocate for policy reforms. Ashis Nandy's critiques of top-down approaches, involving
farmers in policy discussions ensures that their perspectives and needs are considered.
Policies should address structural issues, such as fair pricing, access to markets, and the
overall well-being of the farming community. Recent sociological examples, such as
successful farmer movements advocating for policy changes, highlight the potential impact
of grassroots activism in shaping agricultural policies.
Indebtedness remains a critical factor contributing to the alarming rates of farmers' suicides in India.
The multifaceted reasons behind this crisis include the high costs of agricultural inputs,
unpredictable market fluctuations, and the dependence on informal credit sources at exorbitant
interest rates. Globalization and liberalization have exacerbated these challenges, exposing farmers
to economic vulnerabilities. Solutions to curb farmers' suicides involve implementing agrarian
reforms that prioritize sustainable farming practices, providing effective debt relief mechanisms,
and enhancing financial inclusion.
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Community-based support systems and mental health initiatives are crucial, as is the diversification
of income sources through allied activities. Strengthening crop insurance schemes, ensuring fair
pricing, and actively involving farmers in policy-making processes are essential steps toward
addressing the root causes of indebtedness and fostering a more resilient and sustainable
agricultural sector.
Indebtedness is a pivotal factor driving farmers' suicides in India, fueled by high input costs, market
uncertainties, and reliance on expensive informal credit. Globalization exacerbates economic
vulnerabilities. Solutions include agrarian reforms, debt relief, financial inclusion, community
support, mental health initiatives, income diversification, strengthened crop insurance, fair pricing,
and farmer involvement in policymaking for a sustainable agricultural sector.
234
b) Clarify the distinction between “household” and “family” and evaluate

Whether joint families have completely disintegrated. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define family.
 Explain distinction between “household” and “family”.
 Discuss emergence of new families.
 Explain whether joint families have completely disintegrated.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The family is a fundamental social institution characterized by a group of individuals united by
kinship ties, emotional bonds, and shared responsibilities. It serves as the primary unit for
socialization, where cultural values, norms, and traditions are transmitted from one generation to
the next.
Families can take various forms, including nuclear and extended structures, and play a pivotal role
in shaping an individual's identity, beliefs, and social interactions. Sociologists like Talcott Parsons
emphasize the family's functions in providing emotional support, fulfilling economic needs, and
contributing to social stability. However, family structures and dynamics vary across cultures and
are subject to evolving societal norms and values.
Distinction Household Family
Definition A household refers to a group of A family consists of individuals who

people who live together under are related by blood, marriage, or
one roof and share common living adoption, and who share emotional
arrangements, irrespective of bonds, responsibilities, and
kinship ties. socialization functions.
Composition It can include individuals who Members are typically connected by

may not be biologically or legally kinship, marriage, or adoption,
related, such as friends or reflecting a more intimate and
unrelated individuals sharing a emotionally bonded group.
residence.
Function The primary function is often Apart from economic cooperation,

economic, as individuals share families play a crucial role in
living expenses and resources for socialization, emotional support,
practical convenience. and cultural transmission.
M.N. Srinivas highlighted the B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on social

significance of the joint family justice and individual rights
system in India, where households underscores the importance of
often included extended family family in a broader societal context.
members.
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Examples Urbanization has led to diverse Changing family dynamics, with an

household structures, such as increase in nuclear families and a
shared accommodations among decline in joint family systems,
unrelated individuals in reflect evolving social norms and
metropolitan areas. economic independence.
Gender Roles In some households, gender roles Families often have specific gender
may be shared or contested among roles influenced by cultural norms
unrelated individuals, influenced and traditional expectations,
by practical considerations. impacting domestic responsibilities
and power dynamics.
Legal Legal recognition may not be Families often have legal

Recognition necessary for a household, as it is recognition through marriage or
primarily a living arrangement. adoption, providing a formal
framework for rights,
responsibilities, and inheritance.
Emergence of New Families:

 Nuclear Family Dynamics: The emergence of nuclear families is a significant trend. M.N.
Srinivas, known for his studies on Indian kinship, observed the transition from joint to
nuclear family structures. Economic and social factors, including urbanization and
employment opportunities, have led to smaller family units with greater autonomy and
independence.
 Changing Gender Roles: New families reflect evolving gender roles. Amartya Sen's
capabilities approach and feminist perspectives emphasize the importance of gender
equality. The changing roles of women in the workforce and men in domestic responsibilities
contribute to the emergence of more egalitarian family structures, challenging traditional
norms.
 Impact of Globalization: Globalization influences family dynamics. Arjun Appadurai's
theories on global cultural flows are relevant. Increased exposure to diverse cultural
influences through media and migration contributes to changes in lifestyle, values, and
family expectations. This impacts the emergence of families that adapt to globalized and
cosmopolitan norms.
 Individualism and Autonomy: The rise of individualism shapes new family configurations.
André Béteille's work on individualism in India underscores the shift toward prioritizing
individual aspirations. Recent sociological examples highlight the rise of families that
prioritize individual autonomy, personal choices, and diverse familial arrangements,
challenging traditional collective norms.
Whether joint families have completely disintegrated:
1. Continued Existence of Joint Families: Joint families persist in certain contexts. M.N.
Srinivas, a key figure in Indian sociology, discussed the significance of the joint family
system. In rural areas and some traditional communities, joint families continue to endure,
emphasizing shared resources, interdependence, and collective decision-making.
236
2. Urbanization and Nuclear Family Trends: Urbanization has led to a decline in joint families.
Sociologist Louis Dumont's work on Indian kinship systems highlighted the impact of
urbanization on family structures. Migration to urban areas often results in the fragmentation
of joint families as individuals pursue employment opportunities, leading to the prevalence
of nuclear families.
3. Economic Factors and Independence: Economic considerations contribute to changes in
family structures. André Béteille's exploration of modernization in India is relevant.
Economic independence and the pursuit of individual aspirations have led to a preference
for nuclear families, enabling autonomy and reducing dependence on extended family
networks.
4. Cultural and Generational Shifts: Cultural changes influence family preferences. The works
of sociologist Dipankar Gupta emphasize the impact of cultural shifts on social structures.
Younger generations, influenced by changing values and aspirations, may opt for nuclear
families, reflecting a shift away from the traditional joint family system.
5. Legal and Property Considerations: Legal and property matters contribute to disintegration.
Legal frameworks, such as inheritance laws, may encourage the partitioning of joint family
properties, leading to the disintegration of joint families. This is particularly evident in cases
where individual ownership is legally preferred.
Examples: Recent sociological studies showcase a varied family landscape. While joint families may
have disintegrated in urban areas, there are instances of joint family setups adapting to
contemporary needs. Moreover, new family configurations, such as non-nuclear and single-parent
families, reflect the diverse and evolving nature of family structures in modern India.
In summary, the distinction between "household" and "family" involves shared living arrangements
and kinship bonds. The evaluation of joint family disintegration reveals a nuanced picture, with
transformations influenced by urbanization, economic independence, and cultural shifts. While
diminished in urban areas, joint families persist in rural and traditional settings, reflecting a
dynamic contemporary family landscape.
237
c) Compare the north Indian kinship System with the South Indian kinship
system. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define Kinship system in India.
 Compare the north Indian kinship System with the South Indian kinship system.
 Explain commonality between north Indian kinship System with the South Indian
kinship system.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The kinship system in India is a complex and integral social structure that encompasses the network
of relationships based on blood, marriage, and adoption. It plays a pivotal role in shaping social
organization, family structures, and societal norms. Rooted in cultural and religious traditions, the
Indian kinship system defines social roles, obligations, and hierarchies within families. The system
encompasses various terms and rituals, reflecting the intricate web of relationships and the
importance of extended families.
M.N. Srinivas and Louis Dumont have extensively studied the Indian kinship system, highlighting
its dynamic nature and how it adapts to social, economic, and cultural changes. The kinship system
is a key aspect of India's social fabric, influencing family dynamics, rituals, and interpersonal
relationships.
Aspect North Indian Kinship System South Indian Kinship System
Types of Predominance of Patrilineal Joint Variety of Family Structures: South India

Families Families: Sociologist M.N. Srinivas exhibits diversity, with both patrilineal
highlighted the prevalence of joint and matrilineal practices coexisting,
families with a patrilineal orientation showcasing a range of family structures.
in the north.
Marriage Arranged Marriages and Dowry Matrilineal Practices and Marital

Practices Tradition: North India often follows Symbiosis: In parts of South India,
arranged marriages, with the matrilineal traditions are observed,
persistence of dowry practices. influencing inheritance patterns and
marital relationships.
Ceremonial Emphasis on Rituals and Distinct Ceremonial Traditions: South

Practices Ceremonies: North Indian kinship Indian kinship practices include unique
involves elaborate rituals, such as the ceremonies, like the 'nischayathartham'
'saptapadi' in weddings. engagement ceremony, reflecting regional
variations.
Inheritance Primogeniture in Property Matrilineal Inheritance in Some Regions:

Patterns Inheritance: In North India, property South India showcases matrilineal
is often inherited by the eldest son inheritance in areas like Kerala, where
(primogeniture). property passes through the female line.
M.N. Srinivas: His studies on Indian Louis Dumont: Known for his work on
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kinship systems focused on the kinship, Dumont explored the
dominance of patrilineal joint complexities of South Indian kinship,
families in North India. emphasizing its diversity.
Examples Changing Family Structures: Shifts in Marriage Patterns: Sociological

Urbanization has led to a decline in studies note changes in marriage patterns
joint families, with nuclear families in South India, with greater autonomy in
becoming more common in North partner selection and evolving marital
India. norms.
Commonality:
1. Significance of Joint Families: Both North and South Indian kinship systems historically
value joint families. Sociologist M.N. Srinivas and Louis Dumont observed the importance of
joint families, fostering strong familial bonds and serving as the basic unit of social
organization, although their prevalence may vary in contemporary times.
2. Role of Rituals and Ceremonies: Emphasis on rituals and ceremonies is a commonality.
Whether in North or South India, sociologists like M.N. Srinivas and Louis Dumont noted
the cultural significance of rituals in kinship systems, serving as a means of expressing social
and familial ties.
3. Influence of Cultural and Religious Traditions: Both kinship systems are deeply influenced
by cultural and religious traditions. Scholars like M.N. Srinivas emphasized how cultural
norms and religious practices shape kinship structures in both regions, contributing to a
shared foundation of social organization.
4. Arranged Marriages as a Norm: Arranged marriages are a common practice. Sociologists
like M.N. Srinivas highlighted the prevalence of arranged marriages in both North and South
India, illustrating the significance of familial involvement and adherence to cultural norms
in partner selection.
5. Importance of Lineage and Ancestry: Lineage and ancestry hold cultural significance. Both
kinship systems place importance on maintaining family lineage and ancestry. Sociologist
Louis Dumont's work underscores the cultural relevance of tracing one's roots and
preserving family heritage.
6. Adaptation to Modernization: Adaptation to modernization is observed in both regions.
Recent sociological studies note changes in family structures and marriage patterns in
response to urbanization and globalization in both North and South India, indicating a
shared process of adaptation to contemporary societal shifts.
In summary, the comparison of North and South Indian kinship systems reveals shared historical
features like joint families and arranged marriages, yet distinct variations in family structures and
inheritance.
North India leans towards patrilineal joint families, while South India exhibits diversity, including
matrilineal practices. Cultural synthesis shapes unique kinship characteristics, highlighting India's
diverse social fabric.
239
Question 4.
a) Explain the concepts of dominant caste’ and ‘vote’ bank giving examples
from specific regions. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define concepts of dominant caste’ and ‘vote’ bank.
 Explain the interconnectedness of dominant caste’ and ‘vote’ bank giving examples from
specific regions.
 Examine the impact of dominant castes and vote banks on governance in regions where
these dynamics are prevalent.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The concept of a 'dominant caste' in sociology refers to a socially and economically influential caste
group that holds significant power and influence in a particular region or community. This
dominance often extends to political, economic, and social spheres, shaping the overall power
dynamics. The term 'vote bank' refers to a group of voters, often associated with a specific
community or identity, whose electoral support is sought by political parties. These parties may
cater to the interests of the identified group, offering policies or incentives to secure their votes. In
the Indian socio-political context, understanding the dynamics between dominant castes and the
cultivation of vote banks is crucial for comprehending the intricate connections between caste-based
social structures and electoral politics.
The interconnectedness of dominant caste’ and ‘vote’ bank:
1. Dominant Caste Influence on Politics: The dominant caste often plays a pivotal role in shaping
political landscapes. M.N. Srinivas's concept of the 'dominant caste' is evident in regions like
Bihar, where the Bhumihars, historically considered a dominant caste, have wielded
considerable political influence. The dominance of this caste has translated into a significant role
in local politics, affecting policies and resource distribution.
2. Vote Bank Politics in Uttar Pradesh: Political parties cultivate specific caste-based vote banks
for electoral gains. In Uttar Pradesh, the Yadavs are considered a significant vote bank. Political
leaders like Mulayam Singh Yadav and Akhilesh Yadav have strategically aligned with their
caste constituents, leveraging their political clout to secure votes. This exemplifies the
interconnectedness between dominant castes and the cultivation of vote banks.
3. Mandal Commission and OBC Vote Banks: The Mandal Commission's impact on OBC vote
banks is noteworthy. The Mandal Commission's recommendations for reservations benefited
Other Backward Classes (OBCs). Political leaders, such as Lalu Prasad Yadav in Bihar,
successfully cultivated OBC vote banks by advocating for social justice policies, showcasing the
interplay between caste dynamics and electoral strategies.
4. Gujarat and the Patidar Community: The Patidar community's political mobilization illustrates
the link between caste and vote bank. In Gujarat, the Patidars, traditionally considered
economically and socially influential, have asserted their political significance. Leaders like
Hardik Patel have mobilized the community, showcasing how dominant caste dynamics can
shape political allegiance and influence electoral outcomes.
5. Dalit Vote Banks and Mayawati's BSP: Dalit vote banks have been crucial in shaping political
landscapes. Mayawati, a prominent Dalit leader in Uttar Pradesh, has successfully cultivated a
Dalit vote bank through the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP).
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The party's focus on social justice issues aligns with the interests of the Dalit community,
showcasing the interconnectedness between caste identity and electoral politics.
6. Tamil Nadu and Dravidian Politics: Dravidian politics in Tamil Nadu exemplifies the influence
of caste-based vote banks. The Dravidian movement, led by figures like Periyar and M.K.
Karunanidhi, strategically aligned with the backward castes, challenging the dominance of
Brahmins. This socio-political movement has significantly influenced Tamil Nadu's electoral
landscape, showcasing the enduring link between caste dynamics and political allegiance.
Impact of dominant castes and vote banks on governance:
1. Policy Bias and Resource Distribution: Dominant caste influence can lead to policy bias and
uneven resource distribution. M.N. Srinivas's concept of the 'dominant caste' is reflected in
regions like Bihar, where the political dominance of certain castes has historically resulted in
policies favoring their interests, potentially neglecting the needs of marginalized
communities.
2. Social Fragmentation and Identity Politics: The pursuit of vote banks may contribute to
social fragmentation. André Béteille's critiques of identity-based politics are relevant. In
regions like Uttar Pradesh, the cultivation of specific caste-based vote banks can lead to social
divisions and the prioritization of narrow identity politics over broader governance issues.
3. Reservation Policies and Political Representation: Reservation policies impact political
representation and governance. Ambedkar's vision of social justice is reflected in reservation
policies, particularly for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The influence of dominant
castes on governance is challenged through affirmative action measures, promoting inclusive
political representation and policy formulation.
4. Economic Development and Caste Dynamics: Caste-based vote banks can influence
economic development priorities. Gail Omvedt's work on caste and economic disparities is
pertinent. In Gujarat, the Patidar community's political influence has shaped economic
policies, illustrating how dominant caste dynamics impact governance decisions related to
development and resource allocation.
5. Identity Politics and Governance Challenges: Identity-based vote banks can pose challenges
for effective governance. Arjun Appadurai's insights into identity politics are relevant. In
Tamil Nadu, the influence of Dravidian politics, which aligns with certain caste interests, has
at times resulted in governance challenges, emphasizing the need for a more inclusive and
comprehensive approach to governance.
6. Social Welfare Policies and Dalit Empowerment: Dalit vote banks can influence social
welfare policies. B.R. Ambedkar's vision of empowerment is evident in regions where Dalit
vote banks play a crucial role.
Policies aimed at Dalit upliftment, promoted by leaders like Mayawati in Uttar Pradesh,
showcase the impact of caste dynamics on governance and social welfare initiatives.
In summary, the concepts of 'dominant caste' and 'vote bank' significantly shape India's socio-
political landscape. Illustrated by M.N. Srinivas's studies, dominant castes wield influence in
regions like Bihar, impacting governance. Simultaneously, the cultivation of vote banks, as seen
with Yadavs in UP and Patidars in Gujarat, emphasizes the intricate link between caste dynamics
and politics, necessitating a nuanced understanding.
241
b) What is the nature of religious change among tribal communities?

Illustrate with two examples from colonial and post-independence
times. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define tribal communities in India.
 Explain the nature of religious change among tribal communities.
 Explain two examples from colonial and post-independence times.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Tribal communities in India, often referred to as Scheduled Tribes (STs) or Adivasis, constitute a
diverse array of indigenous groups with distinct socio-cultural identities. Comprising around 8% of
the country's population, these communities are characterized by unique customs, languages, and
traditions that reflect their historical isolation and resilience. Inhabiting remote and ecologically
sensitive regions, tribal societies often maintain a close relationship with nature, relying on
traditional subsistence practices.
However, they face numerous challenges, including marginalization, land dispossession, and
limited access to education and healthcare.
Nature of religious change among tribal communities:
1. Syncretism and Adaptation: Tribal communities often experience religious change through
syncretism, where indigenous beliefs merge with external influences. A noteworthy example
is the Gond tribe in central India, incorporating elements of Hinduism into their traditional
rituals. Indian sociologist M.N. Srinivas's concept of 'Sanskritization' highlights this process
of cultural fusion, as tribes adopt practices from dominant religious traditions.
2. Missionary Influence: The advent of missionaries has introduced religious transformations
among tribal communities. In the northeastern states of India, the conversion of Nagas and
Mizos to Christianity is a prominent illustration. Sociologist André Béteille's work on
'conversion and modernization' provides insights into the dynamics of religious change
driven by missionary activities.
3. Globalization and Modernization: Economic development and globalization contribute to
changes in tribal religious practices. For instance, the Dongria Kondh tribe in Odisha faced
religious dilemmas due to the mining activities in their region. The sociological perspective
of Arjun Appadurai, focusing on 'global cultural flows,' helps understand how external
forces impact tribal belief systems.
4. Legal Interventions: Constitutional provisions and legal interventions have influenced
religious dynamics among tribal communities. The recognition of traditional forest-dwelling
rights for tribes under the Forest Rights Act is an instance of the legal framework impacting
their religious practices. Sociologist B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on social justice and rights
can be linked to such legal transformations.
5. Secularization and Education: Increased access to education often leads to secularization
within tribal societies. As seen among the Santals of West Bengal, formal education can bring
about shifts in religious perspectives.
Sociologist Yogendra Singh's theory of 'modernization and changing religious beliefs' sheds
242
light on this correlation between education and religious change.
6. Revitalization Movements: Tribal communities may initiate revitalization movements to
reform or revive their traditional belief systems. The Bishnois in Rajasthan, through the
Chipko Movement, have demonstrated a blend of environmental conservation and religious
practices. Sociologist Anthony Wallace's concept of 'revitalization movements' provides a
theoretical framework to understand how such movements influence religious change
among tribes.
During colonial times, the imposition of foreign rule often disrupted indigenous religious practices,
leading to transformations in belief systems. One notable example is the Santhals, whose animistic
traditions underwent changes during British rule. Indian sociologist G.S. Ghurye's theories on the
impact of colonialism on tribal societies elucidate how external forces can alter their religious
dynamics.
In post-independence India, the Dongria Kondh tribe in Odisha provides a compelling example of
religious change driven by developmental projects. The construction of mining projects in their
region posed a threat to their sacred Niyamgiri hills. Ramachandra Guha's work on environmental
movements and tribal rights helps analyze the Dongria Kondh's resistance as a form of religious
assertion against economic development.
Additionally, the post-independence era has witnessed missionary activities influencing tribal
religious landscapes. The Mizo and Naga tribes in the northeastern states embraced Christianity
during this period. André Béteille's insights into the sociology of religion, particularly his
exploration of religious conversion, offer a theoretical framework to understand the impact of
missionary interventions on tribal communities.
In conclusion, the nature of religious change among tribal communities reflects a dynamic process
influenced by colonial legacies, development initiatives, and missionary interventions. As tribal
societies navigate through these transitions, their religious dynamics evolve, showcasing a delicate
balance between tradition and adaptation. Understanding these changes is crucial not only for
sociological analysis but also for formulating inclusive policies that respect and preserve the diverse
cultural and religious heritage of tribal communities in the complex tapestry of India's social
landscape.
c) Compare the pressing problems of a Dalit poor family living in an urban

slum with a similar type of family living in a rural setting. (10 Marks)
243
Approach.
 Define Dalits.
 Compare the pressing problems of a Dalit poor family living in an urban slum with a
similar living in a rural setting.
 Explain similarities in Urban Slums and Rural slums.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Dalits, also known as Scheduled Castes (SC) or Untouchables, constitute a historically marginalized
and oppressed community in India. The term "Dalit" translates to "oppressed" or "broken," reflecting
their socio-economic status. Dalits have faced centuries of social discrimination, untouchability, and
exclusion, rooted in the rigid caste system. B.R. Ambedkar, a key architect of the Indian Constitution
and a prominent sociologist, played a pivotal role in advocating for the rights and upliftment of
Dalits.
The term "Dalit" is a symbol of resilience and collective identity, representing the ongoing struggle
for social justice and equal opportunities in Indian society.
Challenges Urban Slum Setting Rural Setting
Housing Overcrowded and inadequate Limited access to basic housing

Conditions living spaces in slums. infrastructure, often facing issues of
landlessness and substandard
dwellings.
Employment Limited access to formal job Dependence on seasonal and often

Opportunities opportunities, leading to low- low-paying agricultural work, facing
wage and precarious work in challenges of landlessness and
informal sectors. agricultural distress.
Healthcare Limited access to quality Limited availability of healthcare

Access healthcare facilities, leading to infrastructure in rural areas, with
health disparities and inadequate challenges related to distance and
medical services. inadequate medical facilities.
Educational Limited access to quality Educational resources in rural areas

Opportunities education, often due to may be scarce, with issues such as
inadequate schools and resources insufficient schools, lack of qualified
in slum areas. teachers, and inadequate
infrastructure.
Social Persistence of social Ongoing caste-based discrimination,

Discrimination discrimination and limiting social mobility and
untouchability, impacting social reinforcing social hierarchies in rural
interactions and opportunities. communities.
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Government Variable effectiveness of Government programs and policies

Interventions government policies and aimed at rural development may face
interventions in addressing issues related to implementation,
urban poverty, often facing reach, and effectiveness in addressing
challenges in implementation the specific needs of Dalit families.
and accessibility.
Similarities:
1. Poverty and Economic Vulnerability: André Béteille's analysis of poverty and inequality is
pertinent. Urban and rural slums share a common feature of economic vulnerability, with
residents facing challenges related to low income, precarious employment, and limited access
to resources.
2. Informal Labor Markets: Jan Breman's insights into informal labor are relevant. In both
urban and rural slums, residents often engage in informal and unorganized labor,
characterized by low wages, job insecurity, and a lack of social security.
3. Limited Access to Basic Services: Arjun Appadurai's work on the urban poor is applicable.
Residents in both settings may encounter difficulties in accessing basic services such as
healthcare, education, and sanitation, contributing to a cycle of deprivation.
4. Marginalization and Discrimination: B.R. Ambedkar's theories on social justice remain
relevant. Dalit families in both urban and rural slums often face social discrimination,
reinforcing hierarchies and limiting opportunities for social mobility.
5. Inadequate Housing and Infrastructure: Sudhir Alladi Venkatesh's work on urban poverty
is applicable. Both urban and rural slums may grapple with inadequate housing, often
characterized by overcrowding, substandard infrastructure, and a lack of basic amenities.
6. Government Interventions and Implementation Challenges: In the effectiveness of
government interventions. Recent sociological studies highlight challenges in the
implementation of government programs in both settings. Issues such as corruption,
bureaucratic hurdles, and lack of awareness may hinder the impact of policies aimed at
alleviating poverty in urban and rural slums alike.
In conclusion, the comparison of the challenges faced by Dalit poor families in urban slums and
rural settings underscores the pervasive nature of poverty and discrimination within the Dalit
community. Whether in crowded urban slums or impoverished rural landscapes, Dalit families
encounter shared struggles related to inadequate housing, limited access to essential services, and
the persistent impact of social discrimination. The interplay of economic vulnerability and social
marginalization is a common thread in both contexts, emphasizing the need for targeted and
comprehensive interventions to address the multifaceted issues impeding the socio-economic
advancement of Dalit families, irrespective of their urban or rural residence.
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Section B
Question 5. Write short answers with a sociological perspective on the following,
in about 150 words each: (10x5=50)
a) What are the reason for the escalation of violence against women in the
public domain? (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Introduce briefly with violation against women.
 Discuss the role of urbanization and changing dynamics of public spaces in contributing to
increased vulnerability for women.
 Highlight the role of feminist activism and social movements in challenging the
normalization of violence against women.
 Conclude.
Solutions:
Violence against women, encompasses a range of physical, psychological, and structural harms
disproportionately affecting women worldwide. Rooted in historical and patriarchal structures, this
multifaceted problem manifests in various forms, including domestic violence, sexual harassment,
assault, and gender-based discrimination.
Violence against women is looked at by sociologists using different ways of thinking, like feminist
theories and intersectionality. This violence, which can be physical or psychological, is a big problem
that affects women a lot. It's not just individual cases, but also a result of bigger issues in society.
Sociologists study how power works in these situations. The fact that violence against women
happens a lot shows that there are bigger problems in our society. To stop this, we need to really
understand these problems and take action to change the deep-seated ideas that cause harm to
women, whether it's in public or private places.
The role of urbanization and changing dynamics:
1. Urbanization and Spatial Inequality: Urbanization contributes to spatial inequalities. Urban
sociologist Louis Wirth's perspective is relevant. As cities expand, uneven development leads
to the creation of marginalized spaces where women, particularly from lower socio-economic
backgrounds, are more vulnerable to violence due to inadequate infrastructure, poor
lighting, and lack of surveillance.
2. Informal Settlements and Lack of Security: Increasing vulnerability in informal settlements.
Jan Breman's work on informal labor and settlements applies. Rapid urbanization often leads
to the formation of informal settlements where women face heightened vulnerability due to
the absence of proper housing, sanitation, and security infrastructure.
3. Public Transport and Harassment: Impact of urbanization on public transportation. Saskia
Sassen's theories on global cities are relevant. In rapidly urbanizing areas, inadequate public
transportation facilities and overcrowded conditions expose women to increased risks of
harassment, assault, and violence during their daily commutes.
4. Commercialization of Public Spaces: The commercialization of public spaces. Urban
Richard Sennett's ideas on the public realm are applicable. As urban areas become more
commercialized, public spaces may prioritize economic interests over safety, exacerbating
the vulnerability of women to harassment and violence.
5. Nightlife and Safety Concerns: Changing dynamics of nightlife and safety concerns. Erving
Goffman's dramaturgical approach is insightful.
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The transformation of urban nightlife may create environments where women are more
susceptible to violence, with inadequate security measures and the normalization of harmful
behaviors.
6. Cyber Urban Spaces and Online Harassment: Impact of urbanization on cyber spaces.
Manuel Castells' network society theories apply. Urbanization's influence extends to virtual
spaces, where the rise of cyber urbanism can contribute to online harassment and
cyberbullying, further compromising the safety of women in both physical and digital
realms.
The role of feminist activism and social movements in challenging the normalization of violence
against women:
1. Empowerment and Agency: Drawing from the works of Indian feminist Kamla Bhasin, who
emphasizes women's agency, feminist movements empower women to speak out against
violence, challenging societal norms and demanding their rights.
2. Legal Reforms and Advocacy: The efforts of women's rights organizations like Lawyers
Collective, co-founded by Indira Jaising, have played a crucial role in advocating for legal
reforms to address violence against women. These movements contribute to changing legal
frameworks and ensuring better protection for women.
3. Social Awareness and Education: Sociologist and educationist Fatima Mernissi's ideas on
women's education are relevant. Feminist activism emphasizes education as a tool for
awareness, challenging stereotypes, and fostering a culture that rejects violence against
women.
4. Community Support and Grassroots Movements: Inspired by Ela Bhatt's SEWA movement,
feminist activism often operates at the grassroots level. Through initiatives like self-help
groups and community networks, these movements provide support structures for
survivors, challenging the normalization of violence.
5. Media Advocacy and Representation: The work of organizations like Blank Noise, founded
by Jasmeen Patheja, challenges the normalization of street harassment. By utilizing media
and art, feminist movements contribute to changing societal perceptions and fostering a
culture that rejects violence against women.
6. Global Solidarity: The #MeToo movement, with its global impact, exemplifies the power of
collective action. Tarana Burke's initial work and the global spread of #MeToo highlight the
role of feminist activism in creating a united front against gender-based violence, challenging
its normalization on an international scale.
In conclusion, the escalation of violence against women in the public domain is a complex
sociological challenge rooted in deep-seated patriarchal norms, urbanization dynamics, and
evolving power structures. The normalization of such violence reflects broader systemic inequalities
and cultural attitudes that perpetuate gender-based discrimination.
Sociological analysis, incorporating feminist theories and intersectionality, is crucial for
understanding the multifaceted nature of this issue.
To effectively address the escalation of violence against women, comprehensive sociological
understanding and proactive interventions are imperative, requiring a collective effort to challenge
ingrained norms and reshape societal attitudes towards women's safety and equality in public
spaces.
b) Write a note on Education and equality in India. (10 Marks)

247
Approach.
 Define the significance of education in society.
 Explore the role of education in challenging caste-based discrimination.
 Examine challenges that persist in achieving educational equality in India.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Education holds profound significance in society as a transformative force that shapes individuals
and contributes to the overall development and cohesion of communities. It serves as a cornerstone
for social progress by equipping individuals with knowledge, skills, and critical thinking abilities.
Sociologically, education functions as a mechanism for socialization, transmitting cultural values
and norms from one generation to the next. Moreover, it plays a pivotal role in promoting social
mobility, offering individuals opportunities to transcend socio-economic constraints. Through
formal and informal channels, education fosters civic engagement, democratic participation, and
the cultivation of an informed citizenry.
The role of education in challenging caste-based discrimination:
1. Empowerment through Education: B.R. Ambedkar, a key architect of the Indian
Constitution, emphasized education as a tool for the empowerment of marginalized
communities. Education provides individuals from lower castes with the knowledge and
skills necessary to challenge traditional hierarchies, fostering a sense of agency and self-
esteem.
2. Socialization and Norms Transformation: M.N. Srinivas, education plays a crucial role in
transforming social norms and breaking down caste-based stereotypes. Schools and
educational institutions serve as spaces where individuals from different castes interact,
challenging preconceived notions and fostering social cohesion.
3. Reservation Policies: The implementation of reservation policies, advocated by leaders like
B.R. Ambedkar, has facilitated increased access to education for historically marginalized
castes. Reservation in educational institutions provides affirmative action, addressing
historical injustices and contributing to a more inclusive educational landscape.
4. Cultural Awareness and Sensitization: G.S. Ghurye's ideas on cultural awareness are
relevant in understanding how education contributes to sensitizing individuals to the
harmful impacts of caste-based discrimination. Educational curricula can be designed to
promote inclusivity, diversity, and a critical understanding of social issues.
5. Community Upliftment and Social Mobility: Education serves as a pathway for social
mobility, as highlighted by sociologist Andre Beteille. Through access to quality education,
individuals from lower castes can break the cycle of poverty, enhancing their socio-economic
status and challenging traditional caste-based roles.
6. Activism and Grassroots Movements: The work of organizations like Navsarjan in Gujarat,
showcase grassroots movements that utilize education as a tool for challenging caste-based
discrimination. These initiatives often involve educational programs that empower
individuals to advocate for their rights and dismantle discriminatory practices.
Challenges:
1. Structural Inequalities and Access Issues: M.N. Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization" remains
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relevant in understanding how structural inequalities persist in educational access. Despite
policies aiming for universal education, disparities persist, particularly in rural areas and among
marginalized communities, limiting equal opportunities.
2. Quality Disparities and Unequal Resources: Amartya Sen, educationist, and economist,
challenges persist in achieving educational equality due to significant disparities in the quality
of education and unequal distribution of resources. Schools in economically disadvantaged areas
often lack infrastructure, qualified teachers, and essential facilities, perpetuating educational
inequalities.
3. Caste-Based Discrimination and Social Hierarchies: The persistent influence of caste-based
discrimination, as emphasized by B.R. Ambedkar, poses a significant challenge to achieving
educational equality. Discrimination and social hierarchies continue to affect access to quality
education, particularly for lower-caste students, despite affirmative action policies.
4. Gender Disparities and Patriarchal Norms: Sylvia Walby's feminist perspective is relevant in
understanding gender disparities in education. Despite progress, patriarchal norms and gender
biases continue to limit educational opportunities for girls in certain regions, perpetuating
gender-based inequalities in access and retention.
5. Language Barriers and Regional Disparities: A.R. Desai, contribute to educational challenges.
In regions where the medium of instruction differs from the linguistic background of students,
language barriers hinder effective learning, exacerbating regional disparities in educational
outcomes.
6. Economic Inequities and Affordability: Andre Beteille's insights into class and social structure
are applicable in analyzing economic inequities that affect educational equality. Affordability
remains a critical barrier, with marginalized families struggling to meet educational expenses,
leading to dropouts and perpetuating cycles of poverty.
In conclusion, India's education landscape reflects both progress and enduring challenges. Despite
affirmative actions and educational initiatives, socio-economic, caste, gender, and regional
disparities persist. Achieving true educational equality requires sustained efforts to address
structural issues, ensure quality education for all, and challenge social hierarchies. A comprehensive
sociological approach, drawing from thinkers like B.R. Ambedkar and M.N. Srinivas, is vital for
creating a more inclusive and equitable educational system.
c) Give an account of the problems relating to the “creamy layer”. (10 Marks)
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Approach.
 Define the "creamy layer" concept.
 Explain the introduction of the creamy layer criterion as a mechanism to prevent the
perpetuation of socio-economic advantages within reserved categories.
 Discuss the challenges associated with the implementation of the creamy layer criterion.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The "creamy layer" concept, introduced in the context of affirmative action policies in India, refers
to a segment within historically marginalized communities that has achieved a certain level of socio-
economic advancement. As part of reservation policies, the "creamy layer" criterion identifies
individuals or families from Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST), and Other Backward
Classes (OBCs) who have surpassed a specified income and wealth threshold.
The rationale is to prevent the perpetuation of socio-economic advantages within these communities
and ensure that reservation benefits are directed toward those who genuinely face socio-economic
disadvantages. The "creamy layer" concept aims to strike a balance between providing affirmative
action to uplift marginalized groups and avoiding the concentration of benefits within a more
privileged subset, promoting social justice and equitable distribution of opportunities.
Creamy layer criterion as a mechanism to prevent the perpetuation of socio-economic advantages:
1. B.R. Ambedkar's Vision for Social Justice: The introduction of the creamy layer criterion
aligns with the vision of B.R. Ambedkar, a key architect of the Indian Constitution, who
advocated for social justice. Ambedkar's theories emphasized the need to uplift marginalized
communities, and the creamy layer criterion aims to ensure that reservation benefits reach
those who genuinely face socio-economic disadvantages, aligning with his vision for
equitable opportunities.
2. M.N. Srinivas's Sanskritization and Social Mobility: M.N. Srinivas's concept of
"Sanskritization" is relevant in understanding how certain groups within reserved categories
may achieve upward mobility. The creamy layer criterion prevents the perpetuation of socio-
economic advantages by excluding economically advanced individuals, aligning with
Srinivas's theories on social mobility.
3. Affirmative Action Policies and Inclusive Development: The creamy layer criterion is an
outcome of affirmative action policies aimed at inclusive development. Drawing from the
principles of social justice, these policies, advocated by thinkers like Amartya Sen, aim to
uplift historically disadvantaged groups. The creamy layer criterion ensures that benefits are
directed towards those who genuinely need assistance, fostering more targeted and effective
affirmative action.
4. Legal Framework and Mandal Commission Recommendations: The introduction of the
creamy layer criterion is rooted in legal and policy measures. The Mandal Commission's
recommendations, influenced by the need for equitable distribution of reservation benefits,
played a pivotal role.The criterion became a part of the legal framework to ensure that
reservation benefits are not concentrated among economically privileged individuals within
reserved categories.
5. Contemporary Challenges and Changing Economic Dynamics: Sociological studies, such
as those by scholars Sukhadeo Thorat and Paul Attewell, highlight contemporary challenges
and changing economic dynamics.
The creamy layer criterion addresses the evolving socio-economic landscape, preventing the
perpetuation of advantages within reserved categories and adapting to the changing nature
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of economic disparities.
6. Empirical Evidence and Policy Impact: Studies analyzing the impact of the creamy layer
criterion, provide empirical evidence of its effectiveness. Research by scholars like Thorat and
Attewell contributes to understanding how the criterion prevents the perpetuation of
advantages and fosters more inclusive and targeted affirmative action policies.
Challenges
1. Identification Challenges and Ambiguity: The implementation of the creamy layer criterion
faces challenges in identifying individuals or families that genuinely qualify as economically
advanced. Sociologist Andre Beteille's theories on social stratification underscore the
ambiguity in defining economic status, making it challenging to accurately determine the
creamy layer within reserved categories.
2. Social Stigma and Resistance: Caste-based social stigma and resistance pose challenges to
the implementation of the creamy layer criterion. The work of sociologist G.S. Ghurye on
caste dynamics is relevant, as individuals within reserved categories may resist being labeled
as part of the creamy layer due to concerns about societal perceptions and potential
discrimination.
3. Inadequate Socio-Economic Metrics: The lack of precise socio-economic metrics contributes
to challenges in accurately identifying the creamy layer. Sociologist Amartya Sen's
capabilities approach highlights the importance of considering various dimensions of well-
being beyond income, emphasizing the need for a more nuanced and comprehensive
assessment to address the limitations of relying solely on economic indicators.
4. Political Backlash and Policy Opposition: Political considerations and opposition to the
creamy layer criterion present challenges in its effective implementation. Sociologist Rajni
Kothari's theories on political mobilization and power dynamics help explain how resistance
to the criterion may stem from political interests and the desire to maintain vote banks,
hindering the impartial implementation of the policy.
5. Erosion of Social Solidarity: The creamy layer criterion may contribute to the erosion of
social solidarity within reserved categories. Sociologist M.N. Srinivas's concept of
"Sanskritization" highlights how economic advancements may not necessarily lead to a
corresponding change in social status. The criterion's focus on economic factors alone may
overlook the persistent social disadvantages faced by certain groups.
6. Administrative Challenges and Enforcement: Administrative challenges in enforcing the
creamy layer criterion contribute to its limitations. The complexities of assessing economic
status, ensuring compliance, and preventing fraudulent claims require a robust
administrative infrastructure. Sociologist Max Weber's theories on bureaucracy are relevant
in understanding the challenges associated with efficient policy enforcement.
In conclusion, the concept of the "creamy layer" within affirmative action policies in India presents
a complex sociological landscape marked by challenges.
While designed to ensure the equitable distribution of reservation benefits, the implementation of
the creamy layer criterion faces issues such as ambiguous identification, social stigma, inadequate
socio-economic metrics, political opposition, erosion of social solidarity, and administrative
challenges.
d) Do you agree that the issue of child labor raises questions about and
beyond the informal sector? Give reasons. (10 Marks)
251
Approach.
 Defining child labor and its prevalence in the informal sector.
 Analyze societal and cultural factors contributing to child labor.
 Evaluate the role of government policies and the legal framework in addressing child
labor.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Child labor refers to the engagement of children in work that deprives them of their childhood,
interferes with their ability to attend regular schools, and is mentally, physically, socially, or morally
harmful. In the context of the informal sector, child labor is alarmingly prevalent, reflecting a
multifaceted challenge with socio-economic roots. Children are often compelled to work in small-
scale enterprises, agriculture, and domestic settings, where labor laws are inadequately enforced,
working conditions are exploitative, and vulnerable families, often trapped in poverty, rely on the
meager earnings of their children.
Societal and cultural factors contributing to child labor:
1. Cultural Norms and Expectations: G.S. Ghurye's perspective on cultural factors influencing
social behavior can be applied to understand how entrenched cultural norms and
expectations contribute to child labor. In societies where early work initiation is culturally
accepted or perceived as character-building, children may be more likely to engage in labor.
2. Gender Roles and Discrimination: The influence of societal gender roles and discrimination,
as highlighted by feminist perspectives, plays a role in child labor. Sylvia Chant's work on
the feminization of poverty can be considered, illustrating how societal expectations may
push girls into certain types of labor, often in domestic settings.
3. Caste and Social Hierarchy: B.R. Ambedkar's insights into the caste system, one can analyze
how social hierarchies contribute to child labor. Children from marginalized castes may face
increased vulnerabilities, with limited access to education and better opportunities,
perpetuating the cycle of poverty and labor.
4. Traditional Family Structures: The impact of traditional family structures on child labor can
be explored through M.N. Srinivas's concept of joint families. In such families, economic
pressures and the need for additional income sources may lead to the involvement of children
in labor, driven by familial responsibilities and economic exigencies.
5. Socialization and Education: Pierre Bourdieu's theory of habitus can be applied to examine
how the process of socialization influences attitudes toward child labor. In environments
where limited value is placed on formal education or where educational opportunities are
scarce, children may be more likely to enter the labor force early.
6. Religious Beliefs and Practices: Consider the influence of religious beliefs and practices on
child labor. T.N. Madan's work on religion in society can be relevant in understanding how
cultural and religious norms shape perceptions of child labor. In some contexts, religious
practices may encourage or tolerate child labor, influencing societal attitudes.
The role of government policies and the legal framework in addressing child labor.
1. Legislation and Legal Framework: The legal framework, including acts like the Child Labour
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(Prohibition and Regulation) Act, 1986, and amendments, reflects the state's role in
addressing child labor. The sociological perspective of legal scholar Upendra Baxi can be
applied to evaluate the effectiveness of legislation in providing a basis for combating child
labor. However, scholars like Baxi also emphasize the importance of legal implementation,
which is crucial for achieving desired outcomes.
2. State Intervention and Policy Implementation: Max Weber's concept of the state as a
legitimate authority is relevant for evaluating the role of government policies. Assess how
state intervention and policy implementation contribute to or hinder efforts to eradicate child
labor. Recent sociological studies, such as those by the International Labour Organization
(ILO), can provide insights into the challenges of policy implementation.
3. Enforcement Mechanisms and Inspection Systems: Evaluate the effectiveness of
enforcement mechanisms and inspection systems in monitoring and regulating child labor.
Emile Durkheim, particularly his ideas on the role of the state in maintaining social order,
can be applied to analyze how inspection systems contribute to the prevention of child labor.
4. Social Welfare Programs and Rehabilitation: Examine the sociological implications of social
welfare programs and rehabilitation initiatives. T.N. Madan's perspectives on the state's role
in social welfare can be relevant. Analyze how these programs address the root causes of
child labor, providing educational and economic opportunities for affected children and
families.
5. Collaboration with NGOs and Civil Society: Consider the collaboration between the
government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as a sociologically significant
aspect. Robert Putnam's theory of social capital can be applied to understand how
partnerships between the state and civil society organizations contribute to more effective
interventions against child labor.
6. Impact on Marginalized Communities: Evaluate the impact of government policies on
marginalized communities, considering the sociological perspectives of B.R. Ambedkar.
Analyze whether policies address the structural inequalities that make certain communities
more vulnerable to child labor. Recent sociological examples may include studies on the
effectiveness of policies in tribal or marginalized areas.
In conclusion, the issue of child labor undeniably transcends the boundaries of the informal sector,
posing complex questions that extend across societal, economic, and legal realms. Beyond the
informal sector, child labor is entrenched in systemic inequalities, cultural norms, and policy gaps
that permeate formal industries, agriculture, and domestic work.
Acknowledging the multifaceted nature of this challenge is essential for developing comprehensive
sociological solutions that address the root causes, encompassing societal attitudes, educational
disparities, and economic structures, to pave the way for a more equitable and child-friendly society.
e) What are the Emerging concerns on women’s reproductive health? (10

Marks)
253
Approach.
 Begin by introducing the significance of women's reproductive health.
 Analyze factors contributing to women’s reproductive health issues.
 Discuss how govt. is working to address this issue.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The significance of women's reproductive health lies at the intersection of biology, society, and
individual well-being. Reproductive health not only encompasses physical aspects but also delves
into the socio-cultural dimensions of women's lives, including access to healthcare, family planning,
and the negotiation of reproductive rights.
Examining women's reproductive health through a sociological lens illuminates’ disparity, power
imbalances, and the broader implications for social structures, underscoring the imperative of
comprehensive policies that prioritize women's health and autonomy.
Factors contributing to women’s reproductive health issues.
1. Socio-economic Disparities: B.R. Ambedkar's insights into social hierarchies can be applied
to analyze how caste-based and economic disparities contribute to women's reproductive
health issues. Recent sociological studies highlight how marginalized communities face
limited access to quality healthcare, leading to heightened reproductive health challenges
among women.
2. Gender Inequality and Patriarchy: Simone de Beauvoir or bell hooks, one can analyze how
entrenched gender inequalities and patriarchal norms impact women's reproductive health.
Sociological research reveals that unequal power dynamics contribute to restricted decision-
making autonomy, affecting women's access to reproductive healthcare and family planning.
3. Cultural Norms and Practices: M.N. Srinivas's concept of Sanskritization can be relevant in
understanding how cultural norms influence women's reproductive health. Cultural
practices and traditions may stigmatize discussions around reproductive health, impacting
awareness, education, and healthcare-seeking behavior among women. Recent examples
may include studies on the influence of cultural norms on contraceptive use.
4. Lack of Education and Awareness: Pierre Bourdieu, can be applied to assess how
educational disparities contribute to women's reproductive health issues. Limited education
and awareness hinder women's ability to make informed decisions, access healthcare, and
navigate family planning options, perpetuating health challenges.
5. Healthcare Infrastructure and Accessibility: Examining healthcare infrastructure through
the lens of Talcott Parsons can illuminate how the availability and accessibility of healthcare
services impact women's reproductive health.
Recent sociological research reveals disparities in healthcare infrastructure, with rural areas
often facing challenges that affect women's access to maternal and reproductive healthcare.
6. Legal and Policy Frameworks: Sociological perspectives on the state and legal frameworks,
such as Max Weber's theory, can be applied to assess the role of policies in addressing
women's reproductive health. Recent examples include studies on the implementation of
policies related to maternal health, family planning, and reproductive rights, revealing gaps
and areas requiring sociologically informed interventions.
Addressing this issue:
1. Legislation and Legal Reforms: The government's efforts to address women's reproductive
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health issues are reflected in legislative measures. Max Weber's theories on the state's role
can be applied to analyze how legal frameworks, such as the Maternity Benefit Act and the
Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, aim to safeguard women's reproductive rights.
Recent examples may include amendments to existing laws to enhance women's access to
reproductive healthcare.
2. Healthcare Infrastructure and Access: The government works to improve healthcare
infrastructure to enhance accessibility for women. Talcott Parsons' perspectives on the
functional role of institutions can be relevant in evaluating how health institutions contribute
to women's reproductive health. Recent sociological studies may highlight government
initiatives to strengthen primary healthcare services and maternal health programs,
especially in rural areas.
3. Family Planning and Awareness Campaigns: Government-sponsored family planning
programs and awareness campaigns play a crucial role. Pierre Bourdieu's theories on
education and socialization can be applied to assess the impact of educational initiatives and
awareness campaigns on women's reproductive choices. Recent examples may include
government campaigns promoting contraceptive use and family planning education.
4. Maternal and Child Health Programs: The government focuses on maternal and child health
programs to address reproductive health challenges. B.R. Ambedkar's insights into social
hierarchies can be applied to assess the inclusivity of these programs, ensuring marginalized
communities receive adequate attention. Recent sociological studies may evaluate the
effectiveness of such programs in reducing maternal mortality and improving reproductive
health outcomes.
5. Women's Empowerment Initiatives: Government initiatives aimed at women's
empowerment contribute to addressing reproductive health issues. bell hooks' feminist
perspectives can be relevant in understanding how empowerment programs impact
women's agency in reproductive decision-making. Recent examples may include schemes
promoting women's education, economic independence, and participation in decision-
making processes.
6. Collaboration with NGOs and Civil Society: Collaboration with non-governmental
organizations (NGOs) and civil society is a key strategy. Robert Putnam's theory of social
capital can be applied to assess the effectiveness of partnerships in enhancing the reach and
impact of reproductive health initiatives. Recent sociological examples may highlight
successful collaborations in implementing women-centric healthcare programs.
In conclusion, the evolving landscape of women's reproductive health reveals emerging concerns
that demand sociological scrutiny and targeted interventions.
The intersectionality of factors, including economic status, education, and regional variations,
underscores the need for holistic, sociologically informed approaches.
As the discourse on women's reproductive health continues to evolve, acknowledging these
emerging concerns becomes imperative for crafting nuanced policies that address the intricate socio-
cultural fabric influencing women's reproductive well-being in contemporary India.
Question 6.
a) Discuss some of the striking issues of development induced imbalances
that need urgent attention. (20 Marks)
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Approach.
 Begin by defining development-induced imbalances.
 Discuss how development projects often contribute to economic disparities.
 Examine how development initiatives can lead to social exclusion and marginalization of
certain communities.
 Analyze the role of governance and accountability in addressing development-induced
imbalances.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Development-induced imbalances refer to the unintended disparities and disruptions in social,
economic, and environmental dimensions caused by development projects or policies. In the context
of sociology, these imbalances arise from initiatives such as infrastructure development,
urbanization, or industrialization, often leading to unequal distribution of benefits and burdens.
Development projects frequently contribute to economic disparities by inadvertently favoring
certain social groups while marginalizing others. This phenomenon is analyzed through lenses such
as conflict theory or Marxist perspectives, which highlight how the distribution of resources and
benefits tends to benefit the economically privileged. Large-scale infrastructure or industrial
projects often concentrate wealth and employment opportunities in specific regions, leading to
regional economic disparities.
Additionally, the displacement of marginalized communities due to such projects disrupts their
economic stability, exacerbating existing inequalities. Development policies need to incorporate
sociological insights to address these unintended consequences, ensuring that economic benefits are
distributed more equitably across diverse societal strata.
Development initiatives can lead to social exclusion and marginalization of certain communities.
1. Displacement and Loss of Livelihood: B.R. Ambedkar's insights into social hierarchies can
be applied to understand how development initiatives, such as large-scale infrastructure
projects, often lead to the displacement and loss of livelihood for marginalized communities.
Recent sociological examples include studies on the impact of dam construction, where tribal
communities face displacement, disrupting their social fabric and traditional occupations.
2. Unequal Access to Resources: Drawing on Pierre Bourdieu's theories on social capital, the
unequal access to resources resulting from development initiatives can be analyzed. For
instance, urban development projects may disproportionately benefit certain socio-economic
classes, leading to the social exclusion of economically weaker sections. Recent sociological
studies may illustrate how urban planning can marginalize vulnerable communities.
3. Environmental Injustices: Applying environmental justice theories, such as the work of
Robert Bullard, reveals how development projects often result in environmental injustices
disproportionately affecting marginalized communities. Examples include the siting of
polluting industries in low-income areas, leading to adverse health effects and further
marginalization.
4. Cultural Displacement: M.N. Srinivas's concept of Sanskritization can be relevant in
analyzing the cultural displacement caused by development initiatives. Infrastructure
projects, such as mining or industrialization, can disrupt traditional cultural practices,
leading to the marginalization of indigenous or tribal communities. Recent examples may
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highlight struggles against cultural erasure.
5. Inequitable Access to Education and Healthcare: Sociological perspectives on education and
healthcare, like those of Emile Durkheim, can be applied to analyze how development
initiatives impact access to essential services. Unequal access to quality education and
healthcare often accompanies major projects, contributing to the social exclusion of
communities lacking these critical resources.
6. Community Resistance and Social Movements: The role of community resistance and social
movements, as explored by sociologist Karl Marx, can be considered. Marginalized
communities often organize against development projects that threaten their well-being.
Recent examples include protests against land acquisition for industrial projects, showcasing
the sociological dynamics of resistance and mobilization.
The role of governance and accountability in addressing development-induced imbalances.
1. Democratic Governance and Participation: Amartya Sen's capabilities approach
emphasizes the role of democratic governance in addressing development-induced
imbalances. A sociological analysis can explore how participatory decision-making processes
empower communities affected by development projects. Recent examples may include
initiatives where local communities actively participate in decision-making, ensuring their
voices are heard in the governance of development initiatives.
2. Transparency and Accountability Mechanisms: Max Weber on bureaucracy and
institutions can be applied to assess the transparency and accountability mechanisms within
governance structures. Recent sociological studies may highlight instances where robust
monitoring systems and accountability frameworks have been effective in mitigating
corruption and ensuring equitable distribution of benefits from development projects.
3. Social Audits and Civil Society Participation: Robert Putnam's theory of social capital can
inform the analysis of the role of social audits and civil society participation in governance.
Social audits, facilitated by civil society organizations, can act as sociological tools to assess
the impact of development projects on communities. Recent examples may include cases
where civil society has played a crucial role in holding authorities accountable for project
outcomes.
4. Rights-Based Approach: B.R. Ambedkar and the concept of rights, a sociological analysis
can examine the effectiveness of a rights-based approach in governance. Recent sociological
examples may include instances where legal frameworks recognizing the rights of
marginalized communities have been instrumental in holding authorities accountable for
addressing development-induced imbalances.
5. Inclusive Policies and Social Justice: M.N. Srinivas's concept of Sanskritization can be
applied to assess the inclusivity of governance policies. A sociological lens can analyze
whether policies address the social justice concerns arising from development projects.
Recent examples may include policies that prioritize the welfare of marginalized
communities and aim to redress historical imbalances.
6. Community Empowerment and Capacity Building: The sociological theories of

empowerment, such as those by bell hooks, can inform the analysis of governance strategies
that focus on community empowerment and capacity building. Sociological studies may
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illustrate initiatives where governance structures actively support communities in building
their capacity to engage in decision-making processes related to development projects.
In conclusion, the discourse on development-induced imbalances underscores the urgency of
addressing multifaceted challenges that extend across social, economic, and environmental
dimensions. Pressing issues include displacement and loss of livelihood for marginalized
communities, unequal access to resources exacerbating socio-economic disparities, and
environmental injustices disproportionately affecting vulnerable groups.
Urgent attention is required to formulate inclusive policies that prioritize social justice, protect
cultural integrity, and foster sustainable development, ensuring that the pursuit of progress does
not inadvertently perpetuate inequality but rather contributes to a more equitable and harmonious
societal fabric.
b) Examine the impact of heritage tourism on urban socio-spatial patterns in

India. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Begin by defining heritage tourism.
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 Examine how heritage tourism influences urban socio-spatial patterns.
 Discuss how the influx of tourists influences local cultures, traditions, and social practices.
 Conclude.
Solutions:
Heritage tourism encompasses travel experiences motivated by the desire to explore and engage
with the cultural, historical, and natural heritage of a destination. In the sociological context,
heritage tourism reflects the intersection of cultural identity, memory, and the commodification of
historical narratives. It involves visits to sites, monuments, or landscapes that hold historical
significance, providing tourists with insights into the traditions, customs, and legacies of a particular
community or region.
Heritage tourism influences urban socio-spatial patterns:
1. Spatial Transformations and Gentrification: Henri Lefebvre's theories on space and
urbanization can be applied to analyze how heritage tourism influences urban socio-spatial
patterns. The influx of tourists often triggers spatial transformations, contributing to
gentrification in historic neighborhoods. Recent sociological examples may include studies
on how heritage tourism-led developments alter the social and economic fabric of urban
areas, leading to the displacement of existing communities.
2. Cultural Commodification and Authenticity: Pierre Bourdieu, an analysis can explore how
heritage tourism commodifies culture and shapes urban spaces. The quest for authenticity in
heritage experiences often leads to the commodification of local traditions. Recent examples
may include instances where commercialization compromises the genuine cultural character
of urban spaces, influencing residents' lived experiences.
3. Impact on Local Livelihoods: Karl Marx and the concept of alienation, the examination can
delve into how heritage tourism impacts local livelihoods. The commercialization of heritage
sites may lead to the alienation of local residents from their traditional occupations, creating
economic disparities. Recent sociological studies may illustrate how tourism-centric
development affects urban economies and labor patterns.
4. Social Exclusion and Tourism Development: Sociologist Robert Park's theories on
urbanization and social life can inform an analysis of how heritage tourism contributes to
social exclusion. Urban development driven by tourism may result in exclusive spaces,
limiting access for certain social groups. Recent examples may include studies on how
tourism-centric planning inadvertently marginalizes residents and perpetuates social
inequalities.
5. Identity and Place-Making: Sociologist Edward Relph's concept of place and identity can
be applied to understand how heritage tourism influences the creation of urban identities.
Tourism-related developments often contribute to the construction of place identities. Recent
sociological examples may highlight how heritage tourism shapes residents' perceptions of
their urban environment and influences the negotiation of collective identity.
6. Community Resistance and Local Agency: Examining the role of community resistance and
local agency, as explored by Michel de Certeau, can shed light on how residents navigate
and contest the impact of heritage tourism on urban spaces.
Recent sociological studies may showcase instances where communities actively resist
tourism-driven changes, asserting their agency in shaping the socio-spatial dynamics of their
urban environment.
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The influx of tourists influences local cultures, traditions, and social practices:
1. Cultural Hybridity and Homogenization: Homi Bhabha's cultural hybridity, an analysis can
explore how the influx of tourists influences local cultures. Tourism often leads to the blending
of local and global elements, creating hybrid cultural expressions. Recent sociological examples
may include studies on how the tourist impact has led to the homogenization of certain cultural
practices, eroding their distinctiveness.
2. Cultural Appropriation and Authenticity: Edward Said's theories on Orientalism can be
applied to examine how tourism influences local cultures through cultural appropriation. The
quest for authentic experiences by tourists may lead to the commodification of local traditions,
sometimes resulting in the distortion or misrepresentation of cultural practices. Recent examples
may illustrate instances where tourism-related activities commodify local rituals or
performances.
3. Cultural Identity and Commodification: Pierre Bourdieu, the examination can delve into how
the influx of tourists commodifies local cultures. Tourism-driven markets often transform
cultural practices into commodities, shaping the local identity. Recent sociological studies may
highlight how this commodification affects the way communities perceive and engage with their
own cultural heritage.
4. Impact on Social Norms and Values: Emile Durkheim's functionalist perspective can inform
an analysis of how tourist influx influences local social norms and values. The exposure to
diverse cultural practices through tourism may challenge or reshape traditional social norms.
Recent examples may include studies on how the introduction of new ideas and lifestyles
through tourism impacts local social values.
5. Community Empowerment and Resistance: Examining the role of community empowerment
and resistance, as explored by sociologist Michel de Certeau, can shed light on how local
communities navigate the influence of tourism on their cultures. Recent sociological examples
may showcase instances where communities actively resist cultural commodification or
inappropriate practices, asserting their agency in preserving their cultural heritage.
6. Cultural Revitalization and Innovation: M.N. Srinivas's concept of Sanskritization can be
applied to understand how tourism can lead to cultural revitalization and innovation. Local
communities may adapt and innovate their cultural practices to meet the expectations of tourists
while preserving their authenticity. Recent sociological studies may exemplify instances where
tourism has been a catalyst for cultural revitalization.
In conclusion, the impact of heritage tourism on urban socio-spatial patterns in India is a complex
interplay between economic development, cultural preservation, and social dynamics. While
heritage tourism has the potential to contribute to economic growth and cultural awareness, it often
raises challenges such as gentrification, cultural commodification, and unequal spatial
transformations.
The juxtaposition of modernity and tradition, as evident in urban spaces shaped by heritage
tourism, underscores the need for comprehensive and inclusive urban planning that safeguards
local identities, empowers communities, and ensures the sustainable integration of heritage into the
evolving fabric of urban life.
c) What are the causes and solutions for the low female sex-ratio in the
DEMARU States of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal, and Gujrat? (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Begin by acknowledging the issue of a low female sex ratio in the DEMARU states.
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 Discuss the sociological causes contributing to the low female sex ratio in these states.
 Consider the role of education and govt. policies in shaping attitudes towards gender and
family dynamics.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The issue of a low female sex ratio in the DEMARU states of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh,
and Gujarat raises profound sociological concerns regarding gender dynamics and societal
structures. This demographic imbalance reflects deeply rooted cultural norms, historical biases, and
structural inequalities that perpetuate discrimination against female infants. Sociological analyses
within these states must explore the multifaceted dimensions of gender-based preferences, dowry
practices, and the socio-economic factors that contribute to this skewed sex ratio.
Sociological causes contributing to the low female sex ratio in these states:
1. Patriarchal Norms and Son Preference: Simone de Beauvoir, the discussion can explore
how patriarchal norms perpetuate son preference, contributing to a low female sex ratio.
Sociological studies may highlight instances where cultural values prioritize male offspring,
leading to practices such as female feticide or infanticide.
2. Dowry Practices and Economic Considerations: B.R. Ambedkar, an analysis can delve into
how dowry practices contribute to the devaluation of female children. Sociological studies
may illustrate the economic burden associated with dowry and its impact on families'
preferences for male children, influencing the sex ratio.
3. Social Stratification and Caste Dynamics: M.N. Srinivas's concept of Sanskritization can
inform an examination of caste dynamics and their role in the low female sex ratio.
Sociological studies may explore how caste-based hierarchies influence marriage patterns
and contribute to gender-based discrimination, affecting the sex ratio in specific
communities.
4. Inadequate Implementation of Legal Measures: Examining the role of legal frameworks, as
advocated by feminist scholars, can shed light on the sociological causes of the low female
sex ratio. Sociological analyses may scrutinize instances where gender-biased laws are
inadequately implemented, allowing for the persistence of practices that discriminate against
female infants.
5. Medicalization of Gender Preferences: Michel Foucault's theories on the medicalization of
society can be applied to understand how technological advancements in prenatal
diagnostics contribute to gender-based preferences. Sociological studies may explore how
the availability of technologies for sex determination fuels practices that selectively favor
male children.
6. Educational Disparities and Gender Bias: Drawing on the sociological perspectives of bell
hooks, an examination can delve into how educational disparities perpetuate gender bias.
Sociological studies may highlight instances where unequal access to education reinforces
traditional gender roles, influencing societal attitudes and contributing to a skewed sex ratio.
The role of education and govt. policies in shaping attitudes towards gender and family
dynamics.
1. Impact of Education on Gender Norms: B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on education as a tool
for social transformation can be applied to explore how education shapes attitudes towards
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gender and family dynamics. Sociological studies may illustrate how increased education
levels challenge traditional gender norms and foster more egalitarian views within families.
2. Government Policies for Gender Equality: Analyzing the role of government policies, as
advocated by feminist scholars, can highlight how legislative interventions contribute to
changing attitudes. Sociological examples may include policies promoting women's
education, employment, and legal rights, illustrating the government's role in shaping
societal perspectives on gender roles.
3. Societal Perceptions and Structural Inequalities: Drawing on the sociological insights of bell
hooks, an examination can delve into how societal perceptions are intertwined with
structural inequalities. Sociological studies may explore how educational institutions reflect
and perpetuate gender norms, influencing broader attitudes towards family dynamics.
4. Feminist Movements and Grassroots Activism: Gloria Steinem's advocacy for feminist
movements can inform an analysis of how grassroots activism influences educational
institutions and societal attitudes. Sociological examples may highlight instances where
feminist movements challenge discriminatory practices within educational settings,
contributing to attitudinal shifts.
5. Intersectionality and Inclusive Education: Applying the concept of intersectionality, as
developed by Kimberlé Crenshaw, can illuminate the role of education in addressing
multiple dimensions of inequality. Sociological studies may showcase initiatives that
promote inclusive education, acknowledging the intersecting factors of gender, class, and
ethnicity to shape more nuanced attitudes.
6. Media Influence and Educational Curricula: Stuart Hall's theories on media influence can
be applied to understand how educational curricula and media contribute to shaping
attitudes. Sociological examples may explore how educational materials and media
representations impact perceptions of gender roles and family dynamics, influencing societal
norms.
In conclusion, addressing the low female sex ratio in the DEMARU states of Punjab, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, and Gujarat requires a comprehensive sociological approach that acknowledges
the interconnectedness of cultural norms, socio-economic factors, and legal frameworks.
Societal transformation is essential, necessitating campaigns that challenge patriarchal norms and
promote the value of girl children. Government policies should not only focus on strict enforcement
of anti-discriminatory laws but also strive to uplift the socio-economic status of women through
education and employment opportunities.
Collaborative efforts involving grassroots activism, community engagement, and awareness
programs are crucial to altering deep-seated attitudes and fostering a societal ethos that values
gender equity and celebrates the inherent dignity and worth of every individual, irrespective of
gender.
Question 7.
a) Despite gains from the women’s gender movement and states policy of
women empowerment, gender equality is far from achieved. Identify two
major challenges that prevent this goal form being reached. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Highlight the significance of gender equality.
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 Identify Major Challenges that prevent this goal form being reached.
 Evaluate the effectiveness of existing government policies on women's empowerment.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Gender equality is of paramount significance in societal progress and development. It transcends
the mere pursuit of equal rights for men and women; rather, it is a fundamental principle essential
for fostering a just and harmonious society. Embracing gender equality dismantles deeply ingrained
social hierarchies, empowering individuals to contribute to their full potential regardless of gender.
It is an imperative for achieving sustainable development, as diverse perspectives and talents
contribute to comprehensive societal growth.
Challenges that prevent this goal form being reached.
1. Patriarchal Social Structures: Deeply entrenched patriarchal norms perpetuate gender
inequalities. Example: The works of Indian sociologist M.N. Srinivas highlight the persistence of
patriarchal structures in Indian society, influencing power dynamics within families and
communities.
2. Caste-Based Gender Discrimination: Intersectionality of caste and gender poses unique
challenges, particularly for Dalit women. B.R. Ambedkar's writings emphasize the need to
address the specific vulnerabilities and discrimination faced by Dalit women due to the
intersection of caste and gender.
3. Limited Access to Education: Disparities in educational opportunities contribute to gender-
based inequalities. Example: The sociological insights of G.S. Ghurye underscore the importance
of education in challenging regressive social norms, emphasizing the need for widespread
educational reforms.
4. Economic Disparities and Gender Wage Gap: Unequal economic opportunities and wage gaps
persist, limiting women's financial independence. Example: Economist and Bina Agarwal's
research highlights the economic disparities faced by women in agricultural communities and
the need for land and property rights.
5. Violence Against Women: Pervasive gender-based violence hampers progress towards gender
equality. Example: Veena Das's work on gender and violence in India sheds light on the
sociocultural factors contributing to the prevalence of violence against women.
6. Limited Political Representation: Inadequate representation of women in political spheres
hinders policy formulation for gender-sensitive issues. Example: Political scientist and feminist
scholar Rajni Kothari's observations emphasize the importance of women's participation in
political processes for a more inclusive governance structure.
Effectiveness of existing government policies on women's empowerment:

1. Reservation Policies: Reservation of seats for women in local governance bodies, as advocated
by scholars like Rajni Kothari, aims at enhancing women's political participation. Example: The
Panchayati Raj system in India with women's reservation has seen increased representation, yet
challenges like proxy representation persist.
2. Legal Reforms: Legislative measures, such as the Dowry Prohibition Act and the Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act, attempt to address systemic issues. Example: Despite legal
provisions, sociologist Veena Das's work highlights the persistence of domestic violence,
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showcasing gaps in implementation and awareness.
3. Women-Centric Programs: Government schemes like the Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao initiative aim
to address issues like female feticide and promote girl child education. Example: G.S. Ghurye's
emphasis on education aligns with such initiatives, yet challenges of deep-rooted biases persist
in certain regions.
4. Economic Empowerment Initiatives: Programs like MGNREGA and initiatives promoting
women's entrepreneurship aim at economic empowerment. Example: Bina Agarwal's research
emphasizes the importance of land and property rights for women, indicating gaps in the
implementation of economic empowerment policies.
5. Health and Reproductive Rights: Government initiatives on maternal health and family
planning seek to empower women in healthcare decision-making. Example: Leela Dube's work
on women's reproductive rights aligns with the need for comprehensive reproductive health
policies, addressing sociocultural factors.
6. Educational Initiatives: Schemes promoting girls' education, such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,
aim at narrowing gender gaps in education. Example: The emphasis on education echoes the
views of sociologist M.N. Srinivas, highlighting the transformative potential of education in
challenging regressive social norms.
In conclusion, the persistent challenges hindering the realization of gender equality, despite strides
made by the women's gender movement and state policies, underscore the intricate nature of
societal transformation. Deep-rooted patriarchal norms, as illuminated by sociologist M.N. Srinivas,
continue to impede progress, influencing power structures and perpetuating gender disparities.
Achieving gender equality demands concerted efforts to dismantle entrenched societal norms,
coupled with targeted policies addressing the intersectionality of discrimination, ensuring a more
inclusive and equitable future for all.
b) To what extent does nation building depend on strengthening of

pluralities in Indian society? (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define nation-building and pluralities.
 Explain Importance of Pluralities in Nation Building.
 Acknowledge challenges of managing pluralities in the context of nation-building.
 Conclude.
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Solution:
Nation-building refers to the cohesive process of constructing a unified and integrated national
identity within a diverse population, fostering a sense of shared belonging and common values. It
involves forging a collective consciousness that transcends regional, linguistic, religious, and ethnic
differences to cultivate a unified nation-state.
Pluralities, refer to the diverse elements within a society, encompassing various cultural, linguistic,
religious, and regional identities. Nation-building, therefore, grapples with the challenge of
reconciling and harmonizing these pluralities to build a cohesive and inclusive national identity,
ensuring social cohesion and stability in the multicultural tapestry of a nation.
Importance of Pluralities in Nation Building.
1. Cultural Diversity as Strength: M.N. Srinivas emphasized that embracing cultural diversity
as a strength fosters a rich and vibrant national identity. Example: India's diverse cultural
heritage, with its various festivals, languages, and traditions, contributes to the country's
unique global identity.
2. Social Harmony and Inclusivity: B.R. Ambedkar's vision of social inclusivity highlights the
significance of recognizing and respecting diverse social identities for building an egalitarian
nation. Example: Policies promoting social justice and affirmative action aim to address
historical discriminations, fostering a more inclusive society.
3. Linguistic Pluralism: Linguistic diversity, as advocated by G.S. Ghurye, contributes to a
multilingual and inclusive national fabric. Example: India's linguistic diversity, with
numerous languages coexisting, showcases the importance of linguistic pluralism in
fostering unity.
4. Religious Tolerance: Encouraging religious tolerance, influenced by sociologist Veena Das's
work, is crucial for preventing religious divisions that can hinder nation-building. Example:
India's secular ethos promotes coexistence among various religious communities,
contributing to social harmony.
5. Regional Identity and Integration: Rajni Kothari's idea of regional integration stresses
acknowledging and integrating regional identities within the broader national narrative.
Example: India's federal structure recognizes and respects the autonomy of states, fostering
a sense of regional identity alongside national unity.
6. Political Representation: Ensuring political representation from diverse backgrounds, as
envisioned by Bina Agarwal, promotes inclusivity in decision-making. Example: Reservation
policies for marginalized groups aim to provide equitable political representation, fostering
a more representative democracy.
Challenges of managing pluralities in the context of nation-building.
1. Identity Politics and Fragmentation: The rise of identity politics, critiqued by scholars like
M.N. Srinivas, can lead to the fragmentation of society, where communities prioritize narrow
interests over national unity. Example: Regional and caste-based political movements
sometimes contribute to identity-driven divisions.
2. Caste-Based Inequalities: The persistence of caste-based inequalities, as highlighted by B.R.
Ambedkar, poses a significant challenge to inclusive nation-building. Example: Despite
affirmative action, deep-rooted caste hierarchies continue to impact social dynamics and
opportunities.
3. Religious Divisions: Veena Das's critiques of religious tensions highlight how communal
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conflicts can undermine efforts towards a cohesive national identity. Example: Communal
riots and religious polarizations challenge the idea of a harmonious, pluralistic nation.
4. Linguistic Disparities: Linguistic disparities, as examined by G.S. Ghurye, can result in
linguistic tensions that hinder effective communication and understanding. Example:
Language-based agitations for statehood or linguistic rights showcase potential challenges to
national integration.
5. Regional Autonomy Struggles: The assertion of regional autonomy, explored by Rajni
Kothari, can sometimes lead to secessionist movements that challenge the unity of the nation.
Example: Movements demanding greater autonomy or separate statehood in certain regions.
6. Inequitable Development: Bina Agarwal's critiques of inequitable development emphasize
how disparities in economic growth can contribute to feelings of alienation. Example:
Regional imbalances in development can lead to perceptions of neglect and marginalization.
In conclusion, the extent to which nation-building in India depends on strengthening pluralities is
profound and pivotal. Pluralities, encompassing diverse cultural, linguistic, religious, and regional
identities, form the very essence of the Indian social fabric. Efforts to strengthen pluralities are
essential for fostering a unified national identity that transcends divisive lines.
The coexistence and mutual respect among various social identities are foundational to India's
resilience and ability to navigate the intricate dynamics of a multicultural society, contributing to
the overarching goal of building a cohesive and inclusive nation.
c) Explain the issue relating to ethnicity and sub-ethnicity. (10 Marks)

Approach.
 Define ethnicity and sub-ethnicity.
 Discuss the key features of ethnicity.
 Discuss the issues relating to ethnicity and sub-ethnicity.
 Conclude.
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Solution:
Ethnicity refers to a shared cultural heritage, including language, customs, religion, and historical
experiences, that distinguishes a particular group within a larger society. It often contributes to a
collective sense of identity and belonging.
Sub-ethnicity, on the other hand, involves the further subdivision of an ethnic group into smaller,
more localized units based on specific regional, linguistic, or caste distinctions. The study of
ethnicity and sub-ethnicity is crucial in sociology to understand the intricate layers of identity and
social dynamics within diverse societies, particularly in nations like India with a rich tapestry of
cultures and communities.
Ethnicity encompasses a set of shared cultural traits, including language, religion, customs, and a
sense of common history, that differentiates one social group from another. Central to the notion of
ethnicity is the idea of self-identification and external categorization, where individuals identify
with a particular ethnic group and are recognized as such by others. Ethnicity often influences social
interactions, shaping relationships, and contributing to the formation of distinct social boundaries.
Key features include the subjective nature of ethnic identity, its fluidity over time, and the potential
for both integration and conflict within diverse societies. Anthony D. Smith and Fredrik Barth have
contributed to the understanding of ethnicity, emphasizing its dynamic and contextual nature in
the complex tapestry of human social organization.
The issues relating to ethnicity and sub-ethnicity.
1. Identity Politics and Mobilization: Identity politics, as analyzed by scholars like Rajni
Kothari, can lead to the mobilization of ethnic and sub-ethnic groups for political gains,
sometimes resulting in social divisions. Example: The demand for reservation and political
representation based on sub-ethnic identities in certain regions.
2. Conflict and Fragmentation: Ethnic and sub-ethnic differences can escalate into conflicts, as
highlighted by Veena Das's work on communal tensions, leading to social fragmentation.
Example: Communal riots and clashes between sub-ethnic groups over resources or
historical grievances.
3. Discrimination and Marginalization: Discrimination against certain ethnic or sub-ethnic
groups, a concern examined by B.R. Ambedkar, can perpetuate social hierarchies and
marginalization. Example: Instances of caste-based discrimination and untouchability
practices persisting in some regions.
4. Cultural Hegemony and Dominance: The dominance of one ethnic or sub-ethnic group, as
discussed by M.N. Srinivas, can lead to cultural hegemony, suppressing the distinct cultural
expressions of other groups. Example: Imposition of a dominant culture on marginalized
sub-ethnic communities.
5. Economic Disparities: Economic inequalities among different ethnic and sub-ethnic groups,
a concern examined by scholars like Bina Agarwal, can exacerbate social tensions. Example:
Disparities in access to resources and opportunities leading to economic inequities.
6. Changing Demographics and Urbanization: Urbanization and migration, as studied by G.S.
Ghurye, can alter traditional ethnic and sub-ethnic dynamics, sometimes resulting in cultural
conflicts. Example: Migration-induced clashes between different linguistic or regional groups
in urban areas.
In conclusion, the issue of ethnicity and sub-ethnicity in Indian society is intricate and multifaceted,
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encompassing a myriad of challenges and opportunities. While these identities contribute to the rich
cultural tapestry of the nation, they also pose challenges such as identity-based politics, conflicts,
and social stratification. Sociological thinkers like M.N. Srinivas, B.R. Ambedkar, and Rajni Kothari
have provided valuable insights into understanding these dynamics. Recognizing and addressing
these issues is essential for fostering social cohesion, inclusivity, and equitable development. It
requires nuanced policies that celebrate diversity while mitigating the potential pitfalls of ethnic
and sub-ethnic divisions, thereby contributing to a more harmonious and integrated society.
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Question 8.
What is cultural Revivalism? Give some examples from performing arts,
language dissemination and arts crafts in recent times. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define cultural Revivalism.
 Illustrate from performing arts, language dissemination and arts crafts in recent times.
 Challenges faced under cultural Revivalism
 Conclude
Solution:
Cultural revivalism refers to a socio-cultural movement or phenomenon aimed at rejuvenating and
revitalizing aspects of a particular culture, often in response to perceived threats or challenges to its
continuity. This revivalist impulse involves a conscious effort to reclaim, promote, and celebrate
traditional cultural practices, values, rituals, and art forms.
Cultural revivalism can emerge as a response to globalization, modernization, or periods of cultural
suppression, seeking to assert and preserve a distinct cultural identity. It may manifest in various
forms, such as the revival of traditional arts, promotion of indigenous languages, or the
revitalization of religious practices.
Performing Arts:
 Theater and Folk Performances: Initiatives to revive traditional theater forms like
Yakshagana in Karnataka, spearheaded by cultural organizations, align with the revivalist
spirit, preserving and promoting indigenous performing arts. Scholars like G.S. Ghurye have
emphasized the significance of folk traditions in understanding the cultural essence of a
society.
 Classical Dance Forms: Efforts to rejuvenate classical dance forms like Odissi or Kathak have
gained momentum, fostering a renewed interest in these art forms among younger
generations. Rukmini Devi Arundale's contribution to reviving Bharatanatyam exemplifies
the role of individuals in cultural rejuvenation.
 Contemporary Fusion Performances: Fusion performances blending traditional and
contemporary elements, such as the collaboration between classical musicians and modern
composers, showcase a dynamic approach to cultural revivalism. Veena Das's work on the
adaptability of cultural forms in the face of societal changes provides insights into the
evolving nature of performing arts.
 Street Plays and Community Performances: Grassroots-level Street plays and community
performances often focus on highlighting traditional narratives, using theater as a tool for
cultural awareness and preservation. E.K. Hunt's theories on symbolic interactionism can be
applied to understand the role of such performances in shaping cultural meanings at the
community level.
Language Dissemination:
 Promotion of Indigenous Languages: Language revitalization movements, like the
promotion of Sanskrit in educational institutions or the resurgence of regional languages,
align with cultural revivalism.
B.R. Ambedkar's advocacy for the use of native languages to empower marginalized
communities highlights the sociopolitical dimensions of language dissemination.
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 Digital Platforms and Vernacular Content: Online platforms actively promoting vernacular
content and regional languages contribute to the resurgence of linguistic diversity in media.
Benedict Anderson's ideas on imagined communities shed light on how language plays a
crucial role in shaping collective identities.
 Literary Movements: Literary movements that revisit and reinterpret classical texts in native
languages, such as the contemporary reimagining of ancient epics, contribute to cultural
revivalism. A.K. Ramanujan's insights into the dynamic nature of oral traditions and their
impact on literature offer perspectives on the evolution of language in cultural contexts.
 Language-Based Cultural Festivals: Festivals celebrating linguistic diversity, like literary
fests focusing on regional languages, serve as platforms for language dissemination and
cultural exchange. Homi K. Bhabha's theories on hybridity and cultural mimicry provide
frameworks for understanding how languages undergo transformation in multicultural
societies.
Arts and Crafts:
 Handicraft Revival Movements: Movements to revive traditional handicrafts, such as the
promotion of handloom textiles or indigenous pottery, contribute to the preservation of
cultural heritage. M.N. Srinivas's concept of 'Sanskritization' can be applied to understand
how certain crafts become symbols of cultural prestige.
 Artisan Cooperatives: Cooperatives and NGOs supporting artisan communities, like
Dastkar or Kala Raksha, aim to revive and sustain traditional crafts, providing economic
empowerment. Emile Durkheim's theories on the division of labor and social solidarity can
be invoked to analyze the role of artisan communities in the social fabric.
 Contemporary Art with Traditional Motifs: Contemporary artists incorporating traditional
motifs and techniques into their work contribute to the fusion of modern and traditional
artistic expressions. Pierre Bourdieu's ideas on cultural capital and taste can provide insights
into the changing perceptions of traditional arts in contemporary society.
 Craft Tourism Initiatives: Initiatives promoting craft tourism, where travelers engage with
local artisans and traditional crafts, foster cultural exchange and economic sustainability.
Arjun Appadurai's work on the global flow of cultural commodities helps contextualize how
traditional crafts become part of the global market and cultural exchange.
Challenges:
 Conservatism and Resistance to Change: Cultural revivalism often encounters resistance
from conservative elements within society, unwilling to embrace changes or reinterpretations
of traditional practices. M.N. Srinivas's concept of 'Sanskritization' highlights how
entrenched norms can resist alterations, impacting the acceptance of revived cultural
elements.
 Caste and Hierarchical Structures: The revival of certain cultural practices may
inadvertently reinforce caste-based hierarchies, perpetuating social inequalities and limiting
inclusivity. B.R. Ambedkar's critiques of caste-based practices underscore the need for
cultural revivalism to navigate issues of social justice and equality.
 Commercialization and Appropriation: The commercialization of cultural elements, often
in the form of mass-produced artifacts or entertainment, can dilute their authenticity and
commodify traditions. Arjun Appadurai's theory on the commodification of culture
provides insights into the challenges of balancing authenticity with market demands.
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 Conflict Between Tradition and Modernity: Negotiating the tension between traditional
values and modern sensibilities poses a challenge, especially when cultural revivalism seeks
to adapt to contemporary contexts. Anthony Giddens's theory of structuration helps analyze
how individuals navigate the interplay between tradition and modernity in cultural
practices.
 Gender Bias and Patriarchal Norms: Many traditional cultural practices carry inherent
gender biases, and efforts at revival may inadvertently reinforce patriarchal norms. Feminist
scholars like Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak offer critical perspectives on challenging gender
inequalities embedded in cultural practices.
 Regionalism and Ethnocentrism: Cultural revivalism may sometimes lead to the promotion
of regional or ethnocentric identities, potentially contributing to inter-community tensions.
Emile Durkheim's theories on social solidarity and the potential for cultural symbols to
reinforce group boundaries are relevant in understanding these challenges.
Cultural revivalism refers to the intentional effort to revive and reinterpret traditional cultural
practices, often in response to external influences or historical changes. In recent times, this
phenomenon has manifested across various domains, illustrating a dynamic interplay between
tradition and modernity. In the performing arts, the revival of classical dance forms like
Bharatanatyam and Kathak has gained momentum, preserved ancient narratives while adapting to
contemporary sensibilities. Language dissemination initiatives, such as the resurgence of regional
languages through
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b) What, according to you are the two fundamental axis of social

discrimination in Indian society? Are they changing? (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define social discrimination.
 Explain the Changing Dynamics of social discrimination in Indian society.
 Highlight challenges that indicate persisting discrimination.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Social discrimination is a pervasive sociological concept that denotes the unjust and differential
treatment of individuals or groups within a society based on various attributes such as race, caste,
gender, religion, or socio-economic status. It involves the systematic denial of rights, opportunities,
and resources to certain sections of the population, perpetuating inequality and reinforcing power
imbalances.
Changing Dynamics of social discrimination in Indian society.
1. Economic Transformation and Occupational Mobility: Economic liberalization has led to
shifts in occupational structures, impacting traditional hierarchies. Sociologist M.N.
Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization" can be applied to understand how economic changes
influence social mobility.
2. Educational Empowerment and Attitudinal Shifts: Increased access to education has
challenged traditional discriminatory practices. B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on education as a
tool for social empowerment is relevant, as seen in the rise of movements advocating for Dalit
rights.
3. Technological Advancements and Social Media Influence: Technology, especially social
media, has provided a platform to challenge discriminatory norms and amplify marginalized
voices. This aligns with the ideas of contemporary thinkers like Arundhati Roy, who
emphasize the role of media in social change.
4. Legal Reforms and Affirmative Action: Legislative measures, such as reservations, aim to
address historical injustices. B.R. Ambedkar's vision for social justice through legal means
remains pertinent, seen in the implementation of affirmative action policies.
5. Urbanization and Changing Social Spaces: Urbanization has altered social structures and
created more inclusive spaces. Sociologist Louis Dumont's perspective on urbanization
impacting social hierarchies can be applied to understand the changing dynamics in urban
settings.
6. Intersectionality and Multiple Identities: Contemporary discourse emphasizes the
intersectionality of identities, recognizing the complexity of discrimination based on factors
like caste, gender, and religion. This aligns with the ideas of intersectional feminist scholars
like Kimberlé Crenshaw.
Challenges
1. Caste-Based Discrimination: Despite legal interventions and affirmative action, deep-rooted
caste prejudices persist. Example: The continued practice of untouchability in certain rural areas
illustrates the persistent challenges associated with caste discrimination.
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B.R. Ambedkar's writings on caste hierarchies remain relevant in understanding these
challenges.
2. Gender Inequality: Gender-based discrimination and violence persist, reflecting deeply
ingrained patriarchal norms. Example: Instances of dowry-related violence and unequal access
to opportunities highlight ongoing gender disparities. Feminist scholars like Kamla Bhasin shed
light on the challenges women face in challenging traditional gender roles.
3. Economic Disparities: Economic inequality contributes to social stratification and hinders
upward mobility. Example: The concentration of wealth in certain communities, coupled with
limited access to resources for marginalized groups, reflects enduring economic disparities. The
insights of economist and sociologist Amartya Sen can be applied to analyze these challenges.
4. Religious Discrimination: Inter-religious tensions and discrimination persist, impacting social
cohesion. Example: Incidents of communal violence and religious discrimination indicate the
challenges in fostering religious harmony. Sociologist Ashis Nandy's work on religious identity
sheds light on the complexities of these challenges.
5. Marginalization of Tribal Communities: Tribal communities continue to face marginalization
and dispossession. Example: Displacement due to development projects and the exploitation of
tribal resources highlight persistent challenges. Sociologist G.S. Ghurye's insights on tribal
communities provide a framework for understanding these issues.
6. Lack of Inclusive Policies: The inadequate implementation of inclusive policies hampers the
eradication of discrimination. Example: Despite legal provisions and policies, the lack of
effective implementation perpetuates discrimination. The work of legal scholar Upendra Baxi
can be referenced to analyze the gaps in policy execution.
In conclusion, the two fundamental axes of social discrimination in Indian society, traditionally
rooted in caste and gender, continue to exert a profound influence. While concerted efforts through
legal reforms, educational initiatives, and social movements have challenged these axes, their deep-
seated nature renders them resistant to rapid transformation. The evolving socio-cultural landscape
indicates gradual shifts, but persistent disparities and discriminatory practices suggest that a
comprehensive sociological approach is imperative to dismantle these ingrained axes and foster a
more inclusive and egalitarian society.
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c) Why have we started using another category of tribes called the

Particularly Vulnerable Groups (PVTGs) Why are they so called? (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Definition of Particularly Vulnerable Groups (PVTGs).
 Discuss why the term "Particularly Vulnerable" is used.
 Discuss why we started using another category of tribes called the Particularly Vulnerable
Groups (PVTGs).
 Assess the effectiveness of policies and measures taken for the upliftment of PVTGs.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Particularly Vulnerable Groups (PVTGs) refer to a distinct category within Scheduled Tribes (STs)
in India, identified on specific criteria indicative of their extreme vulnerability. They are
characterized by factors such as pre-agricultural levels of technology, stagnant or declining
populations, low literacy rates, and subsistence-based economies, PVTGs face unique challenges
that necessitate targeted interventions.
The designation "Particularly Vulnerable" for Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India is aptly employed to
highlight the unique challenges and precarious circumstances faced by certain tribal communities.
This nomenclature acknowledges the distinctive vulnerabilities that stem from factors such as their
isolation, low literacy rates, subsistence-based economies, and minimal exposure to modern
Recognition of Distinct Vulnerability: The introduction of the Particularly Vulnerable Groups
(PVTGs) category emerged from the recognition that some Scheduled Tribes (STs) faced more acute
socio-economic challenges, requiring focused attention.
We started using another category of tribes called the Particularly Vulnerable Groups (PVTGs).
1. Customized Developmental Interventions: B.R. Ambedkar and M.N. Srinivas emphasized
the need for tailored strategies to address the unique vulnerabilities of certain tribal
communities, inspiring the creation of the PVTG category.
2. Preservation of Indigenous Cultures: G.S. Ghurye and Verrier Elwin advocated for the
preservation of indigenous cultures, contributing to the formation of the PVTG category to
safeguard the distinct ways of life of these tribes.
3. Stagnation in Population and Technology: The identification of PVTGs is based on criteria
such as stagnant or declining populations and pre-agricultural levels of technology, as
highlighted by sociological theories on tribal development.
4. Socio-Economic Marginalization: PVTGs often experience heightened levels of socio-
economic marginalization, drawing attention to the need for affirmative action and inclusive
policies, aligning with the perspectives of sociologists like Andre Beteille.
5. Policy Adjustments for Inclusive Growth: Policy adjustments like the "Vanbandhu Kalyan
Yojana," reflecting a broader shift in recognizing and addressing the unique challenges faced
by PVTGs for more inclusive and equitable growth.
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Effectiveness of policies and measures taken for the upliftment of PVTGs:
1. Legislation - Forest Rights Act (FRA): The FRA, influenced by sociological thinkers like B.R.
Ambedkar, recognizes the historical injustices faced by tribal communities, including PVTGs,
regarding land and forest resources. Its implementation is a critical step toward securing their
socio-economic rights.
2. Role of Beteille's Inclusive Governance Model: Andre Beteille's ideas on inclusive
governance are reflected in policies that involve PVTGs in decision-making processes. Bodies
like the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes provide a platform for representation and
ensure their concerns are considered at the policy level.
3. Amartya Sen's Capability Approach in Education: Drawing from Amartya Sen's capability
approach, policies focusing on education for PVTGs aim to enhance their capabilities.
Initiatives such as scholarships, residential schools, and vocational training align with Sen's
emphasis on expanding individuals' substantive freedoms.
4. Community Development Programs - Verrier Elwin's Influence: The implementation of
community development programs for PVTGs, inspired by anthropologist Verrier Elwin,
seeks to empower these communities to manage and conserve their natural resources. This
aligns with Elwin's advocacy for tribal autonomy and sustainable development.
5. Diversity and Inclusion Initiatives: Policies guided by the principles of diversity and
inclusion, influenced by thinkers like Mahatma Gandhi, aim to address the unique socio-
economic challenges faced by PVTGs. Inclusive development schemes focus on bridging
gaps and ensuring equitable opportunities.
6. Monitoring and Evaluation Mechanisms - Accountability: Sociological principles
emphasizing accountability, as seen in the works of various scholars, underpin monitoring
and evaluation mechanisms. Regular assessments of policy effectiveness help identify
challenges and refine strategies for the continuous upliftment of PVTGs.
In conclusion, the categorization of tribes as Particularly Vulnerable Groups (PVTGs) signifies a
paradigm shift in acknowledging and addressing the unique vulnerabilities faced by certain tribal
communities in India. The nomenclature underscores their distinct socio-economic and cultural
challenges, necessitating targeted interventions for their upliftment.
The adoption of the PVTG category is a proactive step towards tailored policy measures, influenced
by sociological insights, aimed at ensuring the holistic development and protection of these
vulnerable tribal communities.
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Mains 2018
Section - A
Question 1. Write short answers with a sociological perspective of the following
questions in about 150 words each.
(a) Write a note on G.S. Ghurye’s Indological perspective of understanding
Indian society. 10 marks
Approach
 Introduce with highlighting the role and contribution of Ghurye in Indian Sociology.
 Briefly explain Indological approach.
 Explain Ghurye's Indological approach in his studies.
 Provide criticism of Ghurye's Indological approach.
Solution
G.S. Ghurye, often regarded as the Father of Indian sociology, employed an Indological approach
to study Indian society and culture. Ghurye made significant contributions to the study of Indian
society, including castes, tribes, family and kinship, religion, culture, and national unity and
integration.
Indological Approach:
The Indological approach views Indian society as distinct and necessitates a departure from
European sociological frameworks. Ghurye relied on historical texts, religious manuscripts, and
classical literature to analyze social phenomena. This approach, also known as the "textual view"
or "book view," prioritizes cultural aspects over empirical structures of Indian society.
Ghurye's Contributions:
Ghurye employed an attributional approach to understand the caste system, combining historical
texts, fieldwork, and cultural perspectives. He emphasized the role of endogamy, the practice of
marrying within one's caste, as a crucial factor in maintaining caste hierarchy. Ghurye's analysis of
tribes focused on their assimilation into Hindu castes and the potential impact of secessionist trends
on political unity. Ghurye considered religion as central to Indian culture and behavior, exploring
the sociography of various sects and religious centers.
Ghurye argued that cultural unity in India was primarily a result of Brahmanical endeavors, with
major Hindu institutions eventually accepted by other communities.
Ghurye's concerns about national unity led him to analyze the challenges posed by various social
groups. He identified Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Backward Classes, Muslims, and
linguistic minorities as potential sources of tension.
Criticisms and Limitations:
Ghurye's Indological perspective received criticism for his Brahminical point of view on caste and
the concept of integration and assimilation regarding tribes. Critics pointed out that his perspective
predominantly focused on Hindu culture, neglecting other religious and cultural groups in India.
276
Ghurye's identification of certain communities as threats to national unity, despite their
participation in the Indian National Movement, drew criticism. The Indological approach was
challenged for its reliance on religious texts as the sole source of cultural values, disregarding the
lived experiences of diverse communities.
Overall, Ghurye's Indological approach has contributed to the study of Indian society and culture,
but it is important to recognize its limitations and the need for a more inclusive and dynamic
approach to sociology in India
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(b) Give a critical analysis of Andre Beteille’s study of Tanjore village. (10
Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by highlighting Beteille's work and his approach.
 Explain Beteille's findings and interpretations in his study.
 Provide criticism of Beteille's analysis and work.
Solution
Andre Beteille's study of Tanjore village, as depicted in his works "Sripuram: A Village in Tanjore
District" (1962) and "Caste, Class and Power: Changing Patterns of Stratification in a Tanjore
Village" (1965), offers a diffusive understanding of caste by adopting an interactional approach.
Beteille's Analysis:
Beteille's study focuses on the village of Sripuram in Tanjore district, Tamil Nadu. Inspired by the
Weberian model he explores the complex relationship between caste, wealth, and power, departing
from traditional static perspectives on caste by examining the changes that occurred during the
British colonial period and afterward. His analysis recognizes the influence of factors such as
democracy, occupation, urbanization, and industrialization on the caste system. Beteille argues that
Indian society is stratified not only based on caste but also on class and power. His analysis reveals
that the empirical reality of caste is different from the cultural ideal type of caste.
Beteille's study reveals that traditional Indian society upheld inequality as the dominant value,
resulting in a lack of awareness and protest against caste-based injustices. He argues that this
traditional society was characterized by harmonious inequality.
However, in contemporary Indian society, there is disharmony due to the conflict between the
value of equality and the persistence of the caste system.
The increasing emphasis on equality alongside the continuation of the caste system has created
tensions within society. Individuals in positions of power and wealth are now protesting against
their low ritual hierarchy, which is a significant departure from the traditional view of a harmonious
society. Beteille's analysis sheds light on these dynamics and highlights the complexities of caste-
based inequalities in the present context.
Criticism:
While Beteille's study offers valuable insights, it has faced criticism regarding its limited
applicability. The perspective he presents seems to be more applicable to South Indian societies,
where lower castes have experienced comparatively higher social mobility than in other regions of
India. In contrast, lower castes in North India often continue to face powerlessness and social
disadvantages. In feudalistic rural societies, where economic power holds sway over various
aspects of life, Marxist analysis or the perspective of economic determinism may hold greater
relevance. The dominance of caste in society is often determined by rituals, indicating that the
three dimensions of Indian society, namely caste, class, and power, cannot be studied in isolation
from each other. Some critics might argue that Beteille's study did not adequately address the
intersectionality of caste with other social identities such as gender, religion, or ethnicity
Despites its limitations Andre Beteille's study of Tanjore village highlights the complexity of social
stratification and underscores the importance of nuanced analysis in understanding the evolving
dynamics of power and privilege.
278
c) Do you think Media is the fourth pillar of democracy? (10 Marks)

Structure
 Media
 Democracy and Role of media
 Limitations
 Conclusion
Media
 Mass media is a variety of means by which information reaches large numbers of people
through things like television, radio, Newspapers, magazines, movies and the Internet.
 Shri M. Venkaiya Naidu said that “the strength of democracy depends upon the strength of
each pillar and the way pillars complement each other.”
 He is also of the view that, “Media has emerged as the fourth pillar because of its pervasive
presence and unmistakable influence in shaping public opinion.
 The existence of a free and objective media committed to lend voice to the voiceless is the
cornerstone of a healthy democracy.”
 There are four pillars of the democracy the legislature, executive, judiciary and media.
Media is called the fourth pillar due to important role of media in shaping public opinion.
 Media is the 4th pillar of democracy and has considerable influence in policy making and
deciding agenda while implementation.
 But with the growth of technology and liberation journalism, the influence of media became
an important part of development agenda of the government. Media is considered as the
backbone of a democracy. Media makes us aware of various social, political and economical
activities happening around the world.
 According to functionalist perspective media act as agents of socialisation and enforcer of
social norms and conflict theorists say that it helps to propagate dominant ideology and can
create divisions in the society with respect to religion, gender and caste.
Democracy and role of media
Media has undoubtedly become more active over the years.
 Media is something that reminds politicians about their unfulfilled promises. Their excessive
coverage during elections helps people, especially illiterates, while electing the right person
to the power.
 Television and radio have made a significant achievement ineducating rural illiterate masses
in making them aware of all the events in their language.
 Media also exposes loopholes in the democratic system, which ultimately helps government
in filling those loopholes and making the system more accountable, responsive and citizen
friendly. A democracy without media is like a vehicle without wheels.
 The media reminds the society of their democratic rights and the media helps in maintaining
checks and balances.
 Media acts as a chain between the government and citizens of the country and plays a pivotal
role in ensuring justice and the benefits of the government policies reaching the weaker
section of the society.
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 In order to propagate and disseminate different government policies and initiatives, the
media is relevant. And in spreading awareness about Swatch Bharat and beti bachao beti padhao
etc., media played an important role.
 Access to information is essential for a democratic society because it ensures that citizen make
responsible, informed choices rather than acting out of ignorance or misinformation and
information also serves a checking function. It is well known that media overlaps other
functional areas of democracy andgovernance. For example, support for media may yield
results in governance activities, particularly those related to decentralization, anti-
corruption, and citizen participation in the policy process.
 Conducting free and fair elections through a transparent process requires media as it gives
the candidates equal access and reports the relevant issues in a timely, objective manner.
 The ultimate goal of media is to serve the public interest. The public interest is defined as
representing plurality of voices both through greater number of outlets and through this a
diversity of views and voices is reflected within one outlet. If media is to have any
meaningful role in democracy and governance, it must be free and independent from the
control of government.
Criticism
 There is a need to regulate and reform the functioning of Indian media. Their regulation does
not mean interference in normal coverage but yes coverage in sensitive matters should be
regulated like in the cases of national security, Foreign Relations etc.
 Also, independent and statutory bodies should be formulated to oversee the functioning of
the Indian media like the business model, source of funds, relation to foreign entities, political
leanings, corporate leaning etc.
 There is a need to change this non reliable activity. For that press must have a solid policy on
establishing ethical standards, examination ethical values, and improving ethical practices
for the harmonious improvement of developing age of the society worldwide.
 Paid news should be prohibited as unlawful trade or trade with an unlawful purpose,
through legislation and, a regulator should be created and it must be a judicial authority.
 Feminist perspective says media misrepresent dominant ideology and helps to sustain
stereotypes with respect to gender.
Conclusion
 In today's digitally advanced world when information dissemination is a task of seconds, the
role and responsibility of Indian media becomes manifold as they in their capacity can
destroy or mend the evolving fabric of our democracy.
 Media should be unshackled and unrestrained to ensure a representative democracy. In
addition to that the media themselves have to introspect and analyse whether they are doing
their job in accordance with a noble intention that underpin the media industry.
 Media is like a watchdog in a democracy that keeps government active. From being just an
informer it has become an integral part of our daily lives. With the passage of time it has
become a more mature and more responsible entity. The present media revolution has helped
people in making informed decisions and has led to beginning of a new Era of democracy.
Community participation is a goal that media should strive for in a country like India where
it is considered as a fourth pillar of democracy.
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(d) Write a note on the changing roles of middle-class women in India. (10
Marks)
Structure
 Introduction
 Changing Roles
 Role Conflict
 Conclusion
Sociologists use the term "role" (as do others outside of the field) to describe a set of expected
behaviours and obligations a person has, based on his or her position in life and relative to others.
Within sociology, role theory was developed by American sociologist Talcott Parsons through his
work on social systems, along with German sociologist Ralf Dahrendorf, and by Erving Goffman,
with his numerous studies and theories focused on how social life resembles theatrical performance.
According to Dahrendorf (1958) “roles define the specific rights and obligations that are entailed in
a social position”.
The roles that women are performing or are ascribed to her as the member of a family are her
‘traditional roles’.
Besides this traditional role, women’s employment has made them acquire a new set of roles. These
roles we may call as her ‘achieved roles’.
Precisely it may be said that an employed woman has to perform two sets of roles i.e. her Traditional
roles and her Achieved roles.
Changing Roles
Women’s increased career aspiration and their empowerment are realised through the language of
‘power within’ that is ‘throughputs’ through which they participate in the public as actors of
transformation.
 In the context of India, and as a determinant of women’s change in status, it is important to
consider first the role of higher education and then, associated with this, renewed
opportunities for women’s participation in paid employment.
 One positive effect of women’s broader-level political mobilisation is an increased awareness
of role women play in politics and a stronger voice in the political sphere.
 Women also engage in public demonstrations, ranging from protests against atrocities
against women and price rises, to boycott of dangerous products and campaigns surrounding
environmental issues.
 Major changes have also taken place in India over the last two decades in the sphere of work
and employment in both organised and unorganised sectors, with gendered implications.
 Within the last one and a half decades, middle and upper class women’s career chances in
India have improved to a great extent in middle ranking management, the higher legislative
and decision-making bodies and also in teaching.
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But their traditional roles continue:
 Women’s role as caregiver persists even as women’s professional responsibilities mount. It
even increased during pandemic when most of the women worked from home.
 Besides their entrepreneurial role in cities, Indian women contribute significantly to
agricultural activities, handicrafts, village art and crafts.
Women are now regularly performing duties that are traditionally assigned to males. The income
of one man is no longer enough in the modern expensive culture, so fluctuations in the economy
have made it necessary for a woman to obtain a career, in order to provide the essential funds to
support and maintain the family.
The changed roles leading to attainment of higher education, skills and ensuing opportunities are
leading to:
 Women in India entering into all kind of professions like engineering, medicine, politics,
teaching etc. They are joining universities and colleges in large numbers.
 Indian women have achieved reputation as active politicians, efficient administrators and
good jurists.
 They have contributed to scientific research and they have also served in armed forces.
 They have proved their worth as Ministers, Members of Parliament, Members of Legislative
Assembly and Political Organizers.
The issue of work-life balance has become a significant issue for Indian women, as in the West.
The issues related with lack of freedom of women still persist:
 The stereotypical roles of man being the ‘breadwinner’ and woman the ‘nurturer’ are
perpetuated. In the upper and upper middle classes, certain changes are observable. There is
‘superficial emancipation’ as women are choosing clothes that are in tune with the latest in
the world of fashion. Still marriage and motherhood are considered to be the most important
goals and all decisions have to be in consonance with these.
 In the upper middle class, parents lay emphasis on their daughters excelling in their studies
just as they would wish their sons to. However, emphasis is not laid on higher education as
that is taken to be a hindrance in getting good matrimonial matches. A harmonious marital
relationship is seen to be dependent on women occupying a sub-ordinate status to men.
 In the lower middle class, also, women appear to have limited choices in the sphere of
education. Education is considered important in order to enable them to be better wives and
mothers. Significantly, most women are gainfully employed but they are compelled to join
the work force to meet the economic needs of the family. Women are essentially expected to
remain within the domains of their households and cater to the needs of their families.
The social, economic and political trends underpinning Indian women’s role and status have been
following broadly similar trajectories to those of the West, actual transformations on the ground
have assumed a culturally nuanced ‘selectivity’.
ROLE CONFLICT Leading to Stress in the System and Individuals
 In general, role conflict is a situation where an individual cannot properly enact two (or more)
roles at the same time without facing problems. The word “properly”, in this context has two
meanings.
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 The first is that the expectations associated with the role are successfully achieved. The
second is that the enactment of the role provides the role’s incumbent with happiness and
fulfilment.
 Role conflict between work and family: - a situation where the roles that a woman has at
work cannot be properly enacted because of the roles she has at home; - a situation where the
roles that a woman has at home cannot be properly enacted because of the roles she has at
work.
 Traditional Values- The first obstacle that women meet is that traditional values continue to
shape the division of labour at home and women are still expected to fulfil traditional roles
within the private sector. However, even if roles are slowly changing, women remain in
charge of most of the childcare and household responsibilities.
 The huge difference is that nowadays women work and those household activities can be
considered as an exhausting “second shift” (Friedman, 2000). Therefore, the fact that women
still have very intensive and time-consuming family roles while they also have roles at work
to fulfil seems to be one cause of role conflict.
 Guilt- women feel guilty if they spend time on their own leisure, because they feel more
responsible for the welfare of their family. Therefore, when a particular task either at work
or home may be pleasurable, guilt will occur and consequently both family and work roles
will suffer.
Conclusion
 Multiple roles, pressure from both work and family are just a few things that women have to
juggle to do what they need to do to survive in this society. In the end, what comes their way
is more advice, to ‘find the right balance’ between their roles to live a peaceful life. While
some are lucky enough to find that balance, while others succumb to the pressure.
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(e) Discuss the growth of religious sects in India. (10 Marks)

Structure
 Explain sects
 Reason for growth of sects in India
 Contemporary scenario
 Criticism
 Conclusion
Defining Sects
 Stark and Bainbridge Sects are formed as an offshoot of existing religion as a result of
division or schism within that religion. Sects can be seen as a possible response to relative
deprivation.
 Ray Wallis defined sects as deviant groups that see themselves as uniquely legitimate.
 Ray Wallis People seek salvation in the sense-of-community offered by sects. For example,
in early 1916 the Black Muslim sect provided a possible solution to the problem of poverty
and unemployment in broken family.
 Max Weber- Sects are most likely to form within groups which are marginal in society and
this marginalization is justified through “theodicy of disprivilege” where theodicy means a
religious explanation (When marginalized stand up against religious explanations justifying
their marginalization)
Reasons for the growth of sects in India
The Sect takes birth in protest and rebellion. Its relation with the political authority may or may not
be smooth. If rebellious, the Sect may be prosecuted.
There are various reasons behind their rise in India:
 Culture- In our culture, „gurus‟ have always been given position of „middlemen‟, the ones
who connect us to God.
 Modernity- Due to the rapidly changing society and a fast-paced life, stress levels in
everyone‟s lives has increased tremendously. In this rapidly changing modern society, these
Godmen make promises of „stability‟
 Illiteracy- A large number of people in our country is illiterate. And Illiteracy adds to the
ease of persuasion and high level of illiteracy adds to the number of followers these Godmen
have.
 Caste Inequality- Castes that are not treated equally dive into the world of Sects where they
are promised equality. So, one of the causes is resentment against the social institutions. Here,
a sect is an expression of social justice.
 Poverty- The poor in our country join sects as they are promised “free lunches” which not
just includes food, but also, education, health and medicines, and even sports facilities.
 Political Patronage- Owing to vote bank politics. Sects survive as there is no political
interference by to keep their vote bank safe.
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 Technology- Challenging mainstream religion is becoming easier because of information and
communication technology.
 Failure of State- When the state fails to provide its people with the basic necessities namely
food, education and health, that vacuum is filled by Sects.
 Changing family structure- The rapidly changing family structure causes unprecedented
stress levels. And people seek solace in sects.
 Media- With the presence of Godmen on various TV channels, media has given sects a
consumerist perspective.
Contemporary scenario in India
 Geoffrey Parringer wrote in in “World Religions”: "The Hindu sects rise like small islands,
giving structural relief to the vast ocean of Hinduism."
 The sect as a sociological ideal type is to be understood as embodiment and expression of
rejection of some significant aspect of secular life. It represents a protest against compromise
with society and its values and the institutional development of church itself as an aspect of
this accommodation.
Examples
Examples of sects or sub-sects which are a religious denomination:
 Vaishnavism and Shaivism sects in Hinduism.
 Ramakrishna Math or Ramakrishna Mission.
 Shia, Hanafi and Chishti sects in Mohammedan law.  Ananda Marg.
Examples of sects or sub-sects which are not a religious denomination:
 Aurobindo Society.
 Followers of Ayyappa
In contemporary times Arya Samaj, Dera Sacha Sauda etc. are the examples of increasing religious
organisations. These religious organisations have been considered by various scholars as a
manifestation of religious revivalism in contemporary times. These types of organisations have
survived for a long because of homogeneity in a class of people. Sects can be short lived as well.
Criticism
 Reinhold Niebuhr- Sects could be short lived or could convert into dominant or full-fledged
religion depending upon the prevailing social condition.
 Its extreme teachings and rejection of the wider society no longer fit the social situation of its
membership. If a large number of sects develop in response to major religions it may lead to
conflict and religious intolerance.
 There have also been cases of religious violence that are related to sects.
Conclusion
 A sect encompasses not the whole but a part of a society. Attaining identity easily, it tends to
provide a sense of greater self-esteem to its members and, thus, it derives its relevance. The
greater the rebellion, the greater the criticism, the more is the sect‟s self-esteem and inner
unity. Persecution of a rebellious sect enhances its self-esteem and inner unity.
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 Sects will exist as long as there are social classes with the pronounced consciousness of
differences and likeness. They will disappear when the social homogeneity of our people
shall extend not only to blood but to those subtler elements of likeness - thought, feeling, and
volition, through community of interest and equality of opportunity.
EXTRA
Rise of Sects
 Sects tend to arise during a period of rapid social change. In this situation traditional norms
are disrupted and traditional universe of meaning is undermined. A sect takes birth in protest
and rebellion. Its relation with political authority may or may not be smooth. If rebellious,
the sect may be prosecuted.
 Weber says that the masses look upon the gurus as living saviours, magical helpers in need
and objects of worship, not as rational religious teachers and that even when the intellectual
content of the religious teaching is communicated to the masses it is other worldly.
o Political and intellectual factors bearing upon the origin of sects – State of economic
development has influenced on the development of the religious sects. Sects originate
also in times of sudden change in the exercise of political power. So, as long as political
conditions remain static, disturbances are not likely to occur. The sudden increase of
the exercise of political prerogative may be due to a desire for uniformity of belief,
thought and action consequent upon a growing national spirit.
o Sects originated generally in the lower caste and class which have been shut out from
any part in socialising process.
While their origin is due to a sense of injustice, so far as they are organised they may represent an
effort to provide an agency for accomplishing the field necessity of socialization. These classes are
not represented in the state as it exists, consequently, they organise themselves so as to be able to
deal as classes with the upper classes. E.g. – In India, a section of population has been disprivileged
and hence a lower status has been sanctioned. So, there has been a sense of discontentment and
people believed in sects which provided them sense of belongingness and integration with the
society.
 Religious sects will arise only when religion is the dominant interest. When political interests
pre-dominate, political parties will spring up. Or, if cultural interest is dominant, schools of
thoughts are formed. Movements of Sikhism, Jainism and bhakti movements have benefited
from generalised religious tolerance and have played a full part in Indian public life.
 Another element entering into the rise of religious sect is the eccentric man. Leaders have
ever been indispensable to the formation of parties and sects. The leader gives expression to
the failed sense of wrong, injustice, and oppression which is his fellows‟ field but have not
yet expressed.
 Ratzenhofer points out that “the sect only arises when intellectually influential individuals
attain to a more or less definite answer to religious questions and elaborate formulas of faith
which are enacted through rituals. The sect is a means of social union and of political
purpose.” E.g. – Kabir.
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Question 2.
(a) Analyse A.R. Desai’s views on India’s path of development. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Brief introduction about A.R. Desai approach
 Stages of development
1. Pre-colonial
2. Colonial
3. Post-colonial
 Criticism of Desai’s approach
 Significance of Desai’s approach
A.R. Desai was the pioneer Marxist in Indian sociological tradition who introduced Marxist
approach with empirical field studies. Influenced by Marx, he applied the historical dialectical
approach Desai looked into the macro changes in Indian society like capitalism, nationalism,
emergence of new classes and changes in class structure, peasant movements etc.
In his work State and Society in India and India’s Path of Development: A Marxist Approach, he looked
into the development of India from a pre-capitalist industrial economy to a capitalist economy. He
looked into the political and economic changes in Indian society through history based on the modes
of production.
He looked into three stages in Indian society namely; Pre-colonial stage, Colonial stage and Post-
colonial stage.
Pre-colonial Stage
 He theorised the Pre-colonial Stage in India as one of villages, where each village had a simple
living and dependency over the agricultural land where production was done for direct
consumption.
 Despite the differences of castes, the villages were self-sufficient. Lower castes were mainly
engaged to in manufacturing commodities and the buyers were mainly upper castes who
were also the owner of the fertile land.
 According to him pre-colonial India was a feudal system, as all the rulers till British were
mainly interested in controlling political power and hardly any attempt to evict indigenous
people from the land.
Colonial Stage
 Further in the Colonial Stage, the new Zamindari system was introduced because of the
absentee landlords, big and small landlords, tenants, peasants, moneylenders etc. which
intensified the exploitation in rural India.
 The colonial government introduced different centralised laws, modern education, railway,
modern industry that brought in many socio-economic changes in the urban areas in Indian
society.
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 He noted that the new gratifications to find the government jobs in colonial India that were
to be loyal to the colonial government led to the emergence of the new middle class in India.
 Colonial government then, played a huge role in the development and sustenance of new
polarisation of class structure both in urban and rural India.
Post-Colonial Stage
 In the Post-Colonial Stage Desai reflected on the newly independent India and its
development planning and the welfare public policies.
 He noted that the policies like Green Revolution gave rise to petty bourgeois in rural India.
Moreover, he argued rural cooperatives; Panchayati raj institutions have offered legitimacy
to traditional dominant caste hegemony over modern institutions.
 He analysed that state emerged as a supporter of the capitalists and not as the saviour of the
exploited class as portrayed in the welfare policies.
 For him, the development was the development of the propertied class in India.
 Desai anticipated that the people’s movement would lead to the coming of socialist age where
the class struggles would no longer be the challenge in India.
Criticisms of Desai’s views on India’s path of Development

 M.N. Srinivas critically looked into Desai’s views on the breakdown of Naxalite movement
and added that it happened in West Bengal when communist party was in power,
questioning the glorification of socialism.
 S.C Dubey in his work Community Development pointed out how community development
programmes and policies led to deeper structural changed in rural India.
 M.S. Gore in his work Public Policies and Social Development argued that different public
policies and developmental programmes have differential results in different parts of India,
which questions the empirical grounds of Desai’s concluding remarks.
 Desai's sociological aim remained essentially ideological and political, centred on arguments
inside the mainstream communist movement and, in particular, the question of how to
achieve a capitalist or socialist revolution.
 His work has also been critiqued for lacking a theoretical framework for assessing and
examining the junction of class and caste, as well as its relationships with gender, ethnicity,
and language.
Significance of Desai’s Approach
 Yogendra Singh noted Desai’s sociological view point as the basis of modern Indian
sociological thought.
 He brought in the Marxist perspective to study the emerging classes in India and their
intersectionality with the existing caste structure. He analysed the role of state as playing a
responsible factor in perpetuating and sustaining the ruling class in India’s path of
Development throughout the three states of pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial.
288
(b) Examine sociological dynamics of Champaran Peasant Movement in

colonial India. (20 marks)
Approach
 Briefly talk about Champaran Movement and participation of Gandhi.
 Mention the cause of the Champaran Movement.
 Briefly talk about the course of movement.
 Explain the sociological dynamics of Champaran Peasant Movement
 Provide limitations of the Champaran Peasant Movement.
Solution
The Champaran Peasant Movement in colonial India, which took place from 1917-18, holds
significant sociological dynamics. Led by prominent leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi, Rajendra
Prasad, Brijkishore Prasad, and Muzharul Haq, the movement aimed to create awareness among
peasants against the oppressive European planters and landlords.
Causes:
The causes of the movement included increased land rent, restrictions on cultivation (peasants
were obliged to grow indigo), forced crop allocation, poor wages, and dire living conditions, all of
which contributed to the subjugation and suffering of the Champaran peasantry.
Course of the Movement:
The course of events leading to the movement involved the engagement of the intelligentsia,
discussions at conferences and congress sessions, and the recommendation for an inquiry committee
to assess the plight of the peasants. In May 1917, Gandhi wrote a letter expressing his concern for
the freedom of the peasants from landlords and the government, seeking to improve their relations.
The movement faced severe oppression, with the British government employing brutal methods,
including torture and violence, to suppress the peasants' resistance. However, despite the hardships
endured, the Champaran Peasant Movement achieved significant outcomes including the
enactment of the Champaran Agrarian Act that abolished the forcible cultivation of indigo on the
land of farmers
Sociological dynamics of Champaran Peasant Movement:
1. Power Dynamics and Exploitation: The Champaran Peasant Movement sheds light on the
power dynamics between the European planters, landlords, and the peasantry. The European
planters and landlords held economic and political power, exploiting the peasants through
exorbitant land rent, forced cultivation of indigo, and meager wages.
2. Role of Intelligential: The movement witnessed the participation of notable leaders such as
Gandhi, Rajendra Prasad, Brijkishore Prasad, and Muzharul Haq. Their presence provided
strength and direction to the movement, as they actively engaged with the peasants, studied
their grievances, and advocated for their rights. The intelligentsia played a crucial role in
leading and organizing the movement.
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3. Role of Non-violence and Satyagraha: The Champaran Peasant Movement also exemplifies
the sociological significance of non-violence and satyagraha as methods of resistance.
Mahatma Gandhi introduced these principles during the movement, emphasizing the power
of peaceful protest and civil disobedience. The adoption of non-violent strategies allowed the
peasantry to challenge oppressive systems while maintaining moral high ground and
garnering support from various sections of society.
4. Nationalism: The movement had broader implications in terms of the development of
nationalism. It created awareness among the peasantry about their rights, fostering a sense
of unity and solidarity. The movement served as a catalyst for political consciousness and
mobilization, contributing to the larger national movement for independence from colonial
rule.
5. Religious and Caste solidarity: The agitators were united in their opposition to the European
planters irrespective of caste, creed and religion. Muslims took an oath of loyalty on the
Quran; the Hindus did so before their idols, cows and under the sacred peepal trees.
Limitations:
Some scholars expressed reservations about considering the Champaran movement as a success.
They argued that the movement failed to effectively address the exploitation and discrimination
endured by the peasants. According to Ramesh Chandra Dutt, the settlements reached between the
government and the peasants did not adequately address the exploitation by landlords, and the
agitation led by Mahatma Gandhi in Champaran did not confront the root causes of poverty and
suffering, such as excessive rents and overwhelming debts. It is noteworthy that both Gandhi and
Rajendra Prasad did not explicitly address the issues related to the oppressive zamindari system.
Despite limitations the Champaran Satyagraha holds immense significance as it marked Mahatma
Gandhi's first experiment with non-violent resistance in India and set a precedent for future
movements. By mobilizing the peasantry and challenging oppressive systems, it laid the foundation
for the larger non-violent struggle for independence from colonial rule.
290
(c) How do the recommendations of Swaminathan Commissions (2004-2006)

ensure food and nutrition security for the Indian masses? (10 Marks)
Structure
 Introduction
 Recommendations of Swaminathan commission
 How they ensure food and nutrition security
 Conclusion.
Introduction
 The National Commission on Farmers was constituted in 2004, by the government of India
to address agricultural distress and to turnIndian agriculture into a sustainable venture.
The commission was formed under the chairmanship of Professor M.S. Swaminathan.
The Swaminathan Commission identified certain causes for farm distress. These are:
 Unfinished agenda in land reform
 Quantity and quality of water
 Technology fatigue
 Access, adequacy and timeliness of institutional credit
 Opportunities for assured and remunerative marketing
 Adverse meteorological factors aggravating these problems
The commission concluded that farmers needed to have assured access and control over basic
resources including land, water, bio- resources, credit and insurance, technology and
knowledge management, and markets.
Important Recommendations of Swaminathan commission
 Land Reforms – To distribute ceiling surplus and waste landsand to prevent diversion
of prime agricultural land and forest for non-agricultural purposes. Grazing rights and
to ensure seasonal access of forest to tribals and pastoralists, and access to common
property resources. National land use advisoryservice should be used to link land use
decisions with ecological, meteorological and marketing factors.
 Irrigation – increasing water supply through rainwater harvesting and making recharge
of the aquifer mandatory. “Million wells recharge” program specifically targeted at
private wells should be launched and substantial increase in investment in the irrigation
sector.
 Productivity – As per unit area productivity of Indian agriculture is much lower than
other major crop producing countries. A national network of advanced soil testing
laboratories with facilities for detection of micronutrient deficiencies was recommended.
 Credit and Insurance – expanding outreach of the formal credit system and reducing
the rate of interest for crop loans with the government support, establishing an
agriculture risk fund to provide relief to farmers in aftermath of successive natural
calamities and to cover all crops by crop insurance with the village and not block as the
unit for assessment.
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 Farmer’s suicides – State level farmers‟ commission withrepresentation of farmers for
ensuring dynamic government response to farmers‟ problems. Low risk and low cost
technologies to provide maximum income to farmers to cope with the shock of crop
failures, price stabilization fund in placeto protect the farmers from price fluctuations.
Village knowledge centers to serve as guidance centers on all aspects of agricultural and
non-farm livelihoods. Public awareness campaigns to make people identify early signs
of suicide behavior.
 Agricultural competitiveness – Promotion of commodity-based farmers‟ organizations
such as small cotton farmers‟ estates. This is will combine decentralized production with
centralized government services for leveraging institutionalsupport and facilitating direct
farmer-consumer linkage. State Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee Acts [APMC
Acts] should work for the development of domestic and international markets for local
produce and move towards a Single Indian Market.
 Employment - Despite structural change in the workforce,agriculture still provides the
bulk of employment in the rural areas of India. Creating productive employment
opportunitiesand improving the quality of employment in several sectors such that real
wages rise through improved productivity. The "net take home income" of farmers
should be comparable to those of civil servants. Emphasizing on relatively more labour-
intensive sectors. Encouraging non-farm employment opportunities by developing
sectors and sub-sectors.
How does it Ensure food and nutrition security for the Indianmasses?
The report recommends to:
 Implement a universal public distribution system. The NCF pointed out that the total subsidy
required for this would be one per cent of the Gross Domestic Product.
 Reorganise the delivery of nutrition support programmes on a life-cycle basis with the
participation of Panchayats and local bodies.
 Eliminate micronutrient deficiency induced hidden hunger through an integrated food cum
fortification approach.
 Promote the establishment of Community Food and Water Banks operated by Women Self-
help Groups (SHG), based on the principle „Store Grain and Water everywhere'.
 Help small and marginal farmers to improve the productivity, quality and profitability of
farm enterprises and organize a Rural Non-Farm Livelihood Initiative.
 Formulate a National Food Guarantee Act continuing the useful features of the Food for
Work and Employment Guarantee programmes. By increasing demand for foodgrains as a
result of increased consumption by the poor, the economic conditions essential for further
agricultural progress can be created.
Shortcomings of the Report
 In one point the report complains lack of farm mechanisation in India and it is
important for global competitiveness. But in another point it stress increase labour
utilization to reduce unemployment. It is a major contradiction.
 Growing urbanisation and losses in agriculture make itlucrative for a farmer to sell his
land for a non-agricultural purpose, bringing him windfall gains and thereby reducing
the pressure on agriculture. 
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NPF proposes to put restrictions on the use of agricultural land for non-agricultural
purposes.
 It advocates to set up a corporation for livestock feed and fodder. But such corporations
have been set up by the centreas well as several state governments for various purposes
and none has done its job successfully and none has a clean record vis-à-vis corruption. Then
why set up another corporation? Instead there is a need to make rearing of farm animals
more remunerative by removing restrictions and allowing free trade.
 NPF talks about food security in this section but does not talk about leakages in the
present public distribution system. Without plugging the holes in the present system,
how canany security be provided to poor people?
 Swaminathan Commission‟s report fails to balance the price gap between the increase
in the MSP and the cost of feeding the Indian population, which is highly middle- and
lower class.
 Loan waivers which were earlier viewed as extraordinarymeasures only to be adopted in
cases of extreme emergency have now become a norm. While it provides only a temporary
relief to the farmers, it has ensured political benefits to the ruling parties. Farm loan waivers
are posing a bigger burdenon the government exchequer compared to what higher pay
for farm produce will incur.
 Growing urbanisation and losses in agriculture make itlucrative for a farmer to sell his
land for a non-agricultural purpose, bringing him windfall gains and thereby reducing
the pressure on agriculture. NPF proposes to put restrictions on the use of agricultural
land for non-agricultural purposes.
 It advocates to set up a corporation for livestock feed and fodder. But such corporations
have been set up by the centreas well as several state governments for various purposes
and none has done its job successfully and none has a clean record vis-à-vis corruption. Then
why set up another corporation? Instead there is a need to make rearing of farm animals
more remunerative by removing restrictions and allowing free trade.
 NPF talks about food security in this section but does not talk about leakages in the
present public distribution system. Without plugging the holes in the present system,
how canany security be provided to poor people?
 Swaminathan Commission‟s report fails to balance the price gap between the increase
in the MSP and the cost of feeding the Indian population, which is highly middle- and
lower class.
 Loan waivers which were earlier viewed as extraordinarymeasures only to be adopted in
cases of extreme emergency have now become a norm. While it provides only a temporary
relief to the farmers, it has ensured political benefits to the ruling parties.
 Farm loan waivers are posing a bigger burdenon the government exchequer compared
to what higher pay for farm produce will incur.
This is a link for a video which has previously been discussed. Ittalks
about Swaminathan report but from GS perspective.
https://youtu.be/cpH_bhYI3U8
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Question 3.
(a) What do you understand by discrete castes and muddled hierarchies?
Substantiate your answer with suitable illustrations. (20 Marks)
STRUCTURE
 Discrete caste and mudlled hierarchies.
 Why hierarchies are mudlled in discrete caste
 Counter angle.
Conclusion
 Discrete castes in simplest terms means separate castes. As per textual view, Caste system
consists of main 4 castes - Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, shudra and untouchable (a varna)
are believed to be out of varna system.
 From this textual perspective it is clear that castes are discrete or separate from each other
(separation because of inter caste marriage, food hierarchy, occupation etc.). Indologists like
G.S Ghurye puts forward this view.
 As per textual view discrete castes results in clear hierarchies, some believe hierarchies are
horizontal in nature (functionalist perspective), while other hold a view that hierarchies are
vertical in nature (conflict perspective)
 But as per contextual view or field studies - Hierarchies are present but they are in DISODER
or say they are in muddled form. Hierarchies in caste system is not crystal clear. (Hence caste
is dynamic system)
WHY HIERARCHIES ARE MUDDLED EVEN IN PRESENCE OF DISCRETE CASTES -
 Castes -> sub - castes -> gotras - This increasing division simply led to muddled hierarchies
at different level.
o As per M.S. Srinivas, there are 4 varnas and 1000s of caste groups present in India, so
India is to be study from the perspective of caste rather than varna.
 Sanskritization - (concept given by M.N. Srinivas) and de Sanskritization (concept given by
D.N Majumdar) - shows how hierarchies are changing since ancient times the whole process
resulted in muddled hierarchies.
o ex - Yadav become vanshi kashtriyas, chauhans become rajputs etc.
 Dominant castes' idea of M.N. Srinivas also highlight same thing. it shows how one caste
(which possess land, strength, jobs in administration, urban source of income, western
education etc) breaks the rigidity of varna system.
o ex jats in haryana and jatts in Punjab.
 State's sponsorship - it results in social, political and economic upliftment of lower castes.it
led to changes in local caste hierarchies.
o ex - reservation in educational institutes and jobs, article 17, MGNREGA etc.
 Westernization and modernization (urban area specific)-it led to same way of life,
irrespective of caste.
o ex - Boys of every caste are generally wearing jeans in college.
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Inter caste marriages are common (even encouraged by law) so all this is leading to mixed up
hierarchies.
 Occupations (urban area specific) - Firstly there is huge difference between deemed
occupation and actual occupation. (Textual view vs contextual view)
Nowadays many new occupations are out in the market like artists, cab drivers, sportsperson
etc, it means occupational hierarchies are changing and it results in muddled hierarchies in
Indian society.
 caste-tribe continuum - given by ghurye, it shows how tribals’ (backward Hindus as
described by ghurye) entry into caste system changed the hierarchies as well as whole
structure of caste system.
 Dalit and tribal elites’ concept - also provided a new hierarchical structure to caste system.
o ex- politicians, businessmen (from backward communities) are not backward in hierarchy
anymore.
 • Class - caste nexus - nowadays class become major source of stratification. class - caste
nexus results in muddled hierarchies.
 ex -A person from upper class but from lower caste - will hold top position in hierarchy in
urban situation but a same person might lose his top position in rural setting.
DISCRETE CASTES AND CLEAR HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM IS ALSO VISIBLE: -
 Textual view - As per textual view castes system and its hierarchical structure is crystal clear.
(As shown by early Indologists)
 In ancient times or may be in rural setting - where occupation mobility is very low, chances
are high for a clear hierarchical system.
 Bottom of hierarchies - There might be muddled hierarchies inside caste system but majority
of untouchables (Dalits) are still living the life as marginalised. this end of hierarchies is least
impacted from all the above written developments (Sanskritization, dominant caste, class-
caste nexus etc)
o ex - still involved in occupations like manual scavenging, collecting garbage etc.
CONCLUSION:
As described by M.N.Srinivas, caste system is not static rather it is a dynamic system that‘s why
one need dynamic and multiple approaches to study caste system in proper manner.
295
(b) Discuss development induced displacement in the context of tribal

uprising in India. Substantiate your answer with any one detailed
illustration from India. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Define development induced displacement.
 Mention the factor responsible for development induced displacement.
 Briefly talk about the impact of development induced displacement on tribals.
 Discuss relationship between development induced displacement and tribal uprising.
 Give an example of the development induced displacement and tribal uprising.
Solution
Development-induced displacement refers to the forced displacement of communities due to
development projects. As sociologist Walter Fernandes has documented, no fewer than 40% of
those displaced by development projects are tribals, although they constitute only 8% of the
population.
Factors:
Development-induced displacement can be caused by various factors such as construction of dams,
highways, industrial projects, urbanization, mining activities, and tourism development. These
projects often require large areas of land, which can lead to the displacement of people who rely on
that land for their livelihoods. Additionally, government policies and land acquisition laws can also
contribute to development-induced displacement.
Impact of Development-Induced Displacement:
Development-induced displacement significantly impacts tribal communities, leading to the
conversion of self-cultivators into landless laborers, loss of common property resources,
disruption of social networks, reduced access to basic services, and psychological distress. This
further marginalizes and excludes tribal communities from mainstream development, exacerbating
their socio-economic vulnerability.
Development-Induced Displacement and Tribal Uprisings:
Tribal uprisings in India often emerge as a result of the injustices and grievances caused by
development-induced displacement. Displaced tribal communities, facing the loss of their ancestral
lands and resources, mobilize to protect their rights, demand fair compensation, and seek justice.
Uprisings may involve protests, demonstrations, blockades, and legal battles, aimed at highlighting
the adverse impacts of displacement and advocating for the rights of tribal communities.
The Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) Movement:
The NBA movement, one of the most significant social movements in India, protested against the
Sardar Sarovar Dam project on the Narmada River. The dam construction led to the displacement
of thousands of tribal communities from Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
296
The NBA movement, spearheaded by Medha Patkar, fought for the rights of displaced tribal
communities, demanding proper rehabilitation, just compensation, and recognition of their rights
over their ancestral lands. The movement utilized various strategies, including non-violent
protests, hunger strikes, and legal battles, to raise awareness about the adverse impacts of
displacement and to challenge the government's approach to development.
Despite having adequate laws like Forest Rights Act 2006, Land Acquisition Act 2013, Panchayats
(Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act 1996 for empowering and providing rights to tribals; issues
related to land conflict, rehabilitation and resettlement still persist. For example: Protest of Dongria
kondh tribes against Bauxite mining in Niyamgiri hills, Odisha.
Development-induced displacement poses significant challenges to tribal communities in India,
leading to social unrest and uprisings. Efforts should be made to ensure that development initiatives
are carried out with proper consultation, consent, and fair compensation for the affected
communities, promoting sustainable and inclusive development.
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(c) Illustrate the importance of ‘Kanyadan’ and ‘Kulabadhu’ in changing

institutions of marriage and family. (10 Marks)
Answer:
Family, as defined by Murdock, is a ‘social group characterised by common residence, economic
co-operation, and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually
cohabiting adults.’
Marriage is considered as an institution that is universal and defines human society. It saves the
society from being promiscuous and random. Its definition and importance as a practical and logical
set up to function as a seed of family is undeniable and is considered absolute, but the challenge lies
in realizing the relevance of marriage in the current setting of Hindu society and culture and its
undisputed continuance.
Hindu marriage, with its rituals and ceremonies of the vedic age, was relevant in the social
circumstances of those times. Girls were married off before attaining puberty, and hence the ritual
gained its name Kanyadan. The responsibility of a girl was completely transferred to the family she
was married into and as the couple used to have many children, there was moral, social and
economic balance within the families.
Similarly, the concept of Kulabadhu, which means the bride of the lineage has undergone a change
after the institution of marriage and family changed with the evolution of nuclear families which
have diluted its concept. This concept has ascribed some roles that a woman has to perform in
conformity to the culture she has been born into. She is entitled to bear the burden of family honor.
This leads to-
 Dual burden- She has to perform household activities despite working outside.
 Pink collarisation- As she has to carry the family honour, she can work only in select few
sectors where her mobility can be controlled.
 Endogamy
But in modern times there has been a fundamental change in the institution of family and marriage
such as
1. Principle of Egalitarianism- Women is being treated as an object or resource which is being
shifted to the husband and this concept is rejected by today’s women who are equal to men
in all aspects.
2. Emergence of Neolocal families from earlier Patrilocal families-
3. Self-selection of spouse and increasing advent of love marriages
4. Secularization of marriages-increasing number of court marriages rather than being
solemnized by the priest.
5. Individualism and achievement-oriented outlook of women.
6. Sexual division of labour and gender stereotyping of roles have taken a hit- You can see
women in army and men doing care work.
7. Increased awareness about the coparcenary rights in women.
All these factors have led to decreasing relevance of kanyadan and kulbadhu in modern industrial
world.
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Recently an IAS officer refused to perform the ritual of kanyadan on her marriage for which she had
to face backlash from many sections of the society. But it also has started the struggle for a new
beginning where the women have started to stand for the oppression which though not manifest is
present at latent level. Women are also talking about the concept of putradaan. In today’s world
where both men and women are working shoulder to shoulder, these rituals though cannot be
totally done away with but still need some amendment.
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Question 4.
(a) How has the New Economic Policy (1991) affected the lifestyle and life
changed in new middle class in India. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Explain in brief New Economic Policy of 1991.
 Discuss economic changes in the life of New Middle Class.
 Discuss social changes in the life of New Middle Class.
 Discuss cultural changes in the life of New Middle Class.
 Discuss the negative impact of New Economic Policies.
Solution
New Economic Policy of 1991 refers to economic liberalisation or relaxation in the import tariffs,
deregulation of markets or opening the markets for private and foreign players, and reduction of
taxes to expand the economic wings of the country. The policy implemented significant economic
reforms and liberalization measures in India, aiming to boost economic growth, attract foreign
investment, and integrate the country into the global economy. This policy had far-reaching effects
on various segments of society, including the emerging new middle class.
This new middle class, which comprised of professionals, entrepreneurs, and white-collar
workers, experienced notable changes in their lifestyle and life patterns as a result of the policy.
Economic Changes:
The New Economic Policy brought about increased job opportunities, industrial growth, and
globalization, which had a direct impact on the income levels and financial well-being of the new
middle class. Sectors like information technology, finance, and services expanded, resulting in
higher salaries and improved career prospects. The policy also led to the growth of a consumer-
driven economy, reshaping consumption patterns and encouraging discretionary spending among
the new middle class.
Social Changes:
The new middle class experienced significant social transformations due to the New Economic
Policy. The rise of a consumerist culture driven by media, advertising, and global influences played
a central role. Western lifestyles, fashion, and trends gained prominence, influencing social norms
and values. Sociologist Jeffrey C. Alexander highlighted the new middle class's ability to engage in
the consumption of globally recognized iconic objects as a distinctive characteristic.
Cultural Changes:
Cultural values and identities within the new middle class underwent shifts as a result of the New
Economic Policy. Dipankar Gupta suggests that the policy reforms have brought about shifts in
their lifestyles, leading to a growing desire for material possessions and a redefinition of social
status. The new middle class embraced elements of Western culture, including food, entertainment,
and social practices, while also maintaining the significance of traditional values for many
individuals.
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Challenges:
While the New Economic Policy brought prosperity and opportunities, it also gave rise to income
disparities, social stratification, and the dilution of traditional values. The pressure to maintain a
certain lifestyle strained social relationships and resulted in work-life imbalance. Ashish Nandy
emphasized that the policy's emphasis on competitiveness and achievement within the middle class
promoted a culture of material success, which sometimes overshadowed traditional values and
collective identities.
Overall, the New Economic Policy had a multifaceted impact on the new middle class, reflecting the
interplay of economic, social, and cultural factors in shaping their lives.
301
b) Write a critical narrative on the concerns of religious minorities in India.

(20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by defining Minorities in general and in Indian context.
 Discuss the concerns faced by religious minorities in India.
 Provide some measures taken to deal with the issues.
Solution
The Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities described a
minority group as one that is numerically inferior to the rest of the population and in a non-
dominant position. The Indian Constitution lacks clear criteria to define minority status. In 1992, the
National Commission for Minorities Act allowed the government to decide minority status, which
included Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Parsis, and Jains.
Concerns faced by Religious Minorities:
While the Constitution of India recognizes the importance of minority rights and upholds
secularism, religious minorities continue to face numerous challenges and obstacles.
1. Identification and Recognition: The definition and recognition of religious minority
communities in India remain ambiguous. The Constitution recognizes two types of
minorities based on language and religion, but the statistical criterion often becomes the
determining factor, overlooking the nuanced experiences and identities of these
communities.
2. Marginalization and Discrimination: Religious minorities, especially the Muslim
community, face perceived marginalization and exclusion. They lag behind a great deal in
human development parameter. They also face challenges of stereotyping and ghettoization
and lack of representation in power.
3. Lack of Social reform: The alleged "appeasement" of fundamentalist fringes within the
Muslim community has resulted in lack of social reform. This has created legal barriers, such
as Muslim divorced women being barred from seeking maintenance and restrictions on
Muslim parents' ability to adopt orphaned children.
4. Stereotyping and Stigmatization: Markers of Muslim identity, such as beards, burqas, or
hijabs, often attract suspicion and derision in public spaces due to the cultivation of the image
of "Muslim fundamentalist" in common consciousness. This leads to social prejudices and
challenges in religious minorities' day-to-day lives.
5. Communal Violence and Insecurity: Religious minorities, particularly Muslims, frequently
experience recurring insecurity due to devastating episodes of mass communal violence. The
perpetrators often enjoy impunity, creating a culture of fear among Muslims, who live with
the tragic certainty that violence may recur. This has led to the formation of poorly serviced
segregated ghettos, as Muslims seek safety in numbers and face barriers in finding housing
in mixed settlements.
6. Educational and Economic Disparities: The Sachar Committee Report highlights the deficits
and deprivation faced by the Muslim community in various aspects of development.
Muslims have lower school enrollments and higher dropout rates, particularly among boys,
which cannot be attributed solely to religious conservatism. Muslims also face challenges in
the employment market due to the decline of traditional occupations and limited
representation in sectors undergoing economic liberalization.
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7. Concerns of Other Religious Minorities: While concerns may vary across different religious
minority communities such as -
a. Christians: Religious conversions have assumed a very sensitive form in India and
missionaries are often alleged of forced conversions and are subjected to attack.
Despite discrimination against the Dalit Christians, they do not have provision for
reservation like the Buddhist or Sikh Dalits.
b. Sikhs: The sex ratio among Sikhs is poor despite relatively high affluence of the
community. The Khalistan movement has also led to tension in the community and
increased the suspicion between the state and the community.
c. Parsis: They are the most affluent minority community. However, the 2011 census
found that the population of Parsis have declined by 18% to 57,264 in a decade,
virtually reducing them to the status of urban tribes.
Jagganath Pathy has identified four dimensions of problems related to religious minorities, which
include subordination in terms of physical and economic power; deprivation in terms of material
resources, employment, and education; inferiority where the majority culture is celebrated; and
distinctiveness which is often visibly apparent.
Measures taken by State:
The state has taken several measures to deal with the problems of religious minorities in India, some
of which include:
1. The Indian Constitution recognizes the right of religious and linguistic minorities to establish
and administer educational institutions of their choice.
2. The National Commission for Minorities Act was enacted in 1992 to safeguard the interests
of minorities and to empower them to promote their educational, social, and economic
development.
3. Various schemes have been introduced to promote the welfare of minorities, such as the
Prime Minister's 15-Point Programme for the Welfare of Minorities and the Multi-Sectoral
Development Programme.
4. The government has also provided financial assistance to minority students for education
through various scholarships and schemes.
5. Special courts have been set up to handle cases related to communal violence and other
crimes against minorities.
6. The government has launched campaigns to promote communal harmony and national
integration.
7. The government has also taken steps to protect the cultural heritage of minorities, such as by
preserving and restoring their religious and historical monuments.
To sum-up, the problems faced by religious minorities in India are complex and multifaceted. While
some measures have been taken by the state to address these issues, there is still much work to be
done to ensure the protection and equal treatment of all citizens regardless of their religion. It is
important for the government and society as a whole to work towards fostering a culture of
inclusion and respect for diversity to create a truly harmonious and equitable society.
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(c) Discuss the issues relating to the entitlement of transgender in Indian

society. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce with the paradox of equal rights in constitution versus issue of transgender
entitlement in Indian society.
 Briefly give historical context of discrimination faced by transgender.
 Discuss the issues relating to the entitlement of transgender.
 Provide some measures taken by State to deal with the issues.
Solution
India is widely recognized for its celebration of diversity, encompassing various cultures, creeds,
and religions. However, despite the country's legal framework treating all genders respectfully,
there remains a deep-rooted taboo surrounding transgender individuals. In Indian society, where
gender plays a significant role in judgment, the entitlement of transgender individuals is far from
secure, impeding their ability to live in peace and harmony.
Historical Context:
Transgender communities, such as hijras, jogtas, jogappas, Sakhis, and Aradhis, have existed in
India for centuries. Unfortunately, these communities face severe discrimination and sexual
harassment throughout the country on a daily basis. Despite their historical presence, dating back
nearly 4,000 years, transgender individuals were adversely affected during British colonial rule. The
passage of the Criminal Tribes Act in 1871 labeled them as criminals, causing a shift in societal
perception. Although the law was repealed in 1949, discrimination against transgender
communities persisted.
Issues relating to the entitlement of transgender
Discrimination in Education and Workplace:
The majority of transgender individuals in India face discrimination in the educational system and
the workplace. According to the 2011 census, the transgender population was approximately
490,000, with only 46% being literate—a significantly lower rate compared to the general
population's literacy rate of 74%. Despite being classified as a "disadvantaged group" under the
Right to Education Act, transgender individuals still struggle to access educational opportunities.
This lack of education further hinders their ability to secure meaningful employment. Even those
who manage to pursue education face discrimination and a lack of respect in the workplace.
Social Exclusion and Homelessness:
Transgender communities often experience social exclusion due to their limited educational and
employment opportunities. Society views them as belonging to a lower class, leading to their
marginalization. Consequently, transgender individuals suffer a blow to their self-esteem and self-
confidence, often being forced into undesirable jobs.
Furthermore, many are disowned by their families or flee abusive relationships, resulting in
homelessness and a lack of a safe and secure living environment.
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Transphobia and Psychological Stress:
In comparison to heterosexual individuals, transgender individuals in India face a higher degree of
harassment, discrimination, and intolerance from society. Due to moral, religious, and societal
beliefs, some individuals exhibit transphobia, which manifests as attacks, negativity, and
workplace harassment. Consequently, the transgender community experiences significant mental
health-related issues, including feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and insecurity, primarily due to
societal attitudes.
Right to Health:
Transgender individuals in India also face challenges in accessing adequate healthcare, which is a
fundamental right. Many healthcare providers lack knowledge and understanding of transgender-
specific healthcare needs, resulting in inadequate and often discriminatory treatment. This includes
barriers to gender-affirming treatments, hormone therapy, and access to appropriate mental
healthcare.
Lack of Legal Protection and Hate Crimes:
Transgender individuals in India do not possess the same level of legal protection as other
communities. Consequently, they become easy targets for crimes they did not commit. Hate crimes
and violence are unfortunately prevalent, with many transgender individuals falling victim to such
acts. Additionally, many police departments display insensitivity towards transgender
complaints, further exacerbating their vulnerability and reinforcing societal inefficiencies.
Recognition of Marriage:
In India, the legal framework surrounding transgender rights and marriage is complex. Prior to
2014, transgender individuals did not have the legal recognition of their gender identity, which
posed significant barriers to marriage. The recognition of transgender persons' rights as affirmed by
the Supreme Court of India in the NALSA judgment in 2014 marked a significant step forward.
The court recognized transgender individuals as a third gender and affirmed their rights to self-
identification. Despite this recognition, there are still hurdles for transgender individuals seeking
to marry.
Efforts for Protection and Equality:

India has made some strides in protecting the rights of transgender individuals through the
Transgender Persons (Protection of Rights) Act. This act aims to prevent discrimination in
healthcare, education, and employment. The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment has
launched the National Portal for Transgender Persons that will help transgenders in digitally
applying for a certificate and identity card from anywhere in the country. It has also launched
Garima Greh, a shelter home for transgender persons.
The transgender community in India faces a multitude of challenges daily. While the laws offer
some level of protection, it is the responsibility of every citizen to treat transgender equally and give
them equal respect as any other gender.
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Section B
Question 5. Write short answers, with a sociological perspective of the following
questions in about 150 words each.
(a) Elaborate the concept of constitutional morality as given by B. R.
Ambedkar. (10 Marks)
Structure
 Explain constitutional morality
 Evolution of Constitutional morality
 B.R. Ambedkar‟s concept on Constitutional morality
 Conclusion
Constitutional morality
 The doctrine of constitutional morality means adherence to noble principles enshrined in a
constitution, principle interpretation of the constitution in line with the ethos of
constitutional democracy.
 It may also be defined as adherence to core values of principles and philosophy of
constitutional democracy that extended to create egalitarian moral based society based
on social, economic and political justice.
 It specifies norms for institution to survive and a behavioral expectation that will merely not
just be the text but the soul and spirit of the constitution. It means practical percolation of
constitutional values in governance and citizen entitlement requires a sensitive state
apparatus.
 The doctrine of constitutional morality is a concept which commands and empowers the
judicial minds to interpret the constitution and its provisions in a moral way, subject to the
constitution and not to the public morality, in the recent development we get to see this
from our judiciary.
The essence of constitutionalism which provides as rigid feature and serves as a moral compass
in the interpretation and implementation of the constitution is the doctrine of constitutional
morality.
Some of its elements are Rule of Law, Individual liberty, Right to Equality, Freedom of choice
expression, Preamble, social justice, Due process of law.
Emergence
The doctrine is not new but in Indian context it is now evoked in many judgements recently. The
concept of constitutional morality was first propounded by the British Classicist named George
Grote in the 19th century in his book “A History of Greece.” In Grote‟s formulation, constitutional
morality meant:
 That all citizens would respect and adhere to the constitution.
 No one would disobey authorities acting under the constitution.
 All citizens would have the unrestrained freedom to criticize public officials acting in the
discharge of their constitutional duties.
 All Public officials would have to act within the confines of the constitution.
 All the contenders for political power would respect the constitution and know that their
rivals also respect the same.
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B.R. Ambedkar’s concept on Constitutional morality
 In Indian context, first the word Constitutional Morality was propounded by Dr. B.R.
Ambedkar on 4 November 1948 in parliamentary debate to inculcate the morality in the
constitution with its great importance and effectiveness. While addressing he quoted Grote’s
words that constitutional morality was not a “natural sentiment” and said that Indians
“Have yet to learn it”.
 According to Ambedkar, constitutional morality was not to be used by courts to invalidate
legislation or government action. He simply used Grote‟s idea as a persuasive or rhetorical
device to justify why seemingly mundane details about the administration of the government
had been in Constitution of India.
 In Ambedkar’s view, constitutional morality means
 an effective coordination between conflicting interest of different people and the administrative
cooperation to solve those issues or conflicts amicably or in friendly way as far as possible.
 The doctrine defines the nature of relationship between the State, the people as well as
political actors wherein every stakeholder is committed to Constitutionalism in public
life. In fact, constitutional morality translates to greater obligation on the part of State
authorities to conduct themselves in accordance with the Constitution, instead of
behaving like feudal overlords.
 Pratap Bhanu Mehta writes For Ambedkar, without fraternity, „equality and
liberty would be no deeper than coats of paint. ‟ Nowhere does Ambedkar make
the argument that the Constitution is about distribution of power among different castes.
Caste embodies a principle of social separation, and is, to use his phrase, „anti-national‟. It
ensures that the relationship between groups is perpetually competitive. A
constitutional morality, by contrast, requires both these features – abstraction and
agreement or cooperation. It requires the presumption that we are equal. However, that
equality is possible only when for constitutional purposes our caste identities do not matter.
Constitutional morality requires the sense that despite all differences we are part of a
common deliberative enterprise.
Conclusion
 Dynamism of constitutional morality has to be understood in proper perspective. It expects
the constitutional authorities to behave in accordance with constitution, similarly if there is
any kind of practice which is not in conformity then holistic application of doctrine can be
used, not in a narrower manner and it does not mean that every public policy is decided on
the ground of this doctrine. It is absolutely within the constitutional paradigm, it‟s not an
uncharted plan.
 The Constitution which embodies the will of the people is not the end in itself, rather a means
to achieve justice - social, economic and political as has been envisaged in the Preamble.
 Pratap Bhanu Mehta says the Constitution was made possible by a constitutional
morality that was liberal at its core. Not liberal in theeviscerated ideological sense, but
in the deeper virtues from which it sprang: an ability to combine individuality with
mutual regard, intellectualism with a democratic sensibility, conviction with a sense of
fallibility, deliberation with decision, ambition with a commitment to institutions, and
hope for a future with due regard for the past and present.
307
(b) Construct a sociological narrative on the increasing trend of child abuse

Approach
 Introduce by mentioning various forms of child abuse prevalent in India.
 Discuss various factors that leads to child abuse.
 Discuss the impact of child abuse.
 Briefly mention efforts taken by State to deal with the issue.
Solution
Child abuse poses a significant and increasing issue in India. It manifests in various forms, such as
physical abuse, sexual abuse, online abuse, emotional abuse, neglect, child marriage, child labor,
and child trafficking. It is worth noting that girls are particularly vulnerable to experiencing these
forms of abuse.
There are many factors which makes child abuse so prevalent in India. Some of them are as below:
Societal Context:
 Poverty: Children from impoverished families may be forced into child labor, subjected to
neglect or exploitation due to their family's financial struggles.
 Gender Inequality: Girls in some parts of India may face higher rates of child marriage,
dowry-related abuse, or restrictions on education and opportunities compared to boys.
 Caste Discrimination: Children from marginalized castes may experience abuse or
discrimination due to deeply entrenched social hierarchies and prejudices.
Structural Factors:
 Limited Resources: Child welfare agencies in certain regions of India may lack sufficient
funding and staff to effectively respond to and prevent child abuse cases.
 Systemic Issues: Inadequate coordination between institutions, such as schools, police, and
child protection services, can hinder timely intervention and support for abused children.
Socioeconomic Factors:
 High Unemployment: Families grappling with unemployment and financial stress may
exhibit increased tension, which can contribute to higher instances of child abuse.
 Lack of Education: Limited access to education in certain communities can perpetuate cycles
of ignorance and illiteracy, making it harder to address child abuse effectively.
 Income Inequality: Economic disparities can create vulnerable conditions for children, as
they may lack access to proper healthcare, nutrition, and education.
Cultural Factors:
 Gender Roles: Traditional gender roles and norms may result in unequal treatment of
children based on their gender, with girls facing higher risks of abuse or discrimination.
 Harmful Cultural Beliefs: Certain cultural beliefs or practices, such as corporal punishment
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or accepting child labor as a norm, can contribute to the perpetuation of child abuse.
Other Factors:
 Family Dysfunction: Dysfunctional family dynamics, such as substance abuse, domestic
violence, or parental mental health issues, can create an environment where children are at a
higher risk of abuse.
 Access to Technology and Online Abuse: The increasing use of technology and social media
exposes children to the risk of online abuse, such as cyberbullying, online grooming, or
dissemination of explicit content.
 Substance Abuse: Substance abuse within families can contribute to neglect, as parents may
prioritize their addiction over the well-being of their children, leading to a higher risk of
abuse.
Impact of child abuse:
Child abuse has severe consequences for individuals, families, and society. It causes physical and
psychological trauma, hindering children's well-being and development. Abuse can be passed
down through generations, perpetuating the cycle. Child abuse also imposes social and economic
costs, including increased healthcare expenses and strain on social services.
Measures taken:
The Indian government has taken several measures to prevent child abuse and protect children's
rights. These include enacting laws like the POCSO Act, establishing child helpline services,
creating the National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR), implementing the
Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS), conducting awareness campaigns, integrating child
protection programs in schools, etc. These efforts aim to create a safe environment for children, raise
awareness about child rights, and provide support and rehabilitation for affected children.
Tackling child abuse requires a comprehensive approach that considers legal, structural,
socioeconomic, and cultural factors. Collaboration, and efforts to bring about social change are
necessary to address the increasing trend of child abuse and ensure the safety and well-being of
children in Indian society.
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(c) Explain the dynamics of neo-farmers’ movement in contemporary India.

(10 Marks)
Structure –
 Explain the neo farmers movements.
 Dynamics of these movements.
 Conclusion.
Introduction.
According to AR Desai, movements prior to independence were predominantly peasant
movements and in post-independence era they could be termed as farmers movement.
While peasants movements were limited to seeking basic minimum livelihood, farmers movement
demanded much more.
Shift from peasant movements to farmer movements also marks shift to capitalist mode of
production.
Background of Farmers Movements
In the present society, euphoria of independence and optimism with welfare state has died down
and piecemeal reforms in agriculture sector including unsatisfactory land reforms and unequal
benefit distribution within the farmer community in green revolution created discontent.
This discontent found its earliest expressions in form of naxal movements and other similar
movements like peoples war group in Andhra.
All these movements found support from the middle class inteligentsia and few political cadres who
sympathised with the Peasants due to lack of political initiative in dealing with agrarian distress.
However, the movements often turn violent and people resorted to guerrilla attacks, parallel courts,
burning of records etc. Reactive measures in form of schemes like TRYSEM, IRDP were launched
by government.
These violent movements though unsuccessful were instrumental in changing governments stance
towards development in the region.
Apart from these peasants movements, there were also many farmers movements which fall under
the category of new farmers movement. They were driven by their self interest and wanted to extract
maximum benefit.
There was also another stream of movement led by middle-class intelligentsia and spirited social
workers. Narmada Bachao Andolan led by Medha Patkar is one of the most important examples of
such movements.
Dynamics of Contemporary Farmers Movements
Careful consideration of the issues, concerns, values and modes of action of the farmers’ movement
often has led many scholars to characterise it as a new social movement.
 In globalised and capital mode of production interest of farmers and peasants are often at
crossroad as often capital list farmers have peasants and labourers in subordinate and
exploitative relationship.
 Further, rising income divide among them has created larger class divide.
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 Dhanagare considers neo farmer movements as class movements and the sensually a
capitalist movement.
 Paul Brass on the other hand put them into category of new social movements that are
charged against state and addresses other issues including gender and environmental issues.
 Gail Omvedt sees them as a reaction to the state market collusion exploitation and includes
all types of farmers and not just effluent farmers.
 Farmers in many states are protesting against three recent legislations passed by the
Parliament. The controversy revolves around:
1. Farmers’ Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Bill, 2020′
2. Farmers (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement of Price Assurance and Farm
Services Bill, 2020′ and
3. Essential Commodities (Amendment) Bill 2020.
 The farmer unions believe that the laws will open the sale and marketing of agricultural
products outside the notified Agricultural Produce Market Committee (APMC) mandis for
farmers and the laws will allow inter-state trade and encourage hike electronic trading of
agricultural produce.
 The new laws prevent the state governments from collecting a market fee, cess, or levy for
trade outside the APMC markets; this has led the farmers to believe the laws will “gradually
lead to the deterioration and ultimately end the mandi system” thus “leaving farmers at the
mercy of corporates”.
 Further, the farmers believe that the laws will end their existing relationship with agricultural
small-scale businessmen (commission agents who act as middlemen by providing financial
loans, ensuring timely procurement, and promising adequate prices for their crop).
 Additionally, protesting farmers believe dismantling the APMC mandis will encourage
abolishing the purchase of their crops at the Minimum Support Price (MSP).
Conclusion
Success of Green Revolution made agriculture a commercial profitable activity for a section of rich
farmers. They had their own agendas to retain agriculture as a profitable activities so they had
specific demands and want concessions from state.
They were mainly from dominant caste and had their own self-interest like-rise in MSP, free
electricity, water, subsidised fertilisers and so on. While earlier farmers movements were led by
Communist leadership, they now formed their own organisation like Bharti Kisan union led by
Mahendra Singh Tikait in northern India, Shetkari Sanghatan Led by Sharad Joshi group in
Maharashtra etc. Leadership was provided from within and often membership was from the
dominant caste like Jats of Haryana and Yadavs of western UP.
Apart from physical mobilisation, these organisation and associations act as pressure groups. Rising
cases of pan India farm loan waiver along with the demand for higher MSP’s or a result of demand
by these organisation. Thus, Neo farmer movements have expanded their scope by being inclusive
of farmers demands on both local and global issues with the main focus on mobilisation and class
stratification.
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(d) Assess the role of the State in promoting education of girl child. (10
Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by mentioning significance of education.
 Discuss issues with education of girl child in India.
 Discuss the role of the State in promoting education of girl child
 Mention the impact and the challenges faced.
Solution
Education is crucial for economic opportunities, social mobility, health, and sustainable
development. It empowers individuals, improves job prospects, breaks social barriers, promotes
well-being, and addresses societal challenges. In summary, education is essential for personal,
societal, and economic progress. However, education of girl child has always been a point of
discussion in India.
Issues with education of girl child:
The average female literacy rate throughout the world is 79.9%, while for men it is 89.2%. India
lingers behind at 62.3% for women as compared to 80% for men. Many girls in India are married
at a young age and drop out of school after they complete their primary education due to societal
pressures or early pregnancies. Child labor and lack of feminine hygiene products keep girls from
coming to school, and contribute to the literacy rates and continuous lack of education. As girls
remain uneducated, it is more difficult to enter the workforce, and consequently women find
themselves in difficult financial situations. As mothers in India remain uneducated, they negatively
impact the education of their children thus the educational disparities become a cyclical,
intergenerational issue.
Sate's Role:
To deal with such issues State's role become paramount. The role of State in promoting girls’
education can be seen as below:
1. Legislative Framework: The Indian state has implemented several laws and policies to
promote girls' education. The Right to Education Act (2009) ensures free and compulsory
education for all children, including girls. Additionally, the Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao (Save
the Girl Child, Educate the Girl Child) campaign aims to address gender bias, promote the
value of the girl child, and improve access to education for girls.
2. Access to Education: Efforts have been made to improve access to education for girls. The
Indian state has focused on establishing schools in remote areas, providing transportation
facilities, and constructing girls' hostels to ensure their safety and convenience. Schemes like
the Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV) aim to empower girls from marginalized
communities by providing them with quality education. Similarly, the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA) and the Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) focus on ensuring inclusive
education, including for girls.
3. Retention: To enhance girls' retention in schools, various measures have been taken.
Scholarships, such as the National Scheme of Incentive to Girls for Secondary Education,
provide financial assistance to encourage girls to complete their education.
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Additionally, mid-day meal programs, sanitary napkin distribution, and awareness
campaigns on menstrual hygiene help in reducing dropout rates among girls.
4. Quality of Education: Teacher training programs, curriculum reforms to address gender
bias, and promoting girls' participation in science, technology, engineering, and
mathematics (STEM) fields through initiatives like Atal Innovation Mission contribute to
the quality of education for girls.
5. Social and Cultural Factors: The Indian state plays a crucial role in challenging social and
cultural norms that hinder girls' education. Through awareness campaigns, community
mobilization, and targeted interventions, it aims to eradicate practices such as early
marriage, child labor, gender stereotypes, and discrimination based on social and cultural
norms. Programs like the Saakshar Bharat Mission focus on women's literacy and adult
education, enabling mothers to support their daughters' education.
Impact:
The Indian state's efforts, including the implementation of specific schemes, have yielded significant
results. Scholarships and financial incentives have motivated girls to continue their education. The
Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao campaign has raised awareness about the importance of girls' education.
Challenges:
However, challenges persist, including regional disparities, inadequate infrastructure, social
barriers, and economic constraints.
Sustained efforts are required to address remaining challenges, ensure equal access, retention, and
quality education for all girls in India. Collaboration between the government, civil society
organizations, communities, and individuals is essential to create an enabling environment where
every girl can realize her right to education and fulfill her potential.
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(e) Elaborate the ‘Me Too’ Movement and its impact in India. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce by giving some background on Me Too movement.
 Briefly discuss how it panned out in India.
 Discuss the impact of the movement on Indian Society.
 Briefly mention some criticism of the movement
Solution
The "Me Too" movement is a social campaign against sexual abuse and harassment. It started in
2006 when activist Tarana Burke used the phrase on social media. The purpose is to empower
survivors by showing the widespread nature of the problem and creating solidarity
In India, the #MeToo movement gained traction when individuals began sharing their experiences
of sexual harassment and abuse. It brought to light numerous stories involving powerful figures
in the country. The movement spread rapidly on social media, raising awareness about the
prevalent issue of sexual harassment, commonly known as "eve-teasing. Survivors began sharing
their personal experiences of harassment and assault using hashtags such as #MeToo and
#TimesUp on platforms like Twitter and Facebook. These testimonies, often accompanied by
powerful narratives, had a profound impact on raising awareness and highlighting the magnitude
of the issue.
Impact in India:
The Me-Too movement had major impact on Indian society and it can be seen in the following ways:
1. Open discussion on sexual harassment: The movement encouraged people to talk openly
about sexual harassment and assault, which made others feel empowered to share their own
experiences. This created a supportive community that encouraged victims to seek justice.
2. Challenging victim-blaming culture: The movement challenged the idea that victims are to
blame for what happened to them. Instead, it focused on holding the perpetrators
accountable. It also drew attention to the unequal power dynamics and gender inequality
present in different areas of society.
3. Including different voices: The "Me Too" movement in India recognized that sexual
harassment affects people from different backgrounds. It highlighted that it can happen to
anyone, regardless of their gender, caste, class, or religion. It gave a platform for marginalized
individuals to share their stories and be heard.
4. Questioning power structures: The movement questioned the traditional power structures
that favor men. It made us rethink societal norms and unequal power dynamics that
contribute to gender-based oppression. It showed that sexual harassment is not just
individual incidents but a result of wider gender inequality.
5. Challenging toxic masculinity: The "Me Too" movement sparked conversations about
masculinity and challenged harmful ideas about what it means to be a man. It encouraged
men to reflect on their behavior and roles in promoting gender equality and respect.
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6. Support and solidarity among women: The movement created a sense of support and
solidarity among women. Survivors realized they were not alone and found strength in
sharing their stories. This support helped more women come forward, seek justice, and
support one another.
7. Media attention: The "Me Too" movement had a big impact on media coverage and public
discussions about sexual harassment. It showed how widespread the issue is and pushed the
media to prioritize stories of survivors. These discussions helped educate the public and
challenge societal attitudes.
8. Changing socialization and education: The movement emphasized the need to change how
we raise and educate children to address the root causes of sexual harassment. It highlighted
the importance of teaching consent, healthy relationships, and gender equality from an early
age.
9. Addressing toxic workplace culture: The movement sparked conversations about workplace
culture and the need for accountability. It led organizations to review their policies and
practices for addressing sexual harassment. Employers became more proactive in creating
safe and respectful work environments.
10. Community involvement: The movement saw grassroots activism and community
engagement. People came together to support survivors and push for change. This showed
the importance of communities working together to address social issues and promote
gender justice.
11. Legal and policy changes: The "Me Too" movement influenced legal and policy reforms. It
played a role in strengthening laws against sexual harassment, such as the 2013 Act on
Workplace Harassment of Women. Organizations were encouraged to implement policies to
address harassment and protect employees.
12. Long-lasting cultural change: From a sociological perspective, the "Me Too" movement has
the potential to bring about long-term cultural change. By challenging deep-rooted norms
and power structures, it paves the way for a more equitable and respectful society for
everyone.
However, the #MeToo movement has also been criticized for reasons such as a lack of due process,
the potential for false accusations, over reliance on social media trials, inadequate attention to
diverse experiences such as those from marginalised sections of society, limited impact on legal
reforms, and the need for better support mechanisms for survivors. These criticisms reflect the
complex nature of the movement and the challenges it faces in achieving its goals.
Despite these challenges, the movement has laid the groundwork for long-lasting cultural change.
It still continues to evolve and continues to play a crucial role in raising awareness, promoting
accountability, and striving for a more equitable and respectful society.
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Question 6.
(a) How do you relate the growth of development of metropolis and its
impact on the mental and social life of people in India. (20 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce with significance of development of metropolis in India.
 Discuss various factors that leads to growth of metropolises in India.
 Discuss the impact of growth of development of metropolis on mental well-being.
 Discuss the impact of growth of development of metropolis on social life.
 Conclude with some actionable solution.
Solution
Cities are called the engines of growth as they contribute significantly to the GDP of developing
country like India. The rapid growth of cities in India has had a big impact on people's lives. As
more and more people move to urban areas and industries flourish, it's important to understand
how this affects people's mental and social well-being.
Growth of metropolises in India:
Cities in India are growing rapidly for different reasons. When people move to cities, it brings lots
of people, resources, and opportunities together, which changes how society works. People also
move from rural areas to cities for better jobs and living conditions, which affects how communities
and relationship’s function. Industries developing in cities also contribute to their growth, as
businesses are drawn to these economic centers and the city's physical infrastructure changes. Cities
like Mumbai, Delhi, and Bangalore are seeing a big increase in population and improvements in
infrastructure.
Impact on mental well-being:
The growth of metropolises in India has a significant impact on the mental well-being of individuals.
Such as
1. Increased stress and pressure: The rapid growth of metropolises often leads to a fast-paced
and demanding lifestyle, causing individuals to experience higher levels of stress, anxiety,
and pressure.
2. Feelings of isolation and loneliness: The impersonal nature of city living and the disruption
of social networks due to migration can result in feelings of isolation and loneliness, which
can adversely affect mental well-being.
3. Disconnection from support systems: Moving from rural areas to cities can separate
individuals from their established social support systems and kinship ties, leading to a lack
of social support and a sense of disconnection.
4. Higher risk of mental health disorders: The combination of urban stressors, social isolation,
and environmental factors can increase the risk of mental health disorders and psychological
distress among the urban population.
5. High suicide rates: According to Durkheim's theory, when individuals experience a lack of
social integration and regulation, they are more prone to feelings of despair and detachment,
which can ultimately lead to higher suicide rates.
The growth of metropolises in India can exacerbate these factors, creating an environment
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where individuals may be more vulnerable to suicidal ideation and acts.
Impact on social life:
The growth of metropolises in India also has a significant impact on the social life of individuals.
Such as
1. Changing social norms and practices: City life challenges the strict adherence to traditional
caste norms. In metropolises, people are more likely to interact with individuals from diverse
castes and backgrounds, leading to a relaxation of caste-based norms. This shift can alter
commensal (eating together), marital, social, and occupational relations, as people become
more open to cross-caste interactions and relationships.
2. Transformation of social and political participation: Rajni Kothari highlights that
metropolis growth results in a more sophisticated system of social and political
participation. Instead of primarily relying on particularistic loyalties (based on caste, kinship,
etc.), urban dwellers develop crosscutting allegiances that transcend traditional boundaries.
This shift leads to a more diverse and inclusive social and political landscape.
3. Importance of class over caste ties: Andre Beteille notes that among the urban elite, class
ties become more significant than caste ties. As people in metropolises become more
westernized and exposed to modern influences, socioeconomic class becomes a defining
factor in social relations, overshadowing the influence of caste affiliations.
4. Disruption of family structure and relationships: Urbanization not only affects the structure
of the family but also intra and inter-family relations. The migration of individuals from rural
to urban areas disrupts community bonds and necessitates the formation of new
relationships in the city. It can be challenging for migrants to replace old relationships and
find satisfactory means of maintaining connections with those left behind.
5. Influence on family values: The urban environment and lifestyle can impact family values
and dynamics. With the rise of nuclear families and increasing economic pressures, there
may be a shift in intergenerational relationships and the roles and responsibilities within
the family. Traditional family structures and hierarchies may give way to more
individualistic and egalitarian values.
6. Changing gender roles: Metropolis growth can provide new opportunities and avenues for
women, leading to shifting gender roles and increased empowerment. Women in urban areas
may have greater access to education, employment, and participation in public life,
challenging traditional gender norms and contributing to societal transformation.
7. Social mobility and upward mobility: Metropolises offer chances for people to move up in
society and improve their financial situation. This can make individuals feel accomplished,
satisfied, and respected, which has a positive impact on their mental and social well-being.
Thus, the growth and development of big cities in India really affect how people feel and interact
with each other. To make sure that people living in these cities are happy and healthy, it's important
to recognize the problems that come with city life and find ways to solve them. This can be done by
creating good rules and plans, providing support to those who need it, and offering services to take
care of people's mental health.
(b) Has Green Revolution led to the formation of new power elite in rural
India? Elaborate your answer. (20 Marks)
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Approach
 Explain briefly what green revolution is.
 Define the concept of Power Elite.
 Discuss the formation of new power elites due to green revolution.
 Explain how the traditional elites still hold power in rural India.
Solution
Green Revolution was a government programme of agricultural modernization. It was based on
providing High Yielding Variety or hybrid seeds, along with pesticides, fertilizers and other inputs
to farmers. The Green Revolution was aimed to increase food production, reduce poverty, alleviate
hunger, and improve the overall standard of living in rural areas.
The Green Revolution in India resulted in increased crop production, self-sufficiency in food,
improved farmers' income, stimulated industrial growth, and created job opportunities in rural
areas. However, the Green Revolution also led to the formation of new power elite in rural India.
Power Elite:
A power elite refers to a small group of individuals or institutions who hold significant power
and influence over society. They often control key resources, decision-making processes, and access
to opportunities. In the context of rural India, the power elite traditionally comprised large
landowners, landlords, influential politicians, and bureaucrats who dominated the social, economic,
and political spheres.
Some of the new power elites that were formed by the process of green revolution are -
Agribusiness Corporations:
The involvement of agribusiness corporations in supplying seeds, fertilizers, and other inputs
created new avenues of influence and control over the agricultural sector. These corporations often
had strong ties with policymakers and could shape agricultural policies and practices to benefit their
interests.
Contract farmers:
Contract farmers have become a new power elite in rural India as a result of the Green Revolution.
They possess market access, resources, and technological expertise, which grant them economic
influence, control over agricultural practices, and strong negotiating power, establishing their
prominence in the agricultural sector.
Bullock capitalists:
The Green Revolution introduced modern agricultural technologies, such as high-yielding varieties
of crops and mechanization, which required financial investment and resources. The bullock
capitalist class refers to individuals or groups who were able to capitalize on these advancements
and accumulate wealth and resources in the agricultural sector. These bullock capitalists were
typically large-scale farmers or landowners who had the financial means to invest in the new
technologies and practices.
They were able to increase their agricultural productivity, generate surplus produce, and engage in
commercial agriculture on a larger scale. This allowed them to reap significant economic benefits
and establish themselves as influential players in the rural economy.
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Middle Castes (OBC's):
The Green Revolution in rural India propelled the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) to become a
power elite. OBCs with significant landholdings, such as the Yadavs, Kurmis, and Koeris, benefited
from increased agricultural productivity and economic prosperity. They acquired education,
participated in government jobs, gained political power, and claimed higher ritual status. The
combination of land ownership, economic success, and social mobility elevated the OBCs to a
prominent position of influence in rural India.
Persistence of Traditional Elite:
Despite the emergence of new power elites resulting from various factors such as the Green
Revolution and changing socio-economic dynamics, traditional power elites continue to exist in
rural India. Traditional power elites refer to individuals or groups who hold influential positions
within the social, political, or economic structures of rural communities based on factors such as
caste, lineage, or land ownership. These traditional power elites often derive their influence from
long-standing social hierarchies, inherited privileges, and traditional systems of authority. They
may hold positions of authority within local institutions, wield political influence, or possess
significant land and resources that contribute to their power and influence.
To sum-up, the Green Revolution in rural India has led to the formation of new power elites
alongside the continuation of traditional power elites. The interplay between these new and
traditional power elites shapes the social, economic, and political dynamics in rural India,
highlighting the complexity of power structures in the context of the Green Revolution.
(c) Write a note on Basic Services to Urban Poor (BSUP) and Integrated
Housing and Slum Development (IHSD) programme provided for the
urban poor. (10 Marks)
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Approach
 Introduce with some recent data on urban poverty.
 Explain the Basic Services to Urban Poor (BSUP) programme.
 Explain the Integrated Housing and Slum Development (IHSD) programme.
 Discuss the benefits of the programme.
 Discuss the limitations of the programme.
Solution
About 27.6% of 377 million people living in urban India, or 104 million people, have been
identified as poor, according to preliminary figures of the Socio-Economic and Caste Census
(SECC). Thus, urban poverty is a serious problem, and it's crucial to address the needs of the poor
people living in cities in order to create inclusive and sustainable urban development. The Basic
Services to Urban Poor (BSUP) and Integrated Housing and Slum Development (IHSD) programs
are initiatives that aim to improve the living conditions of the urban poor.
Basic Services to Urban Poor (BSUP):
The main goal of the BSUP program is to ensure that people living in slums have access to essential
amenities and services. This program aims to improve the conditions of slums by upgrading them
and providing better housing infrastructure. It also focuses on enhancing basic services such as
water supply, sanitation, drainage, and waste management. In addition, the BSUP program aims to
develop community facilities like schools, health centers, and community centers. This collaborative
effort involves the participation of government agencies, local organizations, and non-governmental
organizations to effectively implement the program and improve the lives of slum residents.
Integrated Housing and Slum Development (IHSD):
The primary objective of the IHSD program is to offer comprehensive housing solutions for people
living in slums. This approach aims to improve the living conditions of slum dwellers without
displacing them from their current homes. Alternatively, the program focuses on rehabilitating slum
dwellers by relocating them to new housing complexes with improved infrastructure and amenities.
This ensures that they have access to basic services and facilities. The IHSD program strongly
emphasizes community participation, encouraging slum residents to actively engage in the
planning and decision-making processes.
Benefits:
The BSUP and IHSD programs bring about numerous advantages and positive outcomes. They
greatly enhance the living conditions of the urban poor by offering improved housing and
essential services. Access to clean water, sanitation facilities, and proper drainage systems not only
reduces health risks but also promotes better hygiene practices. The establishment of community
facilities fosters social inclusion and empowers slum dwellers.
Moreover, these programs contribute to sustainable urban development by mitigating

environmental risks associated with slum settlements. The successful implementation of the BSUP
and IHSD programs has led to notable improvements in living standards and an enhanced quality
of life for residents of slum areas.
Criticisms:
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Although the BSUP and IHSD programs have their advantages, they encounter various challenges.
Insufficient funding and limited resources frequently hinder progress and restrict the reach of
these programs to all slum areas. Acquiring land for redevelopment and addressing the
apprehensions of slum dwellers regarding displacement and the potential loss of their means of
livelihood can pose difficulties. Moreover, ensuring the long-term sustainability and maintenance
of the infrastructure and housing provided by these programs demands continuous efforts. Critics
argue that these programs should not solely focus on physical infrastructure development but also
address the underlying causes of urban poverty and offer comprehensive solutions.
The BSUP and IHSD programs play a vital role in addressing the needs of the urban poor. Efforts
should continue to address the challenges and criticisms associated with these programs, focusing
on sustainable and inclusive urban development.
Question 7.
(a) Has caste system hindered democracy and adult franchise in India.
Discuss. (20 Marks)
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Approach
 Briefly mention the significance of caste in Indian society in general.
 Discuss the relationship between caste system and democracy in general.
 Discuss how caste-based politics impacts democracy.
 Discuss how caste system influences adult franchise.
 Discuss how caste-based politics help the marginalised section.
 Mention some efforts taken to address the impact of the caste system
Solution
The caste system has played a significant role in shaping social, cultural, and political structures in
India. And according to Andre Beteille while the caste system is slowly dwindling down in
various aspects of Indian society, it remains prevalent due to the manipulations of politics and
media during elections.
Caste system and democracy:
The caste system has deeply influenced social and political hierarchies in India, posing challenges
to democratic principles. The hierarchical nature of the caste system perpetuates inequalities and
hampers the ideals of equality, representation, and social justice. Discrimination based on caste
restricts opportunities for marginalized groups, preventing them from fully participating in
democratic processes. Despite constitutional provisions guaranteeing equality, the influence of
caste-based discrimination has hindered the realization of a truly inclusive democracy.
Caste-based politics:
One of the ways in which the caste system has hindered democracy is through caste-based politics.
Political parties in India often rely on caste-based mobilization to secure electoral support. This
perpetuates the consciousness of caste among voters, preventing it from diminishing over time.
Caste-based political alliances and vote bank politics lead to the prioritization of caste
considerations over merit and competence in candidate selection and governance. This
undermines the democratic principles of equal representation and the ability of individuals to
participate based on their qualifications rather than their caste identity.
Influence on adult franchise:
The caste system has also affected adult franchise in India. The politicization of caste, as observed
by MN Srinivas and Rajni Kothari, has made caste an integral aspect of Indian politics. Caste
influences candidate selection, voting patterns, leadership positions, and the distribution of
ministerial portfolios. Marginalized castes may face barriers in freely exercising their voting rights
due to intimidation, coercion, or manipulation by dominant castes.
The dominance of upper castes in politics can further marginalize and disempower disadvantaged
groups, impacting their ability to participate effectively in the electoral process.
The persistent association between caste and voting behavior limits the ability of individuals to
make choices based on political ideologies and policies, thereby hindering the full realization of
adult franchise.
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Caste based politics for marginalised section:
Some proponents argue that caste-based politics and identity-based mobilization have provided
marginalized communities with a platform to voice their concerns and demand political
representation. They contend that caste-based affirmative action policies, such as reservations in
education and government jobs, have helped empower disadvantaged groups and bridge the gap
between caste and democracy.
Efforts to address the impact of the caste system:
Recognizing the detrimental effects of the caste system on democracy and adult franchise, various
initiatives have been undertaken to address caste-based discrimination in India. The Indian
government has implemented affirmative action policies, such as reservations in educational
institutions and job opportunities, office of power to promote inclusivity and social justice. Civil
society organizations and social movements have also advocated for the rights of marginalized
castes and worked towards dismantling the barriers created by the caste system in democratic
processes. The Supreme Court also ruled in 2017 that seeking votes in the name of religion, caste,
race, community or language by a candidate, his agent or anyone with his consent would be
a corrupt electoral practice rendering the person open to disqualification.
In conclusion, while the caste system in India has seen a gradual decline in certain aspects of society,
it continues to hinder democracy and adult franchise. Overcoming the obstacles posed by the caste
system is crucial for India's democratic development and the achievement of social justice.
(b) Elaborate various forms of Dalit assertions in contemporary India?

Discuss. (20 Marks)
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Approach
 Explain what do we mean by Dalit assertion.
 Discuss various forms of Dalit assertion movement.
 Give the positive impact of the movement.
 Provide the criticism or limitations of the movement.
Solution
Dalit assertion encompasses the collective endeavors and movements undertaken by individuals
belonging to the Dalit community, which has historically occupied the lowest rung of the Indian
caste system. These efforts are aimed at asserting their rights, confronting social prejudices, and
advocating for equitable treatment and social justice.
Dalit assertion movement:
The assertion movements by Dalits can be traced back to the colonial period when social reformers
such as Jyotirao Phule and BR Ambedkar began advocating for Dalit rights and challenging the
caste system.
In contemporary India, Dalit assertions take various forms, representing the struggle for
empowerment, justice, and equality. These forms of Dalit assertions encompass political
movements, social activism, cultural movements, economic empowerment, women's movements,
student movements, and conversion movements.
1. Political movements play a crucial role in representing Dalit interests and advocating for
their rights. The Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) led by Kanshi Ram and later Mayawati has
emerged as a prominent political party, actively working towards the empowerment of Dalits
and addressing their concerns.
2. Social activism is another significant aspect of Dalit assertions. The Bhim Army, founded by
Chandrashekhar Azad, has been at the forefront of organizing protests and demonstrations
against caste-based discrimination and violence. It serves as a grassroots organization
dedicated to fighting for Dalit rights.
3. Dalit cultural movements, such as the Kabir Kala Manch, utilize various art forms like
music, poetry, theatre, and visual arts to challenge social norms and address issues of caste-
based discrimination. They use their artistic expressions to raise awareness about the
struggles and aspirations of Dalits and other marginalized communities.
4. Economic empowerment is a key area of Dalit assertion. The Dalit Indian Chamber of
Commerce and Industry (DICCI) works towards promoting Dalit entrepreneurship and
economic empowerment. DICCI provides support, training, and resources to Dalit
entrepreneurs, aiding them in establishing and expanding their businesses.
5. Dalit women's movements, represented by organizations like the All India Dalit Mahila
Adhikar Manch (AIDMAM), focus on addressing the specific issues faced by Dalit women.
They strive to end discrimination, violence, and exploitation experienced by Dalit women
while advocating for their rights and social justice.
6. In educational institutions, Dalit student movements like the Ambedkar-Periyar Student
Movement (APSM) play a vital role in raising awareness about caste-based discrimination,
social inequality, and marginalization. They organize protests, discussions, and events to
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promote social justice and challenge discriminatory practices.
7. Furthermore, there has been a surge in mass conversion movements to Buddhism among
Dalits, reflecting their desire to assert a distinct identity separate from Hinduism. This
movement, initially initiated by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar in the 1950s, signifies the quest for a more
egalitarian and inclusive spiritual path.
Ghanshyam Shah classifies the Dalit movements into reformative and alternative movements.
The former tries to reform the caste system to solve the problem of untouchability. The alternative
movement attempts to create an alternative socio-cultural structure by conversion to some other
religion or by acquiring education, economic status and political power. Both types of movements
use political means to attain their objectives.
Impact of Dalit assertion movement:
The assertion by Dalits has significantly impacted their social, economic, and political status.
Socially, it has led to a greater sense of community identity and solidarity, with Dalits being more
vocal in asserting their rights. Scholars like S.M. Michael argued that literature has played a key
role in empowering Dalits and helping them assert their identity. Economically, the assertion has
led to greater access to education and employment opportunities, with affirmative action policies
ensuring access to reserved seats in educational institutions and government jobs, improving their
economic status. Politically, the assertion has led to greater representation in government and a
greater say in the political process. The success of political parties such as the BSP has ensured that
the interests of Dalits are represented at the highest levels of government. However, scholars like
Gail Omvedt argue that the Dalit assertion is not only about fighting for political rights but also
creating a new cultural identity that is free from the shackles of caste.
Limitations of the movement:
Despite its positive impacts, some scholars argue that the movement has remained more confined
to the political sphere and has failed to sufficiently address the structural and cultural aspects of
caste discrimination. It is also criticized for its narrow focus on reservations and protective
discrimination, rather than addressing the root causes of caste oppression. Moreover, the
movement is often fragmented and lacks a unified voice, which hinders its effectiveness.
According to Gail Omvedt, although the "post-Ambedkar Dalit movement" challenged some of the
most profound forms of oppression and exploitation faced by Dalits, it ultimately failed to pave the
way for long-term social transformation and mobility. In his work, Dipankar Gupta also points out
that the Dalit movement has struggled to achieve its goals in the face of resistance from dominant
castes and the limited resources available to it.
In summary, the assertion movements of Dalits have significantly impacted their social, economic,
and political status, leading to greater social integration, access to education and employment
opportunities, and greater representation in government.
(c) With increase in education and economic development is Indian society

becoming more secular. (10 Marks)
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Approach
 Introduce by defining secularism and Indian version of secularism.
 Discuss how education leads to secularism.
 Discuss how economic development leads to secularism.
 Discuss rise of religious revivalism alongside educational and economic development.
Solution
Secularism involves reducing the social importance of religion, separating it from the state and
social life. In the Indian model of secularism, multiple religions are acknowledged, aiming for a
non-discriminatory approach. India has been progressing towards secularism with policies free
from religious influence, secular aspirations among people, and education promoting secular
values. However, challenges have arisen along the way.
Education and Secularism:
Amartya Sen argues that the absence of education contributes to the lack of secularism. When
individuals lack education, they are less likely to develop critical thinking skills and may be
influenced by their primordial identities. This is particularly true for marginalized communities
who face educational disparities and social segregation, which further perpetuates communal
ideologies.
At the time of independence in 1947, the literacy rate in India was relatively low, ranging from 12%
to 18% for the entire population. However, literacy rates varied across different regions and
socioeconomic groups.
Since then, there has been a significant improvement in literacy rates. According to the latest
available data from the 2011 census, the overall literacy rate in India stood at approximately 74%.
This demonstrates a considerable increase compared to the time of independence.
Education plays a vital role in empowering individuals to critically evaluate religious teachings
and question traditional norms. As people gain knowledge and exposure to diverse perspectives
through education, they become better equipped to think rationally and make informed decisions
regarding their religious beliefs.
Economic development and Secularism:
Since Independence, India has also made significant progress in terms of economic development.
India has become one of the fastest-growing major economies in the world. Such an economic
progress can diminish the dependence on religious institutions and customs. As individuals
experience greater economic empowerment, they may rely less on religious establishments for social
assistance and welfare. Furthermore, economic development can enhance social mobility,
exposing individuals to a variety of cultures and belief systems, thereby promoting the cultivation
of secular attitudes.
Religious revivalism:
However, it is important to acknowledge that the correlation between education, economic
development, and increased secularism is not always straightforward. In the case of India, a
developing society with a significant rural and illiterate population, undergoing profound social
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transformations, a paradoxical situation emerges where secularism coexists with religious
revivalism.
The forces of modernization and globalization have led to increased alienation among
individuals, strengthening their religious beliefs and fueling religious revivalism. These
transformative changes have also resulted in the breakdown of local communities and a shift
towards nuclear family structures, further exacerbating the process of alienation. Consequently,
people often find solace and meaning in their religious practices. The rise of spiritual leaders,
known as God men, is also connected to these societal shifts.
Moreover, there is political mobilization based on religious identity, which occasionally sparks
communal riots and fosters social tensions among different religious communities. Additionally,
the process of modernization in India has been uneven, with certain religious communities facing
deprivation and marginalization. The Sachar Committee report highlights the educational
challenges faced by Muslims in India, as they are among the least educated religious communities.
This educational disparity contributes to an increased religious consciousness within the
community.
Furthermore, the rise of cultural nationalism across the country presents a challenge to secularism.
Instances such as the killings of Christians in Kerala exemplify the complexities and tensions
associated with maintaining a secular society.
Overall, the relationship between education, economic development, and secularism in India is
intricate and multifaceted. While education and economic progress have the potential to foster
secular attitudes, the ongoing socio-political transformations and disparities in society pose
significant obstacles to achieving a fully secular society.
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Question 8.
(a) What are the issues relating to male migration and its impact on
birthrate? Does it necessarily result in skewed sex ratio? 20 marks
Approach
 Introduce answer with briefly discussing nature of migration in India.
 Discuss the issues relating to male migration.
 Discuss impact of male migration on birth rate.
 Discuss relationship between skewed sex ratio and male migration.
 Conclude with actionable solution to the problem of birth rate and skewed sex ratio.
Solution
In India, most of the people who migrate are men, and they usually do so because of economic
reasons. However, the issue of male migration and how it affects the number of births and the
balance between males and females is complicated and has many different aspects to consider.
Issue relating to male migration:
In India, people often migrate because of things like finding a job, getting married, seeking
education, or feeling unsafe. Usually, it's the men who make the decision about migration because
of old-fashioned beliefs that men should lead. But we need to understand that migration affects the
whole family, especially women, in different ways. When men migrate, women often have to take
on more responsibilities, like taking care of the family and earning money. This can challenge the
traditional idea of how men and women should behave and change the power dynamics within
families and communities. According to the National Family Health Survey, in the last thirty years,
the number of families led by women has almost doubled.
When a family relies on remittance money sent back home by a family member who migrated, it
can be tough if the migration gets interrupted or the money decreases. This can make it hard for the
family to adjust to their new financial situation. The absence of a parent because of migration can
also affect a child's education. It can be difficult to afford school fees, get support from a parent, or
have a stable routine at home. Feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and depression are common among
family members left behind. Additionally, because there are fewer men available to work in the
original areas, the wages for male workers there can go up.
Impact on Birthrate:
When partners are separated because of migration, it can affect how many children they have and
how their family works. If the man is away, the woman may decide to have children later or have
fewer children, affecting overall birthrates.
Skewed Sex Ratio:
A skewed sex ratio happens when there are more people of one gender compared to the other. In
India, this is often seen as a lower number of females. Sometimes, when men move to a new place,
there can be more men than women in that area. This can happen if a lot of the migrants are men.
However, it's important to know that there are other things that can cause a skewed sex ratio too.
Cultural preferences, practices where people choose to have boys instead of girls, and the way
people think about gender can all affect the balance between males and females. These factors are
deep-rooted in how society thinks, and they can happen even without migration. When there is a
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skewed sex ratio, whether because of male migration or something else, it can have bigger effects
on society. It can cause problems like more competition to find a partner, higher risks of human
trafficking, and social unrest.
Addressing the issues related to male migration, birthrate, and sex ratio requires a comprehensive
approach involving policy interventions. Promoting gender equality, enhancing reproductive
health services, and addressing cultural biases are crucial steps in addressing the underlying factors
contributing to skewed sex ratios. Policy measures should also focus on empowering women,
ensuring their participation in decision-making processes, and providing support systems to
mitigate the challenges faced by migrant women.
(b) Western patriarchy which surrenders feminine principles is the

development project in India. Do you agree with this view? Why? (20
Marks)
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Approach
 Provide a brief definition of patriarchy.
 Give arguments in support of the view that "Western patriarchy which surrenders feminine
principles is the development project in India."
 Give arguments against the view.
 Give a balanced perspective.
Solution
Patriarchy is a societal framework where men have dominant control and power in various
spheres of life such as the family, economy, and governance. Women, on the other hand, are
considered inferior to men and are often subjected to discrimination and unequal treatment.
Patriarchy is associated with gender stereotypes, the perpetuation of traditional gender roles, and
the normalization of male supremacy and authority over women.
From a sociological standpoint, there is merit in agreeing with the view that "Western patriarchy
which surrenders feminine principles is the development project in India" to some extent. Western
patriarchy, with its historical roots in European colonialism, has exerted significant influence on
social structures and gender dynamics in various parts of the world, including India. The
introduction of Western ideas and practices, often driven by colonial powers, has brought with it
certain patriarchal norms and values that can be at odds with traditional gender roles and feminine
principles. During the colonial period, Western patriarchal values influenced laws related to
homosexuality and adultery in many colonized countries. Colonial powers often imposed their
own moral and religious beliefs regarding sexuality and relationships, which were rooted in
Western norms and Judeo-Christian values. The British colonial authorities, influenced by
Victorian ideals, promoted a narrow view of women's roles and capabilities. The influence of
Western patriarchy can be seen in multiple domains, including social, political, and economic
spheres. Western development projects and ideologies, while aiming to bring progress and
modernization, have often perpetuated patriarchal power dynamics that suppress feminine
principles and reinforce gender inequalities. With the spread of globalization and the dominance
of Western media, ideals of beauty, primarily centered around Eurocentric features, have become
pervasive in Indian society. Moreover, the objectification of women's bodies, as propagated by
Western media, has contributed to the commodification of women and the reinforcement of gender
stereotypes.
However, it is important to note that the development project in India cannot be solely attributed to
Western patriarchy. It is essential to recognize that patriarchy is not exclusive to Western societies.
Patriarchal systems exist in various forms across different cultures and societies, including non-
Western contexts. Sylvia Walby argues that patriarchy is a pervasive social system that exists in
different forms across societies. Traditional cultural norms, religious beliefs, and social structures
also contribute to the perpetuation of patriarchal values and the marginalization of feminine
principles in India.
For example, Uma Chakravarty argues that Brahminical tradition glorified obedient woman as
'Pativrata' or loyal to husband and hence put a veil on gender discrimination. She calls it
Brahminical patriarchy.
It is true that Western patriarchal norms have been propagated through colonization and
globalization, impacting gender relations in India. However, it is essential to acknowledge that
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Western societies have also undergone significant feminist movements and progress towards
gender equality. The development project in India should not be solely attributed to Western
patriarchy but should be seen as a complex amalgamation of various cultural, historical, and socio-
economic factors. Moreover, it is important to avoid homogenizing Indian society and recognize
the existence of diverse experiences and perspectives within it. India has a rich cultural heritage and
a history of strong women leaders who have challenged patriarchal norms. Indigenous feminist
movements in India have also contributed to shaping the development project, advocating for
gender equality, and reclaiming feminine principles in ways that resonate with local contexts and
traditions.
Thus, while Western patriarchy has had an influence on gender dynamics and the development
project in India, it is crucial to recognize the multifaceted nature of these influences and the agency
of Indian society in shaping its own development path. By adopting a balanced perspective and
acknowledging the complexity of the issue, it becomes possible to work towards promoting gender
equality and empowering women within the Indian context.
(c) Assess the impact of ban on ‘Triple Talak’ on marriage and divorce
among the Muslim community in India. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Introduce with the legal and judicial injunctions pertaining to Triple Talak
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 Discuss the positive impacts of the ban on 'Triple Talak'.
 Discuss the negative impacts of the ban on 'Triple Talak'.
 Conclude with some actionable solutions to the negative impacts.
Solution
The ban on 'Triple Talak' stems from the Supreme Court's ruling in the Shayara Bano case in 2017,
which declared the practice unconstitutional. The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on
Marriage) Act, 2019, provides a legal framework to address this issue. The ban aims to promote
gender equality, protect the rights of Muslim women, and tackle the problem of arbitrary divorce.
Positive Impacts:
Some of the positive impacts of the ban on 'Triple Talak' can be seen as below:
1. Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment: The ban on 'Triple Talak' can be seen as a
step towards promoting gender equality and empowering women within the Muslim
community. It challenges the unequal power dynamics that exist in traditional divorce
practices and emphasizes the importance of consent and communication in marriage.
2. Legal Framework and Protection: The ban provides a legal framework to address the issue
of arbitrary divorce and protect the rights of Muslim women. It establishes a clear process for
divorce and encourages the involvement of legal authorities in resolving marital disputes,
ensuring that women have legal recourse and protection.
3. Change in social attitudes: The ban may lead to a shift in attitudes towards divorce within
the Muslim community.
4. Marriage stability: The ban promotes the idea of reconciliation, negotiation, and mediation,
which can potentially contribute to the stability of marriages.
5. Social Stigma and Perceptions: The ban may challenge negative perceptions and judgments
towards divorced individuals, particularly women.
6. Religious and Cultural practices: The ban's impact on religious and cultural practices within
the Muslim community may vary, with some perceiving it as an infringement on religious
autonomy while others view it as a necessary step towards gender justice.
7. Impact on Divorce Rates: The ban on 'Triple Talak' has also had an impact on divorce rates
among the Muslim community. Abbas Naqvi, Minister of Minority Affairs said in July 2020
gave an estimate that there has been about 82% decline in triple talaq cases since the law
against the “social evil” was put in place.
Negative Impacts:
The ban on 'Triple Talak' may also have negative impacts that should be considered.
1. Religious Autonomy and Freedom: The ban may be perceived as a violation of the principle
of religious freedom, potentially leading to tensions and conflicts within the Muslim
community.
2. Inadequate Legal and Social Support: While the ban aims to protect the rights of Muslim
women, there may be challenges in terms of providing adequate legal and social support to
those affected by 'Triple Talak.'
3. Coercive Consequences: Some argue that the threat of imprisonment for husbands may
result in fewer divorces being officially reported, leading to underreporting of marital issues
and potential abuse within relationships.
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4. Potential Misuse or Harassment: The penal provisions related to 'Triple Talak' could
potentially be misused by individuals for personal gains or to settle scores, leading to false
accusations and unjust consequences for individuals accused of 'Triple Talak.'
5. Impracticality: Concerns have been raised regarding the practicality of enforcing the law and
ensuring the payment of maintenance allowances in cases where the husband is imprisoned.
The ban on 'Triple Talak' in India aims to promote gender equality, protect the rights of Muslim
women, and provide a legal framework for divorce. However, it is important to address challenges
such as ensuring support services, sensitizing the judicial system, and preventing misuse, while
respecting religious autonomy and promoting awareness within the community.
Mains 2019
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Section - A
Question 1. Write short answers to the following questions in about 150 words
each, with a sociological perspective:
(a) Elaborate Srinivas’s views on religion and society among the Coorgs. (10
Marks)
Prof. M. N. Srinivas’ book Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India was a seminal
work in the understanding of the Indian society. It challenged the, then prevalent concept of the
Indian Caste system, as perceived by the dominant paradigm of western anthropologists, and
brought forth a new intellectual framework for understanding Hindu society under the structural
functional school of thought. It raised questions on notion of caste as static and unchanging, and
brought the omnipresence of social change into focus.
M.N Srinivas outlined coorg. history from early 9th century till present time. Srinivas, closely
observed the social life of the Coorg, particularly their religious beliefs and practices. He argued
that religious rituals and beliefs strengthen unity in the Coorg society at various levels.
Society among the Coorgs
1. The okka or the patrilineal and patrilocal joint family is the basic group among Coorgs.
Membership of an okka is acquired by birth, and the outside world always identifies a man
with his okka” . “People who do not belong to an okka have no social existence”
2. While studying the Coorgs of South India, he formulated the concept of ‘Brahminization’ to
represent the process of the imitation of life-ways and ritual practices of Brahmins by the
lower-caste Hindus. • It later led to a higher-level concept, ‘sanskritization’, Brahminic model
as frame of reference had limitations (copying of life ways and rituals of other higher castes
also).
3. Village and Caste Solidarity- The social differences in the village community are expressed
during village festivals, when members of different castes serve different functions. The
collective dance and hand canalise the inter-okka rivalry present in the village, thereby
preventing the destruction of social order, observed Srinivas villagers take a vow collectively
to observe certain restrictions till the end of festivals.
Religion amomg Coorgs-
According to him, we cannot isolate religious beliefs completely from our life. Religious factors
always correlate with social norms and values. No religion is autonomous or eternal. He provides
an approach for those who do not regard religion as pure and society as corrupt. They have blind
faith in intangible things which are not practically accepted.
Concept of ritual purity of madi, and ritual impurity/pollution or pole. These concepts systematize
and maintain the structural distance between different castes. One of the most important
Untouchable castes are the Poley and Holey as both of which actually have the word pole attached
to them. The chapter brings forth the realisation that the state of pollution is relative in nature. A
lower caste individual is impure/polluted with reference to a higher caste, however within himself
he is in a state of relative purity. Thus, an individual of any caste, under normal circumstances, is in
a state of relative purity, with reference to his own caste.
Significant occasions of life cycle referred to as Mangala -include marriage, the ear boring ceremony
(representing social adulthood of males), building of a house, conferring of a bravery honour etc.,
all of which are performed on an auspicious day and thus recognisable as auspicious occasion. These
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occasions are marked by certain ritual complexes or murta.
Village deity- The village-deity has a significant role in the social life of the Coorgs. Inspite of being
referred to as a village deity, the deity in question might be a combined deity of more than one
village. The temples of these deities are simple and less ornate as compared to the Hindu temples;
and the priest of the village deity may or may not be a Brahmin. There are times when the temple
of the village deity might also consist of an outer sanctum of deities belonging to the lower caste.
Thus, the religious pantheon is also representative of the social reality of castes.
Concept of Hinduism- Hinduism like any other religion is not static. It both influences and is
influenced by the political and social forces of the time. The process of Sanskritization has continued
to entrance outlying group into the folds of Hinduism through the Sanskritic deities assuming
different forms in their travels all over India as well as local deities assuming Sanskritic labels and
forms.
This leads to the spread of Sanskritic rites, and the increasing Sanskritization of non-Sanskritic rites.
Sanskritic Hinduism provides certain common values to all Hindus; and the possession of common
values knits people together into a community. In case of the Coorgs this is exenterated by their
visits to regional shrines and temple and the comparison of Kaveri to Ganga in terms of a pious
river.
Reiterating the Coorg social life and the significance of ritual in its every nook and corner, and the
myths and folklores that continuously sanskritize the local deities into the Hindu pantheon.
(b) Illustrate the contribution of the Tebhaga Movement to the peasants

struggle in India. (10 Marks)
Peasant movements are important variants of social movements(Dhangare 1983). These movement
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can be categorized in terms of their ideological orientation, forms of grassroots mobilization, and
orientation towards change as ‘radical’ and ‘institutionalised’ to analyze their dynamics.
The Tebhaga movement was manifested in the undivided Bengal in mid 1940s centering around a
demand for tebhaga (two-third shares) by sharecroppers of their produce for themselves, instead of
one-half traditionally given to them by the jotedars—a class of intermediary landowners.
This movement grew against the backdrop of the flourishing interest of the intermediary class of
landowners on the one hand and that of the deterioration of the economic status of the agricultural
labourers, sharecroppers and poor peasants on the other. The deteriorating economic condition of
the lowest strata was reflected in the rapid expansion in the number of the sharecroppers and
agricultural labourers in the Bengal agrarian society of the time.
Increasing landlessness, poverty, under employment and various types of social and economic
deprivation of the backward classes Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and their exploitation by
the upper caste landowners and money lenders were the major issues involved in this movement.
It raised the consciousness and the basic exploitative charcter.
a) This movements were organised under the auspice of the organisation and leadership of the
Communists(of different political establishments)
b) this movement was ideologically radical in nature.It challenged the normative and the pre-
existing institutional arrangements of the society.
c) Uninstitutionalised collective mobilization and action was sponsored in this movement.
d) This movements was immediately directed against the traditional landlords, police
administration and other apparatus of the state
e) ]f) It looked for a radical change in the pre-existing agrarian arrangements of the society
f) Though the leadership of these movements came mostly from the urban intellectuals and the
higher caste groups, the poor peasantry especially from the Scheduled Castes and the
Scheduled Tribes, were the main driving forces in these collective mobilizations
g) Movement like these experienced the phenomenal participation of women in all phases of
progression of the collective mobilization; and exploitation of women by the upper caste
landowners had become a prominent issue in these movements.
The Tebhaga movement, to an extent, was successful, as it has been estimated that about 40 per cent
of the sharecropping peasants were granted the Tebhaga right by the landowners themselves. The
illegal exaction in the name of abwabs was also abolished.
The movement was, however, less successful in the East Bengal districts. In 1948-1950, there was
another wave of Tebhaga movement in these districts. The government cred-ited this to be a
handiwork of the Indian agents which the general public believed and abstained themselves from
involving in the movement. However, the East Bengal State Acquisition and Tenancy Act of 1950
was passed due to the initiation of the movement.
(c) Examine the changing initiatives of the land tenure system in India. (10
Marks)
Answer: -
Land Tenure System – It identifies the ownership of land and the relationship of the owner with
the cultivator.
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Terms and conditions under which land is leased to the tiller.
According to Ogolla and Mugabe (1996), tenure defines the methods by which individuals or
groups acquire, hold, transfer or transmit property rights in land.
HOW FAO DEFINES LAND TENURE
Land tenure
Land tenure is the relationship, whether legally or customarily defined, among people, as
individuals or groups, with respect to land. (For convenience, “land” is used here to include other
natural resources such as water and trees.) Land tenure is an institution, i.e., rules invented by
societies to regulate behaviour. Rules of tenure define how property rights to land are to be allocated
within societies. They define how access is granted to rights to use, control, and transfer land, as
well as associated responsibilities and restraints. In simple terms, land tenure systems determine
who can use what resources for how long, and under what conditions.
Land tenure is an important part of social, political and economic structures. It is multi-dimensional,
bringing into play social, technical, economic, institutional, legal and political aspects that are often
ignored but must be taken into account. Land tenure relationships may be well-defined and
enforceable in a formal court of law or through customary structures in a community. Alternatively,
they may be relatively poorly defined with ambiguities open to exploitation.
Vedic period- State ownership limited. Common ownership of land.
Mughal rule – assessment of land revenue more systemized and standardized.
British rule – system of assessment and collection varied according to states and administration’s
convenience.
Who is owner?
Relation of owner and cultivator
Terms and conditions
3 main systems used by British–
Ryotwari – Independent single tenure. Sir Thomas Munroe, 1820, Madras. Occupant is tenant of
state (state is owner of all land). 20-30 years. Revenue as rent and not tax.
Eviction in case of non-payment. Assam, TN, MP, Gujarat, Maharashtra.
Mahalwari – Joint village ownership. (villages = mahals). Co-sharer selected to take liability on 5%
commission. 30-40 years.
Zamindari (Permanent Settlement System) – landlord/intermediaries. Outcome of permanent
settlement Lord Cornwallis, Bihar 1793.
Why – British reluctance to deal directly, force of loyals.
Who – revenue collecting officers of Mughals (they were not owners).
Real proprietors became tenants. State to get 10/11 of rent. Zamindars further leased out
(outsourced). Long chain of middle-men.
After Independence in 1947, almost all states passed legislation in the early 1950’s formally
abolishing landlords and other intermediaries between the government and the cultivator.
Several other laws have also been passed regarding tenancy reform, ceiling on land holdings, and
land consolidation measures by different states at different times.
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Post-independence land reforms
At the time of Independence, landless and marginalised farmers were promised by the Indian
leaders that once the British left the country, there would be equal distribution of land.
According to FAO, Land policy in India has undergone broadly four phases since Independence: -
The first and longest phase (1950 - 72) consisted of land reforms that included three major efforts:
abolition of the intermediaries, tenancy reform, and the redistribution of land using land ceilings.
The abolition of intermediaries was relatively successful, but tenancy reform and land ceilings met
with less success.
The second phase (1972 - 85) shifted attention to bringing uncultivated land under cultivation.
The third phase (1985 - 95) increased attention towards water and soil conservation through the
Watershed Development, Drought-Prone Area Development (DPAP) and Desert-Area
Development Programmes (DADP). A central government Waste land Development Agency was
established to focus on wasteland and degraded land. Some of the land policy from this phase
continued beyond its final year.
The fourth and current phase of policy (1995 onwards) centres on debates about the necessity to
continue with land legislation and efforts to improve land revenue administration and, in particular,
clarity in land records.
There have been many legislations and other steps since independence: -
The move that allowed the states to make their own Zamindari Abolition Acts, abolish Begari (free
labour) and redistribute land and community resources (such as ponds, lakes and forests).
The Agricultural Land Ceiling Act - these state-wise Acts limit the maximum area that one
landholder can own to minimise inequality in land ownership. All surplus land should be
distributed among landless and marginal farmers.
The Forest Rights Act (2006) – this Act overrides the 1920 Indian Forest Act, allowing tribal
communities and forest dwellers to apply for the rights to forest land that they have been living on
and using for generations.
NITI Aayog initiative- NITI Aayog has prepared a draft model Land Title Act, 2019. The draft model
recommends conclusive land titles and providing of State guaranteed ownership.
The Centre under the Ministry of Rural Development and State Governments/Union Territories
administration are in the process of implementing the Digital India Land records implementation
programme 2.0 wherein the endeavour is to digitalise the land records and land registration is to be
maintained in a computerised database.
Along with the same, a scheme for mapping of land parcels in rural inhabited areas using Drone
technology is also underway and the objective is to ensure that phase-wise manner of mapping of
land parcels across the country should be completed by 2024.
Several important issues confronted the policy-makers, according to FAO: -

Land was concentrated in the hands of a few and there was a proliferation of intermediaries who
had no vested interest in self-cultivation. Leasing out land was a common practice.
The tenancy contracts were exploitative in nature and tenant exploitation was ubiquitous.
Land records were in extremely bad shape giving rise to a mass of litigation. It is ironic that the
Supreme Court of India in 1989 commented that the revenue records are not legal documents of title
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(Wadhwa, 1989). This is a sad commentary on the land records of the country.
Existing gaps
Absence of a standardised national registry of land records, record of rights being undertaken is
primarily for agricultural land while responsibility for urban land lies with urban departments etc.
still exist.
Another area that the government needs to work on and bring changes to is that of land leasing.
Institutional framework for leasing of land is required to be put in place which will bring
transparency and ensure land ownership right and tenancy right for landowners and tenants
respectively
It will also enable tenants to access bank credit and incentivise them to make investments in land
improvement, allow mutually agreeable stipulations between the landowner and tenant for the
lease agreement etc.
Governmental authorities may consider offering the land not in use of agricultural activities to non-
agricultural use on easy terms with smooth and transparent process. • The government may
seriously consider releasing surplus land with the public undertakings. In fact, a substantial part of
the land owned by many PSUs and port
authorities are illegally occupied by others in no way associated with the concerned public units —
often with active backing of local criminals in nexus with political leaders.
Conclusion
Thus, with an aspirational goal of India becoming a $5-trillion economy by 2025 the imperative need
today is to unleash the power of land and reap fruits by bringing about the much-needed Land
Reforms which are waiting to see the light of the day. Land reforms which have been on the anvil
for some time now can very well be the next big game-changer for India.
Land reforms in India are a state subject. Ownership or title to a plot of land in the country is largely
a presumptive title rather than a conclusive title.
Conclusive land titling will help farmers gain easy access to credit, considerably reduce land
associated litigations, enable transparent land transactions and make the process of land acquisition
for infrastructure development smooth and efficient.
(d) Write a note on Ghurye’s conception of caste in India. (10 Marks)

In the early 1930s, G.S. Ghurye published a book, Caste and Race in India which still is an important
source book on Indian castes. In this work, he examined the caste system from historical,
comparative and integrative perspectives.
Ghurye describes caste as a form of social organization that is unique to Indian civilization, which
presents a clear contrast to social groupings in the rest of the world. Hindu society is divided into
groupings known as caste, with varying degrees of respectability and social interaction.
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Ghurye brought out the following six features of the caste system:
1. Segmental division of society: The caste society comprises of heterogeneous groups with a
distinct life of their own and the membership is determined not by selection but by birth.
Castes are small and complete social world in themselves, marked off definitely from one
another, though subsisting within the larger society.
2. Hierarchy: One of the principal characteristic of the caste society is the hierarchy of groups.
This implies a definite scheme of social precedence amongst the castes with the Brahmin at
the head of the hierarchy.
3. Restrictions on feeding and social intercourse: There are minute rules pertaining to what sort
of food or drink can be accepted by a person and from what castes. While lower castes have
no scruples in accepting cooked food from any higher caste, the Brahmins and other castes
did not accept food or water from other castes that stood lower than itself in the social scale.
Ghurye also mentions about the theory of pollution communicated by some castes to
members of the higher ones.
4. Civil and religious disabilities and privileges of the different sections: Ghurye noted that one
of the most obvious markers of civil privileges and disabilities that prevailed all over India
was the segregation of individual castes or a group of castes in a village. Southern India
stands out as the most rigid in the matter of rules pertaining to ceremonial purity and
untouchability. In Southern India, certain parts of the town or village were inaccessible to
certain castes. Even the type of houses that were to be built and the materials that were to be
used for construction were prescribed for lower castes.
5. Lack of unrestricted choice of occupation: The occupations have been fixed by heredity.
Generally the castes were not allowed to change their traditional occupations. All caste
people maintain their supremacy and secrecy in their jobs and do not allow the other caste
group to join in. The upper caste people like Brahmins are free to opt for study of religious
books, while this cannot be done by other classes.
6. Restriction of marriage: Caste groups follow the principle of endogamy. This means that caste
groups marry within their own groups. Marrying outside the caste group is strongly
condemned.
Critique
1. MNSrinivas called it the Book view of Indian society which is not representative of ground
realities.
2. Marxists sociologist said that GS Ghurye ignored the inherently exploitative nature of caste
and class and focused only on its integrative aspect.
3. Andre Betellie said that caste as status group formed the basis of organised social action.
The caste system today was becoming “pluralist” in the sense that each caste was in competition or
conflict with the other for bigger share of the nation’s wealth. Hence, according to Ghurye the
scramble for privileges was damaging the unity of society.
(e) Comment on the growing assertion of tribal community for autonomy

Answer:
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Structure
 Introduction
 Integration and Autonomy
 Challenges and issues
 Assertion of identity
 Constitutional safeguards
 Conclusion
The Article 342 of Indian constitution is related to the scheduled tribe communities and they
represent 8.6% of India’s population (Census, 2011). There are more than 700 notified ST
communities and varies from each other in terms of religion, kinship etc.
Integration and Autonomy
In the sociological literature various scholars had provided arguments on the issue of autonomy
and integration. For Ghurye tribes are ‘backward Hindus’, whose isolation is the root cause of their
social backwardness, hence needs to be assimilated in the larger society. According to
assimilationists like L.P. Vidyarti that tribe-caste interlinkage is mentioned in ancient Sanskrit texts
- Vedas mention Nishads who went for caste status, Ramayana has Shabri, Mahabharta has
Ghatotkacha, Eklavya. According to this perspective tribes have been left behind in the
development story and they should be integrated to promote inclusive growth and human
development.
Counter to assimilation ideas British anthropologist Elwin was of the view that tribes can only be
developed along the lines of their “own genius” without disturbing their social and cultural lives.
They advocated the idea of autonomy, along with the self-governing rights. The constituent
assembly promoted the idea of tribal development but with limited integration in the mainstream
society.
After independence Jawaharlal Nehru adopted the approach of controlled integration and gave the
idea of ‘Tribal Panchsheel’. It means inclusion of tribal communities in different spheres of
education, employment and administration without any imposition of the mainstream society.
Challenges and issues
Despite various constitutional safeguards and other development measures the tribal communities
had faced severe discrimination and they are-
 Lack of representation - tribal communities hardly have any say in policies and programmes
related to them.
 Issue of ‘Jal, Jangal and Jameen’ as tribal lands are acquired by the government for ‘national
development’ and economic growth of the nation. Scholars like Virginus XaXa explained
how big projects had reduced tribes to second class citizens.
 Moreover, tribal land had been given to private sector for mining and other purposes that
led to massive protest, movements by tribal communities.
 Problem of stigma and social discrimination e.g. criminal tribe’s act.
 Issue of identification and documents especially related to PVTGs and De-notified tribes.
 Naxalism had also impacted the lives and livelihood of tribal communities
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 Deficit in governance - Acts like AFSPA and incident like Nagaland killings promote
suspicion.
 Demography issues and conflict with indigenous culture. In 1941, the tribes made up 50.09%
of the population in Tripura the non-tribal were 49.91%. The 2011 Census showed a dip in
their population to 31.8% compared to 68.2% of the non-tribal people.
 Committees like Dhebar commission and Xaxa committee explain how tribal communities
are poor in almost all social indicators, problem of eviction and displacement still persists,
social discrimination still prevalent throughout the country.
Assertion of identity
The above-mentioned issues hampered the growth of ‘social contract’ between state and the tribal
communities. The forces of liberalisation privatisation and globalisation had aggravated the issues
of tribal people and they had taken various steps to assert their presence –
 Niyamgiri movement, which was led by dongria tribe in Orissa against mining companies.
 The Pathalgadi movement of Jharkhand forced the government to withdraw its controversial
order related to land rights
 The on-going Hasdeo forest movement in Chhattisgarh against coal mining is another
example of tribal identity and unity.
 Various groups in the North East protested against the Citizenship amendment Act as it will
promote migrant population in their region.
 The demands for political autonomy and extension of the 6th Schedule to tribal areas had
been raised by numerous communities.
On the political front the rise of Bhartiya Tribal party in Gujarat and Rajasthan showcases the rise
of political awareness among the ST communities.
Various initiatives by the government like Van bandhu kalyan Yojana and Van-Dhan yojana – to
promote holistic development of tribal communities had also strengthened the economic clout and
power of the tribal communities. Organisation like TRIFED and marketing schemes like ‘Tribes
India’ had not only increased the income of tribal communities but also promoted their identity and
culture at the national level.
Recently union government celebrated first tribal day on the birthday of Tribal leader ‘Birsa Munda’,
moreover, government is also planning to construct multiple tribal museums to promote tribal
culture, identity, art, craft etc.
However, the assertion of tribal identity had also promoted various negative tendencies-
 Conflict between state and tribes - The problem of separatism and militant warfare. Various
groups like ULFA, NSCN-K etc. are involved in extortion and violence
 Conflict between tribes - The power struggle and conflict between various tribes over
resources dents ‘adivasi consciousnesses.’ E.g. – Bru-mizo issue
 Conflict between tribal and non-tribal – Clash between Dalit Sikhs and local communities in
Shillong,
Conclusion
The major problem in tribal autonomy debate is the lack of participation and view from the tribal
community itself. All major ideas are from the mainstream perspective and this alienated the tribes
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from rest of the society. The pushback and assertion by tribal for their culture, identity, clearly
explains future discourse must give due share to voices of the tribal people.
Constitutional safeguards
 The 5th and 6th schedule gave more autonomy and decision making powers.
 Article 15(4) promotes the social, economic and educational interests.
 Article 16(4) talks about the reservation of posts and services for ST/SC communities.
 Article 19(4) safeguards Tribal interests by restricting the freedom of non-tribal groups of
acquisition and disposition of property in tribal dominated areas.
 Article 23 abolishes bonded labour addressing the social and economic oppression.
 Article 29 ensures preservation of local languages, dialects and culture.
 Article 330, 332 & 334 reserve seats for ST’s in Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha ensuring their
representation in the governing bodies.
 Article 338A brought in the National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST) having
representation of panellists of tribal communities.
 PESA act 1995 ensures power to the local bodies for the management and development of
natural resources and dispute resolution.
 A provision for a minister of tribal welfare in some states (164).
 Article 371 upholds customary laws, justice and socio-religious practices of tribals in some
states.
Question 2.
(a) Critically examine Dube’s contributions to the study of Indian villages.
(20 Marks)
 Dube’s book on Indian Village, first published in 1955 was a milestone in the study of Indian
society. In this book, he made a significant contribution in understanding the Indian society
through structural-functional perspective.
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 While examining the village selected for his study, he says that one must examine the various
units through which the village community is organized.
 Dube conducted a descriptive study of the village Shamirpet, which is situated at a distance
of about 25 miles from the twin cities of Hyderabad and Secunderabad in Andhra Pradesh in
the Deccan Plateau of India. It is an outcome of the Social Service Extension Project,
sponsored by the Department of Sociology and Anthropology.
 Dube describes a Deccan village in India in 1955 on the same lines which Robert Redfield
conducted his first village study in Mexico in 1930. Many of his conclusions could provide
the first insight into the complex web of Indian village life. He observes: “No village in India
is completely autonomous and independent, for it is always one unit in a wider social system
and is a part of an organized political society.”
 According to Dube, “an individual is not the member of a village community alone, he also
belongs to a caste, religious group or a tribe with a wider territorial spread and comprises
several villages. These units have their own organization, authority and sanctions.”
 The study presents a comprehensive picture of the functioning of village institutions
although it is one of the earliest monographs on a village. Dube asserts that the economic
system of rural India is founded mainly on caste’s functional specialization, interdependence
and occupational mobility. He also observes that the elements of classical Hinduism of an all-
India spread are mingled with the regional religious beliefs and practices of Hindus of
Deccan Plateau.
According to him three types of religious services and festivals is celebrated in the village-
o Family ceremonies
o Village familial and communal festival’
o The Muslim and Hindu interaction during festivals
 S.C Dube identified six factors that contributed towards the status differentiation in the
village community of Shamirpet –religion and caste, landownership, wealth, position in the
government service and village organization, age and distinctive personality traits. Attempts
to claim a higher ritual status was not a simple process. The group had to negotiate it at the
local power structure. Dube pointed out the manner in which the caste panchayat of the
lower or the menial castes worked as unions to secure their employment and strengthen their
bargaining power with the land owning dominant castes.
 The major criticism was put forward by M.N Srinivas-
 To Srinivas the social world of the woman was synonymous with the household and kinship
group while the men inhabited a more heterogeneous world. In the Telangana village Dube
observed that women were secluded from the activities of the public space. It was considered
a mark of respectability in women if they walked with their eyes downcast.
 The rules of patriarchy were clearly laid out. After caste gender was the most important factor
that governed the division of labor in the village. Masculine and feminine pursuits were
clearly distinguished.
 Srinivas pointed out that the two sets of occupations were not only separated but also seen
as unequal. It was the man who exercised control over the domestic economy. He made the
annual grain payments at harvest to the members of the artisan and servicing castes who had
worked for him during the year. The dominant male view thought of women as being
incapable of understanding what went on outside the domestic wall.
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 Dube highlighted the role of various social structures like social, economic, ritual and
political to help in shaping the village. Further, the elements of various social structures are
interlinked at the individual level as well as the higher order to bring about solidarity and
consensus among the villagers.
 Attempt has been made to understand the factors which led to the changing scenario of
village Shamirpeth (Hyderabad) in Andhra Pradesh. In his book, India’s Changing Village
(1958), Dube deals with the changes brought about in Indian villages by initiation of CDPs
(Community Development programmes) in India. The book discusses the human factors’
responsibility in bringing changes in villages of India through CDP.
(b) What is caste politics? Substantiate your answer with examples of how
identities are defined by caste dynamics. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Brief introduction of caste politics
 Colonial period and Caste politics
 Caste politics in independent India
 Aspects of Caste politics
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 Impact of caste politics
Caste is a significant factor in influencing Indian politics. Caste and democratic politics appear to be
diametrically opposed concepts: caste is a strict hierarchical stratified structure based on birth,
whereas democratic politics defends the principles of equality, freedom, and justice. Rajni Kothari
stated that the search for power inside caste groupings or among castes resulted in the politicisation
of caste.
Caste and Politics in Pre- Independence India
 Significant changes in the caste system occurred with the establishment of British
administration. Modern education introduced the concepts of rights, liberty, and equality.
 During this period, caste associations and sabhas advocate for increased status in census
records and daily interactions.
 The British government intervened in caste hierarchy in three significant ways:
1. By seeking counsel from Brahmins, they gave them primacy, resulting in discontent
and the birth of an anti-Brahminical movement (south India and Maharashtra). To
oppose Brahmin dominance, organisations like as the Justice Party were founded.
2. Morley Minto Reform (1909)- separate electorate for the depressed classes.
3. The British government established a missionary education system to teach the
populace about their rights, which challenged the power of the upper castes.
Relation between Caste and Politics in the Post-Independence India
 Many theorists believe that castes are taking new roles such as influencing politics and
playing a role in political dynamics such as an effective pressure or interest group. Nehru
thought that democratic democracy and caste could not coexist. Similarly, Ambedkar argued
“you can’t build anything on the foundation of Caste.”
 According to Andre Beteille, Indian politics has continuously attempted to negotiate the
loyalty liberal spirit and communal consciousness. In his book Caste in Indian Politics, Rajni
Kothari argues that in newly independent democratic India, caste and politics are linked in
three ways:
 Secularisation of caste occurred, which expanded the role of caste from a traditional
community identity rules and rituals to a larger phenomenon that was used in caste
mobilisation for secular proposes of power and employment.
 Integration, caste not only distinguishes people based on their caste identity, but it also
integrates people on a smaller scale, forming their loyalties to specific groups.
 Consciousness, he believes that caste enters politics by being conscious of its identity and
becoming politicised, which strengthens community consciousness.
Various aspects of caste politics are-
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 Castes, socialisation, and leadership - Different caste groups have loyalty to various political
parties and ideologies. Individuals are naturally influenced by caste groupings and casteism
as they develop their political orientations, attitudes, and beliefs. 'Caste values' and caste
interests have an impact on socialisation, and hence on political thought, consciousness, and
engagement. The process of leadership recruitment is influenced by caste. In Haryana,
leadership is provided by either the Jats or the Bishnois or Brahmins. Andhra Pradesh's state
leaders are the Reddys, Kammas, and Valamas.
 Caste and Party Politics: Some political parties have a clear caste foundation, while others
rely on certain caste groups indirectly. The DMK and AIADMK are Tamil Nadu's non-
Brahmin, anti-Brahmin political parties. While the BSP relies heavily on the support of the
Scheduled Castes, the support of high caste Hindus and the trade sector is very crucial for
BJP. Paul. R. Brass refers to it as a "coalition of castes," in which all parties study the
composition of the constituency and evaluate which candidate should be elected as the
representative based on caste identification.
campaigns." Jat candidates are fielded in seats dominated by Jats.
Impact of caste politics
 Caste as a Divisive and Cohesive Factor in Indian Politics: Caste functions in Indian politics
as both a divisive and a unifying factor. It serves as a foundation for the creation of various
interest groups in the Indian system, each of which strives for power with every other group.
It may sometimes lead to an unhealthy quest for control and operate as a dividing force. It is,
however, a source of solidarity among members of disparate groups and serves as a cohesive
force.
 Rudolph and Rudolph investigated the untouchable group Shanans of Tamil Nadu and
described how political mobilisation and organisation aided them in achieving higher social
status.
 Reservations- Caste-based reservations are accused for preserving caste-based identities in a
contemporary society that prioritises merit-based equal opportunity for education and
employment. According to Christopher Jaffrelot, caste has evolved from a system to an
interest group. He emphasises how caste-based reservations aided in the transformation of
caste into interest groups.
 Identity and representation - In his book Who Wants Democracy, Javeed Alam notes that
lower castes see caste politics as an empowering instrument.
According to Jaffrelot and Kumar, identity politics has secured the presence of lower and
marginalised castes in Indian politics.
 Caste-based discrimination and atrocities against lower castes include exploitation of
women, financial exploitation, limits on access to resources and opportunities, stereotypes,
and prejudice in social and public life.
o Caste and the establishment of a council of ministers: When forming the council of
ministers, the prime minister and chief minister must ensure that representatives from
various castes in their state are represented.
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o Castelessness and Privilege — Modern caste politics primarily emphasises lower
caste assertiveness and associates caste-based politics with marginalised groups.
Traditional higher castes might lay claim to the concept of 'castelessness'. According
to Satish Deshpande, this is due to higher castes' 'invisibility' and lower castes' 'hyper-
visibility.'
The interaction between different communities in society is shaped by caste politics. Over time,
hierarchy-based stratification has increased 'caste consciousness' across many societies. Strong caste
identities create sentiments of belonging or self-esteem, relying on some caste standards in the
process. They are preoccupied with their identity, which is mostly due to sentiments of connectivity
with prior generations of one's caste group. The rising assertion of identities has resulted in a variety
of tensions and violence in society, such as attacks on dalits for riding horses and the Una violence
case.
On the other hand, modern political ideas emphasise the value of equality and liberty, and there are
several cases of caste groups voting against their traditional parties. The attraction of politicians
such as Indira Gandhi, Narendra Modi, and others cuts beyond caste groupings, resulting in the
demise of caste-based politics.
As a result, caste and politics had a dual impact on society. According to Andre Beteille's western
ideals, contemporary political principles are driving people away from their caste identities, while
caste politics are reinforcing them.
(c) Do you think that the Indian saints have brought about social reform and
awareness in Indian society? Explain. (10 Marks)
In his work, Indian Sadhus, Ghurye (1953) examined the paradoxical nature of renunciation in India.
In Indian culture, the Sadhu or Sannyasin is supposed to be detached from all caste norms, social
conventions.
Indian society has witnessed saints and their teachings since early 11th century, various saints from
different regions of India and their teachings have continuously helped in bringing equality and
awareness in society. They spread the message of love and brother hood in Indian society.
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Social reform and awareness-
Arbiters of religious disputes, patronised learning of scriptures and even defended religion against
external attacks. So, renunciation has been a constructive force in Hindu society. Ghurye considered
in detail the different groups of Sadhus. Important among them were the Shaivite Dashnamis (literal
meaning: ten orders) and Vaishnavite Bairagis.
Abolition of Social Evils: Indian saints have historically been at the forefront of campaigns against
social evils such as untouchability, caste discrimination, and the mistreatment of women. They used
their spiritual authority to challenge these practices and promote equality.
Advocacy for Education: Many Indian saints, like Swami Vivekananda and Raja Ram Mohan Roy,
emphasized the importance of education. They established schools and educational institutions to
spread knowledge, particularly among marginalized communities.
Women’s Rights: Saints like Swami Dayananda Saraswati and Ramakrishna Paramahamsa
challenged prevailing norms related to the treatment of women. They advocated for women’s
education and empowerment.
Symbolising diversity and promoting inclusivity- These Sadhus who assembled on a large scale at
Kumbh Mela were the very microcosm of India; they came from diverse regions, spoke different
languages but belonged to common religious orders.. The well-known ascetics of the recent times,
Vivekanand, Dayanand Saraswati and Sri Aurobindo worked for the betterment of Hinduism.
Bridge Between Communities: Saints often serve as bridges between different communities and
castes. Their teachings promote unity and harmony, transcending divisions that have plagued
Indian society.
They are also criticised as sometimes they increased focus on Suddhi Movements and revivalist
tendencies of glorification of past tend to create communal strife also and anomies in society such
as that of Arya Samaj.
Today again with the increasing number of sect and cult and the secular function of these
organisations such as Sadhguru of Isha foundation we can see that the role of sadhus in upliftment
of humanity has taken centre stage.
Question 3.
(a) What is ethno-nationalism? Examine the critical factors responsible for
tribal discontent in India. (20 Marks)
Ethno-nationalism is a form of ethnicity in which a particular ethnic identity is crystallized and
institutionalized by acquiring a political agenda. Nations are created when ethnic groups in a multi-
ethnic state are transformed into a self-conscious political entities. Hence, it is the goals of
sovereignty and self-determination that set nationalism apart from ethnicity.
Ethno-nationalism transcends the boundaries of state, religion sect and class. It seeks to fragment
established nationalities and communities and create new ones using ethnic indicators. The
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symbolic and cultural aspects of ethnicity are important in themselves and often get politicised for
the promotion of collective interests.
Most ethno-national conflicts are for a larger share of economic resources and products and for a
greater part in decision-making processes. According to Joseph Rothschild, “politicised ethnicity
has become the most keen and potent edge of intrastate and interstate conflict and it asserts itself
today dialectically as the leading legitimator or delegitimating or political authority.”
Ethno-Nationalism: The Indian Case
Sharma described how ethnic antagonism has posed four serious challenges to the Indian state.
These are:
Casteism-A curious mix of ethnic identity and modern interests in which the ethnic group uses the
caste ideology to further its economic and political interests, e.g., a political party asking for votes
of a particular caste group.
Communalism-the "unholy" alliance between religion and politics in which religion may be used
for political or economic gains, e.g., the Hindutva concept useed by the BJP.
Nativism-the 'sons of the soil' concept in which regional identities become the source of ethnic strife,
e.g., the movement in Assam to expel the 'foreigners' from Bengal.
Ethno-nationalism-the transformation of an ethnic group to a nationality which may start
demanding autonomous governance in a particular territory or even secession, separation and
recognition as a sovereign nation, e.g., the movements in Kashmir and Punjab.
Factors for tribal discontent –
British Policies- The British policy towards the tribals had two major elements. Firstly, it favoured
isolation of the tribal areas from the mainstream. Because the British tribal policy was political and
colonial, the British administration feared, that if these tribals were to have contact with the
mainstream of Indian society, the freedom movements would gain further strength. In this
background it seemed logical to them to isolate, administratively and politically, the regions that
had predominantly tribal populations.
Secondly, at the level of reform, the British administration was interested in ‘civilising’ these people.
In an ethno-centric assessment, the tribals were viewed at par with stage of bestiality. The classical
theory of evolution, which had gripped academic attention in late nineties and early twenties, had
treated the ‘contemporary primitives’ as the remnants or survivals of the early stages of humanity,
savagery and barbarism.
In the words of Sir, E.B. Tylor, these people inhabiting the hilly or forested terrain with sparse
population and difficult communication were ‘social fossils’; a study of whom would illuminate the
prehistoric phases of human existence.
Issues Relating to Access to Livelihood
Agrarian Policies, Land Laws and Land Alienation Among Tribals- Although the forestland was
primarily owned by the tribal communities. In many adivasi areas, requisite surveys were never
done. Thus, people’s rights over vast tracts of land were never recognized, though the land was
customarily owned by these tribal communities (Xaxa,2007, Sarap, 2017). Further, the increasing
pauperisation and marginalisation of peasantry has been affecting the livelihood of the tribals. The
National Sample Survey Office data shows an increasing trend of landlessness among the tribal
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households, leading to their pauperisation.
Loss of Land and Livelihood
There was loss of the source of livelihood since the tribals were kept away from the shifting
cultivation as it was considered wasteful and destructive but the British government considered it
as a source of regular revenue, and therefore, the tribals were encouraged to take up land for
cultivation but on lower rates of assessment.
However, the lack of agricultural implements, poor quality of soil, frequent crop failure and rigid
revenue demands, often forced the cultivators, both tribals and non- tribals, to turn to money
tenders to provide them with money at high rates of interest to buy seeds, consumption items, and
even money to pay revenue to the government.
In several parts, the trend of increasing indebtedness and transfer of land for cultivation to the
money-lending classes increased. In this way, a powerful class emerged which amassed large
amounts of land and wealth through combined activities of money-lending, trading and liquor
selling.
This trend reduced the tribals to the position of bonded labourers and tenants. Thus, from a low
subsistence, the tribals became totally dependent on the landlord- money lenders, traders,
shopkeeper, for their survival. The exploitation and oppression by the money-lending class not only
reduced them to extreme poverty but also removed their self respect.
Regulations and Resistance
There has been, of late, a growing awareness of the environmental problems facing the country,
especially the depletion of our forest resources. The conflict and tension is growing among
contending tribal groups because of deprivation and lack of access to resources and power. The
task of fullfillment of tribal ‘rights’; and the loss of their control over their natural resources have
evoked a sharp reaction from the tribal forest communities.
There have been revolts in different tribal areas centered around the question of forests since the
early days of forest administration. For instance, in Garhwal, the reservation of forests in 1913 was
followed by extensive social movements in 1916 and 1921, coinciding with the first non-cooperation
movement, engulfing large areas of Garhwal and Kumaon. These upsurges forced the government
to de-reserve large forest areas. The discontent among the tribal people due to forest restrictions
manifested in the unwillingness of the villagers to cooperate with the Forest Department in its task
of forest conservation.
Development-induced Displacement Among Tribals

Existing studies reveal that most of the people displaced due to development projects are tribals
because tribal areas are rich in natural resources. The magnitude of the problem of displacement is
known from various projects. We can easily understand from the latest, popular and major projects
such as the Narmada (SardarSarovar) and Polavaram projects.
It’s important to note that ethnic conflicts are complex, with underlying historical, economic,
political, and social factors that contribute to their emergence and perpetuation. Addressing ethnic
conflicts typically requires a comprehensive approach that considers these multifaceted causes and
seeks to promote reconciliation, inclusivity, and sustainable peace.
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(b) Is industrial development in India a bane or a boon to agrarian class

structure? Substantiate your answer with suitable examples. (20 Marks)
Industrialization refer to a process of change in the technology used to produce goods and services.
This economic process has become the one of the driving factors for the change in the society and
affecting its entire dimension. The industrialization has taken a peak through Industrial revolution,
which led to different agricultural and technological innovation impacting both rural and urban
society in different manner.
How industrial development is a boon:
1. Class and Caste mobility: With increasing industrial intervention dominant caste has
emerged in different regions of India. Similarly workers from village working in urban
industrial centers(Jan Breman have called them footloose labor) have brought new value and
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norms , which has also affected the agrarian class structure. For example, the Green
Revolution in the 1960s brought significant changes to Punjab's agrarian landscape,
increasing agricultural productivity.
2. According to Andre Beteille, the industrial workers due to their increased earning have
changed the existing pattern of the landholding. It was earlier dominated by upper caste but
now even lower caste is buying lands in villages.
3. Changing MOP and social organization: The industrial revolution has increased
mechanization in agriculture, capital investment, and integration of agriculture with market.
Earlier agriculture was done for subsistence but now the primary motive is to earn profit.
Traditional forms of social organization, such as "feudalism" and "peasant societies," have
broken down, making room for more diversified social structures.
4. New class structure: According to Rudolph and Rudolph, there is emerging new classes like
Bullock Capitalists in the agrarian class structure.
5. The traditional framework of jajmani relations has largely disintegrated, making room for
more formalized arrangements between cultivators and those employed by them.
How industrial development is bane:
1. According to Marxists, the big landlords will control the factors of production and benefit
themselves only. Not everyone may benefit equally, and disparities in access to opportunities
can lead to the perpetuation of social hierarchies. For example, the green revolution has
mostly benefited the big landlords who could afford the costly HYV seeds and machines.
2. Decreasing importance of agriculture: Establisment of new industries in the vicinity of
villages has led to increased migration and diluted the centrality of land in agrarian class
structure.
3. New cultural challenges: There may be resistance to cultural changes, causing tensions
between traditional values and the influences of industrialization. This can lead to social
conflicts and identity crises. For example, Khap panchayats still oppose the inter-caste
marriages.
4. Feminization of agriculture: As it is mostly the males who migrate to industrial areas to work
in industries and factories, the women in villages get responsibility to work in the fields.
5. More participation of agrarian classes in industries has alienated them from their earlier
social life in the villages which was based on cooperation and social cohesion. They are
shifting from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity.
Impact of industry on the agrarian class structure in India is a complex interplay of positive and
negative influences. Industrial development is proliferating the middle class in the agrarian class
structure which is changing the values, norms and practices of rural society and there is increased
inter linkage between the rural urban societies. So the industrial development should be balanced
in a manner to benefit agrarian society without affecting it negatively.
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(c) Give an account of Ranajit Guha’s approach in studying ‘subaltern class’

10 Marks
Structure
 Define Subaltern class
 Subaltern studies
 Explain Ranajit Guha's approach
 Criticism
 Conclusion
What is Subaltern class ?
In postcolonial studies and in critical theory, the term subaltern designates and identifies the
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colonial populations who are socially, politically, and geographically excluded from the hierarchy
of power of an imperial colony and from the metropolitan homeland of an empire.
Antonio Gramsci coined the term subaltern to identify the cultural hegemony that excludes and
displaces specific people and social groups from the socio- economic institutions of society, in order
to deny their agency and voices in colonial politics.
Subaltern, meaning 'of inferior rank', is a term adopted by Antonio Gramsci to refer to those groups
in society who are subject to the hegemony Of the ruling classes. Subaltern classes may include
peasants, workers and other groups denied access to 'hegemonic' power,
Subaltern Studies
 Subaltern Studies emerged around 1982 as a series of journal articles published by Oxford
University Press in India. A group of Indian scholars trained in the west wanted to reclaim
their history.
• Its main goal was to retake history for the underclasses, for the voices that had not been heard
previous. Scholars of the subaltern hoped to break away from histories of the elites and the
Eurocentric bias of current imperial history.
• In the main, they wrote against the "Cambridge School" which seemed to uphold the colonial
legacy — i.e. it was elite-centered.
 Instead, they focused on subaltern in terms of class, caste, gender, race, language and culture,
They espoused the idea that there may have been political dominance, but that this was not
hegemonic. 'Ihe primary leader was Ranajit Guha who had written works on peasant
uprisings in India.
 Reclaim their story, to give voice to the subjected peoples. Any other history merely
reconstructs imperialist hegemony and does not give voice to the people—those who
resisted, those who supported, those who experienced colonial incursion. "
 According to the Subaltern Studies group, this history is designed to be a "contribution made
by people on their own, that it, independently of the élite" (quoted in Young 160).
They did this by establishing a journal out of Oxford, Delhi and Australia and called it
Subaltern Studies to write a history against the grain and restore history to the subordinated.
In other words, to give the common people back their agency.
 In other words, proponents of subaltern studies suggest that we need to find alternate sources
to locate the voice of the subaltern historically. Elite records, like those at the home office or
foreign office could still be used, but you had to read them with a different pair Of lenses.
Relevance
Obviously, the introduction Of subaltern studies, like all Of our theories we've encountered this
term, has tremendous political repercussions. In a society like Great Britain, that claims to operate
as a "Commonwealth" yet sees racism around every corner as well as the desire to keep out the
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blacks who cause all the problems (refer to recent Prime Minister elections), the writing and
mapping Of a history Of previously silent groups creates an undercurrent throughout the society.
Subaltern history will help to lay bare previously covered histories, previously ignored events,
previously purposeful hidden secrets of the past.
Ranaut Guha's Approach
 According to Guha, the subaltern historiography focuses on the peasants and tribal
movements during colonial period in India as it has been overlooked by the dominant
mainstream elitist historiography. Such historiography emphasises the role of the individual
leaders or Of organisations and institutions as the major force during the freedom struggle.
 Subaltern studies analyse the "binary relationship" of the subaltern and ruling classes, and
thus study the interplay of dominance and subordination in colonial systems, most notably
India.
 Guha in his article entitled "Some Aspects of the Historiography of Colonial India," argues
that the historiography of the Indian nationalism was dominated by these elitists who were
the colonial and bourgeois nationalists. This type of historical writing gives the impression
that the Indian nation and the consciousness of nationalism was an achievement of only the
elites.
 On the other hand, the elitist perspective of history writing portrays their articulation and
uprising as the law and order problem. The one-sided perspective considers Indian
nationalism as the response of the charisma of certain elite leaders.
Criticism
 Dipesh Chakrabarty ("postcoloniality and the artifice of history" in representation) suggest
that it is really impossible to fully break from the western narrative.
 Indian sociologist Vivek Chibber has criticised the premise of Subaltern Studies for its
obfuscation of class struggle and class formation in its analysis, and accused it Of excising
class exploitation from the story Of the oppression of the subaltern.
 Feminist scholar Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak cautioned against an over-broad application of
the term the subaltern. "subaltern is not just a classy word for "oppressed" , for [thel Other,
for somebody who's not getting a piece Of the pie.... In post-colonial terms, everything that
has limited or no access to the cultural imperialism is subaltern — a space of difference.
Now, who would say that's just the oppressed? The working class is oppressed. It's not
subaltern"
Conclusion
Inspired by Gramsci and by her political-pedagogical activity with Adivasi tribes, Spivak asks not
only whether and how subalterns can be represented by intellectuals, but also what the intellectuals
can learn from them. 'Learning to learn from below' thus represents a central strategy in Spivak's
later approach to subalternity, which opens up space for the 'subaltern contamination' of hegemonic
discourses.
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357
Question 4.
(a) Define patriarchy. Does it have bearings on women’s entitlement in the
Indian family system? Explain. (20 Marks)
Patriarchy is defined by Sylvia Walby in her ‘Theorizing Patriarchy, 1990’ as ‘a system of social
structures and practices in which men dominate and oppress women’.
According to her, patriarchy operates through multiple structures like – production relations in the
household where women is subjected to unpaid labor, discriminatory allocation of occupations in
labor market, capture of political power by patriarchs, male violence which is often patterned and
systematic, patriarchal relations in sexuality which are manifested in sexual double standards for
males and females, patriarchal cultural institutions like education, media and so on.
In the context of the Indian family system, patriarchy has historically played a significant role.
Traditional gender roles often prescribe specific expectations for men and women within the family.
Men are typically assigned roles as breadwinners and decision-makers, while women are expected
to fulfill domestic responsibilities and prioritize family duties.
This patriarchal structure can impact women's entitlement in the Indian family system in several
ways
The male control over the sexuality of women is considered to be a manifestation of patriarchy. This
control is exercised by the male within the structure of marriage, family and kinship. Especially in
the patrilineal societies like ours in India the institutions of marriage, family and kinship becomes a
site for reproducing the patriarchal structures. In a marital alliance a virgin bride is always desirable.
Pre-marital sex is seen in terms of moral pollution which is more severe for the women than for the
men. It is considered that through the sexual intercourse a woman gets internally polluted whereas
a male only gets external pollution.
Limited Decision-Making Power: In patriarchal family structures, men often have more decision-
making power regarding significant family matters, such as finances, education, and healthcare.
Women may have limited influence in such decisions. Blood and Hamblin have also commented
that though the economic stature have improved but the decision making is still male centred.
Social Expectations: Societal expectations rooted in patriarchy can influence the roles and behaviors
expected of women within the family. Traditional norms may pressure women to prioritize family
duties over personal and professional aspirations.
According to Uma Chakravorty, Brahminical traditions glorify obedient women as ‘Pativrata’ and
hence put a veil on gender discrimination. Patriarchy legitimizes motherhood as primary role of
women. In Indian society, patriarchy as a social institution gives rise to other social values such as
male child preference, sexual purity, monogamy, fasting by women and abstinence of women from
public discourse.
Inheritance and Property Rights: In some cases, patriarchal norms can impact women's entitlement
to inheritance and property rights. Sons may be favored over daughters in matters of inheritance,
reinforcing gender-based disparities.
Violence and Discrimination: Patriarchy can contribute to gender-based violence and discrimination
within the family. Issues like domestic violence and dowry-related abuse may be perpetuated by
patriarchal attitudes.
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Sexual division of labor giving more preference to male jobs- Parson has divide the role as
Instrumental and Expressive roles.In most families, women do all work inside the home such as
cooking, cleaning, washing clothes, tailoring, looking after children, etc., and men do all the work
outside the home. It is not that men cannot do housework; they simply think that it is for women to
attend to these things.
Entitlements over food: Bina Majumdar studied status of a woman on the basis of entitlement over
food. Her findings show the influence of patriarchal values still prevalent in matters of food in the
family. Malinowski in his study found that- food meant for god is prepared by unmarried girls and
food for domestic consumption is prepared by married women. Women in traditional Indian society
generally eat after the meal of make members. Also their food is of inferior quality some times.
Entitlement over women’s own self: Tulsi Patel in study of Rajsthan concluded that a woman
becomes mother-in-law by the age of 35. This is because of child marriage. This shows that women
do not have entitlement over the children she is going to produce.
Entitlement over sexuality: Women’s sexuality is greatly controlled and men’s sexuality is free, in a
patriarchal society.Women’s sexuality is subjected to patriarchal construct Men make culture and
dominate private sphere of women. Men and women are bom equal but it is the society and culture
which makes the status unequal.
Efforts have been made to challenge and change these dynamics, with increasing awareness about
gender equality and women's rights. Legal reforms, educational initiatives, and advocacy for
women's empowerment have been instrumental in addressing some of these issues. However,
patriarchal norms and practices can persist, and progress towards gender equality is an ongoing
process.
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(b) How do you understand the ‘minority’ question? Examine the violence
and discrimination against the religious minorities in India. (20 Marks)
In the International Encyclopaedia of the Social Science, Arnold Rose has defined minority without
any quantitative connotations. He defines it as ‘a group of people differentiated from others in the
same society by race, nationality, religion or language, who think of themselves as differentiated
group and are thought of by others as a differentiated group with negative connotations.
Further, they are relatively lacking in power and hence are subjected to certain exclusions,
discrimination and other differential treatments.’
Jagnath Pathy (1988) has also listed out the defining properties of minority group. He says,
discrimination, prejudice and exclusion by the dominant group and self segregation by the
subordinate or minority constitute the basis for minority identification.
Minority question refers to the unequal participation and exclusion of the minority groups in the
socio-economic structures.
The violence and discrimination against the religious minorities in India
Religious minorities have long been the target of a range of different forms of persecution, such as
hate crimes, threats, attacks on places of worship, and forced conversion.
In spite of the provisions of the constitutional equality, religious minorities in India often experience
some problems among which the following may be noted-
Prejudice and Discrimination: Prejudice and discrimination are found in any situation of hostility
between racial and ethnic groups and divergent religious communities.
Prejudice refers to a ‘prejudged’ attitude towards members of another group. These groups are
regarded with hostility simply because they belong to a particular group, and they are assumed to
have the undesirable qualities that are supposed to be characteristic of the group as a whole.
Discrimination, on the other hand refers to an action against other people on the grounds of their
group membership. It involves the refusal to grant members of another group the opportunities that
would be granted to similarly qualified members of one’s group.
As far as prejudices are concerned prejudices and stereotyped thinking are common features of a
complex society. India is not an exception to this. Commonly used statements such as “Hindus are
cowards and Muslims are rowdies and Christians are converters”, etc., reflect the prevalent religious
prejudices.
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(c) What do you understand by LGBTQ? Comment on the issues concerning

their marriage rights. (10 Marks)
LGBTQ is an acronym for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer that asserts the freedom
and rights of the individuals to practice their sexual orientations and being. The struggles of LGBTQ
community are a long standing one as it challenges the largely practiced normativity of heterosexual
family arrangement.
 Functionalist perspective has argued for the regulation of sexual relations for the
maintenance of family which is an important institution of society. Talcott Parsons explains
the role of family to regulate the sexual relations in the confines of marriage between the
heterosexual couples ensuring procreation and socialisation of the new born.
 The idea of sexual essentialism as pointed out by Gayle Rubin in 1984, is reflected in the
various domains of life like Psychiatry, medicine etc that worked to keep the sexuality in the
binary of male and female perpetuating the normativity of the heterosexual relations.
 Conflict perspective problematizes this view through the lens of power relations in
establishing the world view of heterosexual relations as valid and others as not.
 Queer Theories as part of the critical theories have highlighted the need and importance to
discuss and challenge the strictly practiced heteronormativity that rejects and oppresses
many.
 Theorists like Judith Butler in her famous work, “Gender Trouble” critically argues against
Sexual Essentialism and points out the need to look beyond the socially constructed sexual
binary of male and female and accepting it as fluid and flexible.
History of LGBTQ in India
 Devdutt Patnaik in his work ‘Shikhandi and other queer tales they don’t tell you’, argues that the
concept of queerness is not a modern concept, it has existed since always.
 The existence of medieval sculptures of Khajuraho depicts the existence of same sex
relationships in Indian society since 950 A.D and 1050A.D. The same is true in the depiction
of a Kamasutra.
LGBTQ in modern times
 The Indian society has seen the prejudiced and stereotypical portrayal of individuals who are
not heterosexual as misfits and problematic that needs to be rejected and corrected.
 The media portrayal of LGBTQ is either a mocked character of Bobby darling etc. The image
of LGBTQ has been one of being “sinful” regulating the normativity and validity of the
heterosexual relations. As a result, the LGBTQ face everyday violence and hate-crimes, social
discrimination and isolation.
In the Indian context, Sudhir Kakkar argues that marriage (heterosexual) is both a compulsion as
well as a duty. Beteille adds that Indian marriages strictly prohibit experimentation in one’s choice
of partners keeping it endogamous for the maintenance of the boundaries of one’s social caste and
status. The sanctity of heterosexual relations rejects the same sex relations as sinful.
Supreme Court in Navtej Singh Johar vs. Union of India (2018) case decriminalised
homosexuality by striking off parts of Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code (IPC) which were held
violative of Fundamental Rights of LGBTQ Community
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However, the battle for LGBTQ rights is not over, as there is no proper policy for the rights of
LGBTQ community. Apart from policy gap other issues are -
 family where there is a lack of acknowledgement and acceptance of existence of Queer, and
still sees it as a taboo that is responded by violence and is understood as needs to be fixed
through the means of medical help. Though Supreme Court’s judgement ensures freedom to
choose one’s partner, it doesn’t extend it to the right to marry same sex partner, limiting the
idea of marriage as still a domain of heterosexual relationships. This creates issues in being
able to adopt a child and make a family.
 Work place Socio economic inequalities and discrimination prevail in the access to the
employment sector. The transgender individuals are still kept limited to the acts of begging
with very few reaching the professional sphere.
 India has its Transgender doctor in Kerala and a transgender judge in West Bengal Lok
Adalat. Recently a gay person was appointed as judge of Delhi high court.
 Issues of Discrimination The stereotypical image leads to everyday public lynching for one’s
dressing style, body language, etc where the state still needs to have special acts to protect its
citizens as an extension to Article 14 and 21 that protects individual human rights.
Need of the hour
Even after the Supreme Court upholds one’s sexuality, the practice of it is still a distant dream to
challenge the existing prejudices and ensuring a dignified existence.
 The LGTBQ community need an anti-discrimination law that allows them to develop
productive lives and relationships regardless of gender identity or sexual orientation and
places the onus of change on the state and society rather than the person.
 Government agencies, particularly those involved in health and law and order, must be made
aware of the need to guarantee that the LGBTQ population is not refused public services or
mistreated because of their sexual orientation.
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Section B
Question 5. Write short answers to the following questions in about 150 words
each, with a sociological perspective:
(a) Comment on the critical issues of commercialization of higher education
Answer:
 Commercialization of education means advertising the product (schools, playschools,
universities) in a way that appeals to the consumer (student and parent).
 The commercialization in education sector of India has put a price tag on learning and
knowledge and it also deterred the role of knowledge in education. It resulted in a scenario
in which all the genres of the society are so obsessed with education that it has lost the real
essence of education.
 Undoubtedly, it affects million families. As a result, it also changes the traditional concepts
of education in Indian society including the student teacher relationship, education and
attitude towards gaining knowledge. Education was something that was always driven by
thought in the former days. Meaning of commercialization of education:
 Generally, commercialization is a process by which a new product or service is introduced
into the general market. Commercialization of education is trend of decreasing emphasis on
the humanities and increasing attention to the demand of the students.
Education and social change-
 Functionalists like Durkheim and Talcott Parsons established a positive relationship
between education and social change. While Durkheim argued that education prepared
students for taking up a future role in capitalist society, Parsons advocated that schools in
capitalist America offer adequate training to the children to get into the job market.
 Education also reinforces inequalities and conservatism. Pierre Bourdieu, in his theory
of social and cultural reproduction asserts that education preaches equality but practices the
reinforcement of hierarchy and inequality. The children belonging to an upper class
having control over economic, cultural and social capital enter into high profitable
occupations and this success is legitimized by the school.
 Andre Beteille in his article advocates that how it is not the principle of equality or economic
interest or search for mobility that put people into schools rather entry into school and
success into school is greatly defined by family, kinship, religion or other cultural variables
Critical analysis-
Positives
1. Employment opportunity: Commercialization of education provides employment
opportunity. It provides job opportunity as well as hundred percent job guarantees to the
students. Many private institutions offer various job oriented courses, various degrees,
diplomas, certificate course etc. This helps in ensuring social mobility in the society.
2. Caste being converted to class as anyone with money can get education and it does not
depend on the ritual hierarchy of people.
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3. To Face the Global Challenges: Commercialization of education helps to face the global
challenges of the world. The global challenges are as modernization, industrialization,
privatization, globalization, information and communication Technology, Emergence of
International knowledge Network, Role of English language.
4. Personality development: commercialization of education helps in the personality
development of the students. The commercialization of education provides formal education
to students. For the personality development of the students, they provide moral education
which included the development commercialization skill, soft skill, how to maintain their
physical health, to how face interview, how to with entrance examination how to adjust with
the society etc. In the school syllabus the subject of moral science is included. This is helpful
for the students in the entire life.
5. Social development: Commercialization of education give emphasis on the social
development. In the private institution the students were provide the social education how
to adjust with the society, knowledge of the various culture, knowledge about social
interaction, provide knowledge to the students to preserve their culture, knowledge of the
norms, social customs etc. So, the commercialization’s in education provide appropriate
opportunity to the students to establish a relationship with the culture traditions, norms etc.
of the society.
6. Through the education it is helpful for the child to develop the innate social qualities
including socialization, social interaction, participate in the programs of school etc. So,
commercialization of education helps in the social development and it also provides
education according to needs of the society.
7. Development of professional efficiency of teachers: Commercialization of education helps
give attention on the development of professional efficiency of teachers. In the private
institutions they appointed highly qualified teachers, smart teachers, and also provide proper
training to the teachers for their professional development. So that the students of different
parts came to the institution to education. The institution provide opportunity to develop to
their professional efficiency through seminars, workshop, study circle, conference etc.
Negatives
1. Unable to maintain the principle of quality: Commercialization of education is unable to
maintain the principle of equality. In the society there are three types of people were lived –
upper class people, middle class people and lower people. For the impact of
commercialization of education system, the poor people as well as the weaker section of the
society not be able to get education due to high rate of fees in admitting the
2. students. Only the rich people will be able to take education because they have the capacity
to spend high amount of money. There are various constitutional provisions such as article
46, but the commercialization of education not followed such type of provisions, because they
always give emphasis on profit. One who pays money will get better education.
3. Materialistic outlook: Commercialization of education develops the materialistic outlook
among the students. The students have the attitude that to take proper education and to get
a good job. They pay money and take education. The student only thinks of himself and not
for the development of his region, society and for the nation. They want to spend a luxuries
life. The commercialization of education makes the student self – centered. The students have
the high expectation for the benefit of him.
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This type of education not help the student to develop the democratize attitude towards the
people, towards the society and the nations. The students only busy with him and forget the
duties of the citizenship and it produces a narrow outlook or narrow attitude among the
students.
4. Mechanical Process: Commercialization’s of education make the education process as
mechanical. It not follows the psychological principle. The children have given over burden
curriculum. The teachers were engaged at all levels, they take all class, including remedial
class, tutorial class, group discussions, seminars etc. Which decreased the attention,
motivation of the students towards learning? Very much repetition is there so that the
teaching learning process becomes a mechanical one. This institution wants to make the
student good in all subjects’ areas in a short period of time, because they get a huge amount
of money from the students for their development. So that they to maintain their standards.
The teachers as well as the students were affected from this mechanical process.
There is a need of value-based education which though is not very productive for job market which
is a reason for its commercialization but will surely work towards in reducing social tensions, child
delinquency etc.
The education also plays a major role in strengthening the social bonds. The commercially oriented
institutions are proliferating by risking the objective of quality education for all as education is no
longer considered as public service but as a commodity. To curb this menace of commercialization
the regulating authorities have to come up with the measures so that there is a significant
mobilization of public resources for education and to refrain from taking any measures for
encouraging privatization of education.
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(b) Discuss the challenges in Implementing the Rural Development

Programmes in India. (10 Marks)
According to UN, rural development is a process which leads to a continuous rise in the capacity of
the rural people to control their environment accompanied by a wider distribution of benefits
resulting from such control. The rural development programme was one of the topmost priorities
of government after independence as more than 90 percent of Indian population was living in rural
areas and India as an economy was agriculture dependent. The significance of rural development
extends to ensuring food security for our vast population and realizing the vision of socio-economic
equality enshrined in our constitution.
Challenges in implementing the Rural Development Programmes:
1. Unequal distribution of benefits: Influential people in the rural areas dominate the poors.
They also influence that the benefits provided by the government should benefit them only.
2. Huge illiteracy in rural area: Due to illiteracy in rural India, it was difficult to implement the
development programems and make people aware about different schemes and how to take
their benefit. It required teaching methods like Demonstrations, individual and group
approaches, Training classes require large number of extension workers.
3. Existence of rigid caste hierarchy: Caste hierarchy in rural India is very strong. And it
hinders the inclusion of lower caste in the mainstream society. The problems of the people
belonging to lower caste need to be solved so as to bring them into the mainstream. Special
provisions are made in the constitution of India to uplift them to higher position.
4. Land Fragmentation: Land holdings in rural India are often fragmented, leading to small
and economically unviable agricultural plots. As per National Sample Survey (2002-03), the
average land holding in India was 1.06 ha only and marginal holdings (of size 1 hectare or
less) in 2002-03 constituted 70% of all operational holdings. This fragmentation makes it
challenging to introduce modern and efficient farming techniques, affecting agricultural
productivity.
5. Social and Gender Disparities: There are deep-seated social and gender disparities in rural
India. Ensuring equitable participation and benefits for women and marginalized groups is
a constant challenge. Empowering these groups is crucial for the success of any rural
development program.
6. Lack of community participation: There was a requirement to follow bottom-up approach
and empower people to participate in the rural development programmes. The government
launched Community development programme to cater this problem but it was also not
much successful.
7. Poverty: Poverty is considered as a major barrier in the development process. India lacked
the amount of resources required to alleviate the poverty prevalent in rural areas. Poverty
generates a vicious cycle of continued poverty and unemployment due to lack of education
and skills, which is difficult to break.
8. Lack of identification of beneficiaries: The government lacked data on recognizing the real
beneficiaries which led to leakages and over expenditure in implementing schemes.
Despite the advancements in modern science and technology and a lot of government effort through
different schemes for rural development, a considerable portion of the rural population continues
to lack sufficient nutrition, quality education, effective communication, and social justice.
Consequently, the importance of rural development is increasing in both developed and developing
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nations.
(c) Elaborate urbanism as a way of life in India. (10 Marks)

Answer: -
Urbanism has been defined by various scholars as patterns of culture and social interaction resulting
from the concentration of large populations into relatively small areas. It reflects an organization of
society in terms of a complex division of labour, high levels of technology, high mobility,
interdependence of its members in fulfilling economic functions and impersonality in social
relations (Theodorson, 1969).
Urban areas are categorized by the administrative machinery in terms of population, density and
economy. In sociology we are concern about the societal aspect of urban society, which is possible
through theoretical approach like Louis Wirth’s theory of ‘Urbanism as a Way of Life’.
Urbanism as way of life, Louis Wirth believes, may be empirically approached from three
interrelated perspectives:
 as a physical structure with a population base, technology and ecological order; • as a system
of social organization with a structure and series of institutions (secondary contacts,
weakening of kinship ties etc.);
 as a set of attitudes, ideas and constellation of personalities (increased personal
disorganization, suicide, crime, delinquency and corruption).
Urbanism in India
Researchers and several agencies such as UNDP have projected that the developing nations will
urbanize faster than the developed world in twenty-first century.
More recent theorist such as David Harvey and Manuell Castell’s have stressed that urbanism is not
an autonomous process, but is part of a larger political and economic processes and changes. In
modern urbanism, Harvey points out space is continually restructured. The process is determined
by large firms, who decide where they should open their businesses, factories etc and by policies,
controls and initiatives asserted by governments which can change the landscape of a city.
Concentration of large-scale and small scale industrial and commercial, financial and administrative
set up in the cities; technological development in transport and communication, cultural and
recreational activities.
India’s big opportunities in the urban sector directly emerge from its strong foundation of world-
class information technology and digital companies. India’s robust manufacturing infrastructure,
moreover, is poised to expand its capacity through targeted government programmes focusing on
industrial corridors and clusters, as well as increasing investments from global companies and
foreign governments.
The concept of smart cities is the new urban phenomenon.
It is generally held that caste is a rural phenomenon whereas class is urban and that with
urbanization, caste transforms itself into class. But it is necessary to note that the caste system exists
in cities as much as it does in villages although there are significant organisational differences.
Neighbourhood interaction in urban settlements is marked by a high degree of informality and caste
and kinship are major basis of such participation. Lynch’s (1967) study of an untouchable caste,
Jatavs, in Agra showed that Jatavs had well-knit mohalla (ward) organization which resembled a
village community in many respects.
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Doshi’s (1968) study of two caste wards in the city of Ahmedabad also refers to the traditional
community organization.
The status of urban women, because of being comparatively educated and liberal, is higher than
that of rural women. However, in the labour market, women are still in a disadvantaged situation.
D’Souza (1963) reveals the psychological, household and social problems to which they are
exposed.
M.S.A. Rao (1970), analysis urabinasation and urbanism keeping in mind the larger social structures
of Indian society. For him, urbanism is a heterogeneous process and hence there can be many forms
of urbanisms giving rise to many types of urbanization. Rao states that the dichotomy between cities
and villages is incorrect as both have the same structural features of caste and kinship and are parts
of the same civilization.
Urbanization has a long analytical history as the primary lens through which we view and
understand the physical growth of cities and the material processes associated with that growth,
while urbanism captures a distinction between the social, economic, and political life of cities and
that of their rural hinterlands.
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(d) Comment on the changing democratic profile of India. (10 Marks)

Structure
 Introduction
 Democracy
 Changing trends
 Challenges
 Conclusion
Introduction
India is the world’s largest democracy by population. The process is falling short with participation
of the general public after the completion of the electoral process being negligible and restricted to
the elite few.
The poorer sections of the society are deprived of a voice and do not take part in the governance
process till the next democratic elections. In other words, the democratic success of the nation is not
shared by all.
Ever since the first elections held in 1952, there is no doubt that there has been multi-fold increase
in the level of political awareness in the country as a whole. This is a positive move forward in a
nation where a large part of the population is still uneducated and lives a hand-to-mouth existence.
In the Indian practice of democracy, value-based politics, the mainstay for the well-being of any
nation, has often been squandered and seems to be sacrificed at the altar of power worship.
Democracy
The notion of democracy is built on premise that all citizens of a state are equal and that the nation
offers an opportunity to all members of the society to participate in the process of self-governance.
Democracy considered by most to be the best way to govern a nation, succeeds only when a full
cross section of society takes part in the process in equal measure.
This, in turn should lead to the common person’s participation in the political process of the nation
as a normal pattern.
Bryce believes that “Democracy really means nothing more or less than the rule of the whole people,
expressing their Sovereign will by their votes.”
MacIver observes, “Democracy is not a way of governing, whether by majority or otherwise, but
primarily a way of determining, who shall govern, and broadly to what ends.”
Changing Trends
 Indian politics primarily based on the influence of a pluralistic society with many minorities
in terms of religion, caste, and language. The prevailing multi-party system also is often
imagined as having emerged as an anti-dote to the seemingly all-encompassing Congress
Party.
 The politics of coalitions, brought on regional parties making in-roads into national politics
through the election of their representatives into the Central parliament.
 Voters are starting to distinguish and discriminate between State challenges and Central
Government issues.
369
 Electorate is becoming progressively younger, better educated and politically more aware.
 National security imperatives have become priorities with the demographic changes.
Indian democracy is in a constant process of developing discontinuities in its political system.
Therefore, the evolving trends in democratic development, the electoral process and the political
system cannot be predicted based on the analysis of one election.
Challenges
 Illiteracy: The level of education of citizens is a key to both the successful functioning of
democracy and socio-economic development of the country. And perhaps, more
importantly, it is an essential condition for human dignity.
 Although according to 2011 Census, the literacy rate has risen to 74.04 per cent, the female
literacy rate is still lagging at 65.46 per cent. This means that over one-fourth of the country’s
population is still illiterate while among women nearly one out of three is not literate.
 Poverty: It is generally said that for a hungry person, right to vote does not have any meaning.
For him/her the first requirement is food. Therefore, poverty is considered as the greatest
bane of democracy. It is, in fact, one of the root causes of all kinds of deprivations and
inequalities. It is the state of denial of opportunities to people to lead a healthy and fulfilling
life. In fact, the process of economic development has not been able to ensure social justice
and gap between rich and poor has not been bridged. Because of all this, poverty continues
to remain a great challenge to Indian democracy.
 Gender Discrimination: Discrimination against girls and women exists in every walk of life.
Though gender discrimination has many faces, such as lack of female candidates, another
one is skewed gender ratio as it decreases the number of female electors. As can also be seen
in gender ratio, the sex ratio was 972 females per 1000 males in 1901. It came down to 927
females per 1000 males in 1991. According to 2011 Census it is 940 females per 1000 males
which still is very unfavourable to females.
 Casteism, Communalism: They weaken the functioning and stability of democratic system.
Casteism has also been contributing towards continuation of socio-economic inequalities -
Religious Fundamentalism: Religious fundamentalism also reinforces communalists in
exploiting both religion and politics. In fact, fundamentalism acts as an ideology which
advocates a return to orthodoxy and a strict compliance to the fundamental tenets of religion.
Conclusion
 India needs to establish an egalitarian democracy.
 This can only be achieved if the socio-economic challenges to the nation can be addressed
and ameliorated—a tall order in a diverse nation that finds it challenging as yet subscribe to
the notion of a national identity.
 The journey is bound to be long and hard. While there is light at the end of the tunnel, there
is no accepted goal towards which the nation needs to travel as and when the darkness of
the tunnel gives way to light and sunshine.
 India continues to be its own adversary in moving forward.
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(e) Elucidate the concerns of growing urban displacement dynamics in

India. 10 Marks
Displacement
Situations where people are forced to leave their homes owing to sudden shocks or stresses,
including armed conflict, civil unrest or natural or man-made disasters. Displacement can take place
either within or across national borders.
India has seen more displacement after 1991, as cities started providing more opportunities because
of the new infrastructure thanks to the opening of the economy.
Urban systems play a role in generating displacement in a number of ways.
REASONS
• Poorly or unplanned urban growth and substandard construction in hazard-prone areas
increase disaster displacement risk. New displacement takes place regularly in densely
populated informal settlements on floodplains, steep hillsides and coastlines exposed to
cyclones in cities such as Lagos, Mumbai and Rio de Janeiro. Climate change and the
mismanagement of natural resources threaten to cause the collapse of entire urban system
and its mass displacement.
• The absence of clear-cut policy and national legal instruments and institutions to deal with
both pre- and post-displacement situations. Unless the Indian government seriously
considers various measures to deal with the causes, displacement may increase and become
even more complex.
• Armed conflicts fuelled by big power rivalry
• Displacement has also arisen from caste disputes (as in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh), religious
fundamentalism and aggressive denial of residency and employment rights to non-
indigenous groups by supporters of the ‘son-of-the soil policy’ (as in Meghalaya by the Khasi
students and in Arunachal Pradesh against the Chakmas).
• Conflict and violence in cities may trigger mass displacement both within and from them,
and the damage and destruction wrought may create long-term barriers to return and other
durable solutions
• Gentrification- The term “gentrification” often arises in conversations about urban inequality
and the increased cost of rental housing. Sociologist Ruth Glass coined the term in 1964,
defining it as a process by which a neighbourhood’s “original working-class occupiers are
displaced” by influx of higher-income newcomers. More broadly, gentrification refers to a
process of neighbourhood change involving the migration of wealthier residents into poorer
neighbourhoods and increased economic investment.
CONCERNS
In the process, land occupied by the poor in informal settlements and along the sides of roads, canals
and railways has become highly vulnerable to repossession by public authorities for real estate
development and infrastructure projects.
• Land occupied by the poor in informal settlements and along the sides of roads, canals and
railways has been highly vulnerable to repossession by public authorities for the purpose of
real estate development and infrastructure projects.
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• Displacement to make way for development projects is often justified as being in the public
interest, but it often lacks the prospect of durable solutions for those affected
• Adopting a human rights approach to make visible the challenges of displacement, evictions
and resettlement associated with developments projects is useful, but it does not easily
translate into practical action. Situating it within national and international sustainable
development frameworks would help identifying steps towards reducing displacement risk
and impacts by applying more inclusive approaches that respect people’s rights and promote
sustainable solutions
• Regular monitoring is not possible in such a huge country like India, which lacks a central
authority responsible for coordinating data from central and state governments. The nature,
frequency and extent of the causes of internal displacement in India are so varying that it
would be a herculean task to monitor and record them.
• Meanwhile, large-scale, sudden population movements, prompted by both rapid-onset
‘natural’ disasters such as floods and ‘man-made’ disasters like conflict are on the rise, seeing
increasing numbers of displaced people moving into urban areas (UNHCR, 2016). This
represents a significant stress factor, in particular for towns and cities with already weak
formal institutions that face difficulties in delivering adequate basic services to growing
populations.
• Many displaced people in urban areas place pressure on the already strained resources in
their host communities.
However, their arrival can also stimulate economic growth by contributing labour and consumers
to the market. Their presence can be turned into a positive influence for the community only if an
effort is made in that direction.
• Urban areas face a range of shocks (acute, intensive, sudden events) and stresses (extensive,
chronic or cyclical challenges), which can affect economic prosperity, competitiveness,
livelihoods and well-being. In some circumstances, a rapid influx of people can become a
stressor in itself, imparting pressures on a city and its services (including food, transport,
water, housing, education, health and emergency services).
• Forced and prolonged displacement in particular can result in problems of malnutrition,
inadequate hygiene and sanitation, and lack of shelter; and migrants may already be ill or
more vulnerable to illness on arrival in cities (Deola and Patel, 2014).
• With high levels of poverty and limited awareness of health risks, aggravates the risk of
infectious diseases (like HIV/AIDS, cholera and malaria) of all dwellers (Vearey, 2011; Deola
and Patel, 2014). It also increases the risk to non-communicable diseases (e.g. cancer, diabetes,
asthma, hypertension) and injuries (e.g. resulting from dangerous road traffic or exposure to
hazardous sites) (WHO and UNHabitat, 2010).
• Conflict, disasters and resulting displacement also affect the mental well-being of migrants.
• Marked health problems will likely reduce the capacity of new arrivals to integrate, learn
new skills and become self-reliant.
• Displaced populations are often affected by urban violence. The risk of violence is associated
with family separation, overcrowded living spaces, poor social cohesion, unsafe shelter,
gender-based discrimination, limited rights and protection services, among other factors.
• Displacement associated with disasters has only recently been acknowledged in national
policies and international frameworks.
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• The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction is important in this sense, because it
mentions disaster displacement and its risks among the main global challenges to address in
ensuring communities and countries are resilient.
Conclusion
• Urban displacement is clearly a global phenomenon but one with localised effects. It is
accordingly a matter of growing concern for city authorities and central governments as well
as humanitarian and development organisations.
• The complexity of urban displacement dynamics means that efforts to better understand and
address the phenomenon require a range of approaches to data collection, research and
analysis.
• Engagement across a range of disciplines, including urban planners, humanitarians,
sociologists, economists and development and other sector specialists is also needed.
373
Question 6.
(a) Examine the importance of Development Planning in Indian Mixed
Economy, and analyze its problems and prospects. 20 Marks
The first Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was inclined towards Socialist model for the
development of India. India has earlier faced the exploitations of capitalist model and thus chose to
implement planned development on the basis of Five Year plans by Planning Commission. India
chose a mixed economic model to balance the benefits of both socialist and capitalist model. Thus a
development planning was required to make the goals of state in line with the aspirations of people
and their need.
Importance of development planning in Indian mixed economy:
1. Balanced approach: Private sector was not capable of investing in capital industries at that
time and making the essential consumer goods as they required high investment and long
gestation period. So this role was played by the state by establishing capital goods industries
to act as basis for development of other industries. State sector can take risks because it can
give preference to social gains over financial profit.
2. 2.Equitable distribution of resources: In the economic sphere, the state has to direct its policy
in order to secure a better distribution of ownership and control of material resources of the
community and to prevent exploitation of labour and concentration of wealth in the hands
of a few. It would be impossible for the state to attain these goals implied in the Directive
Principles unless the state itself enters the fields of production and distribution.
3. Social justice and equity: A key goal of developmental planning in India has been the
advancement of social justice and equity. This entails confronting the deeply rooted social
hierarchies and disparities prevalent in Indian society, especially those rooted in caste, class,
and gender. Developmental planning aims to provide opportunities for marginalized
segments through affirmative action measures like reservations in education and
employment, along with specific welfare initiatives designed to uplift the impoverished and
disadvantaged.
4. Balanced Regional Development: Planning allows for the promotion of balanced regional
development by directing investments and infrastructure development to less developed
areas. This helps in reducing regional disparities.
Problems of development planning:
1. Unrealistic targets: Plan targets have been unrealistically high. The implementation
machinery has been weak and inadequate. India has met the target for agriculture in 1st five
year plan but industrial development targets were missed even after implementation of
Nehru-Mahalanobis model.
2. Increased dependency on public sector: Public sector emerged as giant industries with low
accountability and responsibility to perform well. Due to lack of competition they grew
inefficient and corruption increased. Sharat Bhowmick has recognized the employees of PSUs
as ‘Government employees’ rather ‘Industrial Workers’.
3. 3.Non-inclusive: Committee on Distribution of income and levels of living, chaired by PC
Mahalanobis reported that the planned economy has favoured only the big companiesand
small enterprises were marginalized.
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4. Lack of focus on social development: The planned economy mostly focused on increasing
production and GDP while it ignored the social sector like education, health which resulted
in poor human capital development.
5. No focus on environmental sustainability: The Gandhian sociologist Mira Ben criticized
Planned economy for neglecting the environmental issues and sustainability.
6. Bureaucratic Red Tape: Planned economy was also victim of iron cage of bureaucracy as
suggested by the Max Weber which hindered the development and affected efficiency of
implementation of pragrammes.
Pospects of planned economic development:
1.Reduced inequalities: Mixed economy assumed a redistributive role and minimizing inequality in
the society which was manifested in the form of land reforms, nationalizations of banks etc.
2.Capacity Building: It strengthened the institutional capacity for planning and implementation at
various levels of governance can address issues related to bureaucratic inefficiencies.
3.It promoted decentralization of power through promotion of local governance. Such distribution
of power to local level could lead to better planning and effective implementation of plans.
4.Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): India’s developmental planning was aligned with global
priorities through SDGs. It ensured a holistic approach that considers economic, social, and
environmental aspects.
Though there have been many shortcomings in development planning but still it achieved great
success in fields of reducing illiteracy, developing base for industrialization, food security. Buth
there is requirement to increase participation of community in the planning and make it more
inclusive od all sections for a holistic developmental approach.
375
(b) Highlight the main features of the ‘Inter-linking of Rivers’ project in

India. What could be its probable advantages to Indian agriculture? 20
Marks
Answer:
Interlinking of River program is a proposed large scale civil engineering project that aims to link
Indian rivers by a network of canals and reservoirs which will reduce persistent floods in some parts
of India and water shortages in other parts thus solving the twin problem of flood and drought
simultaneously. It involves transfer of water from surplus river basins to deficit ones.
According to structural functionalists- The project will contribute to maintenance of social
equilibrium. This is because agriculture may become more remunerative and other employment
opportunities may also rise, thus preventing any protests or a revolution.
Conflict – it will only perpetuate false class consciousness. All the benefits will be garnered by the
influential land-owning class and the urban bourgeoisie. Also, it takes away the attention from the
other structural issues like declining soil fertility, over-use of fertilizers and pesticides, poor skill
training opportunities, lack of access to capital.
The impact on Indian agriculture will be-
1. Land tenure system- can lead to a rise in capitalistic farming and bullock cart capitalists
(Rudolph and Rudolph), as land hitherto unutilized due to lack of water, can also be brought
under cultivation. So earlier land which was under feudalistic domination will become
commercialized. In short it will lead to capitalistic transformation of Indian agriculture.
2. Middle class, social mobility – Farmers benefiting from assured water availability who earlier
belonged to the lower class will rise to the middle class leading to the surge in the middle
class. This will also lead to lesser suicide among farmers which according to Durkheim was
due to lack of regulation
3. Tourism, logistics and other such activities that will see a boost due to the inter-linking of
rivers, will see a class of small entrepreneurs or petty bourgeoisie rising.
4. Agrarian class, caste system – This kind of system is likely to benefit the large farmers which
will increase the inequality between them and may be a threat to the social fabric of the area.
Also, it will lead to shift in focus from cultural sphere to secular sphere leading to
replacement of caste with class.
5. Family and marriage- Stop the menace of water wives. This is a phenomenon where men
marry more than one woman for the sole purpose that those women will fetch waters from
well.
6. Religious communities – religious ceremonies, which were performed in the river or on the
river banks, may face difficulty if the course of the river is diverted.
7. Lead to rural development and poverty alleviation.
8. Regionalism – inter-linking of rivers is a long duration project, and if the state governments
change, issues may arise. Past example of the Cauvery water dispute.
9. Migration – migration towards urban areas may decline as opportunities may come up even
in small towns and rural areas.
10. Tribal communities – may lead to their displacement, alienation, loss of tribal way of life,
ecological imperialism.
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This is a very noble steps but it has got many challenges ahead. The government should try to spread
awareness about the project and mitigate the shortfalls that will arise due to this project.
(c) Has reduction of green cover affected ecological degradation leading to

global warming? Elaborate your answer with illustration. 10 Marks
Deforestation or reduction in green cover refers to the purposeful clearing or thinning of trees and
forests. When deforestation occurs, much of the carbon stored by treesis released back into the
atmosphere as carbon dioxide, which contributes to climate change and global warming. The
poorest and most vulnerable people bear the brunt of climate change impacts yet contribute the least
to the crisis. The reduction in green cover is affecting the ecology which in turn is affecting the
human society.
Impact of reduction in green cover in ecological degradation and society:
1. Increased green house gases: The role of forests in affecting the greenhouse gas composition
of the atmosphere is enormous. Forests have a unique ability to absorb greenhouse gas
emissions caused by human activity and produce oxygen in return. This is evident in
deforestation of Amazon rainforests as which is considered as ‘Lungs of the Earth’ has
released large amounts of stored carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to the global
increase in greenhouse gas concentrations.
2. Loss of Biodiversity: Green cover is home to a vast array of plant and animal species. The
reduction of green cover, especially through deforestation, leads to a loss of biodiversity.
Biodiversity is essential for maintaining ecosystem balance, and its decline can disrupt
ecological processes, including those that help regulate the climate. Loss of mangroves
illustrate this as many animals and plants survive in that region.
3. Unsustainable development: Unchecked cutting the trees for developmental purpose can
never be sustainable. According to Gandhian sociologist Mira Ben, the developmental
planning has always neglected the environmental causes.
4. According to Eco-feminist Vandana Shiva, the change in environment affects the females
more and deprive them of opportunities as ecological degradation will lead to scarcity of
resources and women has always been subjected to unequal distribution of resources.
5. Impact on tribal community: The loss of green cover has taken the natural home of tribal and
forcing them to displace to new locality which is not favorable for their survival many times
as they are living in forests since thousands of years. Therefore Verrier Elwin recommended
that tribal should be integrated considering preservation of their culture and identity.
The reduction in green cover and change in ecology and global warming has generated a new
consciousness among the societies worldwide. Many international groupings, rules, regulation and
conventions have cropped up to prevent the loss of green cover and promote Afforestration. Some
examples are Sunderlal Bahuguna’s ‘Chipko Movement’ and Medha Patkar’s ‘Narmada Bachao
Andolan’ is paving way for preservation of environment.
Climate change and its negative impact is the biggest challenge for the 21st century. A lot of effort
has been put forward in direction but there is requirement of cooperation from international to
national to community level to tackle this problem.
377
Question 7.
(a) Do you think that ‘demonetization’ has accelerated the economic growth
in India? How do you understand the informalization of labour,
underemployment and gender discrimination in this context? 20 Marks
Demonetization, which occurred in November 2016, involved the sudden withdrawal of high-
denomination currency notes from circulation. While the intended goals of demonetization
included reducing black money, curbing corruption, and promoting a digital economy, its impact
on economic growth has been mixed.
Impact of demonetization on economic growth:
1. Inconvenience to people and small businessmen: All people especially struggled hard to
arrange cash as they had limited means for online transaction. Similarly small businessmen
who used to do their business in cash were also impacted badly.
2. Decrease in consumption: There was some decline in the overall consumption due to limited
availability of cash in hand.
3. Impact on agriculture: India's economy relies heavily on agriculture. As a result of the
shortage of cash, small and marginal farmers, who predominantly rely on cash for
purchasing seeds, fertilizers, sowing expenses, obtaining irrigation water, and acquiring
other necessary agricultural equipment, were severely impacted. This financial constraint
prevented them from carrying out essential crop-related activities.
4. Short-Term Dip in Growth: The immediate effect of demonetization was a dip in India's
economic growth rate. In the quarter following demonetization, India's GDP growth slowed
down, causing concern among economists and policymakers.
5. Led to financial inclusion as people started using their Jan Dhan accounts also digital
payments like UPI was promoted and picked up the pace.
6. Automobile sales and stock market picked up as people with cash in hand invested a lot
instead of going to bank and exchanging it.
7. Long-Term Effects: Over the long term, the impact of demonetization on economic growth is
less clear. Some argue that the policy helped in formalizing the economy, promoting digital
payments, and reducing the shadow economy. These changes could lead to more
transparency and tax compliance, which could potentially contribute to sustained economic
growth.
Demonetization and informalization of work:
1. The consequences of 'demonetization' are significant, and its influence on employment is
crucial, especially in a scenario where a substantial portion of wage disbursements is
conducted in cash.
2. Demonetization was implemented to increase formalization but initially it had negative
impact due to loss of jobs, decline in economic activity which significantly affected the
informal workers.
3. Transition to Informal Labor: Some individuals, particularly those who lost their jobs in the
formal sector due to reduced economic activity, transitioned to the informal labor market out
of necessity. They took up irregular, temporary, or informal employment in the absence of
better opportunities.
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Demonetization and underemployment:
1. Underemployment is a measure of the total number of people in an economy who are
unwillingly working in low-skill and low-paying jobs or only part-time because they cannot
get full-time jobs that use their skills.
2. There was reduced job opportunity in those sectors which were heavily cash dependent. Due
to uncertainty, the new job opportunities were very limited.
3. Shift to Part-Time or Temporary Work: Some workers who experienced job loss or reduced
hours as a result of demonetization may have shifted to part-time or temporary work as an
alternative source of income.
Demonetization and Gender discrimination:
1. Women in India are over represented in informal sector which was badly affected by the
demonetization.
2. The already existing gender wage gap widened after demonetization.
3. Women in India has disproportionate responsibility to manage household expenses and in
such cash crunch they faced another challenge to effectively utilize the available money.
4. Limited Access to Formal Financial Services: Women, particularly in rural areas, may have
limited access to formal banking and financial services. Demonetization, which encouraged
digital transactions and cashless payments, had posed challenges for women who were less
familiar with or had limited access to these services, potentially excluding them from
economic activities.
Demonetization was implemented to achieve many big goals but most of them were not achieved
and people faced several hardships. But all this was short-term and over the time, economic activity
resumed, and many individuals returned to their regular employment situations.
379
(b) Discuss the implications of ‘Swachha Bharat Abhiyaan’. Do you think

that civil society has a role to play here? Substantiate your answer with
example. 20 Marks
Sanitation has been integral part of society since Indus Valley Civilization. The Swaccha Bharat
Mission has continued this tradition in an organized way to make Indian urban centers as well as
villages clean and hygienic. The aim of Swaccha Bharat mission is to achieve an open-defecation-
free India, promoting waste management, and ensuring a clean and hygienic environment.
Implications of Swaccha Bharat Abhiyaan:
1. Improved Public Health: Better sanitation has reduced the chances of diseases caused due
to insanitary and unhygienic practices. Access to toilets reduces the incidents of waterborne
diseases. It leads to better quality of life. According to Emile Durkhein, Public health plays
crucial role in social solidarity. It reduces chaos in the society and promotes social integration.
2. Economic Benefits: Reduced chances of diseases will lead to less healthcare expenditure and
increased savings for the people. And that money could be utilized for socio-economic
development.
3. Behavioural change: Gandhiji has always propogated for cleanliness and Swaccha Bharat
Mission is also dedicated to him. He states that ‘Be the change you want to see in the world’,
i.e. behavioural change is very important to make something long term. He considered
sanitation as an integral part of a person's duty and believed that cleanliness was next to
godliness.
4. Community Participation: Swaccha Bharat abhiyaan is aimed at sanitation through
community participation. Even Ivan Illich support such view, he argued against the
professionalization of services and believed in the importance of community-led initiatives.
5. Upliftment of marginalized community: B.R. Ambedkar saw sanitation as crucial for the
upliftment of marginalized communities. He advocated for social and economic equality and
believed that access to sanitation facilities played a role in breaking down social hierarchies.
Swaccha bharat abhiyaan promoted for zero manual scavenging which is mainly done by
lower caste people.
6. Empowerment of Women: The availability of hygienic and secure sanitation facilities holds
special significance for women. The Swachh Bharat Abhiyan strives to install toilets in homes,
educational institutions, and public areas, thereby enhancing the dignity and safety of
women who frequently encounter difficulties arising from the absence of adequate sanitation
amenities.
7. Change in values and norms of society: Swaccha Bharat mission has challenged the existing
traditional view of people to not build toilets in the home and instead go for open defecation.
It has made people aware about better sanitation and its benefits.
Role of civil society in Swaccha Bharat Abhiyaan:
1. Generating awareness: Civil societies are like umbrella organizations having presence in
family, market and state. It has wide presence In public domain in both rural as well as urban
areas which makes its role crucial in making people aware about this scheme.
2. Increases community participation: As civil society is formed through members of society
only. Thus, it increases the community participation in implementing the scheme.
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The NGO Sulabh International is an example of a civil society organization actively involved
in promoting sanitation and hygiene in India. Sulabh has been working to construct low-cost,
eco-friendly toilets in rural areas and urban slums.
3. Interlinkage between government and public: It acts as a bridge between public and
government and takes the demand and vies of general public in front of government. Civil
societies provided the ground realities of sanitation and what are people responses to this
initiative making it easier for government to implement the scheme at wider level.
4. Innovation and Technology: Civil society has the potential to enhance the campaign by
presenting innovative solutions and technologies for the management of waste and
sanitation. These creative approaches can work in tandem with government initiatives,
effectively tackling particular challenges encountered by communities.
The Swaccha bharat abhiyaan is a huge leap forward towards better sanitation and hygiene by
including the community. It has succeeded in making most of the India open defecation free and
behavioural and attitudinal changed can be seen in the society. With increased awareness and using
scientific technologies for sanitation, India can achieve its dream of ‘clean India’.
381
(c) Do you agree that social movements are caused by opportunity structures
that are generated by media? Why? 10 Marks
Answer
Structure
 Social movements
 Media and its components
 Opportunity structure
 Media 's impacts on social movements
 Conclusion.
Social movement, loosely organized but sustained campaign in support of a social goal, typically
either the implementation or the prevention of a change in society’s structure or values. Although
social movements differ in size, they are all essentially collective. That is, they result from the more
or less spontaneous coming together of people whose relationships are not defined by rules and
procedures but who merely share a common outlook on society.
All definitions of social movement reflect the notion that social movements are intrinsically related
to social change.
Media are the communications outlets or tools used to store and deliver information or data. The
terms refers to components of mass media communications industry, like print media, publishing,
the news media, photography, cinema, broadcasting (radio and television) and advertising.
The term "medium" (singular form of media) is defined as 'one of the means or channels of general
communication, information, or entertainment in society.
Opportunity structures, in sociology and in other social sciences, are exogenous factors which limit
or empower collective actors (social movements).
In explaining the evolution of social movements, the structuralist approach emphasizes that factors
external to the movements themselves, such as the level and type of state repression, or the group's
access to political institutions, shape the development of the movements; such factors are called
opportunity structures.
Media generates opportunity structure for social movements –
 Mass media are relevant to the study of social movements because they carry movement's
ideas to a broad audience and give activists leverage in institutional and political processes.
• More specifically, mass media are important to social movements because they legitimate
movement issues, provide social movements an opportunity to shape public understandings
of political problems, and mobilize a broader public to action.
 Mass media coverage legitimates movement issues and claims and put these issue and claims
on the table of government.
 News media, for instance, set the public agenda by, first, choosing what events and social
problems are relevant to the citizenry and, then, focusing public attention on these events
and problems.
 Media coverage of social movement ideas and organizations is legitimizing because it
indicates to the broader public that a movement represents credible claims.
382
A publication of a book can have a similar affect. Ralph Nader's book, Unsafe at Any Speed, exposed
the reluctance of car manufacturers to spend money on safety features (such as seat belts) and
supported Nader's efforts to mobilize a consumer rights movement.
 Mass media offer frameworks for understanding the causes of and solutions to political and
social problems . Social movements, then, that garner media attention have an opportunity
to shape public perceptions of political problems and affect broader debate.
 Mass media can also mobilize a broader population to action. Social movement frameworks
disseminated via mass media identify motivations for and targets of collective action. For
example, radio played an important role in strike campaigns of textile workers between 1929
and 1934. Music broadcast articulated the concerns of textile workers (such as low wages and
family subsistence) and identified the root causes of these problems (i.e., exploitative owners
and domineering managers). This music and Franklin Roosevelt's “Fireside Chats,” which
indicated support for industrial workers and improved working conditions, helped mobilize
workers.
 The other aspect about media and its role in social movements is the power of transmission
and repetition of the message of the social activists. Given the rapid dissemination of
messages on Twitter and Facebook and the fact that television gives an instant image of the
protests or the movements, media can indeed play a prominent role in ensuring that social
movements are covered well.
 Recent we have witnessed some social movements like #METOO around the world (against
sexual exploitation of women) , that trace its origin from media itself.
Finally, activists and social leaders need to be careful of how they use media and how the media
uses them. The best example of this is the way in which the anticorruption movement in India lost
support from the media after the initial euphoria. This was because the media jumps from issue to
issue given the way in which the 24/7 news cycle and breaking news rhythms are structured.
Other side of the coin / Conclusion
 Media can limit the penetration and impacts of social movements in the society as explainaed
by Louis althusser in Ideological state apparatus.
 Controlled media does not provide space for the social movements against state and state's
policies in the society.
"Open media can be good or bad, but controlled media is only bad"
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Question 8.
(a) Why has ‘active aging’ become a glocal goal? Do you agree that the role
of elderly care-giving is disproportionately gendered in developing
countries? Why? 20 Marks
Ageing is a process which starts with a conception and continues till death. It is a continous and
irreversible process. According to WHO, active ageing is the process of optimizing opportunities
for health, participation and security in order to enhance quality of life as people age. It allows
people to realize their potential for physical, social, and mental well being throughout the life course
and to participate in society according to their needs, desires and capacities, while providing them
with adequate protection, security and care when they require assistance.
Why it has become a glocal(global and local) goal:
1. Demographic shift: Average age of world is increasing in which the developed countries are
contributing the most. And after few year when developing world will age, it will lead to
sudden increase in global average age which is around 30.5 years.
2. Increasing internatonal awareness through international bodies: WHO has released a paper
on active ageing in which it has stated that active ageing shifts strategic planning away from
a “needs-based” approach (which assumes that older people are passive targets) to a “rights-
based” approach that recognizes the rights of people to equality of opportunity and treatment
in all aspects of life as they grow older.
3. Active ageing approach has potential to address many old age problems. It can lead to fewer
premature deaths, fewer chronic disabilities associated with ageing, more people enjoying a
positive quality of life as they grow older etc.
4. Contribution of aged people to society: Old people can contribute to society with their
knowledge and experience and can help to preserve the traditional knowledge.
Gender dimension of elderly care-giving:
1. Deep-seated stereotypes persist in asserting that men are primarily responsible for earning a
living, while women are primarily associated with homemaking and caregiving. The
predominantly female role as caregivers exacerbates gender inequalities, limiting women's
chances to fully realize their fundamental human rights in comparison to men.
2. Sense of self-agency in care-giving: Men often found themselves trapped in their spouses’
illness and alienated from their life ambitions while women consider it their duty to take care
of her husband at all stages of life.
3. It shapes self-identity: Taking care of a family member is an unpaid responsibility. Women
who are unable to participate in the workforce due to their caregiving responsibilities
encounter financial challenges and frequently rely on male family members to generate
income that can sustain the household. This circumstance reinforces the perception that
women occupy a subordinate status and widens the gender inequality gap, preventing
women from achieving economic independence.
4. It restricts women’s time to participate in public sphere as women are indulged in care-giving
and also managing the house.
5. According to Campbell and Martin females were required to provide more care-giving
because it is the females only who require more care in old age due to their longevity.
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All over the world, family members, friends and neighbours (most of whom are women) provide
the bulk of support and care to older adults that need assistance. Some policy makers fear that
providing more formal care services will lessen the involvement of families. Studies show that this
is not the case. When appropriate formal services are provided, informal care remains the key
partner.
Efforts are being made to address these gender disparities, including promoting policies and
programs that support caregivers, providing education and training, and challenging traditional
gender roles. Gender equality and social progress are essential in reducing the gendered care-giving
burden in developing countries, as women should have the opportunity to participate fully in all
aspects of society.
385
(b) What is POSH Act? “Identification of tormentor by women at workplace

does not come easily even today”. Examine the statement with substantive
examples from India. 20 Marks
Vishakha guidelines provided by the Supreme court acted as basis for enacting Prevention for
Sexual harassment at Workplace (POSH) Act, 2013. The primary objective of the POSH Act is to
prevent and address sexual harassment of women in the workplace and to provide a mechanism
for redressal of complaints related to such harassment. The PoSH Act defines sexual harassment to
include unwelcome acts such as physical contact and sexual advances, a demand or request for
sexual favours, making sexually coloured remarks, showing pornography, and any other
unwelcome physical, verbal, or non-verbal conduct of a sexual nature.
Why identification of tormentor does not come easily in India:
As per a survey conducted in 2017 by the Indian Bar Association, 70% of girls said they didn’t report
harassment by superiors due to the fear of facing repercussions
1. Social and Cultural Norms: Traditional gender norms and cultural expectations can also
deter women from identifying their tormentors. The hierarchical structure of Indian society
can make it challenging for women to challenge the authority of male superiors, even in cases
of harassment.
2. Fear of social stigma: Females are afraid to name their tormentors as patriarchal society will
only degrade the character of girls as well as her family.
3. Job insecurity: Women also remain silent and refuse to report due to loss of reputation,
stigma, and blame coming on the women themselves. It becomes difficult for such women to
apply for further jobs.
4. Lack of awareness of legal procedures: A study on the internal complaints committees (ICC)
in 15 government offices in Kerala found that while committees get formed and meet
intermittently, the members of the committees and women employees remain unaware of the
provisions of the act and hesitant to assert themselves in registering complaints or fighting
for more women-friendly work structures.
5. Poor implementation of rules by organizations: Some organizations deny to implement
guidelines effectively by giving reason that sexual harassment can’t happen in their
organization as workers come from good families.
6. Fear of retaliation: According to anti-sexual harassment lawyer Karuna Nundy, in
approximately seven out of 10 cases, victims said they did not complain, as they fear
retaliation, victim blaming and social stigma attached to cases of sexual harassment.
7. Power imbalance at workplace: In most of the sexual harassment cases the harasser holds a
dominant and superior position which also limits the females to approach authorities against
such powerful person.
8. Informal sector: This sector is much difficult to regulate and control. There is no data on
number of sexual harassment cases in informal sector. A 2018 study by the Martha Farrell
Foundation and Society for Participatory Research in Asia based on Right to Information
requests to 655 districts in the country found many districts had failed to establish the
committees or constitute them in line with the legal provisions. Even where they existed, it is
difficult to find any information on websites or public spaces displaying their names and
location.
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With increasing education and awareness and social movements like MeToo, women in society has
acquired internal strength to stand against such harassment. But here is need to change the ideology
of people who objectifies women and treat them as means. There is a need for sensitization at
workplaces and more balanced power distribution.
387
(c) What is ‘social security’? Examine recent security measures adopted by

the Government in India. (10 Marks)
Life is full of uncertainties and thus there is requirement of social security to keep life stabilized.
Social security refers to a government-led system of programs, policies, and initiatives designed to
provide financial and other forms of assistance and protection to individuals and families facing
various life challenges, such as old age, disability, unemployment, sickness, and poverty.
The social security is related to the risks associated in the social phenomena and these risks are
essentially contingencies against which an individual cannot effectively provide by his own ability
or foresight alone or even in private combination with his fellows. For the government needs to
stand up and provide support in the form of social security.
Objective of social security:
1. Instill a sense of assurance in individuals and families that their standard of living and
overall quality of life will remain intact, even in the face of social or economic
uncertainties.
2. Protect against unemployment by maintenance and promotion of job creation.
3. Promotes social, economic and political equality as well as equity.
4. Provide medical care and income security against consequences of defined contingencies.
Until recently, India’s social security system was largely confined to the formal sector of the
economy. Social benefits such as old-age pensions, health insurance and maternity benefits did not
extend much beyond the public sector. The unorganised workforce – more than 90 per cent of all
workers – was largely left to its own devices. During the last fifteen years, however, there have been
important initiatives to put in place more inclusive forms of social security.
Different measures adopted by government in India:
1. School Meals: Undwer Mid Day Meal scheme programme, the central government provide
one time meal to all school going children in government primary schools. This scheme
ensures the most basic need of children i.e. hunger and also focuses on nutrition of children.
2. The Integrated Child Development Services: India’s Integrated Child Development Services
(ICDS) provides nutrition, health and preschool education services for children under the age
of six years. These services are delivered through child care centres (or anganwadis) staffed
by trained local women known as anganwadi workers and helpers.
3. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act: The use of public works as a tool of social
security, particularly in the context of drought relief, has a long history in India. Compared
with other approaches, public works have two useful features: self-selection (people decide
for themselves whether they need social support) and the creation (or at least possible
creation) of productive assets.
4. National Social Assistance Program (NSAP): NSAP is a social security program for the
elderly, widows, and persons with disabilities. It provides financial assistance to these
vulnerable groups to ensure their economic well-being.
5. Atal Pension Yojana (APY): APY is a government-backed pension scheme designed to
provide security for the elderly. It allows individuals to contribute towards their pension and
receive a fixed pension amount after retirement, ensuring financial stability during old age.
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6. The Public Distribution System: Under Nation Food Security Act,2013 government provide
subsidized food grains to people belonging to BPL category. This scheme played crucial role
during COVID times in ensuring proper food distribution and access to food for poor.
The government continues to evolve and expand its social security initiatives to address the needs
of its diverse population and promote economic well-being and stability. Government is
constitutionally committed for providing social security and welfare of all the citizens. These
programme needs effective implementation, evaluation and monitoring to ensure proper coverage
and accessibility.
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Mains 2020
Section - A
Question 1.
a) Elaborate A. R. Desai's perspective to the study of Indian society. (10
Marks)
Overview
 Briefly introduce A.R Desai and his approach
 Elaborate Desai’s perspective to the study of Indian society
 Write criticisms.
 Conclusion
A.R Desai was the pioneer Marxist in Indian sociological tradition who introduced Marxist
approach with empirical field studies. Influenced by Marx, he applied the historical dialectical
approach. Desai looked into the macro changes in Indian society like capitalism, nationalism,
emergence of new classes and changes in class structure, peasant movements etc.
Desai’s understanding of Indian society:
 Desai challenges the notion of tradition as solely religious or cultural. He views it as rooted
in economic realities, inextricably linked to power dynamics. While acknowledging the
importance of caste, religion, and language, he insists on analysing them within the evolving
context of class relations and economic structure.
Desai examined three stages in Indian society: Pre-colonial, Colonial, and Post-colonial.
Pre-colonial Stage:
 Desai conceptualized the Pre-colonial Stage as a village-centric society, where each village
led a simple life, relying on agricultural land for direct consumption.
 Despite caste differences, villages were self-sufficient. Lower castes engaged in
manufacturing, and upper castes, who owned fertile land, were the main consumers.
 Desai viewed pre-colonial India as a feudal system, with rulers focused on political control
rather than displacing indigenous people from their land.
Colonial Stage:
 The introduction of the Zamindari system during the Colonial Stage intensified rural
exploitation due to absentee landlords, landlords of various sizes, tenants, peasants, and
moneylenders.
 Colonial governance brought centralized laws, modern education, railways, and industries,
leading to significant socio-economic changes in urban areas.
 Desai observed the emergence of a new middle class loyal to the colonial government
through government job opportunities, contributing to a polarized class structure in both
urban and rural India.
Post-Colonial Stage:
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 In the Post-Colonial Stage, Desai analysed independent India's development planning and
welfare policies. Policies like the Green Revolution contributed to the rise of the rural petty
bourgeoisie.
 Desai argued that rural cooperatives and Panchayati Raj institutions legitimized traditional
dominant caste hegemony over modern institutions.
 A.R. Desai expresses skepticism toward new policies, characterizing them as embodying a
false consciousness. This includes governmental initiatives such as Land Reforms and
Reservations.
 Desai perceives these policies as deliberate designs by dominant groups to accentuate
divisions among sections of society that are culturally, politically, and economically
deprived.
Criticism:
 Andre Beteille argues that Desai tends to exaggerate economic history to fit it into Marxist
theory, neglecting other bases of stratification such as caste and political mobility.
 Y. Singh criticizes Marxist theory for its failure to explore alternatives to social change and
its overall scepticism towards various elements, including government policies, mass media,
and popular movements. Singh highlights peasant and farmer movements across the country
as signs of democracy, a phenomenon unprecedented in history.
 Gail Omvedt points out that Marxist theory oversimplifies social classes into two polarized
categories, while in India, the degree of inequality varies among different classes. Dalits, in
particular, face immense suppression and are the worst victims of inequality.
 Jyoti Basu criticizes Marxist studies in India for overlooking castes and religion, asserting
that equating caste as class is invalid in the Indian context.
Conclusion:
Desai's dialectical perspective prompts a critical examination of the historical and current forces
influencing Indian society. It emphasizes the interplay of economic structures, class relations, and
power dynamics, providing insights into the challenges and opportunities for diverse social groups
in India. Despite critiques, Desai's framework remains valuable for understanding the complexities
of Indian society and its ongoing pursuit of social justice.
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b). "Banning practice of 'Sati' is attributed to annihilation of a major social

evil in colonial India." Comment. (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Write about the historical context of abolition of Sati
 Elaborate on the significance of the ban
 Mention counter arguments
 Conclusion
One of the landmark moments in the history of India was the abolition of the practice of Sati in – the
self-immolation of the widow on the funeral pyre of her husband in 1829. Abolition of sati is
considered an important achievement of the socio-religious reform movement. Raja Rammohan
Roy, starting in 1812, actively campaigned against Sati, collecting data that revealed 700 widows
burnt alive in Bengal in 1817. The Bengal Sati Regulation of 1829, enacted by Lord William
Bentinck, formally banned Sati in all lands under Bengal Presidency. The ban faced legal challenges
but was upheld by the Privy Council in London in 1832
Significance of the Ban:
 Social Reform: The ban on 'Sati' represents a critical moment in social reform during the
colonial period. It signified a departure from traditional practices that were harmful,
oppressive, and discriminatory, particularly against women.
 Colonial Influence: The colonial administration played a role in enforcing the ban,
showcasing the impact of colonial rulers on social norms and practices. The ban might be
seen as part of a broader attempt by the British to assert moral authority and reform certain
aspects of Indian society.
 Resistance and Cultural Context: While the ban aimed at eradicating a harmful practice, it
also faced resistance from certain sections of society. This resistance can be analysed in the
context of cultural norms, religious beliefs, and traditional practices deeply embedded in the
social fabric.
 Impact on Caste Dynamics: 'Sati' was not uniform across all castes, and its prohibition may
have influenced caste dynamics differently. Sociological analysis would involve examining
how the ban affected different caste groups, their reactions, and the broader implications for
social stratification.
 Modernization and Enlightenment: The ban on 'Sati' can be seen as a reflection of the
influence of modernization and enlightenment values during the colonial era. Sociologically,
it marks a departure from traditional practices guided by superstition and orthodoxy.
Counterview
 Challenging the Emancipation Narrative:
o Lata Mani in her work Contentious Traditions challenges the conventional view that
the abolition of widow burning in 1829 marked a straightforward advancement for
women's emancipation in modern India.
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 Peripheral Role of Women:
o Mani argues that women subjected to burning were peripheral to the discourse, and
the real controversy revolved around broader issues such as defining Hindu
tradition, the role of ritual in religious worship, colonialism's civilizing objectives,
and the colonial state's appropriate role.
 Complex Nature of Missionary Narratives:

o The missionary narratives about India are depicted as intricate and contradictory,
involving discussions about the religious foundations of sati, nuanced scriptural
interpretations, and conflicting views on women's roles.
 Paradoxical Nature of Sati History:

o The history of widow burning is portrayed as paradoxical, with primary participants
focusing on religious foundations and scriptural interpretations, while women at the
funeral pyres addressed tangible hardships and societal expectations linked to
widowhood.
 Rajeshwari Sundarajan's View: Sundarajan challenges the idea of sati as an 'individual

decision' and questions the celebration of pain in the practice. She highlights the
psychological subservience of women's status to religious norms, criticizing the structural
glorification of sati. Issues of consent and coercion in sati are tied to broader systems of
religious, economic, and social oppression.
Conclusion:
Banning Sati was the annihilation of a major social evil in colonial India captures a crucial moment
of progress in addressing a harmful practice. However, a nuanced sociological evaluation
necessitates recognizing the colonial context, acknowledging regional variations, considering the
agency of women involved, and understanding the limitations of the ban in achieving complete
eradication and broader gender equality. It remains a complex issue with lasting historical and
contemporary implications for Indian society.
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c) How do you justify Dumont's deliberate stress on ideology that produce

intellectualized account of Indian society? (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Introduce Dumont’s perspective
 Explain his stress on ideology and then provide justification for the same
 Write criticism
 Conclusion
Louis Dumont, a French anthropologist, is known for his influential work Homo Hierarchicus on
Indian society, particularly his emphasis on the concept of hierarchy and the role of ideology in
shaping social structures. He argues that ideology/values are basic principles of social organization.
Dumont seeks the ideology of caste in Indology, and in the assumption of the unity of Indian
civilization. Defining ideology, he writes: “it designates a more or less unified set of ideas and
values”. Indian civilization, to him, is a specific ideology whose components are in a binary
opposition to that of West: modern against traditional, holism against individualism, hierarchy
against equality, purity against pollution, status against power etc. This opposition (dialectic) is
basis for comparison at the level of global ideology within the specific ideology of the caste system.
Dumont’s stress on Ideology:
 He argued that Indian society is characterized by a dominant ideology of "holism", where
individuals are seen as part of a larger whole (caste, family, community) and social order is
based on purity and pollution. Ritual hierarchy encompasses other political and economic
hierarchies.
 This ideology, according to Dumont, manifests in various aspects of Indian life, including the
caste system, religious practices, and social hierarchies.
 By focusing on ideology, Dumont aimed to provide a coherent and overarching framework
for understanding the complex dynamics of Indian society.
Justification for Dumont’s stress on ideology:
 Holistic Approach: Dumont aimed for a comprehensive understanding of Indian society by
focusing on the interconnectedness of various social elements. His emphasis on ideology
allowed him to explore the underlying principles that informed social relationships,
hierarchical structures, and the overall organization of society.
 Rejecting Western Universalism: Dumont's approach can be seen as a reaction against
Western universalism, which often assumed that Western societal norms and values were
universally applicable. By focusing on Indian ideology, Dumont sought to understand and
appreciate the unique cultural and social dynamics of Indian society without imposing
Western frameworks.
 Comparative Perspective: Dumont's stress on ideology facilitated a comparative analysis
between Indian and Western societies. By highlighting the differences in ideological
foundations, he aimed to challenge ethnocentric perspectives and encourage a more nuanced
appreciation of diverse cultural systems.
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 Cultural Relativism: Dumont's emphasis on ideology aligns with the principles of cultural
relativism, acknowledging that different societies may have distinct value systems and belief
structures. This approach encourages scholars to avoid imposing external judgments on a
society and instead understand it within its own cultural context.
 Reveals underlying structures: In Dumont’s perspective, “ideology” naturally acquires its
neutral scientific meaning uncovering the deepest structures of historical consciousness.
Dumont encourages us to critically examine underlying assumptions and values that often
remain implicit in social structures and practices. This can be helpful for challenging
dominant narratives and promoting social change.
Criticism:
 Oversimplification: Critics argue that Dumont's binary of "holism" and "individualism" is
overly simplistic and fails to capture the nuances and internal variations within both Indian
and Western societies. McKim Marriott criticizes Homo Hierarchicus as containing a
speculative sketch of a pair of models, strongly shaped and documented mainly with textual
ideology of social science and philosophical allusions
 Neglect of agency: By focusing on overarching ideologies, Dumont is accused of neglecting
the agency of individuals and groups who may contest or subvert dominant norms. Critics
have also pointed out that the oppressive side of the caste system and the various
oppositional movements against it are not epiphenomenal to caste. as has been suggested by
Dumont.
 Eurocentric bias: Some critics argue that Dumont's framework is inherently
Eurocentric, privileging Western concepts and values while marginalizing indigenous
understandings of Indian society.
 False dichotomy between traditional and modern: Berreman has argued Dumont’s theory
assumes Western societies are individualistic and egalitarian, while traditional societies like
India are portrayed as collective, prioritizing social goals and hierarchy. This representation
implies that traditional societies lack values of equality and liberty, perpetuating the view of
India as closed and unchanging, contrasting with the progressive and open image ascribed
to the West.
Conclusion:
Though ideology provides crucial insights on underlying belief and values that shape the social
structure, it can’t be the exclusive lens through which we can attain comprehensive understanding
of society. Diverse sociological perspectives are essential for a more holistic analysis.
395
d) Explain the definitional problems concerning the tribal communities in

India. (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Give a broad definition of tribes in the introduction
 Explain the reasons behind the definitional problem
 Mention different sociological perspectives in this context
 Conclusion
Derived from the Latin term "tribus," the word 'tribe' signifies a community claiming common
ancestry. Initially used by the colonial government in India to differentiate from the term 'caste,' it
encompasses diverse groups in terms of demographics, language, culture, ecology, and living
conditions. Referred to as 'Scheduled Tribe' (ST) post-independence, these communities are
characterized by isolation, cultural distinctiveness, and a lower level of production and
subsistence.
Definitional problem:
Tribe in India refers to 8% of the population, internally segmented with diverse racial, linguistic,
and cultural identities. The complexity in defining Scheduled Tribes (STs) in India stems from
multiple factors. With over 80 million people falling under this classification, there exists a profound
diversity in language, customs, and social structures among tribal groups, rendering a single,
uniform definition inadequate in capturing their rich variations. Historical perceptions of tribes
as primitive and isolated, perpetuated by colonial anthropologists, contribute to the definitional
challenge. Modern sociologists highlight the difficulty of applying Western tribal models to the
diverse Indian context. Additionally, urbanization, development, and cultural exchange blur
traditional markers used to identify tribal communities, making it hard to establish fixed criteria.
Sociological perspectives:
 D.N. Majumdar defines a tribe as a socially cohesive, endogamous group with territorial
affiliation.
 Ralph Linton characterizes tribes as bands occupying contiguous territories, united by
cultural similarities and common interests.
 LM Lewis sees tribal societies as small-scale, spatially restricted, possessing distinct
moralities, religions, and worldviews.
Evolution of tribal studies
 Colonial Period and Tribal Studies:
o During the colonial era, the administration introduced the concept of tribes to assess
the numerical strength of various cultural communities. The examination of Gonds,
Oraons, Nagas, Andaman Islanders, Todas, and Baigas by both colonial and Indian
scholars revealed that tribes adhered to distinct cultures, religions, ways of life, and
primitive modes of production. Hutton referred to them as Aborigines, while Verrier
Elwin used the term Aboriginals.
o L.P. Vidyarthi characterized this period as the formative stage of Indian anthropology,
where scholars like S.C. Roy, N.K. Bose, and D.N. Majumdar developed the concept
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of "Tribe-caste continuum”.
 Post-Independence Anthropology: Post-independence, scholars like G.S. Ghurye and A.R.
Desai explored the tribal-caste continuum. Ghurye labelled them as Backward Hindus while
Desai characterised them into purest of pure tribes, partially assimilated, fully assimilated,
and aristocratic tribes. Surjeet Sinha and F.G. Bailey argued for understanding tribes in terms
of technological adaptation and economic change.
 Andre Beteille and Jaganath Pathy highlight the challenges in defining tribes due to cultural
diversity and self-identification.
 Constitutional and Developmental Perspectives : The founding fathers of the constitution
were aware of definitional problems but prioritized developmental issues for tribes.
Jawaharlal Nehru advocated for tribal development in Panchsheel principles, emphasizing
their integration into the larger economy and political life. In the Constitution, criteria for
defining tribes has not been clearly stated. Article 342 of the Constitution attributes “isolation,
backwardness and cultural distinctiveness” as the characteristics of the Scheduled Tribes.
Conclusion:
Thus the definition of tribe depend on their habitat, cultural customs, beliefs, ways of living, dialect
and social and economic conditions. A nuanced approach embracing diversity, historical context,
self-identification, and evolving realities is crucial to understanding and addressing their specific
needs and concerns.
397
e) "Secularism was an outcome of 20th century humanistic radicalism."

Comment on this statement. (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Define Secularism and Humanistic Radicalism in the introduction
 Elaborate the historical roots of secularism with emphasis on humanistic radicalism
 Briefly explain the idea of secularism in Indian context
 Conclusion
The term “Secularism” was coined in 1851 by Gorge Jacob Holyoake, who described it as an
ideology where morality was determined by reason rather than religious principles.
Peter Berger holds that secularism means progress in which a section of society and culture move
away from religious domination of institutions. The origin of secularism in Europe was through the
‘doctrine that morality should be based on the well-being of man in the present life, without regard
to religious belief ’
Humanistic radicalism refers to an intellectual and ideological approach that places a strong
emphasis on human values, rights, and welfare, often advocating for significant societal changes to
achieve these objectives
Historical Roots of Secularism:
Enlightenment & Revolution: Medieval Europe witnessed significant power struggle between the
Church and State, It led to the devastating 30 years war. Influencing thinkers like Hobbes and
Descartes secularism emerged, advocating the separation of the State and the Church.
17th-18th centuries: The Age of Enlightenment saw a surge in thinkers like
Locke, Montesquieu, and Voltaire advocating for individual rights, reason, and tolerance. Their
critiques of religious privilege and emphasis on a secular state laid the groundwork for modern
secularism.
American & French Revolutions: These revolutions put Enlightenment ideals into
practice, establishing the separation of church and state and enshrining principles of religious
freedom in their constitutions.
Humanism and Rationalism:
Rejection of Supernatural Authority: Radical humanism, as an intellectual movement, questioned
the authority of supernatural entities and religious dogmas. It emphasized the capacity of human
reason and intellect to guide ethical and moral choices, challenging the need for religious doctrines
in governance.
Scientific Advancements:
Empirical and Rational Inquiry: The scientific progress of the 20th century contributed to a
worldview that sought naturalistic explanations for phenomena, diminishing the role of
supernatural explanations. Karl Popper emphasized the importance of falsifiability in scientific
theories. His philosophy encouraged critical thinking and rational discourse, providing a
foundation for a secular worldview.
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Reaction to World Wars:
The devastation of World Wars I and II, along with the atrocities, led to a global aversion to war.
The mass media played a role in making people aware of worldwide suffering, prompting a
questioning of faith due to the horrors experienced.
Secularism in India:
Secularism in India has distinctive origins compared to the West, and understanding it requires
considering the unique historical, cultural, and socio-political context of the Indian subcontinent.
Cultural and Religious Diversity: India is characterized by immense cultural and religious
diversity, with various communities coexisting for centuries. M.N. Srinivas highlighted the concept
of "unity in diversity," emphasizing the need for a framework that respects and accommodates this
diversity.
Colonial Legacy: The colonial experience significantly influenced the trajectory of secularism in
India. Colonial rulers implemented policies that sometimes exacerbated religious and communal
divisions for administrative convenience. Dipankar Gupta has discussed how the British colonial
administration engaged with different religious communities, impacting inter-community relations.
Inclusive Secularism: Indian secularism, in contrast to Western secularism, is often characterized
as "inclusive secularism," accommodating religious practices within the public sphere.
Post-Independence Secularism: After gaining independence in 1947, India adopted a secular
approach as enshrined in its Constitution. T.N. Madan has examined the secular ethos in India,
emphasizing the constitutional commitment to treating all religions equally.
Conclusion:
While the connection between humanistic radicalism and the emergence of secularism holds true,
it's essential to recognize that the roots of secular thought can be traced back to earlier centuries,
and various cultural, historical, and intellectual factors have contributed to its development.
Additionally, interpretations and implementations of secularism can vary across different societies
and contexts as seen in the case of India.
399
Question 2.
a) "Indian caste system is unique and has been unhealthy for the growth of
sociology of India." How far do you agree with this view? (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Define caste system in the introduction
 Briefly mention the key features of caste system
 Explain how caste system is unhealthy for the growth of sociology in India
 Write counter-perspective
 Conclusion
Caste is a system of social stratification. It lies at the root of Indian social structure. It involves
ranking according to birth and determines one’s occupation, marriage and social relationships.
There is a prescribed set of norms, values and sanctions which govern social behaviour within caste.
The caste system has had complex implications for the growth of sociology in India.
Features of caste system:
Ghurye studied caste from a historical, comparative, and integrative perspective. He identified six
basic features of caste system:
 Segmental division.
 Lack of choice of occupations in those divisions.
 Purity and pollution based on occupation.
 Hierarchy of those divisions based on purity.
 Commensal and conjugal relations. (Civil/religious disabilities/privileges of groups)
 Restrictions on marriage. (Caste endogamy and Gotra/Pinda exogamy)
Caste system unhealthy for the growth of sociology
 Reinforced Inequalities: The rigid caste hierarchy creates enduring disparities in access to
education, resources, and opportunities, limiting social mobility and perpetuating
discrimination. This makes it difficult to achieve equitable representation within the field of
sociology itself. Only 0.5% of academics in India come from Dalit communities
(Dhingra, 2019). This makes it difficult to achieve equitable representation within sociology
itself.
 Marginalized Voices: The historical and ongoing exclusion of lower castes restricts the
diversity of perspectives in sociological research. Critical insights from marginalized
communities are often overlooked or silenced, leading to incomplete understandings of
Indian society. Prof. Vivek Kumar has argued that Indian sociology has failed to locate Dalits
in the Indian society. Srinivas and Beteille examined Indian villages through the lens of unity
and interdependence. However, the Dalit perspective challenges this mainstream
sociological viewpoint, considering it to be flawed.
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 Subject Matter Bias: The field's current focus on caste dynamics, while valuable, can
overshadow other critical issues like gender, class, and regional inequalities. This lack of
comprehensive analysis hampers a holistic understanding of social structures and their
interplay. As highlighted by T.K. Oommen, some academics may self-censor sensitive
discussions for fear of upsetting established societal norms and religious beliefs.
 Religious and Cultural Entanglements: The deep connections between the caste system and
Indian religion and culture complicate critical analysis. Some may shy away from sensitive
discussions for fear of causing offense or disrupting established social norms.
 Limited Social Mobility: The rigid hierarchy restricts the pool of potential sociologists from
lower castes who might bring unique perspectives and experiences to the field. This further
reinforces the dominance of privileged voices within sociology.
 Research Bias: Caste biases can influence research design, data collection, and
interpretation. Researchers from privileged backgrounds may struggle to fully comprehend
the lived experiences of marginalized groups, leading to skewed or inaccurate
representations. M. N. Srinivas' work highlights the complexities and challenges of
conducting field research within the caste system.
 Dalit Scholar Labelling: Labelling sociologists solely as "Dalit sociologists" risks
marginalizing their contributions and reducing their work to a single aspect of their
identity. This reinforces existing biases and hinders fair evaluation of their scholarship.
Opportunities for the growth of Sociology:
 Challenge to Western theories: Studying the caste system can expose the limitations of
Western-centric sociological theories that might not fully capture its specificities. Ranajit
Guha, for instance, argued that understanding colonial India requires acknowledging the
distinct role of caste in shaping power dynamics and social relations.
 The study of the caste system, along with village studies, played a pivotal role in stimulating
the sociological imagination of pioneering scholars in Indian sociology, such as M.N.
Srinivas, G.S. Ghurye, and André Béteille. This focus provided a significant impetus to the
field of sociology in India..
 Catalyst for Social Change: Through critical analysis and advocacy, understanding the caste
system can inform social reform movements and policies aimed at dismantling
discriminatory practices and promoting social justice. Sociology can play a crucial role in
advancing positive change. Gail Omvedt's work on affirmative action policies and caste
inequalities exemplifies this transformative potential.
 Fostering Inclusive Research: Acknowledging the challenges and actively diversifying
research methods, participants, and interpretations can lead to more equitable and
representative sociological studies. This will enrich the field with a broader range of
perspectives and experiences. V. Geetha pioneered participatory research methods
involving marginalized communities, providing a model for inclusive research practices.
 Promoting Social Mobility: Expanding access to education and career opportunities within
sociology for individuals from lower castes can increase diversity in the field and enrich its
perspectives. This will contribute to a more inclusive and representative scholarly
community. The establishment of Ambedkar Chairs in various universities across India is a
step towards achieving this goal.
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Conclusion:
While the caste system has posed challenges, it also offers a complex and distinctive sociological
landscape for examination. Sociological studies in India often grapple with understanding the
intricate interplay between caste, identity, and social structures, contributing to the ongoing
discourse on social dynamics in the country.
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b) Discuss Whitehead's contention that caste has potential to displace class

and colonial contradiction. (20 Marks)
Structure
 Whitehead's idea of Caste System
 Colonial assertions about India
 Whitehead's perspective on how colonial rulers saw caste.
 Her idea on if Caste has potential to displace class and colonial contradictions
 Shortcoming in Whitehead's Ideas
 Conclusion
Introduction
According to Whitehead, while caste existed during the precolonial period, it acquired a political
and ritual rigidity during the latter half of the nineteenth century as it became linked to new
disciplinary forms of the colonial state.
Early census ethnographers saw it as a timeless institution originating in the distant past, and
thus an original mark of difference from Europe.
Indeed, European representations of India in the late nineteenth century often identified caste as
the principal cause of India's lack of economic progress and of its domination by outsiders.
In the words of one of the major policy makers of this period:
"India was a traditional society, impervious to change in which the various castes and races lived
in perfect harmony with each other ... Caste secured India from the convulsions with which
individual ambition might threaten it and made change from within a virtual impossibility. "
Colonial Assertions
Judy Whitehead points that:
 Colonial ideology emphasised the moral and scientific inferiority of India's tradition.
 The position of Indian women and supposedly "barbaric" Hindu practices such as child—
marriage and devdasi system became symbols of Britain's higher level of civilisation and of
its moral right to govern a subject population.
 British rule raised and provided that sole index for understanding India is caste, they
reduced everything to a single explanatory category of caste.
 Caste was not merely a fabrication of British rulers designed to demean and subjugate
Indians.
The contradiction lies in the fact that it did serve the colonial interests by condemning the
'Brahmanical tyranny' and appeasing to other castes and communities to weaken the national
movement.
Whitehead's Viewpoint on Colonial Understandings of Caste
Whitehead writes that European perceptions of the caste system came to mix historical
reconstructions with projections of their own cultural prejudices which channelled future
commentaries and analyses of caste.
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Whitehead agrees that colonial rulers saw caste as a key symbol, as it constituted 'the most
powerful element of stability in this feudal structure, which secured rural areas from the
convulsions with which individual ambition might threaten it'.
The definitions of caste incorporated into successive colonial discourses collapsed history into
nature, appearing timeless and exotic: an apt symbol of the 'archaic' East.
Whitehead writes that for Bougle, caste became the synecdoche of India, a single social institution
that symbolized the character of the entire society.
He saw in this 'essential institution' causes for the lack of separation between religious and secular
law, which in turn determined the lack of evolution of the state, a lack exacerbated by the local
divisions of the caste system.
Whether Caste has potential to displace class and colonial contradictions
Whitehead writes that there are several logical lacunae in a direct reduction of caste forms to class
domination or colonial ideas:
 Interpreting the ideological domain as an immediate reflection of class interests ignores
conditions by which subjects consent to ruling class definitions of social reality.
That is, the conception of class hegemony cannot address the question of why it assumes
different shapes across societies and through time.
 She says that Dumont 'conveniently smuggled' empirical relations in as examples of the
materialisation of imputed categories of thought.
By such a procedure, the possibility of critically understanding the historical processes
which produce different forms of social consciousness is eradicated.
 The fact of Brahmins being landlords represents a secularisation of and deviation from the
principle of religious hierarchy, highlighting how caste and class are already mingled in
practice.
 She says that Dumont transformed real class and caste contradictions into oppositions in
thought, which though looks like a critical understanding of the social relations which
produce caste ideology, but is an apology for Brahminical Hinduism.
 She also writes that Colonialism exaggerated cultural specifities into rigid evolutionary
contrasts between Europe and the rest of the world which reproduced images of timeless
'others' existing outside real historical processes, maintaining a temporal distance between
Europe and its colonies as effectively as did more elaborate evolutionary scales elsewhere.
Caste cannot re lace this understanding.
These empirical loose ends and logical problems have provided the gap into which present-day
orientalists have rushed to deny the possibility of applying materialist categories to caste society.
Shortcoming in Whitehead's Ideas
 Whitehead develops on ideas of Dumont, which are in particular encouraged a caste view of
Indian society.
 L N Venkataraman writes (in EPW) that the growing disappearance of economic
dependency which was a product of caste-based division of labour is freeing the erstwhile
"lower" castes from the dominance of the "others".
This is an important aspect as Caste-based division of labour is changing to a class-centric
one.
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The role of education in this change is intersectionally influential in the villages.
 Whitehead's criticism is based on how Dumont imagined the caste system in India. Since
Dumont's views are much on what caste used to be and not what caste today is, Whitehead's
understanding of caste system also seems misplaced in time.
 It is also worth noting that superiority of hegemons is also questioned by others who see
power concentrated in their hands.
Conclusion
Robert Deliege writes that the diversification of occupations related modernity has transformed
traditional caste interdependence into mutual rivalry and, at times, outright competition for classes.
Caste dimension still remains important and India has gone for only selective modernisation and
not complete modernisation as explained by Yogendra Singh neither has it remained totally
traditional as Dumont has put it.
For both British and French traditions (colonial rulers of India), the power of caste as a symbol
resided in its multivocal ability to displace class and colonial contradictions and condense them in
a metaphor of India's essential and pre-existing deviations from the sociology of western Europe.
Whitehead uses these understandings between colonial past, development models and prevalent
social policies to offer valuable insights and lessons on the type of social policy that can foster
democratic and rights-based models of social development.
Extra:
MN Srinivas tried to capture the fluidity of caste system through concepts of Sanskritisation,
dominant castes and Brahminisation.
He predominantly used the field studies to explain working of caste, but also resorted to Indological
sources.
He used a multidimensional approach and focused on not just tradition, but he understood it in
terms of status, wealth and power.
Louis Dumont in Seminal work Homohierarchicus : Caste System and it's implications, synthesised
macro perspective of Ghurye with Micro perspective of the empirical studies, Thus, combining 'text'
with 'context'. He sees caste from an ideological perspective and not just an empirical reality.
He constructed textually Informed image of caste which according to Him is a combination of
indological and structuralist approach with dual focus on ideology as well as structure. According
to him, caste plays and integrative role in Indian society and is distinctive of India and He sees caste
system in terms of ideas and values.
c) "Indian rural society is a faction-ridden society." Discuss. (10 Marks)

Answer:
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Overview:
 Introduce with the importance of rural society in India
 Elaborate on the statement that rural society is faction-ridden with the mention of different
sociological views
 Present the counter argument regarding solidarity in villages
 Conclusion
Indian society is overwhelmingly rural. It represents a demographic and structural reality in
modern India. When scholars say that ‘India lives in villages’, they mean not only that villages
constitute the abode of three-quarters of Indians, but also that the fundamental values of Indian
society and civilization are preserved in villages, wherefrom they are transmitted to towns and
cities.
But, factionalism in rural society are deep-rooted as well. Caste, gender, religion are crucial social
institutions that often threaten the unity of villages.
Rural society is faction-ridden:
 Oscar Lewis’s Group Dynamics in a North Indian Village popularised the word “faction” in
Indian village society. Lewis attributed factionalism to factors like land disputes, rivalries
among family groups and caste groups, sexual offences, murders and competition for scarce
resources. He observed how these conflicts could disrupt social harmony and impede
collective action.
 M.N. Srinivas: In his study of Rampur village, Srinivas highlighted how competition for
political power within the panchayat system often exacerbated existing social
divisions, leading to the formation of factions vying for control.
 A.R. Desai: Desai analysed the link between factionalism and class and caste structures in
rural India. He argued that economic inequalities and lack of land reforms could contribute
to internal conflicts, with dominant groups using their control over resources to maintain
power over others.
 Veena Das: Emphasizing the historical context, Das argued that factionalism should be
understood within the broader power dynamics at play in rural communities. She
highlighted how external forces like colonial legacies and state policies could contribute to
internal divisions and conflicts.
 D.N. Dhanagare's studies on rural politics in Maharashtra explored how political parties and
leaders contribute to factionalism. Political alignments and affiliations often lead to the
formation of factions supporting different parties or leaders.
 Dr. B.R Ambedkar: He considered village life to be cesspool of factionalism and inequality.
He was apprehensive that the caste-ridden nature of villages would defeat the objective of
local governments.
 F.G Bailey rejected the idea of communitarian unity in villages. He stressed on the coercive
aspects of caste relations.
Counter-argument:
 The village settlement, as a unit of social organisation, represented a kind of solidarity which
was different from that of the kin, the caste, and the class. Each village was a distinct entity,
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had some individual mores and usages, and possessed a corporate unity. Different castes
and communities inhabiting the village were integrated in its economic, social, and ritual
pattern by ties of mutual and reciprocal obligations sanctioned and sustained by generally
accepted conventions.
 Rural India has long been associated with social cohesion. Villages in India are known
 for being close-knit social units. Village residents, regardless of caste or profession,
 contribute to the village's unity through peaceful coexistence and mutual support.
 Rural India has long been associated with social cohesion. Villages in India are known
 for being close-knit social units. Village residents, regardless of caste or profession,
 contribute to the village's unity through peaceful coexistence and mutual support.
 People’s social lives are mostly confined to their villages, their livelihoods and lives revolve
around the rural environment and resources. The village is thus a point of prestige and
personal identity. Along with caste, class or locality, village provides an important source of
identity to its residents.
 Village studies from M.N. Srinivas’s study of the Coorgs to A.M. Shah’s works shows how
the solidarity marks inter-caste and intra-caste relations, to maintain stability within the
village.
 W.H.R Wiser conceptualised the social relationships between caste groups in the
framework of reciprocity.
 Factionalism is not static and can evolve over time. Social interventions, changing
leadership, and economic development can transform the dynamics of
communities, potentially mitigating factionalism and fostering greater unity.
Conclusion:
While factionalism undoubtedly exists in many communities, it's crucial to recognize its diverse
manifestations, underlying causes, and changing dynamics. A nuanced understanding is needed,
acknowledging both the challenges posed by factionalism and the inherent resilience and
collaborative spirit that also characterizes rural societies in India.
Question 3.
a) Examine the colonial policy of segregation of tribes under the
Government of India Act, 1935. (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Introduce the key feature of the tribal policy of 1935 Act
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 Discuss the implications of this policy and subsequently the consequences
 Further, mention counter-perspectives
 Conclusion
Government of India Act,1935 demarcated tribal areas as excluded areas and partially excluded
areas, which were beyond the purview of federal and provincial legislations. It reflected the broader
administrative and social ideologies of the British colonial rule in India. It ensued a debate on the
correct approach regarding tribal policy.
Implications of the policy:
 Paternalistic Protection: The colonial policy was driven by a paternalistic attitude that
viewed tribes as primitive and in need of protection. Colonial authorities believed that
segregating tribes into protected zones would shield them from exploitation and allow for
their gradual integration into mainstream society.
 Cultural Primitivism: Some officials, influenced by romanticized views, believed that
maintaining the isolation of tribes would preserve their cultural identity and prevent the
erosion of traditional practices. This perspective saw tribes as living in harmony with nature
and morally superior to the more industrialized and "civilized" world.
 Cultural autonomy of tribals: Verrier Elwin believed in the cultural autonomy of tribal life
and value system, which is a unique civilizational order according to its on terms and
references. For him the ‘primitive’ constituted a ‘pure’ and a ‘pristine’ state of existence.
Elwin’s image of the forest dwellers voiced his despair at the tendency towards the
destruction of an idyllic society.
 Economic Democracy: The concept of "economic democracy" within the colonial policy
aimed at ensuring tribal rights, ownership of land, and freedom from exploitation. The
intention was to uplift tribal communities economically without subjecting them to the
negative aspects of modern commercial economy.
 Recognition of Tribal Diversity: The policy, to some extent, recognized the diversity among
tribal communities. It acknowledged that a one-size-fits-all approach would not work,
leading to the creation of specific measures for different tribal groups.
Consequences:
 Dependency on State Welfare: The policy of segregation resulted in tribal communities
becoming more dependent on state welfare measures. The consequence was increased
intervention in their affairs, which could potentially lead to a loss of self-sufficiency.
 Limitation of Autonomy: The creation of protected zones limited the autonomy of tribal
communities. They were subject to rules and regulations imposed by colonial authorities,
impacting their ability to govern themselves according to their traditional systems.
 Formation of Static Identities: The policy influenced the formation of static tribal identities.
Bans on certain practices, coupled with external interventions, contributed to tribes
perceiving themselves in specific roles (e.g., hunters and gatherers), hindering their ability to
adapt to changing circumstances.
 Impact on Socio-Economic Development: While the policy aimed at socio-economic
development, its impact was mixed. It created a dependence on state support but also
provided a framework for protection and, in some cases, the preservation of traditional
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practices.
 Political marginalization: The policy of segregation resulted in the political marginalization
of tribal communities, depriving them of representation in provincial legislatures and
subjecting them to distinct sets of laws and regulations.
Counter-perspective
 Nationalists in the 1930s and 40s criticized colonial policies and anthropological writings
celebrating cultural primitivism. They argued against the segregation of tribes and peasants,
viewing it as exploitative and detrimental to economic progress.
 The Congress party emphasized anti-imperialism and the development of a unified Indian
identity.
 Nationalists rejected the idea of tribes having special needs and opposed celebrating cultural
distinctiveness.
 G.S. Ghurye and other nationalist sociologists criticized pro-exclusionist policies,
advocating assimilation into Hindu society. They considered assimilation beneficial for the
tribes' moral and economic betterment.
 Social worker A.V. Thakkar stressed the need for a nationalist identity but proposed
assimilation over isolation.
 Subsequently, Indian constitution adopted the policy of integration based on Panchsheel
principles of Nehru.
Conclusion:
The policy of segregation was based on the assumption that tribal people were primitive and
backward, and that they needed to be protected from the corrupting influences of modernity.
However, the policy had a number of negative consequences. It led to the marginalization of tribal
people, and it made it difficult for them to participate in the political and economic life of the
country. The legacy of the segregation policy continues to be felt by tribal communities in India
today. Many tribal communities are still struggling to overcome the social, economic, and political
disadvantages that they inherited from the colonial era.
b) Discuss the dynamics of 'migrant workers' in India in the context of

Corona pandemic. (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview
 Briefly define migration in the context of Pandemic
 Elaborate the different dynamics of the migrant workers
 Write few suggestions as way forward
 Conclusion
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Migration is the movement of people away from their usual place of residence,
either internal (within the country) or international (across countries) borders.
The COVID-19 pandemic exposed and exacerbated the existing vulnerabilities of India's vast
migrant workforce, estimated to be around 45 crore (450 million). These workers, often employed
in the informal sector with limited social security, faced immense challenges due to lockdowns and
economic disruptions.
Migration in India:
According to the 2011 Population Census, the number of migrants was 450 million. The share of the
migrant in total population increased to 37% in 2011, from 30% in 2001. A significant part of the
migration is primarily for ‘social reasons’, such as marriage and the movement of families.
Low agricultural income, agricultural unemployment and underemployment are the major
economic factors pushing the migrants towards areas with greater job opportunities.
Covid-19 pandemic prompted large scale reverse-migration in the country as migrants returned to
their place of origin after having migrated to another place for a certain period.
Dynamics of migrant workers during the Pandemic:
 The vulnerability of migrant workers during the COVID-19 pandemic can be understood in
the context of the sudden and harshly implemented lockdown, which had uneven impacts
on different economic classes.
 While the middle classes adapted to online work, the working classes faced abrupt
disruptions in earnings, especially for those in congested slums where social distancing was
a luxury.
 Lack of statistical data on migration and the invisibility of migrant workers in official
statistics and policy thinking contributed to the unanticipated response to the lockdown.
 The lockdown prompted thousands of migrant workers to embark on long journeys to reach
their homes, leading to a humanitarian crisis with deaths, diseases, and hardships.
 Immediate impacts included loss of employment, non-payment of wages, loss of
consumption, and depletion of savings, with inter-state migrants experiencing higher job
losses. Migrant workers, often employed in the informal sector, lacked social security
benefits. The sudden loss of income left them without financial resources.
 Oxfam International’s report highlighted the widening inequality as a consequence of the

pandemic. The migrant exodus worsened the inequality.
 The abrupt loss of employment resulted in a drastic fall in income, with a majority of workers
earning below statutory minimum wages, and many reporting inability to survive beyond
a week. Jan Breman’s ideaa of "precarious livelihoods" resonates with the struggles of
informal workers facing abrupt disruptions in earnings.
 Food shortages became prevalent among migrant workers, with a significant percentage
facing extreme food insecurity and having rations for less than a day.
 Female workers suffered disproportionately during the crisis, facing challenges such as
discrimination, exploitation, and inadequate support. Children were dropped out of school
and there was a rise in child marriages.
 Discrimination and stigmatization awaited migrants who returned to their home states, and
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relief measures initiated by governments were reported to have inadequate coverage and
exclusion errors.
 Rural economies suffered due to disrupted agricultural operations and supply chains,
impacting sectors like dairy and poultry, leading to a lack of wage employment for rural
labour households.
 The long-term implications of the pandemic reveal pre-existing challenges in the Indian
economy, including faltering economic growth, rural livelihood crises, and a neoliberal
turn favouring big capital at the expense of the working classes.
 The "migrant crisis" is a manifestation of conditions under neoliberal globalization,
emphasizing cheap labour and precarious employment relations, contributing to
vulnerabilities for informal workers. Jayati Ghosh critically analyses economic policies,
especially during the pandemic, highlighting how government responses may worsen
challenges for vulnerable migrant workers.
 The sources of vulnerabilities are economic, social, and political, with migrant workers facing
stigmatization, discrimination, and exclusion both at their places of origin and destination.
 Government Initiatives: The Indian government launched various schemes like free food
grains, financial assistance, and special trains to facilitate the return of
migrants. However, the implementation faced challenges like bureaucratic
hurdles, inadequate resources, and lack of targeting marginalized groups.
Opportunities and Way Ahead:
Post-COVID-19 Crisis Management: Address unemployment and reverse migration for economic
recovery. Prioritize providing basic amenities, food, and healthcare to migrant workers.
Rural Development and Agriculture: Intensify agriculture, utilizing surplus grains for global
markets. Engage returned migrants in diverse agricultural activities.
Nonfarm Sector Development: Strengthen nonfarm sector employment and address supply chain
disruptions.
Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSME): Boost labor-intensive MSMEs and enhance
migrant skill development.
Comprehensive Employment and Industrial Policy: Develop policies aligning employment and
industrial goals, focusing on skill enhancement.
MGNREGA Scheme: Utilize MGNREGA for rural employment, ensuring fair wages.
Encouraging Medium- and Long-Term Livelihood Options: Encourage migrants to invest in
sustainable livelihoods. Facilitate credit through co-operatives, banks, and Kisan credit cards.
Creating database for migrant workers:. Establish a reliable migrant worker database at the
panchayat level for effective crisis response. At the panchayat level, a system should be created for
the registration of every migrant worker. This would help the government to extend benefits to the
workers during any crisis like the COVID-19.
Conclusion:
The COVID-19 pandemic brought the plight of migrant workers in India into sharp focus. The crisis
faced by migrant workers during the pandemic highlights the need for structural changes,
supportive measures, and recognition of the long-term employment crisis in the Indian economy to
address persistent vulnerabilities.
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412
(c) How does Andre Beteille justify middle class in India? (10 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Briefly introduce the concept of middle class and middle class in India
 Explain the ideas of Beteille on middle class
 Conclusion
Despite extensive study, there is no commonly agreed definition of the middle class. Some scholars
define it in terms of its link to the means of production, while others define it in terms of relative
salaries or spending patterns. The middle class has notably evolved as a strong, influential, and
dominating element of society, determining the nation's economy, polity, culture, education, and
social interactions based on money, social status, education, occupation, and consumption. Weber
defines the middle class in terms of structural life opportunities, including small property owners,
artisans, skilled employees, public officials, and so on. Anthony Giddens defines middle class as
having the necessary educational and technical qualifications.
Middle Class in India:
Middle class in India is understood to have emerged as a result of colonial policies. The middle class
witnessed significant growth after independence due to policies promoting
education, industrialization, and the expansion of the service sector. The middle class embodies
values like upward mobility, education, material success, and individual achievement, shaping
their consumption patterns and lifestyle choices.
Andre Beteille’s justification for the Middle Class:
According to Andre Beteille in his paper, The Social Character of the Indian Middle Class, before
the nineteenth century, there existed numerous distinctions on the basis of class, caste, kinship.
However, there was no middle class that existed. This according to him was a feature of the western
countries. He also argues that, from the European point of view, it was the very absence of the
middle class, which was the main reason for India being considered an oriental society. For him the
growth of middle classes is a rather modern phenomenon which took place post the nineteenth
century.
 Beteille identifies occupational function and employment status as crucial criteria for
defining the middle class, with non-manual work being typical of middle-class
occupations.
 The urban middle classes in India are categorized into three hierarchical sections: "upper,"
comprising top managerial, executive, legal, and medical positions; "lower," including school
teachers, clerks, and shop assistants; and a middle section with intermediate income and
social status.
 While the urban middle classes are largely composed of upper castes, recruitment to
professional and managerial roles is selectively based on caste.
 The diversity in income, occupation, education, and caste within the urban middle classes
offers a rich field for studying changing dynamics between caste and class, as well as the
interaction between "traditional" and "modern" elements of status.
 Beteille views castes as status groups, noting that fluidity among the "upper caste, urban
middle classes" suggests a shift toward more overlapping and less rigid categories while
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retaining influences from the traditional order.
 Middle-class values are characterized by contradictions and oppositions, still in the process
of formation and lacking a stable form, according to Beteille.
 Beteille advises against comparing the Indian middle class with the European middle class,
considering the Indian middle class to be the most polymorphous in the world.
 Despite significant growth, the Indian middle class coexists with the multitude of castes and
communities from the past, with its peculiarity arising from the social environment in which
it operates.
Conclusion:
Beteille's approach highlights the complexity of defining and understanding the middle class in
India. By emphasizing its diverse composition, evolving nature, and distinct socio-cultural
characteristics, he provides a valuable framework for analysing this influential social group and its
role in Indian society.
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Question 4.
(a) Discuss the conceptual issues about lineage and descent in India. Give
suitable illustrations. (20 Marks)
Answer
Overview:
 Introduce lineage and descent in the introduction
 Elaborate on the key conceptual issues
 Conclusion
Lineage is the principle based upon which inheritance is chosen. Example: Patrilineage,
Matrilineage. It refers to a particular type of kin group in which a member has a common ancestor
whose identity is known.
Descent can be defined as a relationship defined by connection to an ancestor (or ancestress)
through a culturally recognized sequence of parent-child relationship. Descent can be
unilineal(patrilineal or matrilineal), double descent(both patrilineal and matrilineal),
cognatic(equally patrilineal and matrilineal) and Ambilineal(depends on individual choice).
Key conceptual issues:
 Patrilineality vs. Matrilineality: The overwhelming dominance of patrilineal descent,
tracing ancestry through the male line, in India stands in contrast to matrilineal systems,
where the female line prevails. This creates significant social and cultural implications,
influencing inheritance patterns, property rights, family structures, and even rituals. For
example, in patrilineal societies like North India, sons inherit property, carry forward the
family name, and perform ancestral rites, while daughters often transition to their husband's
lineage upon marriage. Conversely, matrilineal communities like those among Khasis of
Meghalaya or Nayars of Kerala exhibit contrasting dynamics, with property and titles
passing down through the female line and nephews holding important positions within the
family structure. M.N Srinivas’s study in the Coorg society discussed about Okka-
patrilineal and patrilocal unit of the society.
 Unilineality vs. Bilateralism: While unilineal systems emphasize tracing ancestry through
either the father's or mother's side exclusively, bilateral systems acknowledge kinship ties
on both sides. India exhibits a complex interplay of these systems. While patrilineality
remains dominant, aspects of bilateral kinship are evident in certain practices like
maintaining ties with maternal relatives and seeking blessings from both paternal and
maternal grandparents. This highlights the fluidity and dynamism of kinship structures,
even within seemingly rigid systems.
 Caste and Lineage: Caste often intersects with lineage, influencing social status and
privileges. This reflects the intricate connection between descent and social stratification.
Irawati Karve considered caste and kinship as inseparable. She noted that every caste is an
endogamous unit and one has no relatives outside of one’s own caste. Louis Dumont’s study
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of Sarjupari Brahmins in Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh illustrate the relationship
between caste and kinship. Among the Sarjupari Brahmins in this region, three sub-castes
exist, organized into hierarchical kin groups or lineages known as 'houses.'
 Marriages are consistently arranged from lower to higher houses, indicating a hierarchical
relationship between the bride-givers and bride-takers.
 Gender roles: Patrilineal descent in India historically emphasized male centrality in lineage,
with men inheriting property, carrying the family name, and performing rituals. Daughters
faced limited inheritance rights, fostering economic dependence and gender disparities.
Rituals associated with lineage often excluded women, reinforcing their marginalization
within the kinship structure. Matrilineal systems have more gender equality as women
have inheritance rights. But the dominance of men still persists even in matrilineal
systems, sometimes called as “matrilineal puzzle.”
 Political Representation: Lineages often form networks that extend into political structures,
influencing decision-making processes and resource allocation. Lineages can act as powerful
political units, influencing voting patterns, mobilizing communities, and even shaping local
governance structures. The intersection of lineage with caste can impact political
representation, with certain lineages holding historical dominance in political spheres.
 Shifting Dynamics: Globalization, urbanization, and evolving family structures reshape
lineage practices in India. Migration, nuclear families, and changing gender roles prompt
reassessments of traditional norms. Increasingly educated and career-oriented daughters
challenge inheritance patterns, questioning traditional emphasis on male heirs. This
transition impacts gender roles as individuals, especially women, gain more autonomy in
decision-making and lifestyle choices.
Conclusion:
Sociological analysis of lineage and descent in India goes beyond mere conceptual frameworks. It
requires exploring the complex interplay of power, inequality, kinship dynamics, political and
economic implications, and theoretical interpretations. By adopting a multifaceted approach, we
can gain a deeper understanding of how these intricate kinship structures shape individual lives,
community dynamics, and societal transformations in the ever-evolving Indian landscape.
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(b) Analyze household dimensions of family in India. (20 Marks)

Answer
Overview:
 Define Family and Household in the introduction
 Elaborate the key features of household dimensions especially referring to A.M Shah
 Conclusion
The concept, family, broadly refers to the primary group comprising husband-wife unit (parents)
and their children. This definition keeps three types of ties in mind. The ties are: of marriage between
the spouses, (i.e. the parents) and of siblingship between children .The family is based on the
principles of kinship whose members usually share a common residence. They reside in a
house/homestead. This residential unit is called the household. The members of a household have
a set of relational ties amongst them. These ties are linked with the statuses held and the
corroborating role complexes members of the family are expected to constitute. The household
(ghar) is a residential and domestic unit composed of one or more persons living under the same
roof and eating food cooked in the same kitchen (hearth/chulah). Household provides a processual
view of the family closer to the lived social reality.
Household dimensions of family:
According to A.M Shah, ‘simple’ household is composed of a complete elementary family or a part
of an elementary family and ‘complex’ or ‘joint’ household is composed of two or more elementary
families, or of parts of two or more elementary families, or of one elementary family and parts of
one or more other elementary families. He proposes a typology of households in India, classifying
them based on the presence of nuclear families, joint families, or extended families within the
household unit.
Shah critiques the overemphasis on the joint family as the ideal family form in India, highlighting
the prevalence of diverse household structures and the need for nuanced analysis. I.P Desai
considers that nuclear families are mushrooming both in rural and urban India.
Kolenda, has contributed to conceptual clarity on family and household dynamics. In her
comparative study of the Indian joint family, based on post-1949 ethnographic studies and
household censuses, she introduced a 12-type classificatory scheme. This scheme goes beyond the
conventional joint-nuclear or extended-elementary family classifications, providing a nuanced
understanding.
Household Structure and Composition:
Complexity with Additional Relatives: The structure of a household becomes more intricate with
the inclusion of various categories of relatives.
Relationship Dynamics: In a one-member household, there is no relationship; a two-member
household involves one relationship. However, adding a relative introduces multiple relationships.
For instance, adding a son's wife creates relationships between the son and his wife, father-in-law
and daughter-in-law, and mother-in-law and daughter-in-law.
Interactions and Dynamics: Each member in a household engages in a complex pattern of
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behaviour with every other member. Every household member has unique likes, dislikes, habits,
tastes, and idiosyncrasies. Life in a household is marked by sentiments, emotions, cooperation, and
conflict.
Progression and Regression: Households undergo processes of progression and regression. There
is simultaneous existence of small, simple households and large, complex households in society.
Examples: A household may be progressing by expanding in size or regressing by simplifying its
composition.
Simultaneous Operation of Relationships:
Effects of Partition: When a complex household (e.g., with married brothers) is partitioned, separate
households emerge. Continued Relationships: Despite separation, relationships persist. Members
may cooperate in economic pursuits, jointly manage property, assist each other, and participate in
shared festivities and ceremonies.
Technical Distinction: Emphasizes the importance of distinguishing between "household" and
"family." Multiple households may exist separately but function as one family.
Gender Roles and Power Dynamics: Household structures often reflect and reinforce existing
gender norms and power dynamics. Patriarchal hierarchies may be evident in decision-
making, access to resources, and division of labour within the household. Leela Dube analyses the
gendered experiences within households, highlighting the complexities of women's agency and
negotiation of power dynamics.
Conclusion:
The conceptualization of the family in India has evolved with an expanded focus on the household
dimension. This approach emphasizes that households are integral to the developmental cycle,
undergoing transformations influenced by various factors such as life expectancy, economic
conditions, migration patterns, and interpersonal relationships. Examining the family through the
lens of households offers a dynamic and evolving understanding of its structure and dynamics.
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(c) Write a note on cultural pluralism in multi-religious society like India.

(10 Marks)
Approach
 Define Cultural Pluralism.
 Explain India as a Multi-Religious Society.
 Highlight Tolerance and Coexistence among various communities.
 Challenges and Conflicts.
 Conclude.
Cultural pluralism, refers to the coexistence and recognition of diverse cultural practices, beliefs,
and identities within a society.
Sociological thinkers like Robert Park and Milton Gordon have explored the idea of cultural
pluralism, emphasizing the importance of embracing cultural diversity to foster social cohesion
and harmony.
In India, cultural pluralism is exemplified by the coexistence of various religious communities,
such as Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, and Buddhists, each preserving their distinct
traditions, rituals, and customs.
This sociological concept promotes tolerance, mutual respect, and social integration, allowing
individuals from different cultural backgrounds to thrive together while enriching the nation's
social fabric.
India is a vibrant multi-religious society with a rich tapestry of diverse religious traditions coexisting
harmoniously.
 M.N. Srinivas and T.N. Madan have extensively studied India’s multi-religious fabric. The
country is home to various religions, each contributing to the nation's cultural tapestry.
 The Kumbh Mela, an ancient Hindu pilgrimage, witnesses millions of devotees from across
the country, while festivals like Eid, Diwali, Christmas, Gurpurab, Budh and Mahavir
Jayanti are celebrated with equal fervour by followers of different faiths.
 Moreover, secularism, enshrined in the Indian Constitution, emphasizes the principle of
equal respect for all religions, protecting the rights of religious minorities.
 Despite instances of religious tensions, India's multi-religious society continues to foster a
sense of national unity.
India stands as a captivating multi-religious society, intricately woven with various religious
beliefs and practices.
Tolerance And Coexistence Among Various Communities.
1. Societal Peace and Harmony: Tolerance and coexistence contribute to societal peace and
harmony, fostering a sense of belonging and unity among diverse religious, ethnic, and
cultural groups. M.N. Srinivas emphasized the importance of peaceful coexistence in
pluralistic societies like India.
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2. Social Integration and Solidarity: Tolerance and coexistence promote social integration and
solidarity, transcending barriers of religion, caste, and language. T.N. Madan highlighted
how religious pluralism strengthens social cohesion in India.
3. Interreligious Marriages: Tolerance allows for interreligious marriages, symbolizing the
acceptance and appreciation of diverse cultural backgrounds. Leela Dube studied the
dynamics of interreligious marriages in India.
4. Religious Festivals: Coexistence is evident during religious festivals like Diwali, Eid, and
Christmas, where people from different faiths participate in celebrations. G.S. Ghurye
explored the significance of religious festivals in Indian society.
5. Religious Places of Worship: Tolerance is evident through the coexistence of temples,
mosques, churches, and gurudwaras in close proximity, showcasing mutual respect for each
other's religious spaces. Irawati Karve studied the spatial distribution of religious sites in
India.
6. Inclusive Educational Institutions: Tolerance in educational institutions fosters a nurturing
environment, promoting cross-cultural learning and understanding. Yogendra Singh
discussed the role of education in building inclusive societies.
7. Interreligious Dialogue: Coexistence is fostered through interreligious dialogues, enabling
meaningful conversations and mutual learning among different faiths. Sarvepalli
Radhakrishnan emphasized the importance of religious dialogue for social harmony.
8. Community Festivals: Tolerance is showcased during community festivals like Pongal,
Baisakhi, and Onam, where people from various backgrounds participate in each other's
cultural celebrations. Andre Beteille explored the cultural dynamics of Indian festivals.
9. Social Welfare Initiatives: Tolerance is reflected in social welfare initiatives run by
organizations of different religions, working together for the betterment of society. Veena
Das studied the impact of religious organizations on social welfare.
10. Art and Literature: Coexistence is expressed through art, literature, and music, which
incorporate themes from different cultural backgrounds, fostering appreciation and respect
for diversity. Ashis Nandy examined the role of culture in shaping Indian society.
Challenges and Conflicts
1. Religious Tensions and Communal Riots: India has witnessed several instances of
communal clashes due to cultural differences and religious beliefs. For instance, there has
been a history of riots which has resulted in widespread violence between Hindus and
Muslims, leading to loss of lives and property. Ashish Nandy has extensively written about
the relationship between religion and violence in society.
2. Identity Politics: Cultural pluralism often gives rise to identity politics, where different
religious and cultural groups vie for recognition and power. This can lead to conflicts over
resources and representation. M.N. Srinivas studied caste and communal politics in India,
analyzing how identities are mobilized in the political sphere.
3. Caste-Based Discrimination: India's caste system is deeply entrenched in its social fabric.
Cultural pluralism exacerbates caste-based discrimination, as various religious groups may
perpetuate hierarchical practices within their own communities. B.R. Ambedkar played a
significant role in advocating for the rights of Dalits and addressing caste-based
discrimination.
4. Religious Conversion: Conflicts arise when religious conversion is perceived as a threat to
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the dominant culture or religion. For example, the controversy surrounding religious
conversions in tribal areas has been a recurring issue. G.S. Ghurye studied various aspects
of Indian society, including religious conversion and its impact on cultural pluralism.
5. Language and Regional Conflicts: India's linguistic diversity often leads to conflicts over the
recognition and status of different languages. A.M. Shah researched the relationship between
language and identity, examining how linguistic diversity can impact social cohesion.
6. Interfaith Marriages: Cultural pluralism can create tensions when individuals from
different religious backgrounds choose to marry. Such unions may face societal opposition
or disapproval. Veena Das has written about issues of love, marriage, and the complexities
of inter-community relationships in Indian society.
7. Religious Symbols and Practices in Public Spaces: Disagreements may arise over the
display of religious symbols and practices in public spaces, as it can be seen as an assertion
of dominance by one religious group over others. T.N. Madan studied religious pluralism
and the dynamics of secularism in India.
8. Education and Curriculum: Educational institutions often face challenges in developing a
curriculum that is sensitive to the diverse religious beliefs of students. Krishna Kumar has
written about the role of education in promoting pluralism and understanding in a multi-
religious society.
9. Social Exclusion and Marginalization: Cultural pluralism can inadvertently lead to the
exclusion and marginalization of certain religious or cultural groups. Surinder Jodhka has
explored issues of social inequality and exclusion in Indian society, particularly focusing on
Conclusion
Cultural pluralism is an essential aspect of India's multi-religious society, defining its uniqueness
and resilience. Embracing cultural pluralism can lead to a harmonious society where different
religious communities coexist peacefully, promoting social cohesion and national integration.
It is crucial for policymakers, community leaders, and individuals to work together to strengthen
cultural pluralism and ensure a future of unity and understanding in India.
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Section B
Question 5. Write short answers, with a sociological perspective, of the following
questions in about 150 words each:
(a) Point out the benefits of 'green chemistry' for agrarian transformation in
India. (10 Marks)
 Define Green Chemistry
 Discuss the Benefits of Green Chemistry
 Discuss the challenges associated
 Conclusion
Green chemistry involves the design and development of products and processes that minimize or
eliminate the use and generation of chemicals hazardous to the environment and human health. The
principles of green chemistry involve the development of green catalysts and use of non-toxic
reagents. In contrast to the notion that economic growth and environmental preservation are
mutually exclusive. Green Chemistry posits potential compatibility between these dimensions
Winterton contends that the growing demand for materials and services to sustain an expanding
population could escalate environmental impact unless technologies facilitating more resource-
efficient use are developed.
Benefits of Green Chemistry for agrarian transformation in India:
 Resource conservation: Techniques like water-based reactions and solvent recycling
conserve precious resources. Green chemistry focuses on maximizing the efficiency of
resource utilization, minimizing waste, and ensuring sustainable farming methods that
conserve water and soil.
 Climate change mitigation: Many chemicals end up in the environment by intentional
release during use (e.g., pesticides), by unintended releases (including emissions during
manufacturing), or by disposal. Green chemicals either degrade to innocuous products or are
recovered for further use. Thus there is lower potential for global warming, ozone depletion,
and smog formation, less chemical disruption of ecosystems and less use of landfills,
especially hazardous waste landfills.
 Improved soil health: Bio-based fertilizers and pest control solutions promote soil health and
biodiversity, contributing to sustainable agriculture, a topic researched by sociologists like
Vandana Shiva. Neem-based insecticides and microbial biocontrol agents offer safer
alternatives to chemical pesticides.
 Increased crop yields: Optimized fertilizers and improved pest management can lead to
higher crop yields, benefiting farmers' income and national food security. Nano-fertilizers
deliver nutrients directly to plants, reducing wastage and improving efficiency.
 Economic Feasibility: The methodologies of green chemistry advocate for the creation of
affordable and locally accessible inputs. This improves the economic viability of small-scale
farmers by lowering production expenses and decreasing reliance on costly chemical inputs.
This shift has the potential to transform Indian agriculture into a profitable capitalist
enterprise, departing from the current state characterized by feudalistic features such as
indebtedness, limited technology adoption, and low productivity, as emphasized by
Dhanagare.
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 Market access: Growing global demand for sustainable products creates opportunities for
Indian farmers to access premium markets for their produce. It will lead to increase in
consumer sales by displaying a safer product label.
 Improved farmer well-being: Reduced health risks and increased income associated with
green chemistry can improve the well-being of farmers. Example, Implementation of
integrated pest management (IPM) strategies, reducing the reliance on chemical pesticides
and minimizing health risks for farmers.
 Empowered rural communities: By adopting green practices, farmers can become more self-
reliant and less dependent on external inputs. The shift towards sustainable agriculture can
create new jobs and boost rural economies. It can lead to betterment in the life of
marginalized farmers. Women’s access to technologies will enhance their income and
lifestyle.
Challenges:
 Limited Availability of Green Technologies for Agriculture: The toolbox of green chemistry
may lack comprehensive and practical solutions for various agricultural processes and
practices. It may hinder the widespread adoption of environmentally friendly practices.
 Social Disparities: The initial investments associated with the adoption of green technology
may be beyond the means of certain individuals or communities. These societal inequalities
can impede fair access to sustainable alternatives, intensifying existing disparities..
 Resistance to Change and Tradition: Overcoming the inertia of traditional practices and
convincing farmers to embrace new, sustainable methods is a considerable challenge.
 Lack of Awareness and Education: There may be a lack of awareness and education among
farmers about the benefits and practical applications of green chemistry in agriculture.
 Economic Viability and Cost Concerns: Green chemistry solutions may be perceived as
costly or financially burdensome for farmers, especially those with limited resources.
 Infrastructure and Technological Barriers: Inadequate infrastructure and technological
support may hinder the implementation of certain green chemistry practices in remote or less
developed agricultural regions..
 Climate Variability and Adaptation: Climate change and variability can pose challenges for
farmers adopting new green practices, as they may need to adapt to changing weather
patterns.
Green chemistry holds immense promise for transforming India's vast and diverse agricultural
sector, tackling head-on the critical environmental, social, and economic challenges it faces. By
embracing these green principles, India has the potential to cultivate a more sustainable, equitable,
and prosperous agricultural future for all. However, to fully realize this potential, a multi-pronged
approach is necessary to overcome existing hurdles and ensure that the benefits are distributed
inclusively among all stakeholders.
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(b) Analyze the issues related to the citizenship in contemporary India. Give
suitable illustrations. (10 Marks)
Answer:
Structure: -
 Introduction
 Issues in contemporary India along with examples
 Conclusion
Citizenship is often defined as a set of rights and duties by virtue of membership to a society. It is
basically the right to have rights. Earlier in traditional societies people used to have little concern
over who ruled them and they had a little feeling of being a part of one whole. But the modern
society which is characterized by interdependence, this feeling of oneness is imperative which gives
more traction to the concept of citizenship.
Issues related in contemporary India:
The concept of citizenship itself has become very contested where there is a constant struggle
between the state and residents over the issue. The case of Assam and NRC is very appropriate for
this issue which has class, religion and ethnicity element attached to it.
It aims to shed light on new approaches and dimensions able to capture and explain the relationship
(or lack thereof) between citizenship issues and migration, ethnic identity and conflict, and
statelessness issues in Assam.
The issue of disenfranchising the migrant from Bangladesh to Assam has a lot of connotations
attached to it. It is a way to reduce population pressure on the existing available resources and the
incapacity of the state to expand the same. Today the concept of granting citizenship is not only a
matter of oneness but a tool is hand of the state to further the interest of the state. This in a way
challenges Marxian concept which says that the economic infrastructure affects the political
superstructure. The migrant population is beneficial for the capitalist as it provides cheap labour to
them but their disenfranchisement is a blow to capitalism.
The recently passed Citizenship Amendment Act 2019 provides a case that the state is also
protecting the minorities, though there is some dispute regarding one of the minorities by giving
citizenship to Jains, Buddhists, Sikhs etc.
According to Social Contract theory, Citizenships bring both right and duties. Therefore, we can see
that recent curb in civil liberties – Ban on comedy, increase in the use of UAPA act have become
instrument in the hand of states to control citizens. Thomas Hobbes has rightly said that Liberty is
where law is silent.
The concept of Citizenship emerged from the concept of nationstate but the Indian situation is
unique in this context because India is a concept of state nation where there first emerged a physical
territorial concept of state which in the backdrop of national movement got converted into a
psychological territory. Also there exists a large amount of small sub-cultures having their own
unity making the concept of citizenship all the more important. In a heterogenous society where
many cultural values divide the people, citizenship acts as a common denominator.
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(c) Give an account of the consequences and remedies of chronic

malnutrition in India. (10 Marks)
Answer:
Structure:-
 Introduction
 Causes of malnutrition
 Consequences of malnutrition
 Conclusion
The term ‘malnutrition’ has been used to describe a deficiency, excess or imbalance of a wide range
of nutrients, resulting in a measurable adverse effect on body composition, function and clinical
outcome. According to NFHS-5, in 2019-21, 35.5 per cent of children below five years were stunted
and 32.1 per cent were underweight. ‘Stunted’ indicates chronic malnutrition; ‘wasted’ – acute
malnutrition and ‘underweight’ indicates a composite index of chronic and acute malnutrition.
Causes of malnutrition-
 Inequitable distribution of food in the family. In most of the poor households, women and
preschool children especially girls receive less food than the economically active male
members which is the result of widespread patriarchy prevalent in the society.
 Large families due to high fertility rate due to universality of joint family- Rapid succession
of pregnancies adversely affects the nutritional status of the mother. As she tries to manage
the big family, she may neglect her own health and antenatal checkups during pregnancy.
Under nutrition may lead to low-birth-weight baby. In large families, per capita availability
of food is also less.
 Universalisation of the institution of marriage and lower age at marriage as lower age of
marriage causes maternal mortality and underweight children.
 Poor quality of housing, sanitation and water supply. These contribute to ill health and
infections thus Contributing to malnutrition.
 Inadequate maternal and child care- Improving the primary health centres and other health
care services in the rural areas will definitely improve the nutrition profile of women and
children.
More such causes are-
 Teenage pregnancies resulting in low birth weight of the newborns
 Poor breastfeeding practices
 Poor complementary feeding practices
 Ignorance about nutritional needs of infants and young children and repeated infections
further aggravate the situation.
 Number of other factors such as environmental, geographical, agricultural, and cultural
including various other factors have contributive effects resulting in malnutrition.
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Consequences of malnutrition
 Undernourished children have significantly lower chances of survival than children who are
well-nourished. They are much more prone to serious infections and to die from common
childhood illnesses such as diarrhoea, measles, malaria, pneumonia, and HIV and AIDS. The
risk of dying increases with the severity of the under-nutrition. For instance, a child suffering
from severe acute malnutrition is nine times more likely to die than children who are not
undernourished.
 Nutrition is important to ensure proper brain formation and development, which starts in
the womb: development of the brain goes on during early childhood. Evidence suggests that
children who are stunted often enroll late in school, complete fewer grades and perform less
well in school. This, in turn, affects their creativity and productivity in later life. Iodine
deficiency is known to affect a child’s Intelligence Quotient (IQ) adversely. It has also been
established that children with deficient growth before age two are at an increased risk of
chronic disease as adults, especially if they gain weight rapidly in the later stages of
childhood. A low-birth-weight baby, who is stunted and underweight in its infancy and gains
weight rapidly in childhood and adult life, is much more prone to chronic conditions such as
cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
How problem of malnutrition can be addressed
1. Improve breastfeeding practices in the first six months of life by ensuring that:
o All newborns start breastfeeding within one hour after birth (early initiation);
o All newborns are fed the nutrient-rich colostrum in the first three-to-four days of life
(colostrum feeding); and
o All infants are fed only breast milk in the first six months of life (exclusive
breastfeeding) and are not fed any other solid or liquid, not even water.
2. Improve foods and feeding practices for children 6-23 months old by ensuring that:
o Infants are fed complementary foods beginning at about six months of age while
breastfeeding continues until two years and beyond;
o Complementary foods are rich in energy, protein, and micronutrients (vitamins and
minerals).
3. Control micronutrient deficiencies and anemia in the first years of life by ensuring that:
o All children 6-59 months old are provided with vitamin A supplements twice a year
(about six months apart);
o All children 12-59 months old are provided with deworming tablets twice a year
(about six months apart); and
o All children with diarrhoea receive appropriate treatment with zinc supplements and
oral rehydration solution (ORS).
4. Control micronutrient deficiencies and anemia in adolescent girls and women by ensuring that:
o Anemia is prevented in adolescent girls and pregnant women through
supplementation programmes with iron and folic acid and deworming tablets;
o Iodine deficiency is prevented in adolescent girls and women by ensuring that all salt
for direct human consumption contains adequate levels of iodine.
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5. Provide quality care for children with severe under-nutrition by ensuring that:
o Cases of severe acute under-nutrition are managed at home with simplified protocols
and also clinically (wherever required) under appropriate medical supervision.
To realize the potential of demographic dividend, India must ensure that its children grow healthily.
Economic growth of 9% cannot guarantee good health to the citizens if the state does not take pains
to redistribute wealth properly to make India a safer place for its children to grow with dignity.
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(d) How does the New Education Policy, 2020 aim to eradicate disparities in
the system of education in India? (10 Marks)
 Introduction of NEP
 How NEP will eradicate disparities
 Issues related to NEP
 Conclusion
The Kasturirangan Committee, officially known as the Committee for Draft National Education
Policy, played a pivotal role in shaping the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, India's landmark
education reform framework. The New Education Policy (NEP) 2020 in India marks a paradigm
shift in the education landscape, aspiring to address longstanding disparities. With a holistic
approach, it endeavors to create an inclusive and equitable system, recognizing the multifaceted
challenges that have hindered access, quality, and outcomes in education across diverse socio-
economic strata.
How NEP will eradicate disparities
 Universalization of Education: The NEP's focus on universalization can be seen in the
proposal to ensure that all students have access to quality education, including those in rural
and economically disadvantaged areas.
 Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE): The NEP recognizes the significance of early
childhood education in reducing disparities. Research by scholars like James Heckman
highlights the long-term benefits of investing in early childhood development, especially for
children from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.
 School Education Reforms: The NEP's emphasis on curriculum and pedagogical reforms is
aligned with Dewey's philosophy that underscores the importance of a child-centered and
experiential approach to education, which aligns with the NEP's goals of making education
more holistic and flexible.
 Multilingualism and Cultural Awareness: The NEP's promotion of multilingualism draws
on the work of linguists like Noam Chomsky, who emphasizes the cognitive benefits of
multilingual education. By allowing students to learn in their mother tongue, the policy aims
to bridge linguistic disparities in education.
 Equitable Access to Higher Education: The NEP's vision for higher education aligns with
the principles of equity and access Nussbaum's capabilities approach that emphasizes
providing equal opportunities for individuals to develop their full potential, which is
reflected in the NEP's focus on increasing GER in higher education.
 Flexibility and Choice-Based Credit System (CBCS): The NEP's emphasis on flexibility in
education supports the Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences that students have
diverse talents and learning styles, endorsing the NEP's move toward a multidisciplinary
and flexible education system.
 Focus on Vocational Education - Vocational education is given emphasis to provide students
with practical skills and make them employable. This addresses disparities by offering
diverse pathways for students based on their aptitudes and career goals.
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 Financial Support and Scholarships: The NEP's recognition of financial barriers in education
aligns with the research of economists like Esther Duflo. Duflo's work on poverty alleviation
and education underscores the need for targeted financial support to ensure that economic
disparities do not hinder educational access.
What are the issues with the new education policy?
 According to Meenakshi thapan
A. A one-size-fits-all approach would not work; policies must take into account the many
types of conditions that exist on the ground in a country as diverse, multifarious, and
complicated as India.
B. While many people feel that early childhood education in the mother tongue is
important, it would be problematic in a place like Chhattisgarh, where Chhattisgarhi
is just one language and there are several spoken dialects. So, will separate schools
have distinct mother tongues? How will the material alter depending on the state and
dialect or language?
 Who will decide the content - According to Michael Apple, a curriculum theorist, knowledge
selection for curriculum is a result of people with authority. This means that people in a given
culture at a given moment select what is important to educate future learners, so
strengthening their position of power. Do we recognise this feature in the conceptualization
of knowledge and are we aware of the struggles of society's marginalised and oppressed?
 Homogenisation of education – due to globalization and other forces there is rise of job-
oriented education and less focus on the subjects that are critique the modern setup. E.g. rise
of STEM and decline of Social sciences. Postmodernism opposes the homogenisation of
educational systems. They consider modern education to be oppressive to many pupils,
particularly minority groups, and believe that school's "factory production-line mind-set"
destroys creativity.
 Use of technology can increase gap between various sections of the society. Pierre Bourdieu
introduces the notion of cultural capital, which specifies class systems in addition to
economic, social, and symbolic capital. The education system aids in the replication of
cultural capital, and hence in the preservation of a comparable framework of power
connections and symbolic linkages between classes. This guarantees that the disparity
between classes persists.
The NEP presents a hopeful blueprint for dismantling educational inequalities. Its success, however,
demands not just unwavering commitment from policymakers but active participation from
educators, parents, and communities. By embracing the NEP's spirit of inclusivity and drawing
inspiration from Indian thought leaders, we can collectively usher in a transformative era of
education, paving the way for a brighter future where educational disparities become a relic of the
past.
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(e) What do you understand by democratic federalism? How does it promote

decentralization of power in India? (10 Marks)
Structure
 Democratic Federalism
 How Democratic federalism promotes decentralization of power in India?
 Limitations
 Conclusion
Democratic federalism
 Federalism is a system of government in which the same territory is controlled by two levels
of government.
 It refers to a vertical division of power in political system. It is a system in which power is
divided between a central authority and other constituents. For e.g.: in India, political power
is divided between the central government, state governments and the institutions of local
governance.
 Modern federalism has a system based upon democratic rules and institutions in which the
power to govern is shared between national and provincial state governments.
 In a federation, the division of power between federal and regional governments is usually
outlined in the Constitution. Almost every country allows some degree of regional self-
government.
The key features of federalism are:
1. There are two or more levels (or tiers) of government.
2. Different tiers of government govern the same citizens, but each tier has its own jurisdiction
in specific matters of legislation, taxation and administration.
3. The jurisdictions of the respective levels or tiers of government are specified in the
constitution. So, the existence and authority of each tier of government is constitutionally
guaranteed.
4. The fundamental provisions of the constitution cannot be unilaterally changed by one level
of government. Such changes require the consent of both the levels of government.
5. Courts have the power to interpret the constitution and the powers of different levels of
government. The highest court acts as an umpire if disputes arise between different levels of
government in the exercise of their respective powers.
6. Sources of revenue for each level of government are clearly specified to ensure its financial
autonomy.
The federal system thus has dual objectives: to safeguard and promote unity of the country, while
at the same time accommodate regional diversity. Therefore, two aspects are crucial for the
institutions and practice of federalism. Governments at different levels should agree to some rules
of power-sharing. They should also trust that each would abide by its part of the agreement. An
ideal federal system has both aspects: mutual trust and agreement to live together.
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How Federalism promotes decentralisation of power in India
 Democratic decentralisation is the process of devolving the functions and resources of the
state from the Centre to the elected representatives at the lower levels so as to facilitate greater
direct participation of citizens in governance.
o Democratic federalism helps in decentralisation of power. It helps in operation of
democracy through discussions, dialogues and debates for the purpose of legislation
and formation of policies.
 Democratic federalism transfers power at various horizontal and vertical levels of the
governance. For example, devolution envisioned by Constitution, is not mere delegation. It
implies that precisely defined governance functions are formally assigned by law to local
government, backed by educated transfer of a basket of financial grants and tax handles, and
they are given staff so that they have the necessary wherewithal to carry out their
responsibilities.
 Local government, including panchayats, is a state subject in the Constitution, and
consequently the devolution of power and authority to Panchayat has been left to the
discretion of states.
 The Constitution mandates that Panchayat and municipalities shall be elected every five
years and enjoy and states in the wall functions and responsibilities to them through law.
 If democracy is to survive, it cannot be a winner-take-all system, particularly not one in which
one party is always going to win, and thus take all. When some governing responsibilities
and resources are devolved to lower levels of authority, and when there are a lot of different
provinces and municipalities whose governments will be chosen through elections, parties
and groups that cannot win control of the central government may win the opportunity to
exercise power in some of the lower-level governments. This increases their confidence in
and commitment to the political system, and the sense among citizens generally that the
system is fair and inclusive.
 Important arguments in favour of decentralizing government are that it: creates an efficient
and reliable administration, intensifies and improves local development, better ensures the
rights of the local population to have a voice in government, and better protects minorities.
To accomplish this, local governments need to have a certain security in their existence,
sufficient resources, and autonomy. Their actions must be credible and transparent, and they
must cultivate fair relationships with higher authorities.
Limitations of the idea of decentralisation
 Resources – Local governments in most countries have limited local taxing powers from
which to finance the services assigned to them. Local revenues are often limited to a few
visible taxes that are difficult and expensive to collect, inequitable in impact and economically
distorting. Whilst major urban centres may be able to generate significant revenues from
property taxes and levies on businesses, in rural areas there may be little to tax. Increased
local revenue mobilisation often involves coercive extraction from the poor.
 Information, participation and civil society – Accountability also depends on information
being available to citizens, in a sufficiently comprehensible form, about how resources are
being used. It also requires a dynamic civil society, able to engage effectively with local
government on these issues.
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 Inactive Gram Sabha- Various research studies suggest that barring a few exceptions here
and there Gram Sabhas are still very- very inactive. The states have established the Gram
Sabhas but their powers have been restricted and the procedures for the exercise of the
powers have not been clearly spelt out.
 Devolution of Powers and Functions- So far as the assigning of powers and functions of each
tier of PRIs and urban local bodies is concerned, it is found that there is a lack of delineation
of functions between the three tiers of the PRIs and urban local bodies.
 Coordination at all the Three-Levels- The problem of coordination amongst the three levels
of PRIs and urban local bodies on the one hand and bureaucracy, NGO’s etc. on the other.
 If we look into the problem of coordination, the following points emerge:
o Lack of clarity in regard to distribution of powers and functions amongst the three
tiers of PRIs and urban local bodies mentioned in Eleventh and Twelfth Schedules;
o The Panchayati Raj and Municipal Acts of various States are quite vague as to whether
the PRIs and the urban local bodies are the implementing agencies of development
programme or they are both planning and implementing agencies;
o The Acts also lack clarity in regard to relationship between the PRIs and urban local
bodies and local level bureaucracy; and o The problem of open competition between
the PRIs and urban local bodies and NGOs.
Conclusion
 Decentralization generally occurs for two reasons: (a) to locate the delivery of services closer
to the people, for efficiency and accountability reasons; and (b) to promote harmony among
diverse groups within a country, permitting a certain degree of self- governance. Particularly
in societies fragmented by violent conflict, decentralization may support the peaceful
coexistence of diverse groups, cultures and religions.
 Thus, India’s efforts and decentralisation represents one of the largest experiments in
deepening democracy. India has a robust democratic structure for local government, what
we need to practice, is the robust democratic culture and giving life to our existing structure.
Local bodies need to be seen as institution of self- government not as delivery mechanisms
to fulfil Gandhi’s vision of gram Swaraj.
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Question 6.
(a) Discuss in detail the main issues of development planning in mixed
economy like India. (20 Marks)
 Introduction of Mixed economy
 Evolution of planning in India
 Main Issues of Development Planning in a Mixed Economy
 Benefits of Development Planning in a Mixed Economy
 Conclusion
India operates as a mixed economy, combining elements of both a market-driven and planned
economic system. Development planning in India involves strategic government interventions to
guide economic growth, emphasizing sectors crucial for national development. This approach aims
to balance private enterprise with state involvement, fostering inclusive development. The mixed
economy model enables coordinated efforts in infrastructure, social justice, and agricultural growth,
addressing disparities while leveraging market forces for economic dynamism.
Evolution of planning in India
 In the Nehruvian era (1950s-1990s), centrally controlled Five-Year Plans prioritized heavy
industry and infrastructure, fostering rapid industrialization and poverty reduction but
facing bureaucratic challenges.
 The 1990s ushered in liberalization and globalization, embracing a mixed economy under
the influence of thinkers like Nani Palkhivala. This period witnessed reduced controls,
private sector participation, and an IT boom, driving economic growth but accompanied by
challenges such as widening inequality.
 Post-2015, India shifted to collaborative growth with NITI Aayog, emphasizing state-
specific plans, public-private partnerships, and human development.
Main Issues of Development Planning in a Mixed Economy
 Inefficiency in Resource Allocation: Centralized planning may lead to inefficient allocation
of resources. During India's planned economy phase, inefficiency in resource allocation was
evident in sectors with overemphasis and underemphasis, impacting overall economic
efficiency.
 Bureaucratic Hurdles and Red Tape: Excessive bureaucracy in planning can result in delays
and obstacles. The concept of bureaucratic red tape and inefficiencies, as discussed by Max
Weber, reflects the challenges of navigating administrative complexities in a planned
economy. Example: Delayed project approvals and cumbersome administrative procedures
were common in India's planned development era.
 Regional Disparities: Development planning may not effectively address regional
disparities. Gadgil, an Indian economist, raised concerns about regional imbalances and
advocated for decentralized planning to consider diverse regional needs.
 Over-reliance on Public Sector: Overemphasis on the public sector can lead to inefficiencies.
Milton Friedman's critique of excessive government intervention warns against the potential
pitfalls of relying heavily on state-owned enterprises.
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India's public sector dominance in certain industries during the planned economy era faced
challenges of inefficiency and lack of competitiveness.
 Lack of Flexibility and Innovation: Centralized planning may lack the flexibility needed for
innovation. Joseph Schumpeter's theory of creative destruction highlights the importance
of dynamic market forces for sustained innovation.
Benefits of Development Planning in a Mixed Economy
 Infrastructure Development: Planning facilitates crucial infrastructure development. Indian
economist and planner V.K.R.V. Rao played a key role in emphasizing the importance of
infrastructure for economic growth and development. Example: India's planned
development era saw the creation of a robust infrastructure network, including the
establishment of major industries and transportation systems.
 Social Justice and Poverty Alleviation: Planning can prioritize social justice goals. Indian
economist Amartya Sen's capabilities approach influenced India's focus on poverty
alleviation and social welfare, emphasizing human well-being Example: Social programs
initiated during planned periods, such as the Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP), aimed to uplift marginalized sections and reduce poverty.
 Agricultural Growth: Planning can boost agricultural productivity. Indian agricultural
scientist M.S. Swaminathan's contributions to the Green Revolution underscore the positive
impact of planning on agricultural growth. Example: The Green Revolution in the 1960s, a
planned initiative, significantly increased agricultural yields and contributed to food
security.
 Human Capital Development: Investment in education and healthcare improves human
capital. Mahbub ul Haq's work on human development emphasizes the role of education
and healthcare in fostering a skilled workforce. Example: Planned initiatives like the National
Rural Health Mission (NRHM) and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) in India focused on human
capital development.
Effectively addressing the challenges of development planning in India's mixed economy
necessitates a strategic balance between state-guided initiatives and market dynamics. Mitigating
issues like inefficient resource allocation and bureaucratic hurdles requires adaptive policies that
foster inclusive growth and innovation. Achieving this equilibrium is vital for sustaining India's
economic progress and ensuring equitable development across diverse sectors and regions.
434
(b) Do you think MSP (Minimum Support Price) Scheme for agricultural
produce can help in rural development? Elaborate your response with
suitable examples. (20 Marks)
 Define MSP
 Explain the positive role of MSP in rural development
 Discuss the concerns associated with MSP
 Write suggestions in Way ahead
 Conclusion
The Minimum Support Price (MSP) is an agricultural price policy by the Government of India to
secure fair and remunerative compensation for farmers.
The price support system was conceptualized during pre-green revolution period as an institutional
mechanism for incentivizing farmers to adapt new technologies. Acting as a protective measure, the
MSP assures farmers a minimum price at which the government or its agencies will procure their
produce. This policy is designed to shield farmers from market uncertainties and price fluctuations,
promoting their economic welfare and fostering increased agricultural production. Typically
declared for various crops before the sowing season, the MSP offers farmers price certainty,
enhancing their income security.
Positive role of MSP in rural development:
 Increased income for farmers: Higher MSPs theoretically lead to higher incomes for farmers
growing covered crops, potentially improving their purchasing power and standard of
living. The MSP ensures the livelihoods of the farmers, the majority (86%) of whom are small
farmers as argued by Rahul & J Nellithanam. This could stimulate rural demand and
contribute to local economic growth.
 Reduced distress sales: The guaranteed purchase at MSP aims to prevent farmers from
selling their produce at lower prices during gluts, protecting them from exploitation and
financial hardship.
 Investment in agriculture: Increased income could encourage farmers to invest in better
seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation, leading to improved productivity and long-term growth.
MSP is critical for encouraging investment and promoting adoption of modern agricultural
practices by farmers as suggested by NITI Aayog.
 Stability in rural areas: Predictable income from MSP can contribute to stability in rural
areas, potentially reducing migration to cities. Devinder Sharma, agriculture expert believes
that higher income through guaranteed MSP will create vast rural demand and boost
economy.
 Promote crop diversification: Carefully designed MSPs for diverse crops can encourage
farmers to move beyond traditional cereals and explore more profitable and nutritious
options. This can lead to a more balanced and resilient agricultural sector.
 Enhanced bargaining power: The guaranteed purchase mechanism empowers farmers by
providing an alternative to private traders who might offer lower prices. This can strengthen
their bargaining power in the market and potentially lead to fairer pricing overall.
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Concerns associated with MSP:
 Stagnant MSP Rates: The government's Minimum Support Prices (MSP) show a lack of
alignment with the rising cost of production, leading to stagnant rates. Sukhpal Singh and
Shruti Bhogal have emphasised on the ineffectiveness of remunerative MSP.
 Unequal Access to MSP: The benefits of the MSP scheme are unevenly distributed, with
certain regions, like the north-eastern region, experiencing weak implementation.
 Lack of awareness: Despite being in operation for over 40 years, the knowledge of Minimum
Support Prices (MSP) for crops among farmers remains below 25%. While MSP is officially
announced for the entire country, its practical implementation is restricted to specific states
where designated government agencies engage in the procurement of produce from farmers.
Awareness of MSP is notably higher in states with more active procurement through
designated agencies, such as Punjab, Haryana, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Telangana
 Ineffective Implementation: According to the Shanta Kumar Committee's 2015 report, only
6% of farmers actually benefit from the intended advantages of the Minimum Support Price.
 Procurement Issues: Almost two-thirds of total cereal production is channelled through
MSP, limiting open market transactions. Farmers rely solely on MSP, preventing them from
capitalizing on market prices and hindering profit earnings. A. Narayanamoorthy has
argued for increase in MSP and expansion of public procurement.
 Over-Incentivization and Supply Glut: Higher MSP levels can lead to overproduction,
causing a surplus in supply and adversely affecting exports, especially when international
market prices are lower. Large hikes in MSP seem to have raised retail prices rather than
pushed up farm investment as suggested by Barendra Kumar Bhoi and C.L. Dadhich.
 Dominance of Wheat and Paddy: The disproportionate emphasis on MSP for rice and wheat
acts as a deterrent to diversifying into alternative crops and horticulture products with
increased demand. This situation has resulted in environmental challenges, given the water-
intensive nature of paddy cultivation, and stubble burning, contributing to elevated air
pollution levels in Delhi and neighbouring region.
 Degradation of Agricultural Components: Bharat Dogra and Kumar Gautam argue that
extensive MSP frameworks might yield short-term gains for affluent farmers and
agribusiness companies, but the overuse of chemical inputs poses risks to soil health, harms
natural pollinators, depletes water resources, and fosters dependence on monocultures that
are prone to eventual collapse. This phenomenon is already evident in various regions of the
Green Revolution areas, such as Punjab, Haryana, and eastern Uttar Pradesh.
 Killing Competition: Government interference in pricing disrupts market competition,
impacting agents who procure crops at lower prices and sell them at higher prices for profit.
Way ahead:
 Expand the scope of covered crops: Currently, the MSP primarily focuses on cereals like rice
and wheat. Including a wider range of fruits, vegetables, pulses, and oilseeds can benefit
more diverse farmers and promote crop diversification.
 Increase awareness: The awareness among the farmers needs to be increased and the
information disseminated at the lowest level so that the knowledge would increase the
bargaining power of the farmers.
436
 Encourage direct marketing and farmer collectives: Empowering farmers to bypass
middlemen through direct marketing or farmer producer organizations (FPOs) can improve
their share of profits and reduce dependence on the MSP system.
 Promote contract farming and value addition: Linking farmers with processors and retailers
through contracts can assure market access and fair prices. Encouraging value-added
processing can further increase farmer income.
 Leverage technology for efficient procurement and storage: Utilizing digital platforms and
e-NAM can streamline procurement processes, reduce inefficiencies, and minimize storage
losses.
 Focus on income support over price support: Explore alternative income support
mechanisms like deficiency payments or direct income transfers, which can be less market
distorting and more fiscally sustainable. Sharad Joshi recognized that solely advocating
higher output prices through the MSP regime was insufficient. He was among the early
proponents of liberalizing the agriculture sector.
 Address sustainability concerns: Promote sustainable agricultural practices by linking MSPs

to environmental criteria like water conservation and soil health.
 Address regional imbalance: Special attention to the problems of farmers in eastern states is
needed. Given fertile land and abundant water resources, these states have a high potential
in agriculture. Yet, their productivity in various crops lags behind the national average.
Therefore, a concerted effort is required to bring the Green Revolution to these states.
 Implement reforms in a phased manner: Introduce changes gradually, assessing their
impact and making necessary adjustments to ensure a smooth transition and minimize
disruption.
The government's commitment to the economic betterment of farmers should involve strengthening
the Minimum Support Price (MSP) and expanding its reach. Alongside this, there is a need to
enhance public marketing infrastructure, reduce farm costs, improve market efficiency, and
facilitate better price discovery. Optimal crop planning, considering both cost and ecological
advantages, is crucial. The government should announce MSP for all crops, enlist specific crops for
effective procurement from different states, and promote crop diversification.
437
(c) How can skill development programme induce social change?

Illustrated. (10 Marks)
 Define social change and skill development
 Explain how skill development induces social change
 Discuss the challenges
 Conclusion
Ginsberg, M., “By social change, I understand a change in social structure e.g., the size of a society,
the composition or balance of its parts or the type of its organisation.”
Skill Development refers to the process of acquiring new or enhancing existing skills, knowledge,
and attitudes to improve the performance and productivity of an individual or a workforce. It
involves various training programs, courses, and on-the-job learning that aim to
develop technical, vocational, and soft skills in individuals.
The Government of India has launched various skill development schemes, including Pradhan
Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY),Skills Acquisition and Knowledge Awareness for
Livelihood Promotion (SANKALP) and UDAAN. Skill development programs have the potential
to be powerful catalysts for social change in India, impacting individuals, communities, and the
nation as a whole.
Skill development program can induce social change:
 Economic Growth: A skilled workforce contributes to increased
productivity, innovation, and competitiveness, driving economic growth and national
development. Saini, V. in the study “Skill Development in India: Need, Challenge and way
forwarded”, concluded that the skill development is significant driven force for the engine
of economic growth.
 Demographic Advantage: As India faces a demographic dividend with a young
population, equipping them with skills can leverage this advantage and contribute to a
dynamic and productive workforce.
 Reduced Inequalities: Equipping individuals with relevant skills can address skill gaps
within communities, promoting equal access to opportunities and reducing income
disparities. A significant correlation exists between different forms of labour market
exclusion, such as unemployment, underemployment, low wages, and issues like poverty
and discrimination. Consequently, training initiatives that address these exclusionary factors
directly contribute to the battle against poverty and social exclusion. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
emphasized the importance of economic empowerment in social upliftment
 Enhanced Gender Equality: Women account for the majority of workers in the informal
economy, which implies greater job insecurity, as well as lack of access to training, social
protection and other resources, making them comparatively more vulnerable to poverty and
marginalization. Skill development programmes will enhance their employability and better
economic security. Acquiring skills fosters self-reliance, decision-making abilities, and the
confidence to navigate complex systems and advocate for one's rights.
 Improved Social Mobility: Skill development breaks down barriers and creates pathways
for upward mobility, enabling individuals from marginalized communities to access better
opportunities and challenge traditional social hierarchies. This is particularly significant in
the Indian context, where caste-based and class-based disparities are pronounced.
438
 Educational Disparities and Regional Development: Emphasizing vocational training and
skill development has the potential to diminish educational gaps prevalent in various regions
of India. Introducing vocational education in rural and underdeveloped areas enables
students to access quality learning, fostering regional development and mitigating urban-
rural disparities.
Challenges:
 Limited Awareness: Many individuals, particularly in rural areas, lack awareness of skill
development programs and their advantages, resulting in a lack of knowledge about
available opportunities.
 Industry Collaboration Gap: Limited collaboration between skill training institutions and
industries creates a disparity between the skills taught and those demanded by the job
market.
 Perception Challenges: Some segments of society perceive vocational training as inferior to
traditional education, contributing to a stigma associated with pursuing skill development
courses.
 Accessibility Hurdles: Access to skill development programs poses a challenge for
individuals in remote or disadvantaged areas, impacting their participation.
 Training Quality Disparities: The quality of skill training programs varies widely, with
some failing to meet industry standards, resulting in graduates with insufficient skills for the
job market.
 Infrastructure Limitations: Inadequate infrastructure and resources limit the effectiveness of
skill development initiatives, with a lack of modern equipment and facilities hindering
practical training.
By empowering individuals, transforming communities, and driving national progress, skill
development programs have the potential to be a powerful force for positive social change in India.
Recognizing the potential, addressing the challenges, and incorporating diverse perspectives will
be crucial to harnessing this power and creating a more inclusive and equitable future for all.
439
Question 7.
(a) Elaborate the causes, consequences and other concerns of growth of
urban settlements in India. (20 Marks)
 Define Urbanization
 Discuss the factors for the growth of urban settlements
 Explain the positive consequences of urbanisation
 Elaborate the negative consequences of the same
 Conclusion
Sociologists define urbanisation as the movement of people from villages to town/city where
economic activities are centred around non-agricultural occupations such as trade, manufacturing
industry and management. Urban growth in the Indian subcontinent has ancient roots, dating back
approximately 5,500 years to the establishment of Mohenjodaro and Harappa around 2500 B.C.
Another wave of urbanization began around 600 B.C., giving rise to early historical cities. The East
India Company and British colonial control from the seventeenth century spurred urban growth in
cities like Delhi, Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras.
Causes For The Growth Of Urban Settlements In India:
 Historical reasons: Sabarwal has argued that the early processes of urbanization had their
close relationship with the rise and fall of sponsoring political regimes and cultural history
of India. Indeed, cities emerged in those periods mainly based on political considerations.
The composition of these towns was built around the ruler and his kinsmen and followers,
whose principal interests were centered on agricultural activities in their vicinity
 Features in Early Colonial Period: Coastal areas saw the growth of cities as ports and trading
centers. European trading posts established, leading to the emergence of political centers.
Introduction of advanced technology, telegraph, railways, and improved infrastructure.
MSA Rao has defined city as the center of urbanisation. Ernest Burgess’s Concentric Zone
Model suggests that cities grow outward due to infrastructure development. Improved
transportation and communication networks contribute to urban expansion.
 Economic Dimension: According to Mill and Becker, urbanization is a natural and
inevitable consequence of economic development. Urbanization accompanies economic
development because economic development entails a massive shift of labour and other
inputs from predominantly rural sectors to those predominantly urban.
 Migration: Continuous rural-urban migration as a significant feature of Indian urbanization.
Urban centers viewed as havens of hope, attracting migrants with promises of employment.
Urban-ward migration began in the late 1930s, with a predominantly male immigrant stream.
The pace of such migration increased manifold during the post-independence period. There
is an increasing concentration of people in small, medium and large-sized towns, leading to
a spatial expansion of the urban settlements. In addition, new towns centering around the
setting up of new factories are coming up in increasing numbers.
 Industrialization and Globalization: As India industrialized, cities offered more job
opportunities, attracting people from rural areas. Increased foreign investment and trade
fuelled economic growth in select cities, creating a pull factor for skilled professionals. The
rise of the service sector, particularly in finance, IT, and tourism, generated new employment
opportunities in urban centers.
440
 Demographic factors: India's burgeoning population puts pressure on resources, pushing
people towards cities perceived to offer better living standards. A growing young population
seeks education and employment opportunities, often found in urban areas. For Ashish
Bose, urbanization, in the demographic sense, is an increase in the proportion of the urban
population to the total population over a period of time.
 Cultural and Social Factors: Ferdinand Tönnies’ theory of Gemeinschaft (community) and
Gesellschaft (society) suggests that urbanization is linked to the shift from traditional
communal living to more individualistic and urban ways of life.
Consequences and Concerns associated with growth of Urban settlements:
Positive consequences:
 Economic Opportunities: Daniel Lerner has posited that increase in urban settlements
results in greater public participation in economic activity. Urbanization provides a platform
for diverse economic activities, attracting businesses and fostering entrepreneurship.
Example, Bengaluru is known as the "Silicon Valley of India" due to its concentration of IT
industries and startups, offering abundant economic opportunities.
 Social Mobility: Sorokin's ideas on social mobility suggest that urbanization can contribute
to increased social mobility. Emergence of steel factories in cities like Bhilai, Rourkela,
Durgapur, Jamshedpur has brought about not only prosperity but has led to the modification
of the whole social scenario of this area. According to Srinivas, areas which were socio-
economically backward have now become prosperous and cosmopolitan.
 Cultural Diversity: Simmel's concept of the metropolitan mind emphasizes the cultural
richness and diversity that urbanization brings. Cities become melting pots of different
cultures, fostering creativity and innovation. Mumbai is a melting pot of cultures, with
people from diverse backgrounds coexisting and contributing to the city's vibrant cultural
landscape. N.K Bose has emphasised the cultural pluralism of urban settlements.
 Havens of hope: M.L Mehta has posited that for the landless labourers, harijans and adivasis
these cities provide the opportunities which are enshrined in our Constitution. For these
millions, our urban centers will continue to be havens of hope, where they can forge a new
future. Women enjoy more economic, social and political freedom in the cities.
 Access to Education and Healthcare: Parsons’ functionalist perspective highlights how
urbanization contributes to the development of educational and healthcare institutions.
Cities often concentrate resources that allow for better access to quality education and
healthcare services.
 Cultural Institutions: Cities often host museums, theaters, and other cultural venues,
contributing to the enrichment of cultural capital. Many cities in India especially
metropolitan cities like Delhi, Kolkata have a number of such institutions.
Concerns and Negative Consequences:
 Urban Poverty: Dhanagare's work includes the study of urban poverty and its manifestations
in Indian cities. Urban poverty has a serious impact on the economic growth in India. Many
people who come to city in search of livelihood end up in poverty.
 Slums and Informal Settlements: Rapid urbanization often outpaces infrastructure
development, leading to the proliferation of slums and informal settlements lacking basic
amenities like sanitation, clean water, and proper housing.
441
Jan Breman's research on labour and informal economy in urban areas, especially his work
on Ahmedabad, sheds light on the conditions of slum dwellers and the informal labour
sector. These settlements often house marginalized communities facing
poverty, discrimination, and social exclusion.
 Suburbanization: The continuous expansion of cities has intensified growth in the outer
edges of the cities, where there is undeveloped and unoccupied land. This circumferential
and radial growth has led to the growth of suburban areas. Suburbs are areas that were once
villages and the cities in the spree of expansion have engulfed these villages. They are
characterized by relatively low housing density.
 Social Aspects: Population growth in settlements shapes urban character, fostering
differentiation and spatial segregation. Increased density diminishes personal
acquaintanceships, weakening neighbourhood bonds. Louis Wirth has discussed
impersonality of social relations in cities. A.M. Shah's work addresses issues of social
alienation and disintegration in urban settings. Rapid urbanization can disrupt traditional
social structures and norms, leading to feelings of alienation, anomie, and social
disorganization
 Excessive migration: Migration from rural areas to high-opportunity metropolitan cities
leads to joblessness, slums, and strained amenities. Rural areas face cultural and economic
impacts due to urbanization. Amitabh Kundu's research on urbanization and regional
development in India includes studies on the strain on urban infrastructure due to rapid
urban growth.
 Environmental degradation: Expanding cities put pressure on natural resources like water
and land, leading to depletion and environmental degradation. Increased traffic, industrial
activity, and waste generation contribute to air and water pollution, impacting public health
and quality of life. Partha Mukhopadhyay has discussed the challenges of urbanisation for
the environment.
Thus, rapid urbanization comes with a host of consequences and concerns. Addressing these
challenges requires holistic urban planning, inclusive policies, and a nuanced understanding of the
sociological dimensions to ensure sustainable and equitable urban development.
442
(b) Evaluate the nature and scope of anthropogenic influence on Climate in

India and also analyze the environmental movements arising out of it. (20
Marks)
Approach.
 Define anthropogenic influence on climate.
 Explain nature and scope of anthropogenic influence on climate in India.
 Explain Role of Environmental Movements.
 Challenges and Limitations of Environmental Movements.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Anthropogenic influence on climate refers to the impact of human activities on the Earth's climate
system. This phenomenon is exemplified in India, where rapid industrialization and urbanization
have contributed to rising GHG emissions, resulting in more frequent and severe heatwaves,
changes in monsoon patterns, and adverse effects on agriculture and water resources.
The nature and scope of anthropogenic influence on climate in India are extensive and multifaceted.
Vandana Shiva says anthropogenic factors in India primarily manifest through rapid
industrialization, urbanization, and agricultural practices. These activities result in substantial
greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and land-use changes, which, in turn, exacerbate climate
change.
The scope of this influence encompasses rising temperatures, more frequent and severe heatwaves,
altered monsoon patterns, glacial melting in the Himalayas, and increased sea-level rise along
India's extensive coastline. These climate-related shifts have profound sociological implications,
affecting agriculture, water resources, and livelihoods, particularly among vulnerable communities.
Mitigating these effects necessitates not only technological and policy interventions but also
sociological approaches that address the socio-economic and cultural dimensions of climate change
within India's diverse society.
Role of Environmental Movements:
1. Advocacy for Environmental Justice: Environmental movements, influenced by the ideas of
Ramachandra Guha, often emphasize environmental justice, aiming to rectify environmental
inequalities. For example, the Bhopal Gas Tragedy victims' movement sought justice for the
victims of the industrial disaster.
2. Grassroots Mobilization: Environmental movements like the Chipko Movement in
Uttarakhand, inspired by the ideas of Mahatma Gandhi and environmental thinker Arne
Naess, showcase the power of grassroots mobilization. Local communities engage in direct
action to protect their natural resources and assert their rights.
3. Awareness and Education: Environmental movements play a crucial role in raising
awareness and educating the public about ecological issues. The "Save the Western Ghats"
campaign highlights the importance of preserving biodiversity-rich regions through public
engagement and education.
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4. Policy Advocacy: Environmental movements often advocate for policy changes and reforms.
The Anti-Pollution Movement in Delhi led to the enactment of stringent air quality
regulations and policies aimed at reducing pollution in the city.
5. Protection of Indigenous Rights: Movements like the Narmada Bachao Andolan, led by
Medha Patkar, highlight the importance of protecting the rights of indigenous communities
and their sustainable relationship with the environment.
6. Global Environmentalism: Movements like Fridays for Future, inspired by the global
climate activist Greta Thunberg, connect Indian youth with the broader global
environmental movement, emphasizing the need for international cooperation to address
climate change.
7. Resistance Against Ecologically Harmful Projects: Environmental movements resist
projects with adverse environmental impacts. For instance, protests against coal mining
projects in forested regions underscore the importance of sustainable development.
8. Alternative Sustainable Practices: Some movements promote and implement alternative
sustainable practices, such as organic farming and water harvesting, reflecting the Gandhian
philosophy of self-sufficiency and environmental stewardship.
9. Intersectional Approach: Environmental movements in India often take an intersectional
approach, recognizing the interconnectedness of environmental issues with social, economic,
and cultural factors. This approach aligns with the ideas of B.R. Ambedkar, who advocated
for social justice and equality.
10. Legal Actions: Environmental movements also resort to legal actions when necessary. The
legal battle to protect the ecologically sensitive Western Ghats, influenced by legal scholar
Upendra Baxi's ideas on human rights and environmental law, exemplifies this approach.
Challenges and Limitations of Environmental Movements.
1. Political Interference: Environmental movements often encounter political interference and
co-optation. D.N. Dhanagare's analysis of state-society relations can be applied to
understand how political interests may compromise the goals of these movements.
2. Resource Constraints: Many environmental movements operate with limited resources,
hindering their capacity to sustain long-term campaigns. The Chhattisgarh Mukti Morcha's
struggle against mining companies illustrates the resource constraints faced by grassroots
movements.
3. Legal Challenges: Legal hurdles, such as defamation cases and anti-protest laws, can impede
the progress of environmental movements. The Greenpeace case in India exemplifies how
legal action can be used to silence environmental activists.
4. Lack of Public Support: Not all environmental issues resonate with the public, making it
challenging to mobilize widespread support. The silent valley controversy highlights the
difficulty of garnering public support for the protection of ecologically sensitive areas.
5. Corporate Power: Corporate interests often oppose environmental movements, using their
influence and resources to counteract activism. The Vedanta mining controversy in Odisha
exemplifies the clash between corporate interests and environmental protection.
6. Media Biases: Media coverage can be biased, sometimes portraying environmental activists
negatively or sidelining their causes. Amartya Sen's theory on media's role in shaping public
discourse can be applied here.
444
7. Co-optation by NGOs: Some environmental movements may face co-optation by non-
governmental organizations (NGOs) and donors, potentially diluting their objectives. The
Narmada Bachao Andolan's experience highlights the complexities of NGO involvement.
8. Geographic Diversity: India's vast geographic diversity makes it challenging for
environmental movements to address region-specific issues comprehensively. The
Sunderbans' struggles against climate change impacts and industrial activities exemplify
regional challenges.
9. Gender Disparities: Gender disparities within environmental movements can limit their
effectiveness. Bina Agarwal's research on women's participation in environmental
management is relevant in this context.
10. Government Resistance: Resistance from government authorities can hinder environmental
movements' progress. The struggle against the POSCO steel plant in Odisha illustrates the
challenges posed by government support for industrial projects.
The nature and scope of anthropogenic influence on climate in India are profound, marked by
extensive industrialization, urbanization, and agricultural practices that contribute to greenhouse
gas emissions, deforestation, and land-use changes. The resulting consequences include rising
temperatures, altered monsoon patterns, glacial melting in the Himalayas, and increased sea-level
rise, all of which have far-reaching socio-environmental impacts.
In the evolving landscape of environmental challenges, the role of sociology remains paramount.
Insights from sociological thinkers like B.R. Ambedkar, who emphasized social justice, and Bina
Agarwal, who highlighted gender dimensions in environmental management, provide frameworks
for analysing and addressing the complex socio-economic and cultural aspects of climate change.
The coalescence of sociological perspectives and environmental activism is essential for fostering
sustainable and equitable solutions, ensuring a harmonious coexistence between human societies
and the environment in the Indian context and beyond.
445
(c) Are the contemporary farmers' movements in India changing their

course? Discuss. (10 Marks)
 Introduction about contemporary farmer’s movements
 Demands of farmer’s movements
 Change in course of farmer’s movements
 Criticism of neo-farmer movements
 Conclusion
The decade of the 1980s marks the beginning of the New Farmers' Movement in general. This was
the decade in which farmers in the green revolution region began to come together behind political
groups and leaders. Rich farmers, especially from the upper and middle classes, benefited from the
green revolution. The changes, according to P.C. Joshi, established a new commercially motivated
rich peasant class that was both proprietors and tenants. They had the money and wisdom to pursue
commercial agriculture.
Characteristics of neo-farmer movements –
 Demands
o Lower prices for inputs such as seeds, fertilisers, and insecticides.
o Lower power and water rates.
o Elimination of land revenue and imposition of a tax based only on output.
o Waiver of loans owing by farmers to the government, banks, and cooperative societies
as a result of the government's unjustifiable tax system and poor prices.
o Implementation of crop insurance.
Changing Course:
1. Shift from Lifestyle to Economics: The Shetkari Sangathana in Maharashtra, led by Sharad
Joshi, shifted the narrative from romanticizing agricultural lifestyles to demanding economic
reforms. They advocated for remunerative prices for agricultural products, including onions,
highlighting the economic challenges faced by farmers. Joshi's emphasis on economic issues
became a hallmark of the movement.
2. Transcending Local Boundaries: the Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha, a farmers' organization
in Karnataka, emphasizes the need to transcend local boundaries. They collaborate with
similar movements in other states, fostering a sense of solidarity beyond regional confines.
This approach aligns with the internationalism trend, acknowledging that economic
challenges faced by farmers are shared across borders..
3. Ideological Diversity: Yogendra Singh highlights the ideological diversity within
contemporary farmers' movements. Singh notes that the absence of a singular ideology
contributes to the dynamism and adaptability of the protests. The farmers' protests in India
have drawn on a variety of ideological influences, including Marxism, Gandhianism, and
populism. This diversity has allowed the protests to appeal to a wide range of farmers and
has made them more difficult for the government to suppress.
4. Use of New Techniques – The recent farmers' protests in India, particularly those at the Delhi
borders, showcase the use of new techniques. Farmers leverage social media platforms to
disseminate information, coordinate activities, and garner support.
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Hashtags, online campaigns, and digital outreach amplify their message, bringing
international attention to their issues.
Criticism of neo-farmer movements
 Class Bias: It is sometimes asserted that the New Farmers movement is heavily biased
toward market-oriented farmers rather than subsistence farmers. For example, their
arguments in favour of debt forgiveness, remunerative prices, recognising agriculture as a
business, eliminating tractor loans, and so on eventually benefited the big or the rich/middle
peasantry or farmers.
 Limited Focus on Non-Irrigated Areas: There is criticism for the movements' limited focus
on irrigated areas, neglecting issues faced by farmers in non-irrigated regions.
 Caste Representation:
o Caste-Specific Movements: Movements in certain regions, such as Punjab and Uttar
Pradesh, have been criticized for becoming caste-specific. The lack of representation
of Dalits and Muslims in these movements raises concerns about inclusivity.
 Lack of Radical Agenda: The neo-farm movements discuss agricultural modernisation but
make little provision for the advancement of landless labourers. Critics said that agricultural
movements were driven by large landlords and zamindars and lacked the backing of wage
labourers and others.
Conclusion:
Contemporary farmers' movements in India are undergoing a significant transformation in their
focus, emphasizing economic issues and adopting new techniques. However, criticisms related to
class bias, limited regional focus, and internal conflicts suggest that there are challenges to be
addressed for these movements to bring about comprehensive and inclusive changes in the agrarian
landscape.
447
Question 8.
(a) Colonial administrators helped to construct the very traditionalism
which marked the Indian society as "backward'. Comment critically. (20
Marks)
 Brief introduction about traditionalism in India
 Role of colonial administrators in promoting backwardness
 How colonialism challenged the ‘backwardness’
 Role of local factors in backwardness
 Conclusion
Before British colonization, India's societal tapestry was rich and diverse. The caste system dictated
occupations based on birth, structuring communities. Emphasizing collective living, joint families
nurtured robust communal bonds. Religious practices, such as joint celebrations of festivals,
underscored shared cultural identity. Regional diversity was evident in varying wedding rituals
and language nuances, illustrating the intricate nature of traditionalism.
Often depicted as a static entity, traditionalism was crucially shaped by colonial administrators who,
through policies and perceptions, contributed to characterizing Indian society as "backward." The
intertwining of colonial policies and sociocultural dynamics underscores the nuanced relationship
between external influences and the construction of traditional identities.
Role of colonial administrators in promoting backwardness
1. Orientalist Perspectives: Orientalist scholars like James Mill, presented India as a land of
timeless traditions in his influential work "History of British India." Such works tended to
romanticize or exoticize Indian traditions without fully understanding their complexities.
Partha Chatterjee argues that colonial administrators constructed a binary of "tradition"
and "modernity," placing India firmly on the side of tradition and deeming it backward.
2. Selective Codification: Codifying caste hierarchies and emphasizing customary practices
that disadvantaged certain groups. This rigidified social structures and presented them as
static and unchanging, contributing to the perception of "backwardness. Dipankar Gupta
critiques the idea of a uniform, unchanging "traditional India" constructed by the British to
justify their rule.
3. Administrative Policies: The British administration's interest in preserving certain aspects of
Indian traditions, such as the codification of Hindu law with the establishment of the Hindu
Law Committee in 1840, was driven by the desire to maintain social order and facilitate
governance rather than a genuine appreciation for the traditions.
4. Social and Cultural Engineering: The introduction of laws like the Criminal Tribes Act of
1871, which stigmatized certain communities as criminal based on their traditional lifestyles,
reflected an attempt to engineer social structures in a way that justified colonial control.
5. Impact on Education: The colonial education system's emphasis on Western-style education
and the neglect or disparagement of traditional Indian knowledge systems contributed to the
perception that the latter were outdated and inferior.
6. Construction of Otherness: The racialized discourse prevalent during colonial rule, where
Europeans were positioned as superior and Indians as inferior, contributed to the
construction of an 'otherness.'
448
This perception of difference reinforced the idea that Indian societies were inherently
backward compared to the supposed progress of the West.
How colonialism challenged the ‘backwardness’
 Land Revenue Systems: The introduction of new land revenue systems, such as the
Permanent Settlement in Bengal and the Ryotwari System, changed the traditional agrarian
structures. Landownership patterns were altered, and traditional revenue-sharing
arrangements were replaced.
 Abolition of Sati: Colonial administrators, influenced by social reform movements, played a
role in the abolition of practices like Sati. Legislation such as the Bengal Sati Regulation of
1829 marked an attempt to eradicate certain traditional social practices deemed oppressive.
 Legal Equality: The introduction of legal frameworks that aimed at providing equal rights
to all citizens, regardless of caste or religion, challenged traditional hierarchies and notions
of backwardness associated with certain social groups.
 Westernization of Elites: The English-educated elite, often referred to as the "Brown Sahibs"
or "Anglicized Indians," emerged as a result of the colonial education system. This class
played a key role in questioning traditional practices and advocating for modernization.
 Industrial Development: The establishment of industries during the colonial period led to
the growth of urban centers. This resulted in rural-to-urban migration, disrupting traditional
village-based economies and social structures.
 Emergence of New Social Classes: Industrialization gave rise to new social classes, such as
the industrial working class and the emerging bourgeoisie, challenging traditional social
hierarchies based on occupation and status.
Role of local factors in backwardness
 Pre-existing Tradition: Indian society before colonialism was already diverse and complex,
with various forms of "tradition" coexisting. Colonization merely interacted with and
manipulated these existing structures, not creating them entirely. Bernard Cohn argues that
the colonial construction of "tradition" was a dynamic process, constantly evolving through
negotiations between colonizers and colonized.
 Agency of Indians: To solely blame colonial administrators ignores the agency of Indians
who interpreted, contested, and even appropriated colonial constructions of tradition for
their own purposes. For example, Indian reformers utilized aspects of "tradition" to critique
colonial rule and advocate for social change. Movements like the Brahmo Samaj and Arya
Samaj aimed to reform and modernize Hinduism, highlighting the agency of Indian actors in
shaping their own social narratives.
 Focus on Specific Practices: It's important to avoid generalizations and recognize that not all
"traditional" practices were targeted or amplified by the colonizers. Some aspects of Indian
culture were actively suppressed or demonized.
Colonialism's impact on the perception of backwardness in India was multifaceted. While it
contributed to the construction of a narrative that emphasized tradition and backwardness, it also
inadvertently challenged these very traditions through administrative, legal, and economic
transformations. Understanding the local factors influencing backwardness requires
acknowledging the pre-existing diversity of Indian society and recognizing the agency of Indians
who navigated and contested colonial constructions.
449
The complex interplay between colonial impositions and local responses shapes our understanding
of the historical roots of backwardness in India.
450
(b) What were the salient features of the India's Population Policy (2000)?
How far its goals have been achieved? (20 Marks)
 Introduction of national population 2000
 Key Features of the NPP 2000:
 Achievements of national population policy
 Challenges associated with national population policy
 Conclusion
The National Population Policy (NPP) of 2000 marked a significant shift in India's approach to
population control. Moving away from coercive measures, the policy emphasized empowerment,
education, and improved healthcare as key means to stabilize population growth. This initiative
involves collaboration between the government and non-government voluntary organizations to
ensure effective implementation and comprehensive healthcare delivery.
Key Features of the NPP 2000:
 Educational mandate –
o Free and compulsory education until age 14.
o Aims to reduce dropout rates for both genders.
 Child and Maternal Health:
o Targets an infant mortality rate below 30 per 1000 live births.
o Aims for a Maternal Mortality Rate under 100 per 10,000 live births.
o Reaching Replacement Fertility Rate: The primary goal was to achieve a replacement
fertility rate (TFR) of 2.1 by 2010.
 Marriage and Deliveries:
o Encourages females to postpone marriage, preferably after 18 years.
o Targets 100% qualified individual deliveries and 80% institutional deliveries.
 Reproductive Health Services:
o Provides services for regulating fertility and contraception.
o Ensures universal access to information on reproductive health.
 Disease Prevention and Communication:
o Aims to reduce AIDS transmission.
o Improves communication on sexually transmitted and reproductive tract infections.
o Regulates and prevents communicable illnesses.
 Promotion of Limited Families:
o Actively promotes the preference for limited families.
451
Achievements of national population policy
 Significant Progress in Healthcare: India has witnessed remarkable progress in reducing
infant mortality rate (IMR) from 64 in 2000 to 35.8 in 2019 and maternal mortality ratio (MMR)
from 254 in 2000 to 113 in 2019-20. This success can be partly attributed to the NPP's focus on
health infrastructure and child health programs.
 Decline in Total Fertility Rate (TFR): The most significant achievement is the substantial
decline in India's TFR. From 6.4 in 1971, it dropped to 2.0 in 2020, surpassing the replacement
level of 2.1. This indicates a successful shift towards smaller family norms. E.g. Kerala often
cited as a success story, Kerala's TFR reached 1.4 as early as 2018, attributing it to high female
literacy, effective family planning programs, and strong healthcare infrastructure.
 Improved Gender Ratio: Although still not at par, the sex ratio at birth has shown a steadily
upward trend, improving from 927 females per 1000 males in 2001 to 950 in 2011. This
signifies progress in addressing female infanticide and prenatal care disparities.
 Increased Female Literacy: Female literacy rates have seen a remarkable rise, going from
39.29% in 2001 to 65.46% in 2011. This correlates with delayed marriage and lower birth rates,
showcasing the impact of education on population control.
 Mission Parivar Vikas: This nationwide family planning drive aimed to bridge the gap
between family planning needs and actual service utilization. It has shown positive results
in raising awareness and increasing contraceptive use.
 Enhanced Access to Reproductive Health Services: The policy prioritized expanding access
to family planning, safe abortion, and maternal healthcare. Programs like Janani Suraksha
Yojana and Mission Indradhanush have resulted in increased institutional deliveries and
child vaccination coverage.
 The Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) program played a key role in
providing nutritional support and healthcare services to young children, contributing to
reduced child mortality rates.
Challenges associated with national population policy
 Regional Disparities: Yogendra Singh argues that India's demographic dynamics are
complex and influenced by diverse factors like regional disparities in development, access to
healthcare, and cultural practices. Example: While Kerala boasts a TFR of 1.4, states like Bihar
struggle at 3.4, highlighting the need for tailored programs beyond a one-size-fits-all
approach.
 Inadequate Healthcare Infrastructure: Amartya Sen emphasizes the importance of primary
healthcare infrastructure in rural areas to address maternal and child mortality, ultimately
impacting population growth. Example: The shortage of rural midwives and limited access
to emergency obstetric care in states like Uttar Pradesh contribute to higher maternal
mortality rates and impede progress in fertility decline.
 Religious and Cultural Resistance - Gail Omvedt critiques the imposition of Western family
planning models on diverse Indian communities, advocating for culturally sensitive
approaches that address concerns and misconceptions. Example: Opposition to female
sterilization in certain communities due to religious beliefs or anxieties around losing
offspring requires dialogue and education, not coercive measures.
452
 Gender Inequality and Lack of Women's Empowerment: While literacy rates have
improved, achieving universal education and bridging the gender gap in education remains
a challenge. Drop-out rates, particularly for girls, continue to be a concern. Low female
literacy rates in states like Rajasthan limit access to information and resources related to
reproductive health, impacting their agency in family planning decisions.
 Limited public awareness: Scholars like V. N. Reddy advocate for effective communication
and education campaigns to ensure wider understanding and support for the NPP 2000
goals.
 Community engagement gaps: N. C. Saxena stresses the importance of involving local
communities in policy implementation and tailoring programs to their specific needs and
concerns.
 Inadequate funding: Scholars like Gita Sen highlight the need for sufficient budgetary
allocation and resource mobilization to ensure effective implementation of the NPP 2000 at
all levels.
 Ethical concerns: Concerns around coercive sterilization or gender bias in certain policy
measures require ongoing assessment and ethical considerations amidst population control
efforts.
Conclusion:
The NPP 2000 has laid a strong foundation for a rights-based and holistic approach to population
management in India. While substantial progress has been made in improving health outcomes and
women's empowerment, persisting challenges require continued efforts to address gender
inequality, improve educational access, and ensure equitable implementation of programs across
diverse regions and communities. Only by addressing these critical areas can India truly achieve its
population stabilization goals and ensure a sustainable future for its citizens.
453
(c) Point out the main causes of child labour' in India. How far the State
policies have succeeded in its elimination? (10 Marks)
 Define child labour
 Various causes of child labour
 Positive role of state in elimination of child labour
 Issues with state policies
 Conclusion
Child labour is the utilization of children in any form of employment that robs them of their
childhood, disrupts their capacity to attend regular schooling, and poses mental, physical, social, or
moral risks.
According to the Census of India 2011, there are approximately 10.1 million working children in the
age group of 5-14 years. Out of this population, 8.1 million are situated in rural areas, with a
predominant engagement of 26% in cultivation activities and 32.9% in agricultural labor.
Various causes of child labour
 Poverty and Economic Vulnerability: Indian economist Amartya Sen has highlighted the
correlation between poverty and child labour. Families grappling with economic hardships
often resort to sending their children to work, viewing it as a means of supplementing
household income.
 Lack of Access to Quality Education: The inadequacy of educational infrastructure, coupled
with the absence of quality education, prompts children to enter the labor force prematurely.
Jiddu Krishnamurti argued that a flawed education system fails to captivate the interest of
children, leading them to opt for labor instead of learning.
 Inequality and Social Norms: India's deeply entrenched social hierarchies and caste
inequalities contribute to child labour. Marginalized communities, lacking access to quality
education and decent work opportunities for adults, often consider child labour as a
normalized practice. This normalization, as Dr. B.R. Ambedkar argued, perpetuates the
"graded inequality" that disadvantages certain groups, trapping them in intergenerational
cycles of poverty and exploitation.
Positive role of State Policies:
 Legal muscle: The Child Labour (Prohibition & Regulation) Act, 2016, stands as a cornerstone
in the legal fight against child labour. By raising the minimum permissible age for
employment and outlining hazardous occupations forbidden for minors, it aims to provide
a robust legal framework
 Awareness and Advocacy: B.R. Ambedkar underscores the importance of social awareness
and collective action in addressing societal issues. Advocacy campaigns against child labour,
in conjunction with governmental efforts, resonate with Ambedkar's vision of mobilizing
communities for social change.
 Targeted Interventions: Schemes like the National Child Labour Project (NCLP) and the
MGNREGA offer a glimmer of hope. By providing direct financial assistance and livelihood
security to families, they aim to address the economic pressures that often push families
towards child labour. These programs resonate with the ideas of scholars like Amartya Sen,
who advocate for fostering individual capabilities and breaking the cycle of poverty.
454
 Education as a Shield: The Right to Education Act (RTE) guarantees free and compulsory
education for all children. Increased school enrollment rates offer hope for a future
generation equipped with skills and knowledge, potentially minimizing their vulnerability
to exploitative work.
Issues with state policies
 Implementation Gap: Amartya Sen's capabilities approach emphasizes the importance of
translating legal rights into tangible capabilities. The implementation gap in child labour
laws reflects a failure in providing the necessary capabilities, highlighting the need for a more
comprehensive and rights-based approach.
 Economic Pressures: B.N. Ganguli studied the impact of economic factors on child labor,
underscores the economic pressures faced by vulnerable families. State policies must
integrate Ganguli's insights to devise holistic solutions addressing poverty and economic
vulnerabilities.
 Inadequate Monitoring: Improved surveillance mechanisms are essential for capturing the
nuanced dynamics of child labour prevalent in various sectors.
 Gender Disparities: The feminist perspective of Veena Mazumdar, emphasizing gender-
sensitive analysis, becomes crucial in addressing gender disparities in child labour. State
policies must integrate Mazumdar's insights to formulate gender-inclusive strategies that
consider the unique challenges faced by girl children.
 Lack of research and data collection - Engaging in ongoing research and systematic data
collection is imperative for comprehending the evolving nuances of child labor dynamics.
This approach facilitates the design of precise interventions tailored to specific challenges
and enables a rigorous evaluation of the efficacy of existing measures.
Eradicating child labour is not simply a policy issue; it demands a transformative social vision. By
dismantling the structures that perpetuate poverty, inequality, and educational deficiencies, India
can truly pave the way for a future where every child has the right to a safe, healthy, and fulfilling
childhood. As Nelson Mandela reminded us, "Education is the most powerful weapon which you
can use to change the world." It is this weapon that holds the key to unlocking the potential of India's
children and building a nation where the stain of child labour is relegated to the pages of history.
455
Mains 2021
Section - A
(a) Caste system studies in India have been dominated by the "book-view"
initially. How did the entry of "field-view" bring about a balance in the
study of Indian caste system? Discuss. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Introduce the historical dominance of the "book-view" in the study of the caste system in
India.
 Explain how did the entry of "field-view" bring about a balance in the study of Indian
caste system?
 Acknowledge criticisms associated with the "field-view" approach.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Historically, the study of the caste system in India was predominantly characterized by the "book-
view," emphasizing theoretical frameworks and textual interpretations. Scholars and researchers
often relied on ancient scriptures, religious texts, and theoretical constructs to comprehend the
complexities of caste dynamics.
The dominance of the "book-view" underscored the need for a paradigm shift towards empirical
fieldwork to bridge the gap between theoretical formulations and the intricate social dynamics of
the caste system.
"Field-view" bring about a balance in the study of Indian caste system:
1. Emphasis on Empirical Observation: The introduction of the "field-view" marked a shift
towards direct observation and empirical research, encouraging sociologists to engage with
communities, rituals, and everyday practices associated with the caste system. M.N.
Srinivas, advocated for ethnographic fieldwork to understand the intricacies of caste.
2. Dynamic Understanding of Caste: Louis Dumont and M.N. Srinivas emphasized the
importance of studying caste as a dynamic social institution rather than a static category.
Fieldwork allowed researchers to explore the fluid nature of caste interactions, challenging
rigid stereotypes and classifications.
3. Identification of Subaltern Voices: The "field-view" facilitated the amplification of subaltern
voices within caste communities. B.R. Ambedkar's work, rooted in the experiences of the
marginalized, highlighted the need to recognize the agency and struggles of Dalits.
Fieldwork enabled a more nuanced understanding of caste hierarchies and discriminations.
4. Uncovering Regional Variations: S.C. Dube and M.N. Srinivas conducted extensive field
studies that revealed regional variations in caste practices and hierarchies. This approach
helped in avoiding generalizations and recognizing the diversity within the caste system.
456
5. Intersectionality and Caste: Fieldwork allowed for a deeper exploration of the

intersectionality of caste with other social factors such as gender, class, and religion. Feminist
scholars like Uma Chakravarti, through field-based research, highlighted the
interconnectedness of caste and patriarchy.
6. Policy Implications: Andre Beteille, through field studies, contributed to policy discussions
by providing insights into the ground realities of caste-based discrimination. The "field-view"
thus bridged the gap between academic research and practical interventions for social
change.
Criticisms:
1. Subjectivity and Bias: Critics argue that the "field-view" is not immune to subjectivity, as
researchers might inadvertently introduce their biases into observations. For example, D.D.
Kosambi questioned the objectivity of field studies, suggesting that personal perspectives
could influence the interpretation of caste dynamics.
2. Limited Generalizability: Louis Dumont, criticized field studies for their limited
generalizability. They contend that findings from specific locations might not be applicable
to the broader Indian caste system, leading to an overemphasis on localized observations.
3. Ethical Dilemmas: The "field-view" often encounters ethical challenges, particularly when
dealing with sensitive issues within caste communities. G.S. Ghurye highlighted concerns
about privacy and informed consent in the context of fieldwork, emphasizing the need for
ethical standards in sociological research.
4. Dependency on Interpreters: In field studies, researchers may rely on interpreters to
navigate linguistic and cultural nuances. This dependency raises questions about the
accuracy of translations and potential misinterpretations, A.M. Shah in critiques of fieldwork
methodology.
5. Time and Resource Intensive: Critics, including Y.B. Damle, argue that extensive fieldwork
can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. This may limit the feasibility of conducting
in-depth studies across diverse regions, potentially compromising the breadth of
understanding.
6. Challenge of Insider-Outsider Dynamics: T.N. Madan have raised concerns about the
insider-outsider dynamics in field studies. Outsider researchers may struggle to gain the trust
of the community, impacting the depth of their insights and potentially leading to a
superficial understanding of caste dynamics.
In conclusion, the integration of the "field-view" in the study of the Indian caste system marks a
transformative shift from the predominantly theoretical "book-view." This methodological
evolution, championed by M.N. Srinivas, brought a nuanced and holistic understanding by
immersing researchers in the lived realities of caste communities. Field studies facilitated a deeper
comprehension of the intricacies, local variations, and dynamic interactions within caste systems.
The synergy between theoretical insights and empirical observations has significantly enriched the
scholarship on caste, emphasizing the importance of combining theoretical rigor with on-the-
ground experiences for a holistic understanding.
457
(b) What does Dr. B. R. Ambedkar mean by the concept of “Annihilation of

caste”? (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Explain "Annihilation of Caste".
 Highlight key events or social conditions that influenced his thinking on the
annihilation of caste.
 Explore Ambedkar's critique of the caste system and the reasons he advocated for its
annihilation.
 Conclude.
Solution:
"Annihilation of Caste" is a transformative sociopolitical concept by Dr. B. R. Ambedkar. It
encapsulates Ambedkar's impassioned call for the eradication of the deeply entrenched caste
system in India, which perpetuates social inequalities and discrimination. He envisioned a society
where individuals would be valued not based on their birth into a particular caste but on their
inherent dignity and merit. Ambedkar's advocacy for this radical transformation was rooted in the
pursuit of social justice, equality, and the establishment of a more inclusive and egalitarian society.
Social conditions that influenced his thinking on the annihilation of caste.
1. Dalit Activism and Social Exclusion: Dr. B. R. Ambedkar's thoughts on the annihilation of
caste were profoundly influenced by his experiences as a Dalit leader and activist. The
pervasive social exclusion and discrimination faced by the Dalits, or the oppressed castes,
fueled his commitment to dismantling the caste system.
2. Poona Pact (1932): The negotiations leading to the Poona Pact between Ambedkar and
Mahatma Gandhi played a crucial role. Ambedkar sought political representation for Dalits
separate from the general electorate, emphasizing the need for safeguarding their rights.
3. Mahad Satyagraha (1927): Ambedkar's leadership in the Mahad Satyagraha, where he led
Dalits to assert their right to access water from a public tank, highlighted the indignities faced
by Dalits due to untouchability. This incident propelled his determination to annihilate caste-
based discrimination.
4. Conversion to Buddhism (1956): Ambedkar's decision to convert to Buddhism along with a
large number of followers was a symbolic rejection of Hindu caste hierarchy. This event
signaled his commitment to creating an alternative path free from caste-based oppression.
5. Round Table Conferences: Ambedkar's participation in the Round Table Conferences in the
1930s exposed him to the intricacies of constitutional and political processes. His insistence
on safeguarding the rights of Dalits within the constitutional framework reflected his pursuit
of social justice.
6. Writing of 'Annihilation of Caste' (1936): Ambedkar's seminal work, "Annihilation of
Caste," presented a scathing critique of the caste system and proposed radical solutions.
The text remains a foundational document inspiring discussions on social reform and
equality.
458
Ambedkar's critique of the caste system and the reasons he advocated for its annihilation.
1. Hierarchy and Untouchability: Ambedkar vehemently criticized the inherent hierarchical
nature of the caste system, which relegated certain groups to the lowest strata, subjecting
them to social, economic, and cultural marginalization. The practice of untouchability
exemplified the extreme form of discrimination.
2. Birth-Based Discrimination: One of Ambedkar's key critiques was the caste system's
rigidity, as it determined an individual's social status at birth. He argued that this birth-based
discrimination thwarted social mobility and perpetuated inequality across generations.
3. Economic Exploitation: Ambedkar highlighted how the caste system perpetuated economic
exploitation, with certain castes relegated to menial and degrading occupations. The linkage
between caste and occupation constrained economic opportunities for specific communities.
4. Social Exclusion: The social exclusion faced by Dalits, or the 'Scheduled Castes,' was a focal
point of Ambedkar's critique. He emphasized that untouchability and discriminatory
practices restricted the social integration and participation of these communities.
5. Religious Critique: Ambedkar questioned the religious underpinnings of the caste system,
particularly in Hinduism. He argued that the Brahminical interpretation of religious texts
perpetuated caste-based discrimination, and conversion to Buddhism was seen as a way to
escape this religiously sanctioned hierarchy.
6. Political Representation: Ambedkar advocated for political representation as a means to
address the systematic exclusion of Dalits from decision-making processes. His efforts
during the drafting of the Indian Constitution ensured reserved seats for Scheduled Castes
in legislative bodies, aiming to empower marginalized communities politically.
In conclusion, Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's concept of the "Annihilation of Caste" goes beyond mere
reform; it envisions the complete eradication of the caste system's oppressive structures.
Ambedkar posited that meaningful change requires not only legal and political reforms but also a
fundamental shift in societal attitudes and consciousness.
His vision calls for a radical transformation, fostering social harmony, equality, and justice, where
individuals are recognized for their intrinsic worth rather than their assigned caste identities.
Ambedkar's quest for the annihilation of caste remains a profound and enduring aspiration for
building a more inclusive and egalitarian society.
(c) Discuss different forms of kinship system in India. (10 Marks)

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Approach.
 Define concept of kinship.
 Explain different forms of Kinship in India.
 Discuss the challenges posed by diverse kinship systems in a rapidly changing society.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Kinship is a fundamental social concept representing a network of relationships and connections
based on blood, marriage, or adoption that binds individuals into various family units. It
encompasses the system of social organization, defining roles, responsibilities, and expectations
within families and communities.
1. Patrilineal Kinship: In this system, lineage and inheritance pass through the male line. M.N.
Srinivas studied the concept of 'Sanskritization,' highlighting the dominance of patrilineal
kinship in many North Indian communities. Example: The Rajputs in North India
traditionally follow a patrilineal kinship system, emphasizing the importance of the male
lineage in matters of inheritance and family structure.
2. Matrilineal Kinship: In matrilineal kinship, lineage and inheritance pass through the female
line. Iravati Karve's work on matrilineal societies in Kerala provides insights into the Nayar
community's kinship system. Example: The Nayar community in Kerala traditionally
practices matrilineal kinship, where property and family names are passed through the
female line.
3. Bilateral Kinship: In bilateral kinship, both sides of the family, maternal and paternal, are
considered equally significant. David Schneider's cultural analysis contributes to
understanding bilateral kinship dynamics. Example: Many urban and cosmopolitan families
in India exhibit bilateral kinship practices, emphasizing equal importance to both sides of the
family in social and cultural matters.
4. Lineage-Based Kinship: Kinship is determined by tracing descent through a common
ancestor. Louis Dumont's concept of 'purity and pollution' contributes to understanding
lineage-based kinship structures in certain communities. Example: Amongst certain Brahmin
communities, lineage-based kinship is evident, where family identity is traced back to a
revered ancestor.
5. Joint Family System: Several generations live together in a single household, sharing
resources and responsibilities. S.C. Dube's research on joint families in rural India provides
insights into the structural and functional aspects of this kinship system. Example: Joint
family systems are prevalent in states like Rajasthan, where extended families often reside
together, maintaining strong kinship ties.
6. Nuclear Family System: Only parents and their children live together, emphasizing a smaller
family unit. Talcott Parsons' functionalist perspective offers insights into the changing
dynamics and functions of nuclear families. Example: Urbanization and modernization have
contributed to the rise of nuclear families in metropolitan areas, reflecting changing societal
norms and lifestyles.
Challenges
1. Social Cohesion and Identity Crisis: Diverse kinship systems in rapidly changing societies
can cause an identity crisis and disrupt social cohesion, challenging individual’s sense of
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belonging, notably seen in urban centers due to migration and varied kinship structures.
2. Conflict and Fragmentation: Coexisting diverse kinship systems may trigger conflicts within
families or communities, leading to social fragmentation, especially in rapidly developing
cities with joint and nuclear family dynamics.
3. Legal and Policy Challenges: Integrating diverse family structures into legal frameworks
presents significant challenges, influencing property rights and inheritance laws in various
kinship systems across regions.
4. Erosion of Traditions and Cultural Practices: The rapid societal changes driven by
modernization and globalization can erode traditional kinship customs and marriage
practices, potentially challenging cultural continuity, notably observed in urban areas.
5. Generational Conflict and Adaptation: Different values between generations within varied
kinship structures may cause conflicts, particularly between traditional joint family values
and younger generations aspiring for nuclear family setups in evolving societies.
6. Economic Disparities and Social Stratification: The diverse kinship systems may widen
economic disparities and affect social mobility, contributing to unequal access to resources
and opportunities, especially between urban and rural areas.
In conclusion, the diverse forms of kinship systems in India underscore the rich tapestry of social
structures embedded in cultural traditions and practices. From the patrilineal dominance observed
in communities like the Rajputs to the matrilineal practices of the Nayar community in Kerala, and
the coexistence of bilateral, lineage-based, joint, and nuclear family systems, India showcases a
mosaic of kinship arrangements.
(d) Critically examine briefly the phrase "Little 'Republics” as used to

denote India's villages. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define the term "Little Republics.
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 Examine the aspects such as caste, class, gender, and community relationships challenge
the idea of "Little Republics."
 Discuss the relevance of the concept in contemporary times.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The term "Little Republics" refers to the conceptualization of Indian villages as self-contained and
autonomous socio-political entities, akin to miniature republics. It was coined within the
sociological discourse, this characterization suggests that villages possess a degree of self-
governance, wherein they exhibit distinct social, cultural, and political dynamics.
The term encapsulates the notion that, analogous to larger political entities, villages operate as
localized systems of governance, wherein residents participate in communal affairs and uphold
shared values. However, the applicability of this concept is subject to critical examination,
considering the diverse and evolving nature of village life by encompassing factors such as caste,
class, and modernization.
Caste, class, gender, and community relationships challenge the idea of "Little Republics."
1. Caste Dynamics: Caste continues to play a pivotal role in village life, influencing social
hierarchies and power structures. The rigid caste system can impede the idealized notion of
equality within "Little Republics." B.R. Ambedkar's perspective on caste, as articulated in
works like "Annihilation of Caste," highlights the persistent challenges of caste-based
inequalities in villages, disrupting the democratic ideal.
2. Class Disparities: Economic disparities and unequal distribution of resources often lead to
the marginalization of certain sections within villages, challenging the idea of inclusive
governance in "Little Republics." M.N. Srinivas, in his concept of "Sanskritization" and
"Dominant Caste," sheds light on how class and economic factors impact social stratification
in rural societies.
3. Gender Inequality: Patriarchal norms and gender biases prevalent in villages hinder the full
participation and representation of women, questioning the democratic essence of "Little
Republics." Veena Poonacha, drawing on feminist perspectives, critique the entrenched
gender norms in rural settings, emphasizing the need for gender-sensitive analysis in
understanding village dynamics.
4. Community Relationships: While communities foster solidarity, they can also lead to
exclusionary practices, undermining the inclusivity of "Little Republics" by favoring
particular groups over others. M.N. Srinivas's work on "Social Structure of a Mysore Village"
delves into the complexities of community relationships, shedding light on how communal
ties may perpetuate social divisions.
5. Modernization and Changing Dynamics: The impact of modernization, technology, and
globalization disrupts traditional village structures, challenging the stability and autonomy
implied by the concept of "Little Republics.
" Andre Beteille's exploration of the impact of modernization on Indian society, particularly
in works like "Antinomies of Society," provides insights into the transformative forces that
challenge traditional village life.
6. Landownership and Power Structures: Unequal land distribution and concentrated power
structures can lead to the marginalization of certain sections of the population, complicating
the democratic ideal of "Little Republics." D.N. Dhanagare's analysis of agrarian relations, as
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seen in "Poverty and Agrarian Relations in India," highlights how landownership and power
dynamics contribute to social inequalities in rural areas.
Relevance;
1. Decentralized Governance and Panchayati Raj Institutions: The concept of "Little
Republics" finds resonance in contemporary times through the functioning of Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs). The emphasis on decentralized governance aligns with the idea of villages
as autonomous units. M.N. Srinivas, while not explicitly focusing on PRIs, laid the
groundwork for understanding the significance of local self-governance in his studies on
village social structures.
2. Community-Based Development Initiatives: Community-driven development initiatives
and participatory approaches in policy-making reflect the continued relevance of the "Little
Republics" concept, emphasizing the importance of local voices in decision-making. Amartya
Sen's capability approach, though not exclusively focused on villages, underscores the
importance of local agency and participation in development.
3. Digital Empowerment and Information Access: The digital revolution has facilitated
increased connectivity in rural areas, enabling villagers to access information, engage in e-
governance, and participate in decision-making processes, aligning with the idea of informed
participation in "Little Republics." Arjun Appadurai's work on globalization and information
flows provides a theoretical framework to understand the impact of digital technologies on
rural societies.
4. Environmental Sustainability and Local Initiatives: Growing awareness of environmental
issues has led to the emergence of local, community-based initiatives for sustainable
development, reflecting the ecological dimensions of "Little Republics. Vandana Shiva's
advocacy for sustainable and community-centric development, as seen in works like "Staying
Alive," aligns with the ecological aspects of the concept.
5. Crisis Response and Resilience: During crises such as natural disasters or health
emergencies, the resilience of communities in managing and recovering from adverse
situations reflects the "Little Republics" concept's enduring relevance in times of need. E. F.
Schumacher's ideas on "Small is Beautiful" resonate with the notion of localized resilience
and self-sufficiency in the face of crises.
6. Local Cultural Identity and Heritage Preservation: Efforts to preserve and promote local
cultural identity and heritage reflect the importance of maintaining distinct village identities,
supporting the idea of "Little Republics" as repositories of unique cultural practices. R.S.
Sharma's exploration of India's ancient social structure in works like "Indian Feudalism"
provides insights into the historical and cultural dimensions that contribute to the idea of
villages as distinct entities.
In conclusion, while the metaphor of "Little Republics" provides a conceptual lens to understand
the potential autonomy and self-governance within Indian villages, its application requires critical
scrutiny.
The reality of caste hierarchies, class disparities, gender inequalities, and evolving power structures
challenges the idealized notion of villages as self-contained democratic entities.
Contemporary transformations, including digital connectivity and globalization, further complicate
the traditional understanding of "Little Republics." Nevertheless, the concept remains relevant in
emphasizing the importance of local agency, participatory governance, and cultural distinctiveness.
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(e) Caste-like formations are present in Non-Hindu religious communities

as well. Discuss with examples. (10 Marks)
Answer:
Structure:
 Brief introduction of Caste in non-hindu communities
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 Caste among Muslims
 Caste among Sikhs
 Caste among Christians
 Conclusion
According to JH Hutton, "when Islam and Christianity came to India the caste was in the air and
even these egalitarian ideologies could not escape the infection of caste." The majority of sociologists
regard caste as a distinctive aspect of Hindu religion; however some sociologists and social
anthropologists believe that caste-like groupings occur in nonHindu communities as well. They
have acquired caste-like characteristics, if not the philosophy of caste as sanctioned in Hindu
scriptures, as a result of cultural contact and the resulting process of Hinduisation.
Caste among Muslims
The egalitarian social order of Islam is diametrically opposed to the notion of caste, yet Indian Islam
and the 'Hindu caste system' has found significant harmony.
Stratification among Muslims
In his ground-breaking study on caste and social stratification among north Indian Muslims, Ghaus
Ansari divides Muslim castes into three categories:
 Ashraf comprises Muslim aristocracy who claim to be descendants of early Muslim
immigrants, such as Saiyyad, Shaikh, Mughal, or Pathan, as well as ancestors of higher Hindu
castes such as Muslim Rajputs.
 Clean occupational castes are included in the Ajlaf (mean or commoner) category, such as
Julaha (weaver), Darzi (tailor), Qassab (meat seller), Hajjam (barber), Kunjra (green grocer or
vegetable vendor),
 Arzal (literally the meanest) - The unclean or ritually polluting castes such as Bhangi or
Mehter (sweepers and scavengers) are placed in this category.
Features of caste system among Muslims
 The bulk of Indian Muslims are from lower Hindu castes who have converted to Islam to
escape social persecution and onerous socioeconomic limitations imposed by the caste
system. However, their quest for equality proved to be a fantasy. Their social conditions
improved, but the goals of social equality remained elusive.
 Significantly, most Muslims left up their religion but not the caste that was taken forward
even to the new socioreligious environment. As a result, while Islam does not have castes or
caste-like organisations, Indian Muslims have.
 All of these castes or caste-like groups occupy distinct positions in the caste hierarchy, each
with its own set of standards and patterns of behaviour.
 These are mostly endogamous groups, and all of the lower castes strive for upward mobility
by imitating the higher castes' lifestyles. It is an odd mix of Islamization, Hinduization, and
modernism.
Caste among Sikhs
The Sikhs, or adherents of Sikhism, first appeared in the 16th century. It is widely regarded as a
reformed sect of Hinduism and a protest movement against Hinduism's prevalent orthodoxy,
particularly in the areas of ritualism, idolatry, and casteism. Thus, while Sikhism, like Islam, does
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not recognise caste systems in theory, the Sikh society, like Islam, contains castes.
The Sikhs are divided into top and lower caste groupings. In his research of Sikhs, I.P. Singh
discovers strongly defined top and lower castes and not a single incidence of inter-caste marriage.
Sikhs are divided into four endogamous groups, which are hereditary occupational groups, and
they are arranged in a hierarchical sequence. These four endogamous groups are as follows:
 Jats - The highest position in the status ladder is held by agriculturists.
 The trading castes come next.
 RamGarhias - Artisans and clean profession castes occupy a lower tier.
 Mazhabi are Hindu untouchables who have converted.
Except for the Mazhabis, they practise endogamy but set little limitations on commensality.
Mazhabis are mostly Sikh Scheduled Castes who, like other Dalit groups of Indian society, have
acquired Dalit consciousness.
Many times, conflict arises between Dalits and Jat Sikhs over issues such as the management of the
local gurudwara, demonstrating how religious institutions had thwarted Sikhism's basic premise of
a casteless society.
Land problem- The Punjab Alienation of Property Act of 1901 grouped Dalits, including Sikhs and
Hindus, with non-agriculturist castes, effectively denying them access to land ownership. While the
act was repealed after partition, its legacy may still be seen in the general landlessness of Dalits. The
situation has become volatile in a state where the Jats wield absolute control and the scheduled
castes account for more than 30% of the population - the largest proportion in the country. Thus, we
find that casteism has claimed even Sikhism.
Caste among Christians
 After Muslims, Christians are the second largest nonHindu community. The vast majority of
Christians in India are from the lower Hindu castes, particularly the untouchable castes.
Studies from Kerala and Tamil Nadu, both states with a sizable Christian population,
demonstrate that castes play a role in local Christian society.
 While the converts from higher castes have been largely integrated in the main group of
Syrian Christians, social distinctions between Palayas, converts from untouchable groups,
and Syrian Christians have been maintained.
 It has also been observed that Bengali Christians continue to use surnames indicating their
pre-conversion castes, which they are quite concerned about in social interactions and
marriage.
 Furthermore, it has been noted that lower caste converts are segregated and given
backbenches in numerous churches in south India. As a result, even the egalitarian Christian
doctrine was unable to break down the boundaries of caste and caste consciousness.
Therefore, caste system which is predominantly a product of Hindu civilization influences other
communities also. But caste system among non-hindus is not similar to caste system of Hindus.
According to Ambedkar “Caste among the non-Hindus has no religious consecration; but among
the Hindus most decidedly it has. Among the Non-Hindus, caste is only a practice, not a sacred
institution. They did not originate it. With them it is only a survival. They do not regard caste as a
religious dogma. Religion compels the Hindus to treat isolation and segregation of castes as a virtue.
Religion does not compel the Non-Hindus to take the same attitude towards caste”. Hence caste
system among other religion is not visible in the mainstream as it is present in Hindu social order
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467
Question 2.
(a) What is identity politics? Discuss the main trends in Dalit movements in
India. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define identity politics.
 Explore recent trends in Dalit movements.
 Evaluate the challenges faced by Dalit movements.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Identity politics refers to a political framework where individuals or groups organize and advocate
for their interests based on shared social identities, such as race, ethnicity, gender, religion, or caste.
In this approach, the political agenda revolves around asserting and addressing the specific
concerns, experiences, and rights of a particular identity group. While it can be a powerful tool for
mobilization, representation, and social justice, it is also critiqued for its potential to essentialize
identities, foster division, and undermine broader societal cohesion.
Recent trends:
1. Dalit Assertion in Electoral Politics: Recent years have witnessed a growing assertiveness
of Dalit communities in electoral politics, with the formation and success of Dalit political
parties and leaders at various levels. This trend reflects an increased desire for political
representation and a platform to address specific Dalit concerns. B.R. Ambedkar's ideas on
political empowerment and the necessity of political representation for marginalized
communities provide a theoretical backdrop for understanding the significance of Dalit
political movements.
2. Land Rights and Agrarian Movements: Dalit movements have been actively engaging in
struggles for land rights and against caste-based discrimination in rural areas.
Landownership is seen as a key factor in addressing historical injustices and achieving
economic empowerment for Dalit communities. D.N. Dhanagare's work on agrarian
relations provides insights into the social and economic dimensions of Dalit struggles in rural
areas.
3. Cultural Movements and Identity Assertion: Dalit cultural movements, including literature,
art, and media, have gained prominence in expressing Dalit identity, challenging stereotypes,
and fostering a sense of community pride. These movements contribute to reshaping
narratives and perceptions. Gopal Guru's contributions to Dalit studies and his emphasis on
cultural assertion as a means of resistance and identity-building provide a theoretical
foundation for understanding these trends.
4. Education and Access to Resources: Dalit movements are increasingly focusing on education
as a tool for empowerment, advocating for better access to educational resources and
challenging discrimination within educational institutions. This trend reflects a broader
effort to address systemic inequalities. Anand Teltumbde's work on education and social
justice provides insights into the challenges faced by Dalits in the educational sphere.
5. Legal Activism and Anti-Discrimination Campaigns: Dalit movements continue to engage

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in legal activism and campaigns against caste-based discrimination. This includes efforts to
strengthen and implement anti-discrimination laws and policies, seeking justice for atrocities
against Dalits. Upendra Baxi's contributions to the sociology of law provide a theoretical lens
for understanding the role of legal activism in social justice movements.
6. Global Alliances and Transnational Solidarity: Dalit movements are increasingly forming
alliances and building solidarity with other marginalized groups on a global scale. This
transnational approach seeks to address common issues faced by marginalized communities
and leverage international support. Arjun Appadurai's theories on globalization and
transnationalism offer insights into the dynamics of global alliances in social movements.
Challenge:
1. Persistence of Caste-Based Discrimination: Despite legal measures and social reforms, Dalit
communities continue to face deep-rooted caste-based discrimination in various aspects of
life, including education, employment, and social interactions. B.R. Ambedkar's seminal
work on caste and untouchability provides a foundational understanding of the entrenched
nature of caste-based discrimination.
2. Economic Marginalization: Economic disparities persist within Dalit communities, with
limited access to resources, land, and employment opportunities. This economic
marginalization hinders the overall socio-economic empowerment of Dalits. B.N. Jha's
studies on economic aspects of Dalit communities contribute to the sociological
understanding of economic challenges faced by Dalits.
3. Violence and Atrocities: Dalit communities are often targets of violence and atrocities,
including physical attacks and social boycotts. The prevalence of such violence underscores
the persistent hostility and resistance to Dalit empowerment. S. Anand's work on caste-based
violence and atrocities sheds light on the sociological dimensions of violence against Dalits.
4. Limited Political Representation: While there has been an increase in Dalit political
representation, it remains limited, and Dalit voices are often marginalized within mainstream
political structures. This challenges the effective advocacy of Dalit interests at various levels
of governance. M.N. Srinivas's studies on political sociology provide insights into the
challenges faced by marginalized communities in securing adequate political representation.
5. Internal Diversity and Fragmentation: Dalit communities are not homogeneous, and
internal diversity based on sub-castes and regional variations can lead to fragmentation. This
diversity poses challenges to presenting a unified front in addressing common issues. G.S.
Ghurye's discussions on caste diversity and internal variations within caste groups
contribute to understanding the complexities of internal diversity among Dalits.
6. Co-option and Tokenism: There is a risk of co-option and tokenism, where Dalit movements
or leaders may be incorporated into mainstream structures without substantial changes in
power dynamics. This challenges the transformative potential of Dalit movements. Rajni
Kothari's insights on the co-option of marginalized groups into political structures offer a
theoretical understanding of the challenges of token representation.
In conclusion, the intertwined discourse of identity politics and Dalit movements in India reflects a
complex tapestry of social mobilization and resistance. Identity politics, as a political approach
rooted in shared social identities, has been a driving force behind the articulation of Dalit grievances,
aspirations, and demands.
The main trends in Dalit movements encompass a spectrum of activities, from political assertion
and cultural reclamation to struggles for economic empowerment and legal activism. The evolving
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narrative of identity politics within Dalit movements serves as a dynamic lens through which to
analyze the intricacies of social change, political agency, and the pursuit of justice in contemporary
Indian society.
(b) Is Indian society moving from "Hierarchy" towards "differentiation" ?

Illustrate your answer with suitable examples. (20 Marks)
470
Approach.
 Define the terms "Hierarchy" and "Differentiation"
 Explain Indian society moving from "Hierarchy" towards "differentiation”.
 Highlight the role of social movements and activism in challenging traditional hierarchies.
 Conclude.
Solution:
"Hierarchy" refers to a structured arrangement of individuals or groups in a society based on
perceived differences in status, power, or authority. In hierarchical systems, there is often a clear
and rigid ranking, with certain individuals or groups enjoying higher social standing and privileges
than others.
"Differentiation" pertains to the process of creating distinctions and variations within a social
system. It involves the emergence of diversity in terms of roles, occupations, lifestyles, and
identities. Differentiation implies a move away from rigid, predetermined roles, allowing for greater
individual and group autonomy, mobility, and the recognition of diverse contributions within a
society.
Indian society moving from "Hierarchy" towards "differentiation”.
1. Caste System Transformations: The traditional caste system, characterized by rigid
hierarchies, is undergoing transformations. While caste distinctions persist, there is an
observable shift towards greater differentiation as individuals challenge traditional
occupational restrictions, pursue diverse professions, and engage in inter-caste marriages.
M.N. Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization" highlights the dynamism within caste systems
and how social mobility can lead to changes in traditional hierarchies.
2. Economic Changes and Middle-Class Expansion: Economic liberalization has contributed
to the emergence of a diverse middle class, challenging traditional economic hierarchies. The
expansion of opportunities in sectors such as information technology, entrepreneurship, and
service industries has led to increased social mobility. Andre Beteille's studies on social
change and mobility provide insights into how economic transformations impact social
structures.
3. Education and Professional Mobility: Educational advancements and increased access to
higher education have facilitated professional differentiation, breaking away from
occupation-based hierarchies. Dalits, women, and other marginalized groups are
increasingly entering professions traditionally dominated by higher castes. G.S. Ghurye's
discussions on education and social change contribute to understanding the role of education
in challenging traditional hierarchies.
4. Political Empowerment and Representation: Political movements advocating for social
justice and inclusive policies have led to increased political representation from marginalized
groups. The rise of leaders from historically disadvantaged communities signifies a move
towards a more inclusive political landscape. B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on political
empowerment as a means of challenging social hierarchies remains relevant in analyzing
contemporary trends.
5. Media and Cultural Shifts: Media and cultural representations are challenging traditional
stereotypes and fostering a more inclusive narrative. The portrayal of diverse identities in
mainstream media contributes to a cultural differentiation that goes beyond traditional social
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hierarchies. Arjun Appadurai's theories on globalization and media's role in shaping cultural
dynamics provide a framework for understanding how cultural shifts contribute to
differentiation.
6. Globalization and Social Dynamics: Globalization has exposed Indian society to diverse
influences, leading to a more interconnected and cosmopolitan outlook. This exposure
challenges insular social hierarchies and contributes to the emergence of a society with more
fluid, diverse, and interconnected social structures. Dipankar Gupta's work on globalization
and its impact on Indian society provides insights into the transformative effects of global
influences.
Role of social movements and activism in challenging traditional hierarchies.
1. Dalit Empowerment Movements: Dalit movements, inspired by leaders like B.R. Ambedkar,
challenge caste-based discrimination, addressing issues of untouchability, atrocities, and
advocating for social and political rights. B.R. Ambedkar's "Annihilation of Caste" provides
a foundational understanding of challenges posed by traditional hierarchies and the need for
activism.
2. Women's Rights Movements: Feminist movements in India, led by activists like Kamaladevi
Chattopadhyay and recent campaigns like #MeToo, challenge patriarchal hierarchies,
advocating for gender equality and addressing violence and discrimination. Simone de
Beauvoir's feminist philosophy contributes to understanding women's roles in challenging
hierarchical structures.
3. Anti-Caste Movements: Movements like the non-Brahmin movement and contemporary
anti-caste movements aim to break down caste-based discrimination, promote inter-caste
marriages, and advocate for social justice. M.N. Srinivas's work on caste dynamics
contributes to understanding complexities in challenging caste-based hierarchies.
4. Environmental Activism: Movements like the Chipko Movement and protests against
industrial pollution challenge hierarchies prioritizing economic interests over environmental
sustainability. Arne Naess's deep ecology philosophy informs the sociological dimensions of
environmental activism.
5. LGBTQ+ Rights Movements: Movements advocating for LGBTQ+ rights challenge
heteronormative hierarchies, contributing to societal acceptance and dismantling
discriminatory structures. Judith Butler's work on gender performativity and queer theory
provides a theoretical foundation for understanding activism against normative hierarchies.
6. Farmers' Protests: Recent farmers' protests challenge economic hierarchies and corporate
dominance in agriculture, highlighting issues of agrarian distress and unequal land
distribution. Pierre Bourdieu's theories on social fields and capital offer insights into the
sociological dimensions of economic hierarchies and the role of activism in reshaping them.
In conclusion, the trajectory of Indian society reflects a nuanced shift from traditional "Hierarchy"
towards a more dynamic state of "Differentiation." While entrenched social structures, such as the
caste system, still persist, various contemporary trends challenge these traditional hierarchies.
Economic liberalization has led to the emergence of a diverse middle class, breaking down economic
hierarchies.
Educational advancements have facilitated professional mobility, challenging occupation-based

hierarchies. Social movements, like Dalit and anti-caste movements, women's rights activism,
environmental protests, LGBTQ+ rights advocacy, and farmers' protests, collectively illustrate a
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growing societal inclination toward greater inclusivity and diversity.
(c) Discuss the salient features of 'new middle class' in India. (10 Marks)
Answer:
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Structure
 Brief introduction of middle class
 Sociological perspective on Middle class
 Middle class in India
 Features of “new middle class” in India
 Issues associated with “new middle class”
Despite countless research on the subject, there is no universally accepted definition of the middle
class; some researchers describe the middle class in terms of its relationship to the means of
production, while others define it in terms of relative wages or consumption habits.
The middle class, especially the new middle class which is categorized on the basis of income, social
status, education, occupation, and consumerism has significantly emerged as a powerful,
influential, and dominant section of the society and largely determine nation’s economy, polity,
culture, education and social relationships.
Sociological perspectives on Middle class
 According to Karl Marx ownership of means of production is vital to understand class
position and he also talks about consciousness of being a ‘class’. According to him in the long
run middle class will polarise into both proletariat and capitalists class and only two classes
will remain.
 Weber speaks of middle class in terms of structural life chances, where he included small
property owners, craftsmen, skilled workers, public officials etc.
 According to John Urry middle class does not own the means of production but is a powerful
favoured status situation in the structure of workplace relationships.
 Ralf Dahrendorf talks about different ideas related to middle class. Initially he explains
middle class as extension of old ruling class but later he denies the existence of middle class.
 Anthony Giddens distinguishes middle class as one who possesses the educational and
technical qualification.
Middle class in India
Historically in India middle class emerged as a product of colonialism:
 Britain educated Indians compared Indian and Western values, and initiated reforms to place
India on the path to progress. E.g. - KC Sen, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, IC Vidyasagar,
 According to A.R. Desai middle classes play important role in national movement and also
initiated many reforms in the society.
 B.B. Misra explained that because of British rule classes emerged in India. In Misra’s view,
the British attempted to create a class comparable to their own to assist the former in the
administration of the country. The aim of the British was to create a class of imitators and not
originators of new values and methods.
According to B.B. Misra, the middle class has an occupational interest but it is bound together by a
typical style of living and behavioural patterns, and stands for democratic values, which they
express in their social and political lives.
474
Pawan Verma talks about domination of upper castes in early middle class formation.
Andre Beteille conceptualised the emergence of middle class in India as result of introduction of
modern education and job opportunities under the colonial government.
Pranab Bardhan suggests that middle class are part of the dominant coalition government.
Satish Deshpande understands middle class as one that hegemonises social, political and economic
aspects.
New middle class in India
The New middle class emerges with the background of the discourses on economic liberalization.
According to Sinha the emergence of new economy was interrelated to the expansion of the urban
middle class, referring to this as the “new” middle class.
The size and definition of the middle class is the subject of incongruity and depend on several
aspects such as income, status, identity and power, consumption, occupation, and lifestyle. Hence,
there is no single standard definition of India’s middle class.
The estimates of the size of this class vary significantly. Depending on the method of calculation,
their numbers range between 10 and 30 per cent of the Indian population.
Features of new middle class in India
One significant development is the gradual but steady disintegration of the caste system. According
to Kuppuswamy, a person's position is determined by his education, career, and income, while caste
is only regarded upon marriage.
 It appears that caste-based jobs are dissolving in India as a result of urbanisation,
globalisation, and modernization, resulting in a plethora of career alternatives outside of
conventional vocations, both locally and globally, particularly in the private, IT, and allied
sectors.
 While the upper castes dominate the new middle class, but a considerable proportion of
lower caste house-holds too have entered the new middle class.
Increasingly Consumerist Lifestyle and Identity – New middle classes are among the largest
purchasers of "highend" items such as automobiles, air conditioners, designer clothing, laptops,
mobile telephones, gadgets, and much more. In a nutshell, consumerism has become their norm.
Technologically Savvy: "Knowledge Class" - Because of their specialised, advanced education,
technology expertise, and significantly higher knowledge in several sectors, NMCs are sometimes
referred to as the "knowledge class." IT entrepreneurs and professionals, according to Gurcharan
Das, are the new middle-class heroes.
New middle-class Culture and Society: More Globalized than Localized - NMCs live a professional
lifestyle, are fastpaced, expect a modern, western standard of living, and have a strong global
viewpoint. In addition, NMCs are becoming transnational and worldwide phenomena.
Glocal in values and beliefs – NMCs educated by western education and modernism are exposed to
liberal, secular, and logical conceptions and morality. They are, nevertheless, nonetheless firmly
established in the conventional and religious social structures. This circumstance has surely
positioned them as "Glocal," allowing them to be both "local" and "global" at the same time.
Middle class as a catalyst for social change: After 1991 reform, various social movements in the
country saw huge participation of the new middle classes e.g., India against corruption movement
etc.
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Issues associated with new middle class
 Stuck between ‘traditional’ and ‘Modernity’ – in economic sense new middle class want to
emulate western ideas and practices but at cultural level still following feudal practices. e.g.,
domination of same caste marriages, increase in religious bigotry and hatred
 Increase in ‘Alienation’ - Due to over-competitiveness and lack of supports many people in
the corporate sector are going through issue of alienation, depression and other mental
issues.
 Status of women – in last few years’ women participation had increased in the public spheres
but still constraints of their liberty and empowerment. E.g. increase in sexual harassment,
less payment than male counterparts.
The new middle class is expanding throughout the country. The 1991 reforms ushered the new era
of growth and development in the county that had altered the consumption pattern and culture of
the society. The goals and objectives of new classes are driven by material success and career growth
for the acquisition of a comfortable lifestyle, more wealth, and prestige. However, ‘new’ thoughts
have not been able to penetrate every field of the society but cracks in old order are clearly visible
in the country.
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Question 3.
(a) Discuss in detail the major contribution of Prof. Yogendra Singh in
theorizing India's modernization. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define major contribution of Prof. Yogendra Singh.
 Examine Singh's contributions to understanding the structural transformations associated
with modernization in India.
 Highlight the enduring relevance of Prof. Yogendra Singh's theories in understanding the
ongoing processes of modernization in India.
 Conclude.
Solution.
Prof. Yogendra Singh has made seminal contributions to the field of sociology, particularly in the
context of India's modernization. Singh's work emphasizes the interplay of cultural dynamics,
structural transformations, and institutional changes in the evolution of Indian society from
traditional to modern.
Notably, he critically engages with Western-centric modernization theories, offering an indigenous
perspective that considers the unique historical and cultural factors shaping India's path to
modernity. His insights into the role of education, economy, and the intricate relationship between
culture and modernization remain foundational in sociological discourse, providing scholars and
policymakers with a contextual lens to analyze and navigate the multifaceted challenges and
opportunities of contemporary Indian society.
Singh's contributions to understanding the structural transformations associated with
modernization in India
1. Transition from Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft: Prof. Yogendra Singh has examined the
structural transformations in India by applying Ferdinand Tönnies' concepts of Gemeinschaft
(community) and Gesellschaft (society). He explores the shift from traditional, close-knit
community structures to more impersonal, goal-oriented societal arrangements, illustrating
how modernization leads to changes in social relationships. Ferdinand Tönnies, with his
theory of Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft, provides a conceptual foundation for
understanding the nature of social organization during modernization.
2. Changing Family and Kinship Structures: Singh's work delves into the changing dynamics
of family and kinship structures in the modernization process. He examines how traditional
joint family systems undergo structural transformations, such as the emergence of nuclear
families, altered gender roles, and changing intergenerational relationships. M.N. Srinivas's
theory of "Sanskritization" complements Singh's insights by providing additional
perspectives on changes in family structures during modernization.
3. Urbanization and Social Stratification: Singh analyzes the impact of urbanization on social
structures, emphasizing how the shift from agrarian to urban societies leads to new forms of
social stratification. He explores the emergence of occupational diversification, the rise of
new social classes, and the resulting complexities in social hierarchies. Louis Wirth's urban
sociology theories provide a broader understanding of the effects of urbanization on social
structures, complementing Singh's examination.
477
4. Education and Social Mobility: Singh explores the role of education as a transformative
force, facilitating social mobility and contributing to structural changes in Indian society. He
discusses how educational advancements lead to new occupational opportunities,
challenging traditional caste-based occupational roles. Andre Beteille's studies on education
and social mobility provide additional perspectives on the relationship between education
and structural transformations.
5. Modernization and Cultural Dynamics: Singh's work delves into the cultural dimensions of
modernization, examining how cultural norms, values, and practices undergo structural
changes. He explores the adaptation and transformation of cultural elements in response to
the forces of modernization, illustrating the interplay between structure and culture. A.K.
Ramanujan's work on cultural change and adaptation offers complementary insights into
the complex relationship between modernization and cultural dynamics.
6. Globalization and Structural Shifts: Singh extends his analysis to include the impact of
globalization on structural transformations in Indian society. He examines how global
economic and cultural forces contribute to the restructuring of social institutions,
employment patterns, and lifestyles. Arjun Appadurai's theories on globalization and
cultural flows provide additional perspectives on the structural shifts induced by global
forces, aligning with Singh's examination of modernization.
The enduring relevance of Prof. Yogendra Singh's theories in understanding the ongoing
processes of modernization in India.
1. Cultural Resilience and Transformation: Prof. Yogendra Singh's emphasis on the cultural
dimensions of modernization remains relevant in understanding how traditional cultural
elements persist and adapt amidst the ongoing processes of modernization in India. Scholars
like A.K. Ramanujan, with his theory of "contextual modernity," further illustrate how
cultural resilience coexists with modern influences, as seen in contemporary literature and
art that blends traditional and modern elements.
2. Structural Shifts and Globalization: Singh's insights into the structural transformations
associated with modernization, particularly in the context of globalization, continue to be
pertinent. Arjun Appadurai's theories on global cultural flows complement Singh's
framework, aiding in the analysis of how global forces shape structural shifts in Indian
society. Recent examples include the impact of international trade, technology, and media on
social structures and cultural practices.
3. Education as a Catalyst for Change: Singh's examination of education as a catalyst for social
mobility and structural change remains crucial. Andre Beteille's studies on education and
social mobility align with Singh's perspectives, and recent examples showcase the
transformative role of education in breaking traditional barriers, empowering marginalized
communities, and contributing to structural shifts in occupational patterns.
4. Urbanization and Changing Social Dynamics: Singh's exploration of urbanization and its
impact on social structures finds continued relevance in contemporary India. Louis Wirth's
urban sociology theories complement Singh's framework, aiding in understanding how
urbanization influences social dynamics. Recent examples include the rise of urban-centric
lifestyles, changing family structures, and the emergence of new forms of social stratification
in urban settings.
5. Critique of Universalistic Modernization Theories: Prof. Yogendra Singh's critical
engagement with Western-centric modernization theories provides a foundation for a more
contextually sensitive understanding of modernization in India.
478
This critique aligns with the perspectives of Indian sociologists like Dipankar Gupta, who
argue for the need to move beyond universalistic models and consider the unique socio-
cultural context of India in the analysis of modernization processes.
Y Singh systematically explored the multi-dimensional facets of modernization in the Indian
context, emphasizing the interplay between structural transformations, cultural dynamics, and
institutional changes. His work provides a comprehensive understanding of the evolving social
fabric, moving beyond simplistic linear narratives of modernization.
By critically engaging with universalistic theories, Singh offers an indigenous perspective that
recognizes the unique historical and cultural complexities of India. Prof. Yogendra Singh's
scholarship continues to be indispensable for scholars and policymakers, offering a rich and
insightful lens through which to analyze the intricate processes of modernization in India within
the diverse tapestry of its social, cultural, and historical contexts.
479
(b) Examine the factors responsible for the rural unrest in contemporary
India. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Begin with significance of rural India.
 Explain the factors responsible for the rural unrest in contemporary India.
 Explain challenges for rural India in contemporary times.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Rural India holds immense significance as it forms the backbone of the country's socio-economic
fabric, contributing substantially to agricultural production and sustaining a significant portion of
the population. With a vast majority of India's workforce engaged in agriculture, rural areas play a
crucial role in shaping the nation's food security and economy. Beyond agriculture, rural
communities preserve rich cultural traditions, traditional craftsmanship, and indigenous
knowledge.
Factors responsible for the rural unrest in contemporary India:
1. Agrarian Distress and Farmer Protests: Economic challenges such as low agricultural
productivity, fluctuating crop prices, and lack of irrigation facilities contribute to agrarian
distress, leading to farmer protests and rural unrest. M.S. Swaminathan's agricultural
theories, emphasizing sustainable and equitable farming practices, provide insights into
addressing agrarian challenges. Examples include the widespread farmer protests against
agricultural reforms in India.
2. Land Ownership and Caste-Based Conflicts: Unequal land distribution, concentration of
land ownership, and caste-based discrimination contribute to conflicts over land rights and
exacerbate social tensions in rural areas. B.R. Ambedkar's analyses of caste dynamics and
land ownership inequalities offer a theoretical framework for understanding how these
factors contribute to rural unrest. Examples include caste-related conflicts over land in
different regions.
3. Political Factors and Governance Issues: Ineffective governance, corruption, and the failure
of rural development policies contribute to political dissatisfaction and unrest in rural areas.
Rajni Kothari's studies on political sociology provide insights into the impact of political
factors on rural discontent. Examples include protests against inadequate governance and
corruption in rural development schemes.
4. Globalization and Changing Agricultural Dynamics: Global economic trends and changing
agricultural dynamics due to globalization impact traditional rural livelihoods, leading to
economic disparities and discontent. Arjun Appadurai's theories on globalization offer
perspectives on how global forces influence local economies. Examples include the
challenges faced by rural communities in adapting to global market pressures.
5. Lack of Infrastructure and Basic Services: Inadequate infrastructure and a lack of basic
services, including healthcare and education, contribute to rural unrest as communities feel
marginalized and deprived. Andre Beteille's work on social development highlights the
importance of infrastructure and services in shaping rural societies. Recent examples include
protests demanding improved infrastructure and services in rural areas.
480
6. Environmental Degradation and Resource Conflicts: Environmental challenges, such as
climate change and resource depletion, contribute to rural unrest as communities face threats
to their livelihoods and engage in conflicts over scarce resources. Ramachandra Guha
provides insights into the sociological dimensions of environmental challenges. Recent
examples include conflicts over water resources and land due to environmental degradation
in rural regions.
Challenges:
1. Agrarian Distress and Farmer Suicides: Agrarian distress continues to be a critical challenge
for rural India, marked by low agricultural productivity, debt burdens, and fluctuating crop
prices. This has led to a distressing number of farmer suicides, reflecting the grim realities of
rural economic challenges. M.S. Swaminathan's advocacy for sustainable agriculture and
farmer welfare aligns with addressing agrarian distress, emphasizing the need for
comprehensive policies to uplift farming communities.
2. Land Ownership and Tenancy Inequities: Inequalities in land ownership and disputes over
tenancy persist, contributing to social and economic disparities. Land-related conflicts, often
rooted in historical inequities, highlight the challenges of ensuring fair and equitable access
to agricultural land. B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on land reforms and addressing landlessness
as a source of social inequality is relevant in understanding and addressing challenges related
to land ownership.
3. Social Hierarchies and Caste-Based Discrimination: Social hierarchies and caste-based
discrimination pose persistent challenges in rural India, limiting access to resources and
opportunities. The deep-rooted nature of caste-based inequalities continues to impact social
cohesion and development in rural communities. B.R. Ambedkar's theories on social justice
and annihilation of caste provide insights into the historical and sociological dimensions of
caste-based challenges in rural areas.
4. Inadequate Infrastructure and Basic Services: Rural areas grapple with inadequate
infrastructure, including healthcare, education, and transportation. Limited access to basic
services perpetuates socio-economic disparities, hindering the overall development of rural
communities. Andre Beteille's studies on education and social mobility contribute to
understanding how the lack of basic services impacts rural communities, aligning with the
sociological perspective on rural development.
5. Migration and Urbanization Pressures: Rural-to-urban migration and the pressures of
urbanization pose challenges as individuals seek better economic opportunities in urban
centers. This results in depopulation of rural areas, impacting traditional livelihoods and
exacerbating rural-urban disparities. Louis Wirth's urban sociology theories provide insights
into the social dynamics of migration and urbanization, aiding in understanding the
challenges faced by rural communities.
6. Environmental Degradation and Climate Change Impact: Environmental degradation and
the impact of climate change pose significant challenges for rural India. Changes in weather
patterns, water scarcity, and ecological disruptions affect agriculture and livelihoods, leading
to resource conflicts. Ramachandra Guha's eco-sociological perspectives contribute to
understanding the sociological dimensions of environmental challenges in rural areas,
emphasizing the need for sustainable practices.
In conclusion, the factors contributing to rural unrest in contemporary India are deeply intertwined,
reflecting a complex interplay of economic, social, political, and environmental dynamics.
481
Agrarian distress, land ownership issues, social hierarchies, governance failures, globalization
impacts, and environmental challenges collectively contribute to the discontent in rural
communities.
The multifaceted nature of these challenges necessitates holistic and context-specific interventions
to address the root causes of rural unrest. Addressing issues of land ownership, ensuring social
justice, implementing effective governance, and formulating sustainable agricultural and
environmental policies are paramount for fostering rural development and mitigating social
tensions.
(c) Discuss the changing dimensions of family structure in urban India. (10
Marks)
Approach
 Begin with significance of changing family dimensions in the urban context.
482
 Discuss the changing dimensions of family structure in urban India
 Explore the impact of globalization on family values and structures in urban India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The changing dimensions of family structures in the urban context hold paramount significance as
they encapsulate the dynamic socio-cultural shifts within contemporary societies. Urban areas serve
as crucibles for evolving family norms, reflecting a departure from traditional joint setups to the
prevalence of nuclear families. This shift, influenced by factors such as urbanization, economic
pursuits, and changing gender roles, has profound implications for social relationships, individual
identities, and the broader fabric of urban life.
Changing dimensions of family structure in urban India:
1. Nuclearization and the Influence of Modernization: The shift from joint to nuclear families
in urban India reflects the impact of modernization and urbanization. The nuclear family
structure, characterized by smaller, independent units, is influenced by factors such as
industrialization and increased mobility. M.N. Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization" helps
understand how the adoption of modern lifestyles and values in urban areas contributes to
the nuclearization of families.
2. Gender Roles and the Dual-Career Family: Evolving gender roles within urban families are
evident with an increasing number of dual-income households. Women's participation in the
workforce has challenged traditional gender norms, contributing to a more equitable
distribution of responsibilities within families. Amaresh Dubey's work on gender and family
dynamics provides insights into the changing roles of men and women within urban
households.
3. Impact of Technology on Family Interactions: Technology, including smartphones and
social media, has transformed family interactions in urban settings. Virtual communication
and remote work arrangements have altered the dynamics of family relationships,
introducing both challenges and opportunities. Arjun Appadurai's theories on globalization
and technology's role in shaping social life contribute to understanding the impact of
technology on family structures.
4. Generational Shifts and Changing Values: Urban families witness generational shifts in
values, preferences, and lifestyle choices. Younger generations often embrace more
individualistic values, challenging traditional norms and contributing to changing family
structures. Dipankar Gupta's exploration of changing values and lifestyles in urban India
provides a sociological perspective on the generational shifts within families.
5. Cultural Assimilation and Global Influences: Globalization has led to cultural assimilation
within urban families. Exposure to global cultures, media, and lifestyles has influenced
preferences, habits, and family practices, creating a mosaic of diverse influences.
Homi Bhabha's theories on cultural hybridity offer insights into how global influences shape
the cultural dynamics of urban families.
6. Challenges of Work-Life Balance and Mental Health: The demands of urban professions
and the prevalence of dual-career families pose challenges to maintaining a healthy work-life
balance. This shift has implications for mental health and family well-being, leading to the
need for innovative solutions. A.R. Desai's sociological perspectives on urbanization and its
impact on mental health contribute to understanding the challenges faced by urban families
483
in maintaining equilibrium.
Challenges:
1. Cultural Hybridity and Global Influences: Globalization has led to cultural hybridity
within urban Indian families, where traditional values coexist with global influences. This is
evident in lifestyle choices, consumption patterns, and cultural practices that reflect a
blending of local and global elements. Homi Bhabha's theories on cultural hybridity
contribute to understanding how global influences shape the cultural dynamics of urban
families, emphasizing the coexistence of diverse cultural elements.
2. Consumerism and Changing Lifestyle Choices: Globalization has fueled consumerism,
influencing the lifestyle choices of urban families. The adoption of global brands,
consumption patterns, and aspirations for a cosmopolitan lifestyle are reshaping the material
and cultural dimensions of family life. Arjun Appadurai's work on the social dimensions of
consumption provides insights into how global flows of goods and ideas impact family
choices and lifestyles.
3. Education and Career Aspirations: Globalization has influenced educational and career
aspirations within urban families. Exposure to global educational standards and the
integration of India into the global job market have shaped family expectations, leading to a
focus on professional achievements and career mobility. Andre Beteille's studies on
education and social mobility contribute to understanding the impact of globalization on
educational and career aspirations within families.
4. Changing Gender Roles and Empowerment: Globalization has played a role in redefining
gender roles within urban families. Women's empowerment, influenced by global discourses
on gender equality, has led to changing expectations and roles for women within the family
unit. Amaresh Dubey's work on gender and family dynamics provides insights into how
global ideas of gender equality contribute to changing family structures.
5. Technological Integration and Communication Patterns: Globalization, facilitated by
technological advancements, has transformed communication patterns within urban
families. The use of smartphones, social media, and online communication platforms has
altered the dynamics of family interactions, connecting them to global networks. Arjun
Appadurai's theories on globalization and technology's role in shaping social life contribute
to understanding the impact of technology on family structures.
6. Migration and Transnational Families: Globalization has led to increased migration,
creating transnational families in urban settings. The separation of family members across
borders due to employment opportunities or educational pursuits reflects the impact of
global forces on family structures. Anthony Giddens, contribute to understanding how
transnational families navigate the challenges posed by geographical distances and global
mobility.
In conclusion, the changing dimensions of family structure in urban India underscore the dynamic
nature of societal evolution influenced by factors such as urbanization, globalization, and shifting
cultural norms.
The transition from traditional joint families to nuclear units, altered gender roles, and the embrace
of technology are indicative of a complex interplay between tradition and modernity.
The fluidity of contemporary urban families reflects both the adaptability and tensions inherent in
navigating the complexities of modern living.
484
Question 4.
(a) What are the sociological reasons and implication of “reverse migration"
during the recent pandemic in India? (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Brief overview of reverse migration during the recent pandemic in India.
 Discuss sociological reasons for Reverse Migration.
 Discuss implication of “reverse migration" during the recent pandemic in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The recent pandemic in India triggered an unprecedented wave of reverse migration, marking a
significant demographic shift as urban dwellers returned to their rural roots. The stringent
lockdowns and economic uncertainties stemming from the pandemic led to widespread job losses
and triggered a mass exodus of migrant workers from urban centers to their native villages. This
reverse migration was fueled by a combination of economic insecurities, health concerns, and the
absence of a social safety net in urban areas. The sociological implications of this phenomenon are
profound, reshaping rural economies, challenging existing resource distribution systems, and
bringing attention to the disparities in healthcare and social support structures between urban and
rural landscapes.
Sociological reasons for Reverse Migration:
1. Economic Insecurity and Job Loss: The economic fallout of the pandemic resulted in
widespread job losses, particularly in sectors with a high concentration of migrant workers.
The fear of unemployment and economic insecurity drove many to return to their rural
homes. Emphasizing economic factors, B.R. Ambedkar's analysis of caste-based occupations
and economic disparities provides insights into the structural inequalities influencing
migration decisions.
2. Social Networks and Community Ties: Social networks and community ties played a crucial
role in motivating reverse migration. The sense of belonging and support from rural
communities became a significant factor during times of crisis. M.N. Srinivas's concept of
social structure and the role of communities in shaping social behavior provides a
sociological lens to understand the influence of social networks on migration decisions.
3. Health and Safety Concerns: Health and safety concerns, including the fear of the virus and
inadequate healthcare in urban areas, influenced the decision to migrate back to rural homes
where individuals felt they could access better health facilities. Amaresh Dubey's work on
health and social disparities contributes to understanding how health concerns can drive
migration decisions, particularly during a health crisis.
4. Urban Alienation and Discrimination: Urban alienation and discrimination faced by
migrants during the pandemic played a role in their decision to return to rural areas where
they felt more accepted and less marginalized. B.R. Ambedkar's analyses of social exclusion
and discrimination provide insights into the sociological dimensions of urban alienation
influencing migration patterns.
5. Resource Distribution Disparities: Disparities in resource distribution, including access to
food and shelter, became pronounced during lockdowns in urban areas.
485
The perception of better resource availability in rural areas influenced migration decisions.
Andre Beteille's studies on social inequality and resource distribution contribute to
understanding how disparities impact migration patterns.
6. Policy Response and Social Welfare: The response of government policies and social welfare
measures, or the lack thereof, influenced migration decisions. The absence of adequate social
safety nets in urban areas may have driven individuals back to rural areas seeking better
support. M.N. Srinivas's analysis of government policies and their impact on social
structures offers insights into the sociological dimensions of policy influences on migration.
Implication of “reverse migration:
1. Impact on Rural Economies: The influx of returning migrants during reverse migration had
significant repercussions on rural economies. Local businesses, agriculture, and informal
sectors witnessed a boost as individuals sought livelihood opportunities in their native
villages. D.N. Majumdar's studies on rural sociology contribute to understanding how the
return of migrants reshapes economic dynamics and livelihood patterns in rural areas.
2. Challenges in Resource Distribution: The sudden return of migrants posed challenges in
resource distribution and infrastructure in rural areas. Issues related to housing, healthcare,
and educational resources emerged, highlighting disparities in rural development. Andre
Beteille's theories on social inequality and resource distribution offer insights into the
sociological dimensions of challenges posed by reverse migration on local resources.
3. Shifts in Social Dynamics: Reverse migration brought about changes in social dynamics
within rural communities. The reintegration of individuals into their hometowns influenced
social relationships, community structures, and cultural practices. M.N. Srinivas's concept
of social structure and change provides a framework for understanding the shifts in social
dynamics resulting from reverse migration.
4. Healthcare and Social Services Strain: The sudden increase in population strained local
healthcare and social services in rural areas. The impact of limited infrastructure and
resources became pronounced, emphasizing the need for equitable development. Amaresh
Dubey's sociological insights into health disparities contribute to understanding the
sociological dimensions of the strain on rural healthcare systems.
5. Community Integration and Social Capital: Reverse migration facilitated community
integration and the strengthening of social capital in rural areas. The returnees brought
diverse experiences and skills, contributing to local development and fostering community
bonds. Robert Putnam's social capital theory provides insights into how the return of
migrants can influence community cohesion and cooperation in rural settings.
6. Policy Response and Social Welfare Reevaluation: The phenomenon of reverse migration
prompted a reevaluation of existing social welfare policies and highlighted the need for more
inclusive and responsive measures. Governments were compelled to address the challenges
faced by both urban and returning rural populations. M.N. Srinivas's analyses of
government policies and their impact on social structures offer insights into the sociological
dimensions of policy responses to reverse migration.
In conclusion, the phenomenon of "reverse migration" during the recent pandemic in India
embodies a complex interplay of sociological factors and carries multifaceted implications. Driven
by economic insecurities, social ties, health concerns, and urban alienation, the return of migrants
to rural areas reshaped economic landscapes and strained local resources.
486
The influx necessitated a reevaluation of social welfare policies and highlighted existing disparities
in resource distribution and healthcare infrastructure. The sociological dimensions of reverse
migration underscore the resilience of community ties, the impact of policy responses, and the
interconnectedness of urban and rural dynamics.
487
(b) Discuss the main features of the debate between G. S. Ghurye and V.
Elwin on tribal development. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Highlight the significance of the Ghurye-Elwin debate in shaping perspectives on tribal
communities.
 Discuss the main features of the debate between G.S. Ghurye and V. Elwin on tribal
development.
 Discuss how the Ghurye-Elwin debate continues to have implications for contemporary
tribal development policies.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The Ghurye-Elwin debate holds profound significance in shaping perspectives on tribal
communities, epitomizing a fundamental dichotomy in approaches to their development in post-
independence India. G.S. Ghurye, representing an assimilationist viewpoint, advocated for the
integration of tribal societies into the mainstream, emphasizing cultural homogenization for social
progress. In contrast, V. Elwin championed a preservationist stance, arguing for the safeguarding
of tribal cultures and autonomy. This debate not only reflects differing scholarly ideologies but also
underscores broader tensions between assimilation and preservation in the formulation of tribal
development policies.
The main features of the debate between G.S. Ghurye and V. Elwin:
1. Assimilation vs. Preservation: G.S. Ghurye advocated for the assimilation of tribal
communities into the mainstream, emphasizing the adoption of mainstream cultural
practices and social structures for societal progress. V. Elwin, in contrast, championed the
preservation of tribal cultures, arguing that the distinctiveness of tribal identities should be
safeguarded to maintain their autonomy.
2. Cultural Evolution vs. Relativism: Ghurye's approach was rooted in cultural evolution
theories, positing that tribal societies should evolve by adopting the cultural traits of the
broader Indian social structure. Elwin embraced cultural relativism, asserting that tribal
cultures had intrinsic value and should be preserved without necessarily conforming to
mainstream cultural norms.
3. Role of Indian Sociological Thinkers: G.S. Ghurye, was influenced by his broader
sociological theories, including his views on caste and social structure. His assimilationist
stance reflected a belief in the uniform progression of societies. V. Elwin, drew from
anthropological perspectives that emphasized the uniqueness of tribal cultures and the need
to protect them from external influences.
4. Impact on Policy Formulation: Ghurye's ideas had an impact on early post-independence
policies that aimed at integrating tribal communities into the mainstream. This often-
involved initiatives promoting education, modernization, and assimilation. Elwin's
influence can be seen in later policies that recognized the distinctiveness of tribal cultures
and sought to preserve their autonomy, contributing to the establishment of tribal
autonomous councils and protective measures.
5. Social Structure and Identity: Ghurye emphasized the integration of tribes into the broader
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social structure, believing that assimilation would lead to social progress and a more cohesive
national identity. Elwin highlighted the importance of maintaining tribal identity and
autonomy within the larger Indian context, valuing the diversity that different tribal
communities bring to the social mosaic.
6. Contemporary Relevance: The Ghurye-Elwin debate remains relevant in contemporary
discussions on tribal development, as policymakers grapple with the balance between
assimilationist and preservationist approaches in crafting inclusive and sustainable policies.
The debate has influenced subsequent sociological perspectives on tribal development,
contributing to nuanced discussions on cultural diversity, indigenous rights, and the
implications of globalization on tribal societies.
The Ghurye-Elwin debate continues to have implications for contemporary tribal development
policies.
1. Influence on Inclusive Policies: The Ghurye-Elwin debate has left a lasting impact on
contemporary tribal development policies, contributing to a more nuanced and inclusive
approach. Policymakers, drawing lessons from the assimilation-preservation dichotomy,
seek a balanced strategy that recognizes the value of preserving tribal identities while
addressing developmental needs. Andre Beteille's ideas on social inequality and policy
formulation contribute to understanding how contemporary policies strive to bridge the gap
between assimilationist and preservationist goals.
2. Recognition of Tribal Autonomy: Elwin's emphasis on preserving tribal autonomy has
influenced policies that recognize the unique governance structures and traditional practices
of tribal communities. The establishment of tribal autonomous councils and the Panchayats
(Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act reflects a commitment to tribal self-governance. M.N.
Srinivas's studies on social structure and community dynamics offer insights into how
policies can be designed to respect and protect the autonomy of tribal communities.
3. Cultural Diversity and Heritage Protection: The debate underscores the importance of
safeguarding the cultural diversity and heritage of tribal communities. Contemporary
policies aim to protect indigenous knowledge, languages, and practices, acknowledging their
intrinsic value to the nation's cultural mosaic Homi Bhabha's theories on cultural hybridity
contribute to understanding how policies can embrace cultural diversity without
compromising the integrity of tribal identities.
4. Land and Resource Rights: Both Ghurye and Elwin's perspectives influenced discussions
on land and resource rights for tribal communities. Policies address historical injustices and
attempt to secure land tenure and resource access, recognizing the centrality of these aspects
to tribal well-being. B.R. Ambedkar's advocacy for social justice and land rights aligns with
contemporary efforts to rectify historical inequalities faced by tribal communities.
5. Inclusive Education and Employment Opportunities: The debate's impact is evident in
policies promoting inclusive education and skill development tailored to tribal needs. Efforts
are made to bridge the education and employment gap, recognizing the importance of
empowering tribal youth while respecting their cultural contexts. Amaresh Dubey's work
on education and social disparities provides insights into formulating policies that address
the specific challenges faced by tribal communities.
6. Globalization Challenges and Indigenous Rights: The Ghurye-Elwin debate informs
discussions on the impact of globalization on tribal societies.
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Contemporary policies aim to protect tribal communities from the negative effects of
globalization while leveraging opportunities for sustainable development, reflecting a
commitment to indigenous rights. Arjun Appadurai's theories on globalization contribute to
understanding the sociological dimensions of how tribal communities navigate the
challenges posed by global forces.
In conclusion, the Ghurye-Elwin debate on tribal development encapsulates a profound clash of
ideologies that has enduring implications for understanding and crafting policies for India's tribal
communities. G.S. Ghurye, advocating assimilation, saw the integration of tribes into mainstream
society as a path to societal progress, while V. Elwin, championing preservation, argued for
safeguarding tribal autonomy and unique identities.
This dialectic not only shaped early post-independence policies but also continues to reverberate in
contemporary discussions. The debate underscores the complexity of balancing the preservation of
diverse tribal cultures with the imperatives of socio-economic development, serving as a touchstone
for policymakers navigating the intricate terrain of tribal welfare in a dynamic and diverse nation.
(c) What are the various forms of untouchability in India? Critically

examine. (10 Marks)
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Approach.
 Define untouchability.
 Explain various forms of untouchability in India.
 Explain challenges faced due untouchability in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Untouchability is a deeply rooted social practice associated with the caste system in India,
particularly within Hindu society. Historically, individuals deemed "untouchables" or belonging to
the "Scheduled Castes" faced severe social discrimination and exclusion based on their birth into
specific castes considered lower in the hierarchical order.
This discrimination manifested in denying them access to public spaces, education, and economic
opportunities. The concept of untouchability is intertwined with notions of ritual purity and
pollution, leading to the marginalization and dehumanization of certain communities.
Various forms of untouchability in India:
1. Social Segregation and Discrimination: Untouchability manifests in social segregation,
where individuals from lower castes, particularly Dalits, face discrimination in public spaces,
temples, and social gatherings. B.R. Ambedkar's writings, especially "Annihilation of Caste,"
provide a foundational critique of the social and religious dimensions of untouchability,
emphasizing the need for social and political rights for the marginalized.
2. Occupational Discrimination: Certain occupations, traditionally associated with "unclean"
or stigmatized tasks, are relegated to Dalit communities. This occupational discrimination
reinforces social hierarchies. M.N. Srinivas's concept of "jajmani system" sheds light on the
perpetuation of occupational roles along caste lines, contributing to the understanding of
untouchability in economic contexts.
3. Denial of Educational Opportunities: Dalit individuals often face barriers in accessing
education, including discrimination in schools and limited opportunities for higher
education. Amaresh Dubey's studies on education and social disparities contribute to
understanding how educational systems perpetuate untouchability, hindering the upward
mobility of marginalized communities.
4. Violence and Atrocities: Instances of violence, physical and verbal abuse, and atrocities
against Dalits are prevalent, reinforcing power dynamics and the subjugation of certain
communities. Andre Beteille's analyses of social inequality and conflict contribute to
understanding the dynamics of violence perpetuated through untouchability and its impact
on social structures.
5. Access to Public Services: Dalits often face discrimination in accessing public services,
including healthcare, leading to disparities in health outcomes and reinforcing social
exclusion. B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on social justice and equal access to public services
remains relevant in analyzing how untouchability affects the health and well-being of
6. Marriage and Social Interactions: Inter-caste marriages are often stigmatized, and social
interactions between individuals from different castes, especially Dalits, face resistance and
discrimination.
M.N. Srinivas's concept of "Sanskritization" highlights the challenges faced by Dalits in
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upward mobility and social integration, shedding light on the complexities of caste-based
social interactions.
The National Crime Records Bureau's data on crimes against Dalits illustrates the persistence of
violence and atrocities rooted in untouchability. Studies documenting the prevalence of caste-based
discrimination in educational institutions, despite affirmative action policies, highlight the enduring
challenges faced by Dalit students.
Challenges faced due untouchability in India:
1. Economic Disparities and Occupational Marginalization: Dalits, often victims of
untouchability, face economic disparities and occupational marginalization. Discrimination
in employment and limited access to economic opportunities perpetuate social and economic
inequalities. B.R. Ambedkar's analysis of caste-based occupational hierarchies contributes to
understanding the economic challenges faced by Dalits and the need for affirmative action.
2. Educational Barriers and Discrimination: Untouchability contributes to significant barriers
in accessing education for Dalit communities. Discrimination in schools and higher
educational institutions hinders academic progress and social mobility. Amaresh Dubey's
work on education and social disparities offers insights into the persistent challenges faced
by Dalit students in the pursuit of education.
3. Healthcare Disparities: Dalits often encounter discrimination in healthcare settings, limiting
access to quality medical services. This contributes to health disparities and reinforces social
exclusion. Andre Beteille's analysis of social inequality provides a lens for understanding
how healthcare disparities contribute to the broader challenges faced by Dalit communities.
4. Violence and Atrocities: Untouchability is linked to incidents of violence and atrocities
against Dalits. Physical and verbal abuse, often rooted in caste prejudices, create a climate of
fear and hinder community well-being. M.N. Srinivas's studies on social conflict and
inequality contribute to understanding the dynamics of violence perpetuated through
untouchability.
5. Social Stigma and Discrimination in Social Interactions: Dalits face social stigma and
discrimination in various social interactions, including marriage and community gatherings.
These challenges contribute to the perpetuation of caste-based hierarchies. Erving Goffman's
concept of stigma provides a sociological framework for understanding how social
interactions are shaped by the stigmatization of Dalit identities.
6. Legal Ambiguities and Implementation Gaps: Despite legal measures against
untouchability, implementation gaps and ambiguities persist. Dalits often face challenges in
accessing justice, and the effectiveness of legal frameworks remains a concern. B.R.
Ambedkar's emphasis on legal measures for social justice provides a foundation for
understanding the complexities of implementing anti-untouchability laws.
In conclusion, the various forms of untouchability in India are deeply entrenched in social,
economic, and educational spheres, creating a multifaceted web of discrimination that impedes the
progress and well-being of marginalized communities. From social segregation and occupational
discrimination to denial of educational opportunities and systemic violence, untouchability
permeates multiple aspects of life.
The eradication of untouchability necessitates not only legal measures but also a transformative shift
in societal attitudes and structures, acknowledging the inherent dignity and rights of all individuals
irrespective of their caste backgrounds.
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Section B
Question 5. Write short answers, with sociological perspective, of the following
questions in about 150 words each: 10x5=50
(a) Analyze the idea of developmental planning in India. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define development.
 Explain idea of development planning in India.
 Discuss the challenges faced for development planning in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Development, refers to the multifaceted and dynamic process encompassing economic, social,
political, and cultural transformations that lead to improved living standards, increased well-being,
and enhanced capabilities of individuals and societies. It goes beyond mere economic growth,
emphasizing the broader dimensions of human progress, including social justice, equality, and the
empowerment of marginalized groups.
Idea of development planning in India:
1. Nehruvian Vision and Modernization Theory: D.P. Mukerji’s embracing Nehruvian
socialism and modernization theory, Mukerji emphasized the need for planned development
to transform traditional agrarian societies into modern industrialized nations. Example: The
focus on economic growth and industrialization in states like Gujarat under Chief Minister
Narendra Modi reflects a continuation of this modernization paradigm.
2. Amartya Sen's Capability Approach: Amartya Sen’s capability approach underscores the
importance of expanding individual capabilities as the ultimate goal of development,
emphasizing social justice and human well-being over mere economic indicators. Example:
The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) aims to enhance the capabilities
of rural populations by providing them with employment opportunities and addressing
issues of livelihood security.
3. Gender and Development: Vina Mazumdar contributed to the feminist perspective on
development, advocating for the integration of gender-sensitive policies and addressing
women's empowerment as a central goal of development. Example: The Beti Bachao, Beti
Padhao (Save the daughter, Educate the daughter) campaign reflects efforts to address
gender disparities and promote the well-being of girls in India.
4. Dalit Studies and Social Justice: B.R. Ambedkar's work on social justice and the rights of
marginalized communities is instrumental in understanding the importance of inclusive
development and affirmative action for historically oppressed groups. Example: Reservation
policies in education and employment continue to be implemented to address historical
injustices and promote the social inclusion of Dalits and other marginalized communities.
5. Environmental Sociology and Sustainable Development: Ramachandra Guha's
environmental sociology emphasizes the need for sustainable development, considering the
ecological impact of policies and advocating for a balance between human needs and
environmental conservation.
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Example: Initiatives like the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan reflect an awareness of environmental
concerns and the need for sustainable development by addressing issues such as sanitation
and waste management.
6. Globalization and Cultural Change: Arjun Appadurai's work on globalization explores the
cultural dimensions of development, highlighting the impact of global flows of information,
media, and technology on local cultures. Example: The influence of social media and global
entertainment on Indian cultural practices and norms demonstrates the interconnectedness
of local and global forces in the contemporary development landscape.
Challenges:
1. Social Inequality and Caste Dynamics: M.N. Srinivas' concept of 'Sanskritization'
highlights the persistence of caste-based inequalities and challenges the notion of a uniform,
modern society. Caste divisions continue to influence access to resources and opportunities,
hindering inclusive development. Example: Despite affirmative action measures, the Dalit
community often faces discrimination in various spheres, illustrating the ongoing challenges
associated with caste-based disparities.
2. Poverty and Income Disparities: B.N. Ganguli's work on poverty and economic inequality
underscores the persistent challenges of addressing poverty in India, emphasizing the need
for comprehensive development strategies. Example: The urban-rural income gap and
unequal distribution of wealth remain significant challenges, as seen in the disparities in
access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities.
3. Environmental Degradation and Sustainability: Vandana Shiva's environmental activism
emphasizes the impact of development on ecosystems and local communities. Unplanned
industrialization and resource exploitation pose threats to sustainable development.
Example: The controversy surrounding large-scale infrastructure projects, such as the Sardar
Sarovar Dam, reflects tensions between development goals and environmental sustainability.
4. Globalization and Cultural Shifts: Appadurai's concept of 'scapes' highlights the challenges
posed by globalization to local cultures. Rapid cultural shifts and the erosion of traditional
practices can lead to social disintegration. Example: The influence of Western consumer
culture through globalization has led to changes in lifestyle choices, impacting traditional
values and community structures.
5. Corruption and Governance Issues: Rajni Kothari's critique of the 'Congress System'
addresses issues of political corruption and the erosion of democratic values. Governance
challenges and corruption impede effective development planning. Example: Scandals such
as the 2G spectrum case and coal allocation controversy highlight the persisting challenges
of corruption within the Indian political and bureaucratic system.
6. Gender Disparities and Women's Empowerment: Vina Mazumdar's feminist perspective
emphasizes the need for gender-sensitive development policies. Despite progress, gender
disparities persist, affecting women's access to education, employment, and healthcare.
Example: Issues like gender-based violence and unequal representation in decision-making
positions continue to underscore the challenges of achieving true gender equality in
development planning.
The idea of developmental planning in India reflects a complex and evolving process that has
navigated diverse sociological landscapes. Initially rooted in Nehruvian modernization theories, it
aimed at transforming agrarian societies into industrialized nations.
However, this approach has encountered challenges such as caste-based inequalities, poverty,
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environmental degradation, and governance issues.
In conclusion, the idea of developmental planning in India demands a nuanced sociological
understanding that integrates diverse perspectives, addresses inherent challenges, and prioritizes
social justice for a comprehensive and sustainable approach to development.
(b) Comment on the role of co-operatives in rural development. (10 Marks)

Approach.
 Define rural development.
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 Explain the role of co-operatives in rural development.
 Explain challenges faced by co-operatives in rural development.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Rural development encompasses a multifaceted process aimed at improving the economic, social,
and cultural well-being of rural communities. It goes beyond mere agricultural advancements,
seeking to address the broader challenges faced by rural areas, such as poverty, lack of
infrastructure, and limited access to education and healthcare.
Role of co-operatives in rural development.
1. Community Empowerment and Cooperative Principles: M.N. Srinivas' concept of
'Sanskritization' highlights the importance of community dynamics. Cooperative principles
align with this perspective by fostering collective decision-making, empowering rural
communities to take charge of their development. Example: Farmer cooperatives in states
like Maharashtra and Karnataka enable small-scale farmers to collectively negotiate better
prices for their produce, showcasing the empowerment potential of cooperative structures.
2. Economic Viability and Agricultural Cooperatives: D.R. Gadgil's work on economic
planning emphasizes the need for sustainable rural development. Agricultural cooperatives,
as envisioned by Gadgil, enhance economic viability by pooling resources and facilitating
joint ventures among farmers. Example: Amul, the dairy cooperative movement in Gujarat,
has transformed the lives of rural dairy farmers, providing them with a collective platform
for marketing and improving their income.
3. Social Integration and Credit Cooperatives: B.R. Ambedkar's emphasis on social justice
aligns with the role of credit cooperatives in providing financial inclusion to marginalized
communities. Cooperative credit societies empower individuals economically and promote
social integration. Example: Self-help groups and microfinance cooperatives in rural areas,
supported by the National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD), have
played a pivotal role in empowering women and marginalized communities.
4. Resource Mobilization and Housing Cooperatives: D.P. Mukerji's focus on planned
development corresponds with the resource mobilization potential of housing cooperatives.
These cooperatives pool resources for housing projects, addressing rural infrastructure gaps.
Example: Housing cooperatives in states like Kerala have successfully mobilized community
resources to construct affordable housing for rural communities, contributing to improved
living conditions.
5. Education and Consumer Cooperatives: J.P. Naik's work on education and social change
aligns with the role of consumer cooperatives in rural areas. These cooperatives enhance
access to education by providing resources and support to local schools. Example:
Community-driven initiatives, such as book banks and educational material cooperatives,
have improved educational outcomes in rural regions by ensuring access to learning
resources.
6. Environmental Conservation and Cooperative Forestry: Vandana Shiva's environmental

activism corresponds with the cooperative approach to forestry, emphasizing sustainable
resource management. Cooperative forestry models involve local communities in
conservation efforts. Example: Joint Forest Management (JFM) initiatives in states like
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Odisha involve local communities in forest protection and regeneration, showcasing the role
of cooperatives in balancing development with environmental sustainability.
Challenges:
1. Caste and Social Hierarchies: B.R. Ambedkar's focus on social justice highlights challenges
related to caste hierarchies. In cooperatives, caste-based discrimination can hinder equal
participation and decision-making, limiting the inclusivity of these organizations. Example:
Despite efforts, some agricultural cooperatives may face internal challenges based on caste
dynamics, impacting the effective functioning of these organizations.
2. Economic Disparities and Access to Resources: D.R. Gadgil's emphasis on economic
planning aligns with challenges related to resource distribution. Economic disparities among
members can undermine the cooperative's ability to address the needs of all participants
equitably. Example: Economic variations among farmers within a cooperative might lead to
unequal contributions and benefits, posing challenges to the cooperative's sustainability.
3. Gender Inequality and Women's Participation: Vina Mazumdar's feminist perspective
emphasizes gender-sensitive development. Challenges arise when cooperatives fail to ensure
equal participation and benefits for women, perpetuating gender disparities. Example:
Women's participation in decision-making processes within agricultural cooperatives may
be limited, impacting the overall effectiveness of these organizations in addressing women's
needs.
4. Corruption and Governance Issues: Rajni Kothari's critique of political systems and
corruption is relevant to cooperative governance challenges. Instances of corruption within
cooperative structures can lead to mismanagement and hinder the achievement of
development goals. Example: Cases of corruption or misappropriation of funds in
cooperative societies have been reported, affecting the credibility of these organizations and
eroding trust among members.
5. Market Forces and Globalization: Arjun Appadurai's exploration of global cultural flows
extends to economic forces. Cooperatives may face challenges in navigating globalized
markets, leading to competition with larger corporate entities and impacting their economic
sustainability. Example: Global market fluctuations and competition can affect the pricing
and market access for products produced by rural cooperatives, impacting the income and
viability of these organizations.
6. Technological Gaps and Digital Divide: M.S. Gore's work on science, technology, and
society is relevant to challenges related to technological advancements. The digital divide
may impede the integration of technology in cooperative activities, limiting their efficiency
and outreach. Example: Some cooperatives may struggle to adopt modern agricultural
technologies due to limited access or understanding, affecting their productivity and
competitiveness in the evolving agricultural landscape.
The role of cooperatives in rural development is pivotal, offering a participatory and community-
driven approach that addresses diverse socio-economic challenges. By fostering collective action
and resource pooling, cooperatives empower rural communities economically and socially.
Agricultural cooperatives enhance farmers' bargaining power and provide avenues for joint
ventures, while credit cooperatives contribute to financial inclusion, particularly for marginalized
groups.
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In conclusion, while cooperatives play a crucial role in fostering inclusive rural development,
addressing sociological challenges and ensuring equitable participation is imperative for
maximizing their potential and achieving sustainable progress.
(c) Urban slums are sites of social exclusion - explain. (10 Marks)
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Approach.
 Define social exclusion.
 Explain how urban slums are sites of social exclusion.
 Explain challenges faced by slums in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Social exclusion refers to the systemic and deliberate processes through which certain individuals
or groups are marginalized, deprived of opportunities, and relegated to the fringes of society. It
involves the denial of access to essential resources, rights, and participation in social, economic, and
political activities. Social exclusion is not merely a result of individual circumstances but is often
rooted in structural inequalities, discrimination, and deeply ingrained prejudices.
Urban slums can be sites of social exclusion:
1. Caste and Marginalization: B.R. Ambedkar's focus on social justice is relevant to
understanding caste-based exclusion. In urban slums, residents often face discrimination
based on their caste, perpetuating social hierarchies and limiting access to resources.
Example: Dalits and marginalized communities in urban slums may experience social
exclusion in terms of housing, employment opportunities, and even access to basic amenities.
2. Economic Inequality and Urban Poverty: D.R. Gadgil's work on economic planning speaks
to the challenges of economic inequality. Urban slums are often characterized by poverty,
limited employment options, and inadequate income, leading to exclusion from mainstream
economic activities. Example: Slum dwellers in cities like Mumbai face economic disparities,
with limited access to formal employment and opportunities for upward mobility.
3. Gender Disparities and Women's Exclusion: Vina Mazumdar's feminist perspective
highlights the gendered dimensions of exclusion. Women in urban slums may face barriers
to education, healthcare, and employment, perpetuating gender disparities. Example: The
lack of safe spaces and opportunities for women in urban slums may contribute to their social
exclusion, limiting their ability to participate fully in community life.
4. Informal Economy and Labor Exploitation: A.R. Desai's focus on the informal economy is
relevant to urban slums where many residents engage in informal labor. Exploitative
working conditions, low wages, and lack of job security contribute to the social exclusion of
those working in the informal sector. Example: Daily-wage laborers in urban slums may face
precarious working conditions, exemplifying the challenges associated with the informal
economy.
5. Education and Access Barriers: J.P. Naik's work on education and social change underscores
the importance of education in addressing exclusion. In urban slums, limited access to quality
education contributes to the perpetuation of socio-economic disparities. Example: Children
in urban slums may face challenges in accessing formal education due to inadequate
infrastructure, leading to a cycle of intergenerational exclusion.
6. Healthcare Disparities and Exclusion: Amartya Sen's capability approach emphasizes the
importance of health in human development. In urban slums, inadequate healthcare facilities
and poor sanitation contribute to health disparities, exacerbating social exclusion.
Example: The lack of access to proper healthcare facilities in urban slums, particularly during
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health crises, highlights the vulnerability of residents to exclusion from essential services.
7. Spatial Stigmatization and Discrimination: S. C. Dube's work on spatial organization is
pertinent to understanding how urban spaces contribute to exclusion. The stigmatization of
slums as undesirable areas reinforces negative perceptions and may lead to discrimination
against their residents. Example: Stigmatization of urban slums may result in discriminatory
policies, limiting the opportunities for slum dwellers and perpetuating their social exclusion.
Challenges:
1. Caste Dynamics and Social Inequality: B.R. Ambedkar's focus on social justice is relevant
to understanding challenges related to caste dynamics in slums. Discrimination and social
hierarchies can persist in urban areas, impacting access to resources and opportunities for
slum residents. Example: Caste-based discrimination within slums may affect housing,
employment, and social interactions, hindering the overall well-being of marginalized
communities.
2. Economic Deprivation and Informal Labor: A.R. Desai's work on the informal economy
aligns with challenges related to economic deprivation in slums. Many residents engage in
informal labor with low wages, job insecurity, and exploitative working conditions. Example:
The informal labor sector in slums, such as street vending or daily wage labor, often lacks
legal protections, contributing to economic vulnerabilities among slum dwellers.
3. Gender Disparities and Women's Empowerment: Vina Mazumdar's feminist perspective is
relevant to challenges related to gender disparities in slums. Women may face limited access
to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities, perpetuating gender inequalities.
Example: Initiatives promoting women's empowerment in slums, such as vocational training
programs, aim to address gender disparities and enhance the socio-economic status of
women.
4. Healthcare and Sanitation Challenges: Amartya Sen's capability approach underscores the
importance of healthcare in human development. Challenges in slums include inadequate
healthcare facilities, poor sanitation, and limited access to clean water, contributing to health
disparities. Example: The COVID-19 pandemic exposed the vulnerability of slum residents
due to challenges in maintaining social distancing and accessing healthcare facilities.
5. Educational Barriers and Generational Cycles: J.P. Naik's work on education and social
change is pertinent to challenges related to educational barriers in slums. Limited access to
quality education perpetuates generational cycles of poverty and hinders socio-economic
mobility. Example: Initiatives like mobile education units and community-driven education
programs aim to address educational barriers in slums and break the cycle of
intergenerational poverty.
6. Housing and Spatial Stigmatization: S. C. Dube's work on spatial organization is relevant
to challenges related to housing in slums. Spatial stigmatization and inadequate housing
conditions contribute to the marginalization of slum residents. Example: Slum rehabilitation
projects aim to improve housing conditions, but challenges persist, including displacement
issues and resistance from residents due to concerns about losing their social networks.
Urban slums serve as prominent sites of social exclusion, manifesting in multifaceted dimensions
that impact the lives of their residents. Caste-based discrimination persists, perpetuating social
hierarchies and limiting opportunities for marginalized communities.
Economic vulnerabilities are exacerbated by the prevalence of informal labor with exploitative
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conditions, contributing to cycles of poverty.
In conclusion, the amalgamation of these factors delineates urban slums as complex sites of social
exclusion, necessitating comprehensive sociological interventions for equitable urban development
and the eradication of systemic inequalities.
(d) Does regionalism essentially lead to decentralization of power?

Substantiate your answer with relevant examples. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Define Regionalism and Decentralisation of Power.
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 Explain how regionalism essentially lead to decentralization of power.
 Challenges of Decentralisation in India.
 Criticism of Decentralisation.
 Conclude.
Regionalism means to situate the approach and sentiments towards the particular region. It is
argued that regionalism can be a form of resistance against the imposition of a particular cultural
ideology that is linked to the integration of a nation. Regionalism is connections with the cultural
patterns that exist as a part of the dominant culture. Regionalism is an ideology and political
movement that seeks to advance the causes of regions.
As a process it plays role within the nation as well as outside the nation i.e., at international level.
Both types of regionalism have different meaning and have positive as well as negative impact on
society, polity, diplomacy, economy, security, culture, development, negotiations, etc. India
emerged as an independent nation state and later regionalism became part of the different states in
India. It is linked to the politics of ethnocentrisms.
Decentralisation
 Interchangeably used with terms like deconcentration, devolution and delegation, though
they have different connotations. It means “transfer of authority away from the national
capital whether by decentralisation, that is delegation, to field officers or by devolution to
local authorities or other local bodies”
 L.D. White The transfer of administrative authority from a lower to a higher level of
government is called ‘centralisation’; the converse is decentralisation.
Decentralisation – In Indian Context
 Cheema and Rondinelli: Decentralisation- transfer of planning, decision-making or
administrative authority from the central government to its field organizations,
 Local administrative units,
 Semi-autonomous organizations,
 Local governments or
 Non-governmental organizations
Simply, under decentralization authority is not concentrated at the centre, it is distributed to smaller
administrative units.
Regionalism, as a phenomenon driven by local identity and aspirations, can indeed lead to the
decentralization of power within a country.
This occurs as regions seek greater autonomy and control over their own affairs, often resulting
in the devolution of political, administrative, and economic power from the central government:
1. Cultural Identity and Political Autonomy: Regionalism often emerges from a strong sense
of cultural identity. M.N. Srinivas's theory of "Sanskritization" highlights how cultural
distinctiveness can lead to political demands for autonomy, as seen in movements like the
demand for a separate state of Telangana based on Telugu identity.
2. Political Mobilization and Subnationalism: Regional movements can mobilize people
around shared historical, linguistic, or ethnic ties. Anthony D. Smith's theory of "ethnic
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nationalism" explains how regional identities can fuel demands for self-governance,
exemplified by the Gorkhaland movement in West Bengal
3. Resource Disparities and Fiscal Decentralization: Disparities in resource allocation can
prompt regions to demand greater fiscal autonomy. S.C. Dube's theory of "asymmetrical
federalism" illustrates how regional demands for fiscal control can lead to the
decentralization of financial powers, as observed in demands for resource-rich states like
Jharkhand.
4. Administrative Efficiency and Local Governance: Regionalism seeks efficient governance
that understands local needs. Yogendra Singh's concept of "vertical unity" emphasizes the
importance of decentralized administration, exemplified by the demand for smaller states
like Uttarakhand for better local governance.
5. Linguistic and Cultural Diversity: Regions with distinct languages and cultures often
demand autonomy for preserving their identity. G.S. Ghurye's theory of "plural society"
explains how linguistic diversity can lead to regional movements, like the linguistic
reorganization of states in India in 1956.
6. Economic Development and Resource Control: Regions rich in resources seek control over
their economic development. Suvira Jaiswal's work on federalism discusses how resource-
rich regions demand more autonomy, as seen in the demands for autonomy by resource-rich
states like Gujarat.
7. Conflict Resolution and Peaceful Coexistence: Regional autonomy can resolve conflicts by
granting communities greater self-governance. Paul Brass's theory of "accommodation"
highlights how decentralized power can lead to peaceful coexistence, as observed in the
Bodoland Territorial Region in Assam.
8. Diverse Political Agendas and Devolution: Diverse regional political agendas demand
devolution of power to address specific needs. Rajni Kothari's theory of "Congress system"
explains how regional parties seeking decentralization can reshape national politics, as seen
in the rise of regional parties in India.
9. Negotiating Political Fragmentation and Stability: Decentralization can accommodate
political fragmentation and prevent conflict. Myron Weiner's "fragmented authoritarianism"
theory explains how decentralization can maintain political stability, as seen in the formation
of separate states in India for addressing regional aspirations and preventing unrest.
Challenges of Decentralisation
 Insufficient Funding – Lack of fiscal resources at the local govt. level
 Constrained spending – Inflexibility in spending due to various limitations
 Lack of skilled/trained manpower - Local governments do not have the staff to perform even
basic tasks.
 Untimely and delayed elections - States non-serious approach towards local election.
 Lack policy-making ability – works merely as an implementing agency.
 High level of Corruption – Nexus between local politicians & criminals, role of money and
muscle power at play.
 In context of elected women representatives – Husbands wielding illegal power on behalf of
their wives [Sarpanch Pati].
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Even the most successful forms of democratic decentralisation have been unable to overcome
economic and political disparities.
Ghatak and Ghatak, 2002
 As the Kerala experience has shown, too much devolution can lead to major duplications of
effort and gaps among different government agencies.
Moore and Putzel, 1999 - Problem of local elite capture
 Argues that, one of the dangers of devolving authority is that it simply empowers local elites
and, worse, perpetuates existing poverty and inequality Saxena and Farrington
 Increased rent seeking behaviour, poor accountability.
Conclusion
Ashok Behuria, “says that the Indian federation has temperamentally behaved as a “union” and not
a “federation”. However, the leadership in the country has to take care to adopt federal principles
to judge such cases of autonomy and gradually develop powers (Especially financial powers) to the
units if it is to contain various ethnocultural assertion. Regionalism's push for greater autonomy and
self-governance is often rooted in cultural, economic, and political factors.
Examples like the linguistic reorganization of states, demands for statehood based on cultural
identity, and fiscal decentralization policies all underscore how regionalism leads to the
decentralization of power, fostering more inclusive and responsive governance structures. The
demand for the separate state of Jharkhand, shows the dynamics of the politics of regionalism in
India.
(e) Discuss the role of technology in agrarian change in India. (10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define agrarian change in India.
 Explain the role of technology in agrarian change in India.
 Explain challenges faced by technology in bringing agrarian change in India.
 Conclude.
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Solution:
Agrarian change in India refers to the dynamic transformations in the agricultural sector that
encompass shifts in land-use patterns, cropping systems, technology adoption, and socio-economic
structures. This process involves a transition from traditional, subsistence-oriented agricultural
practices to more modern and commercialized farming methods. Key elements of agrarian change
include the introduction of new technologies, changes in landownership patterns, the role of market
forces, and the impact on rural livelihoods.
The role of technology in agrarian change in India.
1. Green Revolution and Technological Interventions: M.S. Gore's work on science,
technology, and society is pertinent to the Green Revolution era, which saw the introduction
of high-yielding crop varieties, irrigation technologies, and chemical fertilizers, transforming
traditional agrarian practices. Example: The adoption of precision farming technologies, such
as drones and soil sensors, reflects ongoing efforts to enhance agricultural productivity and
sustainability.
2. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Agriculture: D.P. Mukerji's
emphasis on planned development aligns with the role of ICT in agriculture, facilitating
access to information on weather patterns, market prices, and best farming practices,
empowering farmers to make informed decisions. Example: Mobile apps and online
platforms connecting farmers to markets, like the e-NAM (National Agriculture Market),
exemplify the integration of ICT in agrarian practices.
3. Biotechnology and Genetically Modified Crops: Vandana Shiva's environmental activism
challenges the impact of biotechnology on agriculture. The introduction of genetically
modified crops raises concerns about biodiversity, seed sovereignty, and the potential
dependence of farmers on multinational corporations. Example: Controversies surrounding
the cultivation of genetically modified crops, such as Bt cotton, highlight the sociological
debates on technology's role in shaping agrarian landscapes.
4. Mechanization and Farm Machinery: A.R. Desai's focus on the informal economy is relevant
to the sociological implications of mechanization. While farm machinery increases efficiency,
it may also lead to displacement of labor, impacting rural livelihoods. Example: The adoption
of advanced farm machinery, like combine harvesters, raises questions about the social
consequences of reduced demand for manual labor in agriculture.
5. Precision Agriculture and Sustainable Practices: Ramachandra Guha's environmental
sociology aligns with the focus on sustainable agricultural practices. Precision agriculture,
incorporating technologies like GPS and sensors, allows for optimized resource use,
minimizing environmental impact. Example: Practices such as precision irrigation, which
reduce water wastage and enhance water-use efficiency, exemplify the integration of
technology for sustainable agrarian change.
6. Digital Platforms and Market Linkages: Arjun Appadurai's exploration of global cultural
flows extends to digital platforms shaping market linkages in agriculture. Online platforms
connecting farmers to consumers and agri-tech startups play a role in restructuring agrarian
markets.
Example: Platforms like AgriMarket Mobile App and Kisan Suvidha App facilitate direct
interaction between farmers and consumers, disrupting traditional market structures.
Challenges:
1. Digital Divide and Unequal Access: M.N. Srinivas' concept of 'Sanskritization' emphasizes
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social stratification. Challenges arise as marginalized communities may have limited access
to technology, leading to a digital divide and perpetuating existing socio-economic
disparities. Example: The unequal distribution of internet connectivity and access to digital
tools in rural areas contributes to disparities in technology adoption among farmers.
2. Dependency and Technological Displacement: A.R. Desai's focus on the informal economy
is relevant to the challenges of technological displacement. While technology enhances
efficiency, it may lead to the displacement of manual labor in agriculture, posing socio-
economic challenges for rural communities. Example: Mechanization in farming, while
increasing productivity, raises concerns about job loss and the impact on the livelihoods of
agricultural laborers.
3. Biotechnology and Environmental Concerns: Vandana Shiva's environmental activism is
pertinent to challenges associated with biotechnology. The use of genetically modified crops
raises ecological concerns, including the potential loss of biodiversity and environmental
degradation. Example: Debates over the environmental impact of Bt cotton cultivation and
the use of genetically modified seeds highlight sociological conflicts over agricultural
biotechnology.
4. Access to Information and Educational Barriers: J.P. Naik's work on education and social
change is relevant to challenges related to access to information. Limited education and
awareness among farmers can hinder their ability to adopt and adapt to new technologies in
agriculture. Example: Farmers with limited educational backgrounds may face challenges in
utilizing digital platforms for market information and agricultural advice.
5. Socio-Cultural Resistance and Tradition: D.P. Mukerji's emphasis on planned development
aligns with challenges related to socio-cultural resistance to change. Traditional farming
practices deeply rooted in local cultures may face resistance amid attempts to introduce
technological advancements. Example: Resistance to adopting precision agriculture
techniques in some regions reflects the influence of traditional practices and cultural norms.
6. Economic Viability and Affordability: B.R. Ambedkar's focus on social justice is relevant to
economic challenges. The affordability of advanced technologies poses a barrier for small and
marginalized farmers, limiting their ability to invest in modern agricultural practices.
Example: The cost of acquiring and maintaining modern farm machinery or precision
farming technologies can be a significant challenge for farmers with limited financial
resources.
The role of technology in agrarian change in India is transformative, encompassing a spectrum of
advancements from the Green Revolution to contemporary precision farming. Technological
interventions, such as high-yielding crop varieties, mechanization, and digital platforms, have
significantly increased agricultural productivity, facilitated market linkages, and empowered
farmers with information.
In conclusion, while technology is a powerful catalyst for agrarian change, its success hinges on a
holistic understanding of the socio-cultural, economic, and environmental contexts, ensuring that
innovations contribute to sustainable and inclusive development in India's agrarian landscape.
Question 6.
(a) Explain the sociological significance of the New Education Policy and its
thrust on vocationalization and skill development. (20 Marks)
Approach.
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 Explain vocationalisation and skill development.
 Explain the sociological significance of the New Education Policy.
 Explain thrust of the New Education Policy on vocationalisation and skill development.
 Explain limitations of new education policy for sociological perspective.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Vocationalisation and skill development represent strategies aimed at aligning education with the
evolving needs of the workforce and the demands of the job market. Vocationalisation involves
incorporating practical skills and hands-on training into educational curricula, emphasizing the
acquisition of specific job-related skills alongside traditional academic learning.
Skill development, is a broader concept encompassing initiatives that enhance individuals'
capabilities and competencies, including both technical and soft skills.
The New Education Policy (NEP) of 2020 holds sociological significance by reflecting a
transformative vision for India's education system. It emphasizes inclusivity, flexibility, and a
multidisciplinary approach, aligning with sociological principles of social justice and holistic
development. The policy's focus on early childhood education, skill development, and vocational
training aims to reduce socio-economic disparities by providing equal opportunities for diverse
learners.
Additionally, the promotion of regional languages enhances cultural inclusivity. The NEP's shift
towards a more flexible and interconnected curriculum reflects sociological insights by recognizing
the interconnectedness of knowledge domains.
Thrust of the New Education Policy on vocationalisation and skill development:
1. Integration of Vocational Education: J.P. Naik's work on education and social change aligns
with the NEP's emphasis on integrating vocational education at various levels. Vocational
courses will be offered from the school level, providing practical skills alongside traditional
academic learning. Example: The NEP's focus on integrating vocational education is
exemplified by the introduction of vocational subjects in schools, ensuring students gain
practical skills for future employment.
2. Flexibility and Multiple Entry-Exit Points: Amartya Sen's capability approach emphasizes
individual freedom and choices. The NEP's provision for multiple entry and exit points in
education aligns with Sen's perspective by offering flexibility and diverse learning pathways,
catering to varied skills and interests. Example: Under the NEP, students can exit with a
certificate, diploma, or degree at different stages, accommodating different aspirations and
vocational needs.
3. Internships and Practical Exposure: M.N. Srinivas' emphasis on empirical research aligns
with the NEP's focus on providing practical exposure. The policy advocates for internships
and hands-on experience, acknowledging the sociological importance of learning through
real-world applications.
Example: Vocational courses under the NEP include mandatory internships, fostering a
bridge between theoretical knowledge and practical skills in diverse fields.
4. Skill Development and Technology Integration: Arjun Appadurai's exploration of global
cultural flows is relevant to the NEP's emphasis on skill development for a globalized
workforce. The policy promotes the integration of technology in skill development, aligning
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with changing global labor market demands. Example: The NEP's encouragement of online
courses and technology-driven skill development programs reflects a sociological response
to the evolving nature of work and employment.
5. Recognition of Informal Skills: B.R. Ambedkar's focus on social justice aligns with the
NEP's recognition of informal skills. The policy acknowledges the value of traditional skills
and aims to formalize and provide recognition to diverse forms of knowledge. Example:
Initiatives under the NEP aim to validate and integrate traditional and indigenous skills into
the formal education system, promoting cultural inclusivity.
6. Collaboration with Industry and Local Communities: D.R. Gadgil's work on economic
planning is relevant to the NEP's emphasis on collaboration with industries. The policy
encourages partnerships with local industries and communities, acknowledging the
sociological importance of contextual and community-based skill development. Example:
The NEP's emphasis on collaboration is seen in the establishment of Vocational Education
Districts to ensure alignment with local economic needs and opportunities.
Limitations of new education policy for sociological perspective.
1. Digital Divide and Unequal Access: M.N. Srinivas' concept of 'Sanskritization' emphasizes
social stratification. The NEP's reliance on digital technology for education may exacerbate
the digital divide, as students from marginalized communities and rural areas may lack
access to necessary resources. Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the shift to online
learning highlighted disparities in access to technology, hindering the educational progress
of students without reliable internet and devices.
2. Socio-Economic Disparities and Affordability: B.R. Ambedkar's focus on social justice
aligns with concerns about socio-economic disparities. While the NEP aims for inclusivity,
the affordability of additional years of education and the associated costs may limit access
for economically disadvantaged students. Example: Private coaching institutions thriving on
the demand for competitive exam preparation underline how financial constraints can create
educational inequalities, despite policy intentions.
3. Cultural Impositions and Language Bias: S.C. Dube's work on cultural pluralism is
pertinent to concerns about cultural impositions. The three-language formula in the NEP may
unintentionally marginalize linguistic and cultural diversity, particularly in regions with a
rich linguistic heritage. Example: Protests against the imposition of Hindi in non-Hindi
speaking states reflect sociological concerns regarding linguistic and cultural diversity.
4. Standardized Testing and Exclusion: J.P. Naik Naik's work on education and social change
is relevant to issues with standardized testing. The NEP's reliance on centralized
examinations may perpetuate exclusionary practices, favoring certain types of learners and
marginalizing those with diverse skills. Example: Criticisms of standardized testing in
entrance exams like NEET and JEE highlight how one-size-fits-all assessments can
disadvantage students from diverse backgrounds.
5. Gender Disparities and Unaddressed Concerns: Vina Mazumdar's feminist perspective

emphasizes gender-sensitive development. The NEP, while acknowledging gender
disparities, may not adequately address deep-rooted socio-cultural norms contributing to
educational inequalities for women. Example: Despite policy changes, gender gaps persist in
certain regions, and cultural norms may limit girls' access to education, showcasing the need
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for a more nuanced sociological approach.
6. Urban-Centric Bias and Rural Realities: D.R. Gadgil's work on economic planning is
pertinent to concerns about urban-centric biases. The NEP, while envisioning a
comprehensive education system, may not fully address the unique challenges faced by
students in rural areas, perpetuating urban-rural educational divides. Example:
Infrastructure disparities, teacher shortages, and limited access to quality education in rural
schools underscore the sociological challenges in bridging the urban-rural educational gap.
The New Education Policy (NEP) holds profound sociological significance by reshaping India's
education landscape with an emphasis on inclusivity, flexibility, and skill development. Through
the integration of vocational education at various levels, the NEP acknowledges the diverse talents
and aspirations of learners, aligning with sociological principles of social justice. By offering
multiple entry and exit points, it fosters flexibility, catering to a range of socio-economic
backgrounds.
In conclusion, the NEP's sociological significance lies in its potential to foster a more inclusive,
adaptable, and skill-oriented education system that aligns with the evolving needs of a diverse and
dynamic society.
(b) Is ageing an emerging issue in Indian society? Discuss the major

problems of the old age people in India. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Begin with that ageing is indeed an emerging issue.
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 Identify and discuss the major problems faced by the elderly in India.
 Briefly mention government initiatives and policies addressing the issues faced by the
elderly in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Ageing is undeniably emerging as a significant societal concern, marked by profound implications
for the demographic landscape. As life expectancy rises and fertility rates decline, a demographic
shift towards an older population is evident. This transition poses multifaceted challenges,
encompassing economic, healthcare, and social dimensions.
Problems faced by the elderly in India.
1. Economic Challenges: Economic insecurity among the elderly is a significant concern,
exacerbated by limited pension support and inadequate employment opportunities post-
retirement. Amartya Sen's capability approach can be applied here, emphasizing the
importance of economic capabilities for the well-being of the elderly. Example: The lack of
robust social security systems and pension schemes, especially for informal sector workers,
contributes to economic vulnerability among the elderly.
2. Healthcare Disparities: Access to quality healthcare is a challenge for many elderly
individuals, leading to issues of untreated illnesses and a lack of geriatric care. Leela Visaria's
work on healthcare inequalities in India provides insights into disparities affecting the
elderly. Example: In rural areas, inadequate healthcare infrastructure and limited awareness
about geriatric health contribute to health challenges among the elderly.
3. Social Isolation and Neglect: Social isolation and neglect are prevalent issues, especially for
elderly individuals living alone or lacking familial support. M.N. Srinivas's concept of
'Sanskritization' can be considered to understand changing family structures impacting
elderly care. Example: Urbanization and migration patterns lead to altered family dynamics,
resulting in decreased familial support for the elderly.
4. Psychological Well-being: Issues such as loneliness and depression are prevalent among the
elderly, often exacerbated by societal attitudes and lack of mental health support.
5. Sudhir Kakar's exploration of psychological aspects in Indian society can be relevant to
understand the psychological challenges faced by the elderly. Example: Stigmatization of
mental health issues and limited mental health facilities contribute to untreated psychological
problems in the elderly.
6. Legal and Rights Issues: Elderly individuals often face challenges in accessing their rights,
including issues related to property disputes and inheritance. Upendra Baxi's work on legal
rights and justice can provide insights into legal challenges faced by the elderly. Example:
Cases of elder abuse, property disputes, and the lack of awareness about legal rights
contribute to the vulnerability of the elderly.
7. Digital Divide: The digital divide impacts the elderly, limiting their access to information,
services, and social connections in an increasingly digitalized world. Andre Beteille's
perspectives on technology and society can be relevant to understanding the impact of the
digital divide on the elderly.
Example: The reliance on online platforms for essential services can leave the elderly,
particularly in rural areas, marginalized and excluded from the benefits of the digital age.
Government initiatives and policies addressing the issues faced by the elderly in India.
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1. National programme for Health Care of the Elderly (NPHCE): The NPHCE aims to address
the healthcare needs of the elderly, focusing on preventive and promotive healthcare
services. A.R. Desai's research on healthcare disparities can be relevant to analyze the impact
of healthcare initiatives on the elderly. Example: Implementation of NPHCE includes
geriatric clinics and awareness campaigns for elderly healthcare in various regions.
2. Integrated Programme for Older Persons (IPOP): IPOP is designed to improve the quality
of life for the elderly by providing financial assistance, healthcare, and support services.
Leela Visaria's work on aging and social policies can be used to assess the effectiveness of
such integrated programs. Example: IPOP includes provisions for old-age homes, day-care
centers, and assistance for the economically vulnerable elderly.
3. National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP): NSAP includes the Indira Gandhi National
Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS), providing financial assistance to elderly individuals.
M.N. Srinivas's concept of social change and mobility can be considered to analyze the
impact of financial assistance on elderly social status. Example: IGNOAPS offers a monthly
pension to eligible elderly individuals, contributing to their economic well-being.
4. Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior Citizens Act, 2007: The Act focuses on
protecting the rights of senior citizens and provides legal mechanisms for their maintenance
and welfare. Upendra Baxi's perspectives on legal rights and justice can be applied to assess
the effectiveness of legal measures for the elderly. Example: The Act allows elderly parents
to seek maintenance from their children and provides for legal recourse in case of neglect or
abuse.
5. Rashtriya Vayoshri Yojana: This scheme aims to provide physical aids and assisted living
devices to senior citizens, enhancing their overall well-being. Andre Beteille's insights on
technology and society can be relevant to understand the role of assistive devices in the lives
of the elderly. Example: The distribution of devices such as hearing aids and walking sticks
under this scheme directly addresses the specific needs of the elderly.
6. Pension Schemes for Unorganized Workers: Various pension schemes for unorganized
workers contribute to the economic security of elderly individuals in the informal sector. B.R.
Ambedkar's perspectives on social justice and equity can be considered to analyze the impact
of pension schemes on marginalized sections. Example: Schemes like the Atal Pension Yojana
provide a structured pension system for workers in the unorganized sector, including those
in old age.
In conclusion, the emerging issue of ageing in Indian society necessitates a comprehensive
understanding and strategic interventions to address the multifaceted challenges faced by the
elderly. As life expectancy increases and family structures evolve, the elderly grapple with economic
insecurities, healthcare disparities, social isolation, and psychological well-being. The demographic
shift demands nuanced policy frameworks that prioritize the dignity and well-being of the ageing
population.
By recognizing and actively responding to the challenges faced by the elderly, India can foster a
more inclusive society that respects and supports its older citizens, contributing to the overall social
development and cohesion of the nation.
(c) Underline the socio-cultural factors responsible for India's skewed sex-
ratio. (10 Marks)
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Approach.
 Brief introduction to the concept of sex ratio.
 Discuss historical factors that may have contributed to gender bias in India, such as son
preference and traditional patrilineal norms.
 Explore contemporary changes in social attitudes towards gender roles.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The sex ratio in India is a demographic indicator that reflects the number of females per thousand
males in a given population. Traditionally, India has witnessed a preference for male offspring,
leading to imbalances in sex ratios. This phenomenon is largely attributed to cultural, social, and
economic factors, including son preference, gender-based discrimination, and inadequate
healthcare for female children. The sex ratio at birth is expected to be roughly equal, but in India,
there has been a historical trend of a declining child sex ratio, particularly in certain regions.
Historical factors that may have contributed to gender bias in India:
1. Son Preference and Patrilineal Norms: Historically, India has been influenced by strong
patriarchal traditions, leading to a preference for male offspring. M.N. Srinivas, highlighted
the significance of patrilineal norms in reinforcing male dominance. This bias often manifests
in practices such as dowry, where the burden falls on the bride's family, reinforcing the
preference for sons.
2. Impact of Caste System: B.R. Ambedkar discussed the role of the caste system in
perpetuating gender bias. Lower caste women often face double discrimination based on
both gender and caste. This intersectionality contributes to their disadvantaged position in
society.
3. Role of Colonialism: G.S. Ghurye examined the impact of colonial rule on Indian society.
The introduction of legal frameworks and governance by the British sometimes reinforced
existing patriarchal norms, leading to discriminatory practices against women.
4. Economic Factors and Gender Bias: Amartya Sen emphasized the relationship between
economic development and gender bias. In economically deprived regions, the preference
for male heirs may intensify due to perceptions of economic stability associated with having
sons.
5. Family and Kinship Dynamics: Irawati Karve's work on kinship systems sheds light on how
family structures contribute to gender bias. The joint family system, while providing a
support network, can also reinforce traditional gender roles and inequalities within the
household.
Examples: Recent sociological studies, such as those by Nandini Sundar, highlight the persistence
of gender bias in various forms, including violence against women, unequal access to education,
and limited representation in decision-making roles. These examples underscore the need for
ongoing sociological analysis and interventions to address gender disparities in India.
Contemporary changes in social attitudes towards gender roles.

1. Changing Perceptions on Gender Roles: A.R. Desai, emphasize the evolving nature of
gender roles. Desai's discussions on social change highlight how urbanization and
modernization contribute to shifts in societal attitudes toward more egalitarian gender roles.
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2. Influence of Media and Technology: Ashis Nandy's work on media and culture is relevant
in understanding how media representations contribute to shaping social attitudes. With the
rise of digital media and increased connectivity, there is a growing awareness of diverse
gender identities and expressions, challenging traditional stereotypes.
3. Impact of Education: D.P. Mukerji, who focused on education and social change, becomes
pertinent. As education levels rise, there is a noticeable shift in social attitudes, with more
emphasis on gender equality. Women's increasing participation in higher education and the
workforce contributes to changing perceptions.
4. Legal Reforms and Gender Equality: Upendra Baxi's work on law and society is crucial in
understanding the impact of legal reforms on gender roles. Landmark judgments and
legislative changes, such as the criminalization of triple talaq and the decriminalization of
homosexuality, reflect evolving societal attitudes toward gender.
5. Feminist Perspectives: Kamla Bhasin and Gita Sen have played a pivotal role in shaping
contemporary discourse on gender roles. Their emphasis on dismantling patriarchal
structures and promoting women's rights aligns with ongoing societal changes toward more
inclusive and equitable gender norms.
6. Emergence of LGBTQ+ Discourse: The work of queer theorists like Saleem Kidwai becomes
significant in understanding the contemporary discourse on gender and sexuality. The
decriminalization of homosexuality in India, as seen in the Navtej Singh Johar case, reflects a
growing acceptance and recognition of diverse gender identities.
In conclusion, India's skewed sex ratio is a complex issue rooted in deep-seated socio-cultural
factors. The persistent preference for male children, deeply embedded in traditional norms and
reinforced by factors like dowry practices, patrilineal kinship systems, and economic considerations,
has perpetuated gender-based discrimination. Societal expectations regarding the role of women,
coupled with limited access to education and economic opportunities, contribute to the
perpetuation of son preference.
Efforts towards addressing this skewed sex ratio must involve a comprehensive and multi-
dimensional approach that challenges ingrained cultural norms, empowers women through
education and employment, and fosters a societal shift towards more equitable gender dynamics.
Question 7.
(a) The problem of displacement is inherent in the idea of development.
Analyze the statement critically. (20 Marks)
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Approach.
 Define the concept of development.
 Analyze the trade-off between economic development and the social costs of
displacement.
 Analyze existing government policies and legal frameworks addressing displacement in
the context of development.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Development, encompasses a multidimensional process that goes beyond mere economic
advancement to address the overall improvement in the quality of life for individuals and
communities. It involves positive changes in social, cultural, political, and economic aspects, aiming
at the well-being and empowerment of society.
Trade-off between Economic Development and Social Costs of Displacement:
1. Amartya Sen's Capability Approach: According to Sen, development should be measured
by the expansion of individuals' capabilities. Displacement often leads to a decline in people's
capabilities due to social and economic disruptions.
2. B.R. Ambedkar's Caste Perspective: Displacement can disproportionately affect
marginalized communities. Ambedkar's ideas highlight how the social costs of displacement
can exacerbate existing inequalities, particularly along caste lines.
3. Arjun Appadurai's Theory of Disjuncture: Appadurai emphasizes how displacement
disrupts social relationships and cultural practices. Economic development, when leading to
mass displacement, can result in the loss of social cohesion and identity.
4. Nandini Sundar's Research on Displacement: Sundar's work on displacement due to
development projects in tribal areas sheds light on how economic development often results
in the forced displacement of indigenous communities, leading to severe social costs.
5. Mahasweta Devi's Literary Critique: Through her writings, Devi depicts the social upheaval
caused by displacement, particularly among vulnerable communities. Her works offer a
narrative on the human and social costs associated with development-induced displacement.
6. Environmental Justice Perspective: Sunita Narain highlight the environmental and social
consequences of development projects, showcasing instances where communities,
particularly those at the grassroots, bear the brunt of displacement.
Government policies and legal frameworks addressing displacement in the context of
development.
1. M.N. Srinivas's Dominant Caste Theory: Government policies often neglect marginalized
communities during development-induced displacement. Srinivas's theory highlights how
dominant castes influence policies, leading to the inadequate protection of vulnerable
groups.
2. Upendra Baxi's Legal Pluralism Perspective: Baxi's work emphasizes the need for legal
frameworks that consider diverse perspectives. Existing policies often lack inclusivity, failing
to recognize the varied social contexts of displacement and its impact on different
communities.
3. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Government policies mandate EIAs for
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development projects. However, critics, including social scientists like Vandana Shiva, argue
that these assessments often prioritize economic interests over the social and environmental
costs of displacement.
4. Pesa (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act: Inspired by B.R. Ambedkar's vision,
Pesa empowers local self-governance in tribal areas. However, its implementation is
inconsistent, revealing challenges in translating legal frameworks into effective protection
against displacement.
5. K.B. Saxena's Critique of Rehabilitation Policies: Saxena's research on displacement and
rehabilitation exposes gaps in policies. Rehabilitation efforts often fall short, leading to
prolonged socio-economic hardships for displaced communities.
6. Forest Rights Act (FRA): The FRA recognizes the rights of forest-dwelling communities.
However, its enforcement is hindered, as seen in conflicts over land rights in various regions,
illustrating the struggle between legal frameworks and ground-level realities.
In conclusion, the intrinsic connection between development and displacement is a critical aspect
that demands thoughtful consideration. The analysis reveals that the very essence of development,
often measured solely in economic terms, tends to overlook the profound social costs associated
with displacement.
Bridging this gap requires not only a reevaluation of existing policies but also a fundamental shift
in the conceptualization of development, wherein socio-cultural aspects are integral components
rather than mere collateral concerns. Only through such a holistic understanding can development
be truly sustainable, equitable, and beneficial for all segments of society.
(b) Rising 'ethnocentrisms' is leading to conflict in our society. Assess this

statement with appropriate reasons. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define ethnocentrism
 Explain how rising 'ethnocentrisms' is leading to conflict in our society.
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 Explore the role of education and awareness in mitigating ethnocentrism.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Ethnocentrism is a sociological concept that refers to the tendency of individuals or groups to
evaluate and judge other cultures or ethnic groups based on the values, norms, and standards of
their own culture, often considering it superior. It involves the belief that one's own cultural
practices are the benchmark against which all others should be measured, leading to a biased
perspective that can result in misunderstanding, stereotyping, and a lack of appreciation for cultural
diversity.
Rising 'ethnocentrisms' can lead to conflict in our society:
1. Rising Ethnocentrism and Conflict in Society: Identity Politics and Polarization:
Ethnocentrism fuels identity politics, leading to the polarization of societies along ethnic or
cultural lines. M. N. Srinivas highlighted the role of dominant caste identity in perpetuating
social divisions.
2. Discrimination and Marginalization: Ethnocentric attitudes contribute to discrimination
and marginalization of minority groups. The works of B. R. Ambedkar emphasize the
challenges faced by marginalized communities in India.
3. Nationalism and Exclusion: Ethnocentrism often manifests in aggressive nationalism,
excluding those who do not conform to the majority's cultural norms. Benedict Anderson's
concept of "imagined communities" sheds light on the construction of exclusionary national
identities.
4. Communalism and Religious Strife: Ethnocentrism can manifest in communalism, fostering
religious strife and conflicts. Ashis Nandy have explored the complexities of religious
identities in India and their impact on social harmony.
5. Xenophobia and Social Tensions: Ethnocentric sentiments contribute to xenophobia,
creating tensions between different ethnic or cultural groups. The writings of Andre Béteille
provide insights into the challenges posed by cultural diversity in India.
6. Media Influence and Stereotyping: Media plays a crucial role in perpetuating ethnocentric
views through biased representations and stereotyping. Stuart Hall's cultural studies offer
frameworks to analyze media's role in shaping perceptions and fostering or challenging
ethnocentrism.
Examples: The rise of ethnocentrism in India is evident in debates around citizenship laws,
reflecting tensions related to identity and exclusion.
Instances of caste-based violence highlight deep-rooted ethnocentric attitudes affecting social

relations.
Role of education and awareness in mitigating ethnocentrism:
1. Inclusive Curriculum and Pedagogy: Incorporating diverse perspectives in educational
curricula helps challenge ethnocentric views. G. S. Ghurye advocated for a holistic
understanding of cultural diversity in educational content.
2. Sociological Imagination in Education: Promoting sociological imagination through
education encourages critical thinking about cultural differences. Emphasizing the ideas of
C. Wright Mills, educators can facilitate a broader understanding of social structures and
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their impact on individual perspectives.
3. Cultural Sensitivity Programs: Implementing cultural sensitivity programs in schools
fosters empathy and understanding. T. N. Madan underscores the importance of cultural
sensitivity in addressing ethnocentric tendencies.
4. Promotion of Social Harmony: Educational institutions can actively promote social harmony
through initiatives that celebrate cultural diversity. Radhakamal Mukerjee's emphasis on
social integration can guide such efforts.
5. Interactive Learning and Experiences: Interactive learning experiences, such as cultural
exchange programs, can break down stereotypes and promote cross-cultural understanding.
M. N. Srinivas's concept of 'Sanskritization' highlights the dynamics of cultural interactions
in Indian society.
6. Media Literacy and Critical Analysis: Developing media literacy skills in students enables
critical analysis of biased portrayals, reducing the impact of ethnocentric narratives.
Marshall McLuhan can guide educational strategies in navigating media influences.
Examples:
Initiatives like the National Education Policy (NEP) in India aim to promote a more inclusive and
diverse curriculum, addressing ethnocentrism at its roots.
Educational programs focusing on cultural exchange and dialogue, such as the 'Ek Bharat Shreshtha
Bharat' initiative, contribute to building national cohesion.
In conclusion, rising ethnocentrism is leading to conflict in our society, as evidenced by the socio-
cultural tensions and divisive narratives prevalent today. The impact of ethnocentrism on group
identities and perceptions is substantial, contributing to polarization and social discord.
While ethnocentrism is deeply rooted in human psychology, societal harmony can be restored
through concerted efforts in education, awareness, and promoting cultural sensitivity.
Acknowledging the existence of diverse perspectives and fostering a shared sense of belonging is
crucial for building a cohesive and resilient society in the face of rising ethnocentrism.
(c) Is social democracy a precondition for political democracy? Comment.

(10 Marks)
Approach.
 Define social democracy and political democracy.
 Argument in Favor of Social Democracy as a Precondition.
 Counterargument – Political Democracy Without Social Democracy.
 Explore how social democracy may impact individual rights within the framework of
political democracy.
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 Conclude.
Solution:
Social democracy refers to a political and economic ideology that seeks to combine representative
democracy with a commitment to social and economic justice. It advocates for a mixed economy,
where there is a balance between free-market capitalism and government intervention to ensure
social welfare and reduce economic inequality.
Political democracy, is a form of government in which power is vested in the hands of the people.
It entails the right of citizens to participate in decision-making processes through free and fair
elections. Political democracy emphasizes the protection of individual rights, the rule of law, and
the existence of institutions that ensure accountability and transparency.
Social democracy emerges as a compelling precondition for societal progress and well-being. It is
rooted in the principles of social justice and equality. Social democracy offers a balanced approach
to governance by blending the dynamism of a market economy with robust state intervention. The
provision of essential services, including healthcare, education, and social security, becomes pivotal
in fostering a society where individuals have equal opportunities and are shielded from extreme
economic disparities. It stands as a bulwark against social fragmentation, creating a conducive
environment for political democracy to flourish as citizens, equipped with a social safety net,
actively engage in shaping the democratic processes that govern their lives. In this symbiotic
relationship between social democracy and political democracy, a resilient and egalitarian societal
framework takes root, ensuring a more just and humane trajectory of progress.
The counterargument posits that political democracy can persist and even thrive independently of
a comprehensive social democracy. Historically, instances exist where societies with vibrant
political institutions managed to function without an equally robust social democracy. The
argument hinges on the belief that a focus on political processes, citizen participation, and the
protection of individual liberties is sufficient to ensure a functioning democracy. This perspective
often underscores the primacy of personal freedoms and economic liberties, arguing that a more
laissez-faire approach can lead to greater innovation and prosperity. The interplay between political
and social dimensions remains a nuanced and debated aspect of democratic theory and practice.
Social democracy may impact individual rights within the framework of political democracy:
1. Amartya Sen's Capability Approach: It emphasizes enhancing individuals' substantive
freedoms and capabilities. Social democracy, with its focus on providing social and economic
opportunities, aligns with Sen's perspective by expanding individuals' capabilities beyond
mere formal freedoms.
2. B.R. Ambedkar's Social Justice: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, emphasized social justice as a crucial
component of democracy. Social democracy, by addressing socio-economic inequalities,
contributes to ensuring equal opportunities and protection of individual rights for
marginalized sections of society.
3. Impact on Civil Liberties: Social democracy's commitment to inclusive policies often results
in greater protection of civil liberties. By addressing economic disparities and fostering a
sense of societal equity, it contributes to creating an environment conducive to safeguarding
individual rights.
4. Gender Justice and Social Democracy: Social democracy's emphasis on gender equality, as
seen in policies promoting education and employment opportunities for women, contributes
to fostering a democratic society that upholds the rights of all individuals, irrespective of
gender.
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5. M.N. Srinivas' Caste and Democracy: M.N. Srinivas, highlighted the significance of
addressing caste-based inequalities for a successful democracy. Social democracy's efforts to
reduce socio-economic disparities align with Srinivas' perspective, positively impacting
individual rights within marginalized communities.
Examples: India's affirmative action policies, such as reservations in education and employment,
reflect social democracy's endeavor to ensure equal rights. These policies aim to uplift historically
marginalized communities, contributing to a more inclusive political democracy.
In conclusion, the interplay between social democracy and political democracy is intricate and
context-dependent. While social democracy contributes significantly to addressing socio-economic
inequalities, fostering inclusivity, and protecting individual rights, labeling it as an absolute
precondition for political democracy may oversimplify the nuanced dynamics of diverse societies.
The quest for an equitable society demands a comprehensive approach, acknowledging the
interconnectedness of political and social dimensions in shaping the democratic fabric.
Question 8.
(a) Discuss the role of social media in communal polarisation. Suggest ways
to combat it. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define communal polarization.
 Explain Role of social media in Communal Polarization.
 Explore the broader impact of communal polarization on social harmony and cohesion.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Communal polarization refers to the process of deepening religious or ethnic divisions within a
society, leading to heightened tensions and conflicts between different religious or ethnic
communities. It involves the deliberate amplification of religious or cultural differences for political
gains, often exploiting historical grievances, stereotypes, and prejudices. Communal polarization
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can manifest through the promotion of 'us versus them' narratives, the stigmatization of minority
groups, and the creation of a divisive socio-political environment.
Role of social media in Communal Polarization:
1. Amplification of Biased Narratives: Social media platforms often amplify biased narratives,
providing a space for the dissemination of divisive content that reinforces communal
stereotypes.
2. Echo Chambers and Filter Bubbles: Algorithms on social media tend to create echo
chambers and filter bubbles, where individuals are exposed mainly to content that aligns
with their existing beliefs, deepening communal divides.
3. Fake News and Misinformation: Social media facilitates the rapid spread of fake news and
misinformation, contributing to the creation of false narratives that can inflame communal
tensions.
4. Online Hate Speech: Communal polarization is fueled by the proliferation of hate speech on
social media platforms, enabling the expression and dissemination of prejudiced views
against specific communities.
5. Digital Vigilantism: Social media provides a platform for digital vigilantism, where
individuals or groups use online spaces to target and harass members of particular
communities, fostering animosity.
6. Political Instrumentalization: Communal polarization is often exploited by political actors
who use social media strategically to polarize communities for electoral gains, manipulating
sentiments and exacerbating divisions.
Examples:
2013 Muzaffarnagar Riots: social media played a role in spreading rumors and incendiary content,
contributing to communal tensions during the Muzaffarnagar riots in Uttar Pradesh.
Delhi Riots (2020): social media was used to circulate inflammatory content and coordinate violence
during the communal clashes in Delhi, leading to heightened polarization.
Broader Impact of Communal Polarization on Social Harmony and Cohesion:

M. N. Srinivas’s concept of "Sanskritization" and studies on social change provide insights into the
impact of communal polarization on caste dynamics.
1. Erosion of Trust: Communal polarization erodes trust between communities, fostering
suspicion and creating barriers to cooperation, essential for social harmony.
2. Fragmentation of Social Fabric: Prolonged communal polarization leads to the
fragmentation of the social fabric, weakening the bonds that traditionally held diverse
communities together.
3. Economic Disparities: Communal tensions can exacerbate economic disparities as
individuals from marginalized communities may face discrimination, hindering their access
to opportunities.
4. Educational Divide: Communal polarization often manifests in an educational divide, with
communities withdrawing into separate educational institutions, impeding the development
of a shared intellectual space.
5. Cultural Alienation: Communities affected by communal polarization may experience
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cultural alienation, feeling estranged from the broader societal narrative, which impacts their
sense of belonging.
6. Violence and Displacement: Extreme cases of communal polarization can lead to violence
and displacement, causing long-lasting trauma and disrupting social cohesion at various
levels.
Examples:
Gujarat Riots (2002): Communal polarization during the Gujarat riots led to a deep-seated divide,
affecting social harmony and leaving scars that endure.
Karnataka Riots (2020): Communal tensions in areas like Bengaluru have had a broader impact on
social cohesion, highlighting the fragility of inter-community relations.
In conclusion, the pervasive influence of social media in communal polarization demands urgent
attention. While these platforms provide a space for diverse voices, they also amplify divisive
narratives, contributing to social discord. Recognizing the power of social media as a double-edged
sword is essential for mitigating communal polarization. Strategies to combat this phenomenon
should include media literacy programs, stringent regulation of hate speech, and fostering online
spaces for constructive dialogue.
As we navigate this complex terrain, a comprehensive approach that involves government
intervention, civil society initiatives, and individual responsibility is indispensable for fostering a
society built on inclusivity and mutual understanding.
(b) Urban settlements in India tend to replicate its rural caste-kinship

imprints. Discuss the main reasons. (20 Marks)
Approach.
 Define concept of caste-kinship imprints in rural and urban settings.
 Explain how urban settlements in India tend to replicate its rural caste-kinship imprints.
 Discuss the challenges in breaking away from caste-kinship imprints in urban areas.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Caste-kinship imprints signify the enduring influence of caste-based social structures on kinship
ties in both rural and urban settings. In rural areas, caste often forms the bedrock of social
organization, determining marriage alliances, community interactions, and even economic
cooperation.
Urban may settlements in India tend to replicate its rural caste-kinship imprints:
1. Residential Segregation: Urban areas often witness the spatial clustering of communities
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based on caste lines, reflecting a continuation of rural settlement patterns. Indian sociologist
M.N. Srinivas's concept of 'Sanskritization' highlights how lower castes emulate upper-caste
practices in urban settings, reinforcing social hierarchies.
2. Occupational Stratification: Caste-based occupational roles persist in urban employment
sectors, limiting opportunities for certain caste groups. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's theories on caste
and occupation remain relevant, illustrating how traditional roles often dictate urban job
markets, hindering social mobility.
3. Caste-Based Social Networks: Urban social circles frequently revolve around caste-based
affiliations, impacting access to resources and opportunities. Srinivas's idea of 'Dominant
Caste' continues to be relevant, illustrating how certain castes wield influence in both rural
and urban arenas.
4. Marriage Practices: Caste considerations often play a pivotal role in urban marriage choices,
mirroring rural endogamy patterns. The persistence of arranged marriages based on caste
compatibility reflects the enduring influence of caste-kinship imprints.
5. Cultural Practices: Festivals, rituals, and cultural events in urban areas frequently echo caste-
specific traditions. Sociologist Andre Beteille's observations on the tenacity of caste in modern
India underscore how cultural practices sustain caste identities across urban-rural divides.
6. Discrimination and Exclusion: Despite urbanization, instances of caste-based discrimination
persist in educational institutions, workplaces, and social spaces. Recent sociological studies
highlight how exclusionary practices continue, emphasizing the enduring impact of caste-
kinship imprints in urban settings.
Challenges:
1. Societal Norms and Stigma: Societal norms perpetuate caste-based identities, leading to the
stigmatization of individuals attempting to break away. Example: Eradicating untouchability
remains a challenge, with Dalits facing discrimination in urban spaces, as observed by B.R.
Ambedkar.
2. Institutional Discrimination: Institutions, including educational and corporate sectors, may

inadvertently perpetuate caste biases in recruitment, promotions, and opportunities
Example: Studies reveal instances of discriminatory practices in urban job markets, aligning
with the findings of Andre Beteille.
3. Caste-Based Networks: Social networks often reinforce existing caste affiliations, limiting
interactions and relationships beyond caste boundaries. Example: M.N. Srinivas's concept
of 'Little Community' highlights the enduring influence of caste-based social circles, even in
urban areas.
4. Political Exploitation: Politicians may exploit caste identities for electoral gains,
perpetuating divisions and hindering social cohesion. Example: The politicization of caste
identities during elections is a persistent challenge in Indian urban areas, aligning with Rajni
Kothari's observations.
5. Cultural Traditions: Deeply ingrained cultural practices, including caste-specific rituals and
festivals, contribute to the persistence of caste distinctions. Example: G.S. Ghurye's insights
into the 'continuity of tradition' elucidate how cultural practices impede social reform.
6. Lack of Awareness and Education: Limited awareness and education about the detrimental
effects of caste-based discrimination hinder progress. Example: Initiatives promoting
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awareness and education, such as those advocated by contemporary like Anand Teltumbde,
are essential to challenging these imprints.
In unraveling the intricate dynamics of caste-kinship imprints persisting in Indian urban
settlements, it becomes evident that the legacy of caste transcends geographical boundaries,
influencing both rural and urban spheres. The replication of these imprints in urban areas stems
from deeply entrenched societal norms, institutional biases, political maneuvers, cultural traditions,
and a lack of comprehensive awareness.
The quest for an egalitarian urban society requires navigating through these challenges with a
fervent dedication to fostering inclusivity, eradicating discrimination, and reshaping the narrative
of social relationships in India.
(c) Does "economic empowerment" automatically bring about "substantive

empowerment" for women? Briefly describe the main issues in women
empowerment in India. (10 Marks)
Answer:
Structure
 Brief introduction to empowerment of women
 Economic empowerment leads to “substantive empowerment”
 Economic empowerment is not enough for “substantive empowerment”
 Main issues in women empowerment in India.
The term "empowerment of women" refers to the process of giving women the ability to stand up
to the domination of others and lead a rich and successful life. Women have traditionally been seen
as a weaker element of society.
Women's economic empowerment is critical for a country's growth, beginning with the smallest
unit of the community, the family. In metropolitan regions, there is a high degree of wage equality
and equal participation by men and women. It is in these sectors that the phenomenon of 'rising
women power' is most visible.
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Women are now occupying prominent roles in numerous industries that were formerly barred to
them. The advancement of women to critical positions in social systems has resulted in a better
knowledge and recognition of oppressive practises.
However, these changes appear modest when contrasted to the number of challenges that continue
to deteriorate women's conditions in society. In addition, new difficulties have evolved that limit
women's entire development.
Economic empowerment leads to “substantive empowerment”
 It reduces inequality by easing the financial constraints that disadvantaged people
experience. Economic progress, by increasing the resources available to families, lessens
women's extra vulnerability.
 Potentially improve the relative welfare of women: by lowering the likelihood that they
would die during childbirth, and because economic progress is linked to a decrease in
fertility.
 Economic development can lead to women's empowerment by freeing up their time (which
can then be used for market activities or for other things).
 According to Doepke and Tertilt (2009), as the value of human capital in the economy grows
(due to technical progress), males begin to be ready to cede some rights to women in order
to ensure that children have a better education.
All of these instances demonstrate that genderblind policies that promote household economic
welfare can improve gender equality, and that diversifying the economy and improving women's
labour-market options can drive households to adjust their behaviour, moving them toward gender
equality.
Economic empowerment is not enough for “substantive empowerment”

There is evidence that growth will not be enough to overcome discrimination in the home and in a
number of domains.
 Male-to-female sex ratios continue to be lopsided. Female foeticide and female infanticide are
still common in India due to society's preference for boys over daughters. In the year 1991,
Amartya Sen brought up the issue of ‘Missing women’ in India which was as low as 927 over
1000 men.
 The gender gap is shrinking in primary and secondary school, but in university education,
the ratio of females to males has not changed generally, despite increased participation by
both boys and girls. Female literacy rates remain as low as 54 percent, while male literacy
rates remain as high as 75 percent.
 Even in industrialised countries, women with equal qualifications continue to earn less than
males at all levels of qualification. According to the International Labour Organization, the
gender wage disparity in India is the widest, with women earning 34% less than males.
 Even when economies improve, women's legal rights, notably property rights, remain
different from men's in many countries. In rural India, women outnumber males in
agricultural labour and related activities, but only 13% own land.
 Dowry has resulted in domestic violence against women and, in the worst-case scenario,
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death. Despite the passage of the Dowry Prohibition Act in 1961, it is still widely practised in
most parts of India.
 According to the studies, the bias is especially prominent when the leadership function is
traditionally regarded a male role. Similar evidence from India reveals that citizens give
female leaders poorer performance ratings than male leaders and are generally unfavourable
toward females in politics.
Main issues in women empowerment in India
 Patriarchal mind-set - In this system, women have less personal autonomy, less worth, and
consequently fewer resources available to them, as well as restricted control over the
decision-making process that affects their own lives and position.
 Scarcity of resources – According to J.C. Cadwell, when there is a scarcity of food;
unfavourable socio-cultural values operate against women, affecting their health, nutrition,
and mortality. Moreover Socio-cultural beliefs frequently prohibit women from eating
healthful nonvegetarian cuisine, resulting in nutritional deficiencies.
 Cultural Values - Landholding households may choose males over daughters to protect the
land or to ensure sons inherit the land. Women are socialised in such a way, according to
Urvashi Butalia, that it becomes the greatest hindrance to their emancipation.
 Female infanticide - Patriarchal male leadership in the family and community's backing are
at the basis of this problem; they are pressured to commit infanticide owing to the expense
of marriage, family honour, and so on.
 Marriage and dowry - According to B.D. Miller (1981), systematic neglect of female children
in north and northwest India can be attributed in part to the higher expense of marriage in
this region compared to south India. Furthermore, under patriarchy, a woman's earnings are
not shared by her natal family members.
 Gender bias exists in higher education and specialised professional training, which has a
significant impact on women's employment and obtaining top leadership in any sector.
 Professional Inequality: This inequality manifests itself in employment and advancement.
Women suffer numerous disadvantages in male-dominated environments in government
offices and private businesses.
 Morality and Inequality: Because of gender bias in health and nutrition, women have an
extremely high death rate, further lowering their number, particularly in Asia and Africa.
 Household Inequality: Household relations exhibit gender bias in infinitesimally small but
substantial ways all across the world, particularly in India, for example, by dividing the
burden of housework, childcare, and menial labour through so-called division of labour.
 Patricia Uberoi - Purdah or ghunghat ritual activities create a symbolic border between
personal and public locations.
When women are economically empowered, everyone's situation improves, and because gender
inequality decreases as poverty decreases, situations for women improve faster than that of men.
Economic development, on the other hand, is insufficient to achieve gender equality. Policy action
is still required to achieve gender equality. Such legislative action would be unequivocally justified
if women's empowerment also stimulated further growth, so initiating a virtuous cycle
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Mains 2022
Section - A
a) Elaborate on M.N. Srinivas's structural-functionalist approach to the
study of Indian society. (10 Marks)
Approach
 Brief Introduction to M.N.Srinivas approach
 His approach on the study of social change in Indian society.
 Conclusion
M.N. Srinivas’s structural-functionalist approach, founded on the principles of British scholar A.R.
Radcliffe-Brown and Bronislaw Malinowski, suggested that every aspect of a society (i.e., its
structures) has a function to fulfill for the overall stability and continuity of the society.
Srinivas applied this theoretical framework to the study of social change in Indian society,
emphasising on the interdependence of different social elements and their contribution to
maintaining stability and equilibrium within society
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1. Using Structural functionalist approach in his study of "Religion and Society among the
Coorgs of South India" and "Social Change in Modern India," Srinivas explained how
Indian society adjusted and transformed itself in response to some tension or imbalance
within the society.
2. Sanskritization and Social Change: Srinivas's concept of Sanskritization (Case of
Anticipatory Socialisation) a process through which lower-caste groups emulate the
customs, rituals, and practices of higher castes to improve their social status, followed by rise
in Secular mobility. This process has been observed in various regions of India and has
helped explain social mobility within the caste system.
He also gave the concepts of Brahminization, Sanskritization (Religious + Secular),
Westernization (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary) and Secularization
3. Westernization and Social change: This term was used to depict the change induced by the
contact of Indian society with Western culture and institutions, primarily through British
colonial rule. Srinivas contended that westernization led to significant transformation,
especially in technology, law, economic organization, and education, which in turn,
stimulated social change in various other spheres of Indian society.
4. Village Studies and Social Transformation: M.N. Srinivas Srinivas considers village as the
microcosm of Indian society and civilization, which retains the traditional composition of
India’s tradition.
He highlighted the complexities of social change in traditional agrarian settings. Srinivas identified
the role of dominant caste groups and their influence on the socio-economic dynamics of rural
communities.
5. Dominant Caste and Power Structures: Analysing the concept of "dominant caste" in
understanding the power structures and hierarchies within Indian society. And how certain
castes acquire and maintain dominance over others, thereby shaping social change in specific
regions.
6. Modernization and Social Mobility: Srinivas's emphasized the importance of
understanding the tensions between tradition and modernity and how these forces interact
to shape social transformation.
Criticism
1. His views come across as Upper caste views only. For him, Indian traditions are those, which
are manifested in caste and village.
2. Yogender Singh criticizes M. N. Srinivas on the ground that his structure functionalism is a
manifestation of objective idealism (a preconceived notion that India changes at a slower pace
in comparison to west)- rather in India change in really fast.
3. Maitri Chowdhary considers that M. N. Srinivas theory is conservative as it cannot
understand the changes experienced by Indian social institutions under the influence of
globalization and feminist movements.
4. Anand Chakravarti- MNS is silent on class, factional politics and different kinds of political
manipulation persisting.
5. Y. Singh - Indian society has in the past and is still rapidly changing because of many factors
(Islamisation, Westernisation), villages no longer a microcosm of India.
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6. Gail Omvedt: Reflection of Brahminic ideology than value neutral sociology. Caste as a
product of culture is shared by all Indians is absolutely unacceptable. Also, MNS doesn’t
explain why Dalits couldn’t become a Dominant caste inspite of numbers.
7. Ghanshyam Shah: Dominant caste nothing but class mobilization.
8. Yogesh Atal: Dominant castes have different meanings at different places.
9. Dipankar Gupta: In Gujarat, KHAM, MY – various groups came together as a power faction
to overpower dominant castes. (KHAM overpowered Patidars).
Conclusion
In conclusion, M.N. Srinivas, through his structural-functionalist approach, brought forth a new
understanding of social change in Indian society. However, To gain a more holistic understanding
of social change in India, it is essential to supplement his work with other theoretical perspectives
that consider historical context, urbanization, globalization, and intersectionality
b) Do you agree that the agrarian class structure in India is changing? Justify
your answer with illustrations. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Define agrarian class structure.
 Explain how agrarian class structure in India is changing.
 Explain challenges faced by agrarian class.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Agrarian class structure refers to the hierarchical organization of society within agrarian
(agricultural-based) economies, based on ownership and control of land and resources. It typically
comprises distinct social classes, including landowners, tenants, and agricultural laborers, each
occupying a specific position within the production process.
Landowners, often comprising a small elite, possess significant control over land and resources,
enjoying economic and political advantages. Tenants, who lease land from landowners, may have
varying degrees of autonomy and access to resources depending on the terms of their agreements.
Agricultural laborers, on the other hand, typically have limited ownership or control over land and
work as wage laborers on farms, often facing economic insecurity and exploitation.
Agrarian class structure in India is changing in different ways:
1. Transition from traditional landlordism to capitalist agriculture: Karl Marx's theory of
capitalist development elucidates the shift from traditional agrarian structures characterized
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by landlordism to capitalist modes of production. In India, this transition is evident as small
and marginal farmers are emerging as significant players in agriculture, utilizing modern
technologies and market-oriented practices to maximize productivity and profits.
2. Rise of agricultural capitalism and agrarian inequalities: Max Weber's concept of class and
status, the emergence of agricultural capitalism in India has led to stratification within rural
communities based on ownership of land, access to resources, and market participation.
Large corporate entities, are having the control of multinational corporations over seed
production and agrochemicals, influencing agricultural practices and farmer livelihoods.
3. Transformation of rural labor relations: Emile Durkheim's theory of division of labor sheds
light on the changing nature of rural labor relations in India. The decline of traditional
agrarian economies has led to shifts in occupational patterns and migration trends, with rural
laborers seeking alternative employment opportunities in urban areas or non-agricultural
sectors. This migration, coupled with mechanization and automation in agriculture, has
resulted in labor displacement and precarious working conditions for those remaining in the
agricultural workforce.
4. Impact of globalization and agrarian distress: Drawing from Arjun Appadurai's concept of
globalization and cultural flows, the integration of Indian agriculture into global markets has
brought about both opportunities and challenges. While increased market connectivity has
facilitated access to technology, information, and diverse agricultural practices, it has also
exposed small-scale farmers to volatile global market forces, price fluctuations, and
competition from imported goods.
5. Rise of agrarian movements and social mobilization: Resource mobilization theory and
social movements theory provide insights into the rise of agrarian movements and collective
action among marginalized rural communities in India.
Farmers' protests, these movements, often led by grassroots organizations and civil society
groups advocate for land rights, fair wages, environmental sustainability, and social justice,
signaling the resilience and agency of rural communities in the face of structural challenges.
Challenges faced by agrarian class:
 Land Fragmentation: Agrarian societies often face challenges due to land fragmentation,
where landholdings are divided among successive generations, leading to smaller and less
economically viable plots. Karl Marx in his theory of capitalist agrarian transition, where he
argued that land fragmentation exacerbates inequalities and hampers agricultural
productivity. Example: regions in India where land divisions have led to decreased farm
sizes and income instability, such as in Punjab and Haryana.
 Dependency on Monoculture: The agrarian class often relies heavily on monoculture, where
a single crop dominates agricultural production. This can lead to vulnerabilities such as
susceptibility to pests, diseases, and market fluctuations. Emile Durkheim's concept of
anomie suggests that this dependency can create a sense of aimlessness and disconnection
from society when faced with disruptions in the monoculture. For instance, the cotton
monoculture in parts of India has left farmers vulnerable to price fluctuations and crop
failures, leading to agrarian distress and farmer suicides.
 Market Integration and Globalization: With the advent of globalization, agrarian societies
face challenges related to market integration, where they must compete with imported goods
and adhere to global market demands. Max Weber's theory of rationalization posits that
traditional agricultural practices may struggle to adapt to the rationalized and standardized
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methods required for global markets. Examples: small-scale farmers in Africa who face
difficulties competing with subsidized agricultural products from developed countries,
impacting their livelihoods and traditional farming practices.
 Environmental Degradation: Agrarian communities confront environmental challenges
such as soil erosion, depletion of natural resources, and climate change impacts. Anthony
Giddens' theory of ecological modernization suggests that these challenges arise due to the
unsustainable exploitation of natural resources in pursuit of economic development. For
instance, in parts of Southeast Asia, intensive rice cultivation has led to soil degradation and
loss of biodiversity, posing long-term risks to agrarian livelihoods and food security.
 Marginalization and Displacement: Agrarian communities often face marginalization and
displacement due to industrialization, urbanization, and infrastructure projects. Michel
Foucault's theory of biopower highlights how state institutions exert control over
populations, often resulting in the displacement of agrarian communities for the benefit of
industrial and urban development projects. Example: the displacement of farmers in Brazil
for large-scale infrastructure projects like dams and highways, leading to loss of land,
livelihoods, and social cohesion among agrarian communities.
Conclusion:
The evolving agrarian landscape in India reflects a complex interplay of historical legacies, socio-
economic forces, and technological advancements. While these changes offer opportunities for
increased productivity and economic growth, they also pose challenges such as land consolidation,
environmental degradation, and rural dislocation.
Thus, understanding and addressing the multifaceted dynamics of agrarian transformation are
crucial for promoting sustainable development, equitable distribution of resources, and the well-
being of rural communities in India.
c) Elucidate the challenges of integration for tribal communities in India. (10

Marks)
Structure:
 Define Tribal communities.
 Explain integration of Tribal communities in India.
 Explain the challenges of integration for tribal communities in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Tribe is a social group having many clans, nomadic bands and other sub groups living on a definite
geographical area having separate language, separate and singular culture.
According to Imperial Gazetteer of India a tribe is a collection of families bearing a common name,
speaking a common dialect, occupying or professing to occupy a common territory and is not
usually endogamous though originally it might have been so.
According to Oxford Dictionary "A tribe is a group of people in a primitive or barbarious stage of
development acknowledging the authority of a chief and usually regarding themselves as having a
common ancestor.
D.N Majumdar defines tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation, endogamous with no
specialization of functions ruled by tribal officers hereditary or otherwise, united in language or
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dialect recognizing social distance with other tribes or castes.
Integration of Tribal communities in India:
 Acculturation and Assimilation: Tribal communities in India have often integrated through
processes of acculturation and assimilation, where they adopt elements of the dominant
culture while retaining some aspects of their own. This concept aligns with Milton Singer's
theory of cultural pluralism, which suggests that cultural integration involves both cultural
exchange and the maintenance of cultural distinctiveness. Example: include tribal
communities in urban areas who adopt aspects of mainstream culture while still preserving
their indigenous languages, traditions, and social practices, showcasing a blend of both
cultures.
 State Intervention and Development Policies: State intervention and development policies
have played a significant role in tribal integration in India, albeit often controversially.
Ranajit Guha highlight the colonial roots of state intervention, which aimed to assimilate
tribal communities into the mainstream by imposing land reforms, education systems, and
administrative structures. Example: government-led initiatives such as the PESA
(Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act) and FRA (Forest Rights Act), which
recognize and empower tribal communities by granting them rights over forest resources
and local governance, thereby facilitating their integration while protecting their cultural and
land rights.
 Education and Modernization: Education has been a key factor in the integration of tribal
communities into mainstream society, as it provides access to opportunities, enhances social
mobility, and facilitates interaction with non-tribal populations.
Emile Durkheim's theory of education as a mechanism for social integration, initiatives like
residential schools and scholarships aim to provide educational opportunities to tribal
children, enabling them to acquire skills and knowledge necessary for integration into
broader society. For instance, tribal youth attending universities or vocational training
programs contribute to their community's socio-economic development while bridging
cultural gaps between tribal and non-tribal populations.
 Social Movements and Identity Assertion: Social movements and identity assertion have
been instrumental in resisting assimilationist policies and asserting tribal rights and
autonomy. Frantz Fanon and Ambedkar, tells that these movements emphasize the
importance of cultural pride, self-determination, and collective action in challenging
dominant power structures. Example: protests against land acquisition for industrial
projects, demands for recognition of indigenous languages and cultures, and advocacy for
tribal self-governance, all of which contribute to the ongoing negotiation of tribal integration
within the broader socio-political landscape of India.
Challenges:
 Marginalization and Displacement: Tribal communities in India face challenges of
marginalization and displacement due to developmental projects, industrialization, and
urbanization. Michel Foucault's theory of biopower and governmentality, these processes
are often driven by state interventions and capitalist interests, resulting in the loss of land,
livelihoods, and cultural heritage for tribal populations.
 Lack of Access to Basic Services: Many tribal communities in India lack access to basic
services such as healthcare, education, and sanitation, perpetuating cycles of poverty and
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social exclusion. Amartya Sen's capability approach emphasizes the importance of access to
these services for individual well-being and societal development. Example: disparities in
access to healthcare facilities and educational resources between tribal and non-tribal
populations, with tribal communities often facing systemic discrimination and neglect, as
evidenced by higher rates of maternal and infant mortality and lower literacy rates among
tribal populations compared to the national average.
 Cultural Assimilation and Identity Erosion: Tribal communities confront challenges of
cultural assimilation and identity erosion as they interact with mainstream society and adopt
modern lifestyles. Anthony Giddens' theory of globalization and cultural hybridization, this
process involves the blending of traditional tribal cultures with elements of dominant
cultures, leading to changes in language, customs, and social norms. Example: the impact of
globalization, media influence, and migration on tribal identities, with younger generations
often facing dilemmas of cultural belonging and identity negotiation in rapidly changing
socio-cultural contexts.
 Land Rights and Resource Conflicts: Tribal communities struggle to assert their rights over
traditional lands and natural resources against encroachments by state and corporate
interests. This issue intersects with theories of political ecology, which examine the dynamics
of power, access, and control over resources. Example: conflicts over forest lands and
mineral-rich territories, such as the Dongria Kondh tribe's resistance against bauxite mining
in the Niyamgiri Hills and the ongoing struggles of tribal communities in central India
against land acquisition for coal mining and industrial projects, highlighting the complex
interplay between development, conservation, and indigenous rights.
 Social Exclusion and Discrimination: Tribal communities experience social exclusion and
discrimination in various spheres of life, including employment, education, and governance,
due to entrenched prejudices and stereotypes. Example: caste-based discrimination and
stigmatization faced by tribal individuals in educational institutions, workplaces, and public
spaces, perpetuating cycles of poverty and social marginalization among tribal communities.
Conclusion:
Integration for tribal communities in India is really tough. They face lots of problems like not getting
enough services, being left out, losing their culture, fighting for their land, and being treated
unfairly. These problems come from a long time ago when India was ruled by other countries, and
even now when the government and businesses care more about making money than helping tribal
people.
To fix these problems, we need to think about everything together, like making sure tribal people
have rights, can keep their culture, and are treated fairly. It's about making big changes to help them
be part of society in a good way.
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d) In the context of the changing Indian society, how do you view Andre
Beteille's conceptions of harmonic and disharmonic social structures? (10
Marks)
Structure:
 Explain Harmonic and disharmonic social structures.
 Explain Andre Beteille's conceptions of harmonic and disharmonic social structures in
context of changing Indian society.
 Explain shortcomings of harmonic and disharmonic social structures in changing Indian
Society.
 Conclude.
Solution:
André Béteille's concept of harmonic and disharmonic social structures revolves around the idea of
social cohesion and stability within societies.
Harmonic social structures refer to societies where there is a high degree of consensus, cooperation,
and integration among various social groups, leading to a sense of harmony and equilibrium. In
contrast, disharmonic social structures depict societies characterized by conflict, inequality, and
fragmentation, where social groups are divided and antagonistic, leading to tensions and instability.
Béteille argues that the presence of harmonic social structures facilitates social progress and
cohesion, while disharmonic structures impede societal development and cohesion, creating
challenges for achieving social harmony and collective well-being.
Andre Beteille's conceptions of harmonic and disharmonic social structures in context of
changing Indian society:
 Relevance of Harmonic Structures: Béteille's concept of harmonic social structures remains
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relevant in certain segments of Indian society, such as cohesive rural communities and
closely-knit social groups, resonating with Émile Durkheim's theory of mechanical
solidarity. For example, in villages where traditional norms regulate interactions, there is
often a sense of harmony and mutual support among community members, contributing to
social stability and cohesion.
 Recognition of Disharmonic Structures: However, the prevalence of disharmonic social
structures is increasingly apparent, particularly in urban areas and marginalized
communities, reminiscent of Karl Marx's theory of class struggle. Urban slums exemplify
this, where economic exploitation, social exclusion, and lack of access to basic services create
social tensions and disunity, hindering societal progress and cohesion.
 Caste System as a Persistent Challenge: The persistence of the caste system exemplifies
disharmonic social structures in India, perpetuating inequalities and divisions among caste
groups based on birth, akin to Max Weber's theory of social stratification. Example: caste-
based discrimination and violence, highlighting the enduring challenges to social harmony
and cohesion.
 Impact of Urbanization and Globalization: Rapid urbanization and globalization have
further shaped the dynamics of social structures in India.
Urban areas experience social disorganization and alienation as individuals and groups
negotiate new identities and social networks in complex urban environments, aligning with
Georg Simmel's theory of metropolitan life. Moreover, globalization has led to both
harmonizing and disharmonizing effects on society, as seen in the cultural hybridization and
cosmopolitanism alongside exacerbated inequalities and cultural tensions, echoing Anthony
Giddens' theory of globalization.
 Need for Comprehensive Social Policies: Given the complexities of India's changing social
landscape, there is a pressing need for comprehensive social policies that address both
harmonic and disharmonic aspects of social structures. Initiatives should aim to strengthen
social cohesion in cohesive communities while addressing inequalities and injustices that
perpetuate disharmony, drawing insights from sociological theories to promote inclusive
development and social justice.
Shortcomings of Harmonic Social Structures:
While harmonic social structures promote social cohesion and stability, they can also perpetuate
traditional norms and inequalities, hindering social progress and individual freedoms.
Drawing from Michel Foucault's theory of power dynamics, these structures may maintain
oppressive systems of hierarchy and control, limiting the agency of marginalized groups. For
example, in certain rural communities in India, rigid adherence to traditional customs and norms
may restrict the rights and opportunities of women and lower castes, impeding efforts towards
gender equality and social justice.
Shortcomings of Disharmonic Social Structures:
On the other hand, disharmonic social structures, characterized by conflict and inequality, pose
challenges to social cohesion and collective well-being. Karl Marx's theory of class struggle, these
structures exacerbate divisions and tensions within society, leading to social unrest and instability.
For instance, caste-based discrimination and violence in India perpetuate social inequalities and
hinder efforts towards inclusive development and social harmony, despite constitutional provisions
534
and affirmative action policies aimed at addressing caste-based disparities.
Conclusion:
In the context of changing Indian society, André Béteille's conceptions of harmonic and
disharmonic social structures offer valuable insights into the complexities of social dynamics and
challenges facing contemporary India. While harmonic social structures reflect cohesive and stable
communities rooted in shared traditions and values, they may also perpetuate traditional norms
and inequalities, hindering social progress and individual freedoms.
e) Explain Leela Dube's concept of "Seed and Earth". (10 Marks)

Structure:
 Explain Leela Dube's concept of Seed and Earth.
 Analyze how the concept of "Seed and Earth" reflects traditional gender roles and relations
in Indian society.
 Conclusion.
Solution:
Leela Dube's concept of "Seed and Earth" encapsulates the traditional gender roles and relations in
Indian society, portraying women as the nurturing force akin to fertile earth and men as the active
agents symbolized by the seed. This highlights the complementary yet unequal roles assigned to
men and women, with women primarily responsible for caregiving, domestic duties, and
maintaining familial harmony, while men are perceived as providers, protectors, and initiators of
societal processes.
Seed and Earth" reflects traditional gender roles and relations in Indian society:
 Traditional Gender Roles Perpetuated: Leela Dube's concept of "Seed and Earth" reflects
traditional gender roles and relations in Indian society, where women are predominantly
associated with domestic roles and caregiving responsibilities, while men are perceived as
the primary breadwinners and heads of households. M.N. Srinivas's theory of
Sanskritization, this hierarchical division of labor is deeply ingrained in social norms and
cultural practices, shaping individuals' behaviors and expectations regarding gender roles.
For instance, in rural India, women are often responsible for household chores, childcare, and
maintaining family relationships, while men are expected to engage in agricultural work or other
income-generating activities, reinforcing traditional gender roles and relations.
 Gendered Socialization Processes: The concept of "Seed and Earth" also reflects gendered
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socialization processes that reinforce traditional gender roles from an early age. Inspired by
the Irawati Karve, children in Indian society are socialized into gender roles through family,
education, and media, internalizing societal expectations regarding masculinity and
femininity.
For example, girls are encouraged to be nurturing, compliant, and domesticated, while boys are
socialized to be assertive, independent, and achievement-oriented, perpetuating gendered divisions
of labor and reinforcing patriarchal norms.
 Reproduction of Patriarchal Ideologies: The "Seed and Earth" metaphor perpetuates
patriarchal ideologies that prioritize male authority and control over female bodies and labor.
Veena Das's analysis of gender and power in Indian society, this metaphor symbolizes the
reproductive and productive roles assigned to women within patriarchal family structures,
where women's labor and reproductive capacities are exploited for the benefit of men and
the patriarchal system.
For instance, women's unpaid domestic work and caregiving responsibilities are often devalued
and overlooked, perpetuating economic dependency and reinforcing women's subordinate status
within the family and society.
 Constraints on Women's Agency: The concept of "Seed and Earth" imposes constraints on
women's agency and autonomy, limiting their opportunities for socio-economic
advancement and decision-making power. Patricia Uberoi, traditional gender roles confine
women to the private sphere, restricting their access to education, employment, and political
participation.
Example: disparities in women's labor force participation rates, unequal access to resources and
opportunities, and underrepresentation of women in positions of leadership and decision-making,
highlighting the structural barriers and gender inequalities perpetuated by traditional gender roles
and relations.
 Resistance and Change: Despite the perpetuation of traditional gender roles and relations,
there are ongoing processes of resistance and change in Indian society. Vina Mazumdar and
Kamla Bhasin, women's movements and grassroots initiatives challenge patriarchal norms
and advocate for gender equality, women's rights, and social justice.
 Examples: campaigns against gender-based violence, movements for women's land rights
and property ownership, and advocacy for policy reforms to address gender disparities in
education, healthcare, and employment, reflecting efforts to transform traditional gender
roles and relations and promote gender equity in Indian society.
Conclusion:
The concept of Seed and Earth sheds light on the complexities of gender dynamics, it also highlights
the need for critical examination and transformation of traditional gender roles and relations to
achieve gender equity and social justice. Therefore, understanding and challenging the "Seed and
Earth" metaphor is crucial for promoting inclusivity, diversity, and gender equality in ethical
discourse and societal practices.
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Question 2.
a) Critically examine G.S. Ghurye's Indological approach to the
understanding of Indian society. (20 Marks)
Structure:
 Explain G.S. Ghurye's Indological approach.
 Explain G.S. Ghurye's Indological approach to the understanding of Indian society.
 Explain challenges faced by Indological approach to the understanding of Indian society.
 Conclude.
Solution:
G.S. Ghurye's Indological approach is characterized by its emphasis on the study of Indian society
and culture through a historical and comparative lens. Ghurye advocated for an in-depth
examination of India's social institutions, customs, and traditions, rooted in an understanding of its
historical and cultural context. His approach sought to uncover the underlying principles and
dynamics that shaped Indian society, viewing it as a unique entity with its own distinct social
structures and dynamics.
G.S. Ghurye's Indological approach to the understanding of Indian society.
 Historical and Comparative Analysis: emphasizes a historical and comparative analysis of
social phenomena, drawing from Max Weber's methodology of verstehen. Ghurye advocated
for studying Indian society in its historical context, tracing the evolution of social institutions,
norms, and values over time. For example, his work on the caste system explored its origins,
development, and variations across regions, providing insights into its historical significance
and contemporary manifestations.
 Emphasis on Cultural Specificity: Ghurye's approach underscores the importance of
understanding Indian society's cultural specificity, influenced by his background in Sanskrit
studies and anthropology. Inspired by Edward Said's concept of Orientalism, Ghurye
rejected Eurocentric perspectives and colonial stereotypes, advocating for an insider's
understanding of Indian culture and traditions. For instance, his studies on kinship systems,
marriage customs, and religious practices highlighted the diversity and complexity of Indian
537
social life, challenging monolithic representations of Indian society.
 Interdisciplinary Perspective: Ghurye's Indological approach is characterized by its
interdisciplinary perspective, integrating insights from sociology, anthropology, history, and
Indology. Drawing from Emile Durkheim's theory of social facts, Ghurye examined the
interplay between social structures, cultural norms, and individual agency in shaping Indian
society. For example, his analysis of Indian family structures combined sociological concepts
with insights from Sanskrit texts and ethnographic research, offering a holistic understanding
of familial relationships and kinship patterns.
 Critique of Westernization: Ghurye's work critiques the impact of Westernization on Indian
society while acknowledging its role in social change. Influenced by Karl Marx's theory of
social change, Ghurye highlighted the tensions between traditional Indian values and
modern Western influences, examining their implications for social cohesion and cultural
identity.
 Legacy in Indian Sociology: Ghurye's Indological approach has left a lasting impact on
Indian sociology, shaping subsequent generations of sociological research and scholarship.
His emphasis on cultural specificity, historical analysis, and interdisciplinary inquiry

continues to inform sociological studies of Indian society, influencing methodologies,
theoretical frameworks, and research agendas. Example: studies on globalization, migration,
and identity politics in contemporary India, which draw upon Ghurye's insights to analyze
the complexities of social change and continuity in a rapidly transforming society.
Challenges:
 Limited Scope and Generalization: Acc. to M.N. Srinivas, its tendency to focus excessively
on textual analysis and historical sources, neglecting the diversity and complexity of lived
experiences in Indian society. For instance, relying solely on ancient texts may overlook the
contemporary realities of marginalized communities and fail to capture the nuances of social
change and adaptation over time.
 Orientalist Bias and Essentialism: Critics like Edward Said have pointed out the Orientalist
bias inherent in the Indological approach, which tends to exoticize and essentialize Indian
culture and traditions from a Western perspective. This approach risks reducing Indian
society to static and timeless categories, overlooking its dynamic and heterogeneous nature.
For example, portraying caste solely as a relic of ancient texts may overlook its contemporary
manifestations and ongoing struggles for social justice and equality.
 Neglect of Structural Factors: Another criticism of the Indological approach, articulated by
Andre Beteille, is its neglect of structural factors such as class, caste, and gender in
understanding Indian society. By focusing primarily on cultural and textual analysis, this
approach may overlook the material realities and power dynamics that shape social relations
and inequalities. For instance, analyzing kinship systems without considering economic
disparities may provide an incomplete understanding of family structures and dynamics in
India.
 Challenges of Interpretation and Translation: The Indological approach faces challenges
related to interpretation and translation of ancient texts, which may be ambiguous, contested,
or subject to multiple interpretations. T.N. Madan have highlighted the difficulties in
accurately interpreting cultural practices and symbols from historical sources, especially
when they are embedded in specific socio-cultural contexts. For example, interpreting
538
religious rituals or caste practices from ancient texts may require careful contextualization
and interdisciplinary analysis to avoid misinterpretation.
 Relevance to Contemporary Issues: Critics argue that the Indological approach may have
limited relevance to addressing contemporary social issues and challenges faced by Indian
society. Dipankar Gupta advocate for a more empirically grounded and socially engaged
sociology that addresses pressing issues such as poverty, inequality, and social justice. For
example, while Indological insights may offer valuable historical context, they may not
provide practical solutions to contemporary problems such as urbanization, environmental
degradation, or gender-based violence, necessitating a more interdisciplinary and
contextually informed approach.
Conclusion:
The Indological approach risks perpetuating Orientalist biases, essentializing Indian culture, and
neglecting contemporary social realities and issues. Therefore, while Ghurye's insights remain
valuable for understanding India's cultural heritage and historical evolution, a critical examination
of his Indological approach is necessary to develop a more nuanced and contextually grounded
sociology that addresses the diverse and dynamic nature of Indian society in the present context.
b) Elaborate on the changing nature of caste system with suitable

Structure:
 Briefly introduce the caste system as a social hierarchy prevalent in Indian society.
 Analyze the changing nature of the caste system in contemporary India.
 Acknowledge the persistence of caste-based inequalities and discrimination despite
changing caste dynamics.
 Conclude.
Solution:
The caste system which is deeply entrenched in Indian society is a hierarchical social structure that
organizes individuals into distinct social groups based on birth and occupation. Originating from
ancient Vedic texts, the caste system classifies society into four main varnas or classes: Brahmins
(priests and scholars), Kshatriyas (warriors and rulers), Vaishyas (merchants and traders), and
Shudras (laborers and artisans), with Dalits (formerly known as Untouchables) historically
marginalized and excluded.
Each varna is assigned specific duties and privileges, with social status determined by birth and
reinforced through endogamy, occupational restrictions, and ritual purity.
The changing nature of the caste system in contemporary India:
 Emergence of New Caste Identities: M.N. Srinivas and Louis Dumont have observed the
emergence of new caste identities and sub-castes in contemporary India, challenging
traditional notions of caste hierarchy and purity. This phenomenon, known as
Sanskritization or caste mobility, reflects social mobility and aspirations among formerly
 Economic Changes and Caste Relations: The changing economic landscape in India,
influenced by globalization and urbanization, has transformed caste relations and
occupational structures. André Béteille and Dipankar Gupta argue that economic
539
liberalization and market-driven development have created new opportunities for mobility
and entrepreneurship, blurring traditional caste boundaries.
 Political Mobilization and Caste Politics: Caste continues to play a significant role in Indian
politics, shaping voting behavior, party alignments, and electoral outcomes. Rajni Kothari's
theory of caste mobilization, political parties strategically mobilize caste identities and
grievances to consolidate electoral support and gain power. Example: caste-based parties
such as the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) in Uttar Pradesh and regional movements like the
Maratha reservation protests in Maharashtra, reflecting ongoing struggles for political
representation and social justice based on caste identity.
 Legal Reforms and Affirmative Action: Legal reforms and affirmative action policies, such
as reservations in education and government employment, have aimed to address historical
injustices and inequalities perpetuated by the caste system. B.R. Ambedkar and Srinivas
highlighted the importance of reservations as a means of social empowerment and redressing
caste-based discrimination.
Persistence of caste-based inequalities and discrimination despite changing caste

dynamics.
 Intersectionality of Caste with Other Forms of Discrimination: B.R. Ambedkar and
Kimberlé Crenshaw emphasize the intersectionality of caste with other forms of
discrimination, such as gender, class, and religion, which exacerbate inequalities and
marginalization. For instance, caste intersects with factors like gender and poverty, leading
to compounded vulnerabilities and exclusion, particularly among Dalit women and
 Structural Persistence of Caste Hierarchy: Despite changes in caste dynamics, the structural
persistence of caste hierarchy perpetuates inequalities and discrimination in various spheres
of life. André Béteille's theory of social stratification, caste continues to shape access to
resources, opportunities, and social mobility, reinforcing patterns of privilege and
disadvantage. For instance, underscores how caste-based inequalities persist in education,
employment, healthcare, and housing, limiting upward mobility and perpetuating social
exclusion.
 Symbolic and Cultural Significance of Caste: Louis Dumont and M.N. Srinivas highlight
the symbolic and cultural significance of caste, which shapes identities, social norms, and
interactions in Indian society. Despite changes in economic and political structures, caste
remains deeply ingrained in social practices, rituals, and everyday life. Example: caste-based
discrimination in religious practices, marriage customs, and social gatherings, reflecting
enduring patterns of social hierarchy and exclusion.
 Continued Caste-Based Violence and Atrocities: Caste-based violence and atrocities persist
in contemporary India, reflecting deep-rooted prejudices and power imbalances. Johan
Galtung's theory of structural violence, sociologists analyze caste-based violence as a
manifestation of systemic oppression and discrimination.
In conclusion, while the caste system has undergone significant changes in response to socio-
economic and political transformations, it remains a powerful force shaping social relations and
opportunities in Indian society. The persistence of caste-based inequalities and discrimination
underscores the need for continued efforts to address systemic injustices and promote inclusive
development. By acknowledging the complexities of caste dynamics and engaging in critical
540
dialogue and social action, India can work towards building a more equitable and just society for
all its citizens.
c) Discuss the problems of religious minorities in India and suggest

measures to solve them. (10 Marks)
Structure:
 Explain religious minorities in India.
 Explain the problems faced by religious minorities in India.
 Suggest measures to solve the problems faced by minorities in India.
 Conclude.
Solution:
Religious minorities refer to groups within a society that hold beliefs, practices, or affiliations
distinct from those of the majority religion. In diverse societies like India, religious minorities
encompass a range of communities such as Muslims, Christians, Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, and others.
These groups often face challenges related to social, economic, and political marginalization,
including discrimination, violence, and restricted access to resources and opportunities.
Problems faced by religious minorities in India:
 Discrimination and Marginalization: Religious minorities in India face discrimination and
marginalization in various spheres of life, as highlighted by T.N. Madan and Veena Das. For
example, reports of religious profiling and discrimination against Muslims in employment
and housing have surfaced in cities like Mumbai and Delhi, illustrating systemic biases and
prejudices.
 Communal Violence and Targeted Attacks: Ashis Nandy and Paul Brass have documented
the prevalence of communal violence and targeted attacks against religious minorities in
India. Example: incidents such as the Gujarat riots of 2002 and the Muzaffarnagar riots of
2013, where minority communities, particularly Muslims, were disproportionately affected
by violence and displacement. Such incidents exacerbate inter-religious tensions and
perpetuate a climate of fear and insecurity among religious minorities.
 Legal and Political Exclusion: Despite constitutional guarantees of religious freedom and
secularism, religious minorities in India often face legal and political exclusion, as noted by
Rajni Kothari and Christophe Jaffrelot. For example, debates surrounding the Citizenship
Amendment Act (CAA) and the National Register of Citizens (NRC) have raised concerns
about the exclusion of religious minorities, particularly Muslims, from citizenship rights and
541
entitlements.
 Stigmatization and Social Exclusion: Uma Chakravarti and Surinder S. Jodhka emphasize
the stigmatization and social exclusion experienced by religious minorities in India. For
instance, studies on caste-based discrimination within religious minority communities, such
as Dalit Christians and Dalit Muslims, highlight the intersectional nature of oppression and
the complexities of identity politics in India.
 Threats to Cultural and Religious Identity: Religious minorities in India also face threats to
their cultural and religious identity, as observed by Gyanendra Pandey and Mushirul
Hasan. Example: concerns about religious conversions, restrictions on religious practices,
and attacks on places of worship belonging to minority communities.
Measures to solve problems:

 Legal Reforms and Enforcement: Implementing and strengthening legal reforms to protect
the rights of religious minorities is crucial. Upendra Baxi and Marc Galanter emphasize the
importance of ensuring equal protection under the law and enforcing anti-discrimination
statutes. Example: the need for effective implementation of laws such as the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act and the Protection of Civil Rights Act to
address caste-based discrimination and violence against religious minorities.
 Promotion of Interfaith Dialogue and Understanding: Encouraging interfaith dialogue and
fostering mutual understanding among different religious communities is essential for
promoting social cohesion and harmony. Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum advocate for
pluralism and religious tolerance as foundational values of democracy.
 Economic Empowerment and Development: Addressing socio-economic disparities and
promoting economic empowerment among religious minorities is vital for reducing
inequality and marginalization. Amartya Sen and Mahbub ul Haq emphasize the
importance of human development and capabilities in fostering inclusive growth. Example:
affirmative action policies, such as reservations in education and employment, targeted
towards religious minority communities to enhance their access to opportunities and
resources for socio-economic advancement.
 Political Representation and Participation: Ensuring adequate political representation and
participation of religious minorities in governance and decision-making processes is crucial
for addressing their concerns and interests. Rajni Kothari and André Béteille highlight the
significance of political empowerment in a diverse democracy. Recent sociological efforts
include advocacy for electoral reforms, minority representation quotas, and inclusive
governance structures to enhance political inclusivity and representation of religious
minorities in legislative bodies and local governments.
Conclusion:
The problems faced by religious minorities in India are multifaceted and deeply entrenched,
encompassing issues of discrimination, communal violence, socio-economic marginalization,
political underrepresentation, and threats to cultural and religious identity.
By recognizing the rights and dignity of religious minorities and promoting pluralism and diversity,
India can strive towards building a more inclusive and equitable society where all citizens can live
with dignity and respect, regardless of their religious beliefs or affiliations.
542
Question 3.
a) Critically examine Yogendra Singh's thesis on 'Modernisation of Indian
Tradition'. (20 Marks)
 Introduction of Yogendra singh’s ideas
 Ideas of Yogendra Singh
 Criticism of Yogendra singh’s ideas
 Conclusion
Yogendra Singh's in his influential work, "Modernization of Indian Tradition" (1973), rejects a
singular model of modernization. He argues that in India, tradition (hierarchical, communal,
cyclical) interacts with modern influences, creating a unique blend. Traditional values, seen as
sacred and beyond pure logic, retain significant influence. This challenges the idea of modernization
as simply Westernization, highlighting a complex interplay shaping modern India.
Ideas of Yogendra Singh
 Complex Interaction with Tradition - Singh argues that modernization doesn't simply
replace existing traditions in India. Instead, there's a complex interaction between the two,
leading to unique adaptations. For e.g. The rise of democratic institutions in India, influenced
by Western models, coexists with the persistence of Panchayat Raj (local councils) that have
their roots in traditional village structures. These two systems co-function, demonstrating a
blend of modern and traditional elements.
 Selective Adaptation - Modernization in India, according to Singh, is not about complete
Westernization. Indians selectively adopt aspects of modernity that fit their existing cultural
context. E.g. - The concept of "individualism" gains traction in urban India, but the
importance of family and community remains strong. Career choices and social interactions
reflect a negotiation between these ideas, with a blend of pursuing individual goals while
maintaining strong family ties.
 Persistence of Traditional Values - Singh emphasizes that modernization doesn't erase
traditional values. These values continue to have a significant influence on Indian society
alongside the adoption of modern ideas. E.g. - Religious beliefs and practices remain deeply
ingrained in Indian society even with growing secularism. Modernity may translate to
reinterpreting religious texts to fit contemporary contexts, showcasing the persistence of
tradition alongside adaptation.
 Importance of Social Reform Movements - These movements challenged traditional
inequalities and paved the way for a more inclusive and modern society. Example:
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Movements like Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj challenged rigid caste structures and
advocated for women's education. These reforms contributed to the modernization of Indian
society by addressing social injustices rooted in tradition.
 Indigenization of Modernity - Singh's concept of "indigenization" highlights how India
adopts and adapts aspects of modernity to suit its unique cultural context. This creates a
distinct form of modernity that is not simply a replication of the West. For e.g. - The Indian
economy, while embracing aspects of globalization, also implements policies that prioritize
social welfare and poverty reduction, reflecting an adaptation of Western economic models
to address India's specific needs.
Criticism of Yogendra singh’s ideas
 JPS Oberoi In his book “Europe in modernity” says that Indian modernity and Europe in
modernity comes from the same principles-by rejecting religion. E.g. - Dalit movement can
be compared with Protestant movement.
 Avijit Pathak - He says that modernity is forcing people to follow a universal pattern of
growth that is economic and political, universal pattern of thinking-liberty, freedom and
“capability to develop their culture distinctively”. E.g. endogamy getting support from
computer revolution, loyalty to family is still appreciated globally.
 Uneven Modernization: Singh's work might underplay the unevenness of modernization
across different social classes and regions in India. The impact of modernization can be quite
varied. Rajni Kothari, in his work "Politics in India" (1970), highlights the persistence of
traditional hierarchies and inequalities despite the adoption of a democratic constitution.
Modernization benefits the urban elite more readily, leaving rural communities behind.
 Agency of Tradition: The thesis could delve deeper into how traditions themselves possess
an agency to adapt and evolve in response to modernizing forces. T.K. Oommen, argues that
Hinduism, for instance, has reinterpreted its doctrines to accommodate modern ideas of
nationalism and social reform.
Overall, Yogendra Singh's thesis offers a valuable framework for understanding modernization in
India. It highlights the complex interplay between tradition and modernity, but further exploration
of the unevenness, agency of tradition, and the negotiation between Westernization and
indigenization would enrich the analysis.
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b) Discuss the material basis of patriarchy as an ideological system. (20

Marks)
 Define patriarchy
 Role of material factors in perpetuating patriarchy
 Impact of material basis of patriarchy on the society
 Conclusion
Patriarchy delineates a societal framework where men predominantly wield power, occupying
positions of political leadership, moral ascendancy, social advantage, and property control. It's not
merely cultural beliefs, but a deeply entrenched system reinforced by economic structures, social
hierarchies, and legal frameworks.
Role of material factors in perpetuating patriarchy
 Land Ownership and Inheritance: Historically, land ownership, a significant source of wealth
and power in agrarian India, has been skewed towards men. This translates to control over
resources and decision-making, marginalizing women economically. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
advocated for equal property rights for women, recognizing their economic vulnerability
within patriarchal structures. Jean Dreze, highlights the importance of land reforms that
ensure women's rightful share in land ownership.
 Labor Division and Gender Roles: Traditional division of labor relegates women to unpaid
domestic work, undervaluing their contribution to the household economy. This reinforces
the notion of men as breadwinners and women as dependents. Limited access to education
and skills training restricts women's participation in the formal workforce, further hindering
their economic independence. Flavia Agnes, a prominent women's rights lawyer, advocates
for skill development programs for women to empower them for economic independence.
 The Caste System and Social Norms: The caste system intersects with patriarchy, creating a
hierarchy where women of lower castes face compounded disadvantages. They experience
both caste-based discrimination and patriarchal control within their communities. Bama
Fazal, a Dalit writer, in her autobiography "A House for Rent," showcases the double burden
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faced by Dalit women. Kancha Ilaiah, a political theorist, argues for dismantling the caste
system to empower women from marginalized communities.
 Legal System and Political Participation: Unequal representation of women in legislative
bodies and positions of power limits their ability to influence laws and policies. Legal
loopholes and biases within the legal system can make it difficult for women to seek justice
in cases of domestic violence, sexual harassment, or property disputes. Indira Jaising, a
human rights lawyer, advocates for legal reforms that strengthen women's rights and ensure
their effective implementation.
 Control over Sexuality and Reproduction: Patriarchal control over women's sexuality
manifests in practices like child marriage, dowry, and "honor killings." Limited access to
reproductive healthcare and family planning services restricts women's control over their
fertility, impacting their life choices and educational pursuits. Rajeshwari Sundar Rajan, a
sociologist, highlights the importance of women's access to reproductive healthcare for their
overall well-being and empowerment.
 Education systems often reinforce patriarchal ideologies through curriculums that
perpetuate gender stereotypes and through institutional practices that privilege boys and
men. Indian women's studies scholar Vina Mazumdar, in her work "Spaces of Inscription:
Towards a Feminist Reading of Ancient India," argues that traditional educational systems
in India have often focused on the achievements of men, neglecting the contributions of
women throughout history. This marginalizes women's experiences and reinforces the
notion that men are the primary contributors to knowledge and societal progress.
Impact of material basis of patriarchy on the society
 Limited Economic Participation: By restricting women's access to education, land ownership,
and inheritance, patriarchy limits their ability to participate in the formal workforce. This
translates to a smaller skilled workforce. A 2021 report by McKinsey Global Institute
estimates that India's GDP could be boosted by 27% by 2025 if women participate equally in
the workforce.
 Exploitation and Vulnerability: Women's limited economic options can make them more
vulnerable to exploitation in low-paying, unsafe jobs. Additionally, dependence on men for
financial resources can lead to situations of domestic violence and power imbalances within
families. A 2022 report by the National Crime Records Bureau of India highlights the high
prevalence of crimes against women, often linked to their economic dependence on male
family members.
 Inequality and Social Tension: The stark economic disparity between genders fuels social
inequalities. This can lead to resentment, social unrest, and hinder efforts to build a more
inclusive and cohesive society. The ongoing fight for equal pay and representation in various
sectors across India exemplifies this social tension.
 Burden on Healthcare System: Limited access to education and healthcare for women can
lead to higher rates of maternal mortality and malnutrition, placing an additional burden on
the healthcare system. According to data from UNICEF, India still faces challenges in
reducing maternal mortality rates, which can be partly attributed to limited access to quality
healthcare for women in rural areas.
 Demographic Imbalance: Sex-selective abortions due to patriarchal preference for sons can
lead to skewed sex ratios. This has potential social and security implications in the future,
such as a shortage of women and an increase in violence against women.
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In India, tackling entrenched gender disparity requires a multi-pronged approach. Public policies
like quotas for women in local government and economic initiatives like microfinance programs
empower women. Educational campaigns like "Beti Bachao Beti Padhao" challenge traditional roles.
These interventions, along with fostering inclusive governance, are crucial to dismantle patriarchal
structures and achieve true equality.
c) Explain different forms of untouchability in India. (10 Marks)

Approach:
 Intro - Explain Untouchability
 Classical Sociological Perspective on Untouchability
 Different Forms of Untouchability
 Conclusion
Answer:
Untouchability is a social practice in India where certain groups, primarily the Dalits (formerly
known as "untouchables"), face various forms of social, economic, and political discrimination and
exclusion based on their caste.
Despite being outlawed by the Indian Constitution in 1950, untouchability still persists in various
forms across the country.
Sociological Perspective on Untouchability
 Emile Durkheim's concept of social solidarity elucidates how norms and values surrounding
purity and pollution reinforce the caste-based hierarchy, contributing to the perpetuation of
untouchability
 Louis Dumont
o He highlights the hierarchical nature of the caste system stemming from the purity
and pollution dichotomy, where untouchability stems from notions of purity and
impurity associated with different castes.
 M.N. Srinivas
o He discussed the concept of "Sanskritization," where lower castes seek upward
mobility by adopting the customs and practices of higher castes.
o While this process may appear to offer upward mobility, it can sometimes perpetuate
the legitimacy of the caste hierarchy, including untouchability
 B.R. Ambedkar
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o His works like Annihilation of Caste highlight the deep-seated injustice and
discrimination faced by Dalits.
o He argued that untouchability is not just a matter of tradition, but a systematic tool
for the social, economic, and political subjugation of Dalits.
 Gail Omvedt
o She explores how untouchability affects Dalit women differently, as they face not only
caste-based discrimination but also gender discrimination.
 Functionalist Perspective
o It views untouchability as a dysfunctional element in society, creating division and
impeding social cohesion.
 Conflict Perspective
o It sees untouchability as a mechanism for maintaining the dominance of higher castes
over lower castes, perpetuating inequality and conflict in society.
 Social Constructionism
o This perspective explores how social realities such as caste and untouchability are
constructed and maintained through shared cultural beliefs and practices
Different Forms of Untouchability
 Social Exclusion: Dalits are often barred from entering temples, using wells, or participating
in community events. They may be prohibited from sitting with higher castes or sharing
meals with them.
 Occupational Discrimination: Certain jobs are traditionally associated with Dalits, such as
manual scavenging and leatherworking, which are considered impure and demeaning.
 Spatial Segregation: In many villages, Dalits live in separate areas or colonies, away from
higher-caste people.
 Educational Discrimination: Dalit children may face bias in schools, where they might be
made to sit separately from other students and receive lower quality education.
 Economic Discrimination: Dalits often face barriers in employment opportunities and may
be paid lower wages compared to their higher-caste counterparts.
 Violence and Intimidation: Dalits frequently encounter violence, harassment, and
intimidation from higher castes, particularly when asserting their rights or trying to break
out of traditional roles.
Conclusion
Untouchability is a deeply entrenched social issue in India, perpetuated by social norms, structural
inequalities, and intersecting axes of oppression. Addressing this requires not only legal and policy
interventions but also societal awareness and changes in attitudes towards caste and social
hierarchy. This can help in creating a more equitable and just society for all, regardless of caste.
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Question 4.
a) Examine the social background of growth of Indian nationalism.(20
Marks)
 Introduction of social background of Indian nationalism
 Phases of Social Background of Indian Nationalism
1. Till 1885
2. 1885-1905
3. 1905-1915
4. 1918-1935
5. 1935-1940
 Critique to Desai’s approach
 Conclusion
The emergence of Indian nationalism during British colonial rule in the 19th and early 20th centuries
is demonstrably linked to its social background.
A.R. Desai argues that economic policies and resulting social changes were the primary drivers. He
identifies five distinct phases, each fueled by a specific social class with grievances against British
rule. Diverse classes like industrialists and peasants developed shared frustrations with British rule,
which, combined with a desire for freedom, coalesced into the powerful force of Indian nationalism.
Phase 1 (Pre-1885): A Narrow Social Base - The Intelligentsia
 The initial phase of Indian nationalism, before 1885, had a very limited social base. It was
primarily driven by the educated elite, a product of the new British education system.
 Pioneered by figures like Raja Rammohan Roy and his followers, this early phase focused on
critiques of British rule through intellectual discourse and social reform movements.
 The movement lacked a broad social base and hadn't yet developed a clear political agenda.
Phase 2 (1885-1905): Rise of the Bourgeoisie
 The founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 marked a shift in the social base of the
movement.
 The newly emerging middle class, consisting of educated professionals, merchants who
benefited from expanding trade, and a nascent class of industrialists, began to take center
stage.
 Their focus shifted towards political reforms, advocating for greater "Indianization" of
services (meaning increased employment of Indians in government positions), participation
of Indians in the administrative machinery of the state, and stopping the economic drain of
India's resources by British policies. These demands were reflected in the resolutions passed
at the Indian National Congress meetings.
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Phase 3 (1905-1918): Militancy and Inclusion of Lower-Middle Class
 The period from 1905 to 1918 witnessed a shift towards a more militant stance within the
national movement. Extremists instilled a feeling of national self-respect and self-confidence
among the people began to rely on their own strength for achieving it.
 This phase saw the inclusion of sections of the lower-middle class, broadening the
movement's social base. The movement adopted more confrontational methods to challenge
British rule.
Phase 4 (1918-1934): Mass Mobilization and Dominant Role of Capitalist Class
 The period between 1918 and the end of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1934 marked a
significant expansion of the social base of the national movement. It was no longer confined
to upper and middle classes.
 Mass mobilization efforts led to the participation of sections of the Indian masses, including
peasants and workers. However, Desai argues that despite this mass participation, the
leadership of the Congress remained firmly in the hands of those who were influenced by
the Indian capitalist class.
 With Gandhi at the helm, the agenda of the movement continued to be shaped by the interests
of this dominant class, dictating program, strategies, and tactics.
 This period also saw the rise of socialist and communist groups advocating for a pro-people
agenda within the larger movement, while on the other hand, communalist forces seeking to
divide society along religious lines also began to consolidate.
Phase 5 (1934-1939): Disenchantment and Diversification
 The final phase, spanning from 1934 to 1939, was characterized by a growing sense of
disenchantment with the Gandhian ideology within the Congress.
 Socialist groups representing the interests of the petty bourgeoisie elements gained traction.
Outside the Congress, various movements representing peasants, workers, depressed
classes, and linguistic nationalities emerged, actively agitating for their specific rights.
 Communalism also continued to grow during this period. Despite these diverse voices and
movements, Desai suggests that the mainstream nationalist movement remained firmly
under the control of the Gandhian Congress, which continued to represent the interests of
the dominant classes.
Criticism of Desai’s approach
 According to S.C.Dube, Desai overlooks the proliferation of the middle class in India
throughout history, which was a significant group in influencing class structure in India.
 TN Madan - The forces of modernity and change must not be overlooked. In addition, the
Jajmani system's unity and solidarity are overlooked.
 Romila Thapar - India was never a single nation, but rather a collection of nations. They
banded together solely to oppose colonial control.
 Dr. Ambedkar - The actual struggle in India is between castes since India's class structure is
yet underdeveloped.
 M.N.Srinivas - Desai was an economist, whilst Indologists were cultural determinists.
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The social roots of Indian nationalism reveal a complex interplay of factors. Colonial economic
hardship, as emphasized by Desai, was undeniable, but the movement transcended mere
economics. Disrupted social structures and new classes (e.g., educated middle class) fueled
discontent. Beyond economics, Indian nationalism drew strength from intellectual critiques,
unifying cultural forces, and diverse social movements. This multifaceted interplay fostered
national consciousness. Recognizing these diverse social forces, as exemplified by Desai's analysis
with distinct phases, is crucial. Indian nationalism wasn't a singular ideology, but a dynamic
response to colonialism that paved the path to freedom.
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b) Explain how land reforms brought about desired agrarian transformation.

(20 Marks)
Overview
 Brief introduction agriculture scenario
 Various land reforms
 Land reforms and agrarian transformation
 Reason for failure of land reforms
 Conclusion
Following its independence, India faced the challenge of reforming a deeply entrenched feudal land
system inherited from British colonial rule. This system, characterized by exploitative
intermediaries like Zamindars, concentrated land ownership in the hands of a select few, leaving
the vast majority of farmers as marginalized tenants or smallholders. Recognizing this critical issue,
land reforms became a cornerstone of the nation's rural development strategy. These reforms aimed
to dismantle the exploitative system, redistribute land more equitably, and empower farmers to
invest in a more productive agricultural sector.
Various land Reforms
 Abolition of Intermediaries: Intermediaries like Zamindars, Talukdars, Jagirs and Inams
had dominated the agricultural sector in India by the time the country attained
independence. Soon after independence, measures for the abolition of the Zamindari system
were adopted in different states.
 Tenancy Reforms- Tenants cannot be evicted without any reason. They can be evicted only
in accordance with the laws. Different State Governments passed tenancy legislations to
regulate rent. The main objective of such Acts was to make the rent fair and reasonable. In
some states provisions have been made allowing the tenant to purchase the leased land on
payment of a price to the landlord. As a result of these measures about 40 lakh tenants have
already acquired ownership rights over 37 lakh hectares of land. They have become better-
off economically and socially.
 Ceiling on land holdings - The third important step of land reforms relates to the imposition
of ceiling on land holdings. Ceiling on land holdings implies the fixing of the maximum
amount of land that an individual or family can possess.
 Consolidation of Holdings- Consolidation of Holdings means bringing together the various
small plots of land of a farmer scattered all over the village as one compact block, either
through purchase or exchange of land with others.
 Co-operative farming -In this system, farmers pool their small holdings for the purpose of
cultivation and reap benefits of large-scale farming. The advantages of scientific farming,
adopting the new potential technologies can be reaped; co-operative farming lays the
foundation of strong democracy, self-help and mutual help.
 Bhoodan Movement - The Bhoodan Movement was spearheaded by Acharya Vinoba Bhabe.
He collected land from the rich landlords and distributed that to the landless.
 Compilation and updating of land records - Compilation and updating of the land records
are an essential condition for the effective implementation of land reforms programme.
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Land reforms and agrarian transformation
 Land redistribution - Land reforms have resulted in land redistribution and land record
systematisation. Intermediaries were largely abolished, and ownership rights were granted
to around 200 lakh tenants. More than 53 lakh acres of land were transferred, with SCs and
STs accounting for the vast bulk of recipients. This raised their social status and also impacted
the agrarian structure and local relations.
 Decline of joint family – concept of individual ownership impacted the institution of joint
family. Later it helps in more freedom and liberty to individuals in other affairs also.
 The agrarian class structure had completely transformed. Landlords were replaced by
wealthy farmers, and renters by low-wage agricultural labourers. Land redistribution
boosted the proportion of backward castes and classes. According to Zoya Hasan's research,
the percentage of the backward classes in land ownership climbed from 8% before
independence to 38% in 1989.
 Migration - Inadequate implementation Land reforms and eviction of tenants caused a
sizable population in poorer states to migrate to more wealthy states to work in agriculture.
Rich farmers turned to self-cultivation, and old social connections were severed. This resulted
in rural-urban migration.
 Caste system- Land reforms resulted in the establishment of powerful middle peasant
classes. Traditional farmer classes benefited the most. Following the triumph of the Green
Revolution, several of these castes emerged as dominant mates. Following the 1970s, political
consolidation of these castes projected their interests on national and state political stages as
well. In their 1987 book 'In Pursuit of Lakshmi,' Rudolph and Rudolph labelled this group of
prosperous middle-class farmers as Bullock capitalist.
 The rise of contemporary entrepreneurs during the last four decades is another significant
characteristic of the agricultural structure. They are mostly chosen from the ranks of former
feudal landlords, proper stratum of privileged tenants, and larger ryots and money lenders.
Furthermore, the expansion of commercialization has enhanced production technology.
 One significant result of land reforms has been the transformation of subsistence farming
into commercial farming. Commercial and contemporary agriculture has resulted in large
growers leasing land from small producers.
Causes of failure of land reforms:
 Undue advance publicity and delay in enacting land laws: According to the World Bank,
“We have, for an unduly long time, continued to preach land reforms rather than practise
them and this has proved counterproductive.”
 Implementation and legal issues - Cohen rightly observes, “The existing lower or weak
position of the tenant would not have been a handicap in the amelioration of his conditions
if the law had been a bit kind to him.
 Malafide transfer of land - To escape the laws relating to land ceilings, the Zamindars have
indulged in large scale transfer of land to their family members or kinsmen.
 Lack of social consciousness among the tenants: M.L. Dantwala rightly observed, “Large
holders, articulate and capable, organised pressure in defence of their interests and the small
cultivators and the landless were not only unorganised but in most cases, ignorant of legal
and constitutional process.
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 State side with the big farmers: N. C. Saxena has rightly observed that the state governments
which control the land operations have moved favourably towards the big farmers.
 Bureaucratic corruption: Land reforms provide a golden opportunity to the Patwari and
other functionaries of the Revenue Department to make money. Again, in many cases the
highly placed officials are themselves landlords.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, land reforms in India have played a significant, though uneven, role in shaping
agrarian transformation. While they have contributed to increased productivity, diversification, and
empowerment of some social groups, challenges like incomplete implementation, land
fragmentation, and persistent social inequalities remain. Moving forward, India's agrarian
transformation requires a renewed focus on equitable land distribution, investments in
infrastructure and education for small farmers, and policies that promote sustainable agricultural
practices. By addressing these issues and learning from past experiences, India can strive for a more
inclusive and prosperous rural future.
c) Discuss the challenges during village studies in India. (10 Marks)
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Approach
 Introduction
 Various Village Studies with Sociological Perspective
 Conclusion
Introduction
Village studies in India have played a pivotal role in understanding rural society and the dynamics
of village life. Scholars such as M.N. Srinivas, A.R. Desai, and G.S. Ghurye have made substantial
contributions to this field.
Despite the rich insights these studies offer, there are numerous challenges inherent in this line of
research.
Various Village Studies with Sociological Perspective
 Diverse Social Fabric
o India is characterized by an extraordinary diversity in terms of language, culture,
caste, religion, and economic activities across regions.
o M.N. Srinivas's work in Coorg underscored the need to focus on local cultural
practices and social structures unique to each village.
 Caste System
o G.S. Ghurye's studies on caste and race in India highlighted the essential role of
understanding the caste system to comprehend the village social structure.
o However, it presents a challenge for researchers in terms of access and representation
of various groups.
 Rapid Social Change
o A.R. Desai's work in rural sociology stressed the need to assess the effects of swift
social transformations due to factors such as urbanization, migration, and
modernization on village structures.
o These rapid changes make it challenging for researchers to capture the evolving
dynamics of village life.
 Methodological Challenges
o Conducting village studies often requires long-term immersion in the village
community, employing participant observation, interviews, and surveys.
o This process can be hampered by logistical issues, language barriers, and cultural
differences.
o In his study of Rampura village, M.N. Srinivas emphasized the need for adaptability
in research methods to navigate these obstacles.
 Ethical Dilemmas
o Researching sensitive topics such as caste discrimination, gender inequality, and
poverty necessitates careful handling of ethical issues to protect research subjects.
o A.R. Desai's work on India's agrarian crisis underscored the importance of ethical
sensitivity and confidentiality in research.
 Political Influence:
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o Local politics and power dynamics can influence village studies, presenting challenges
for researchers to maintain objectivity and avoid entanglement in political disputes.
Conclusion
Village studies in India offer valuable insights into the country's rural landscape but are not without
challenges. From the diversity of India's social fabric to ethical and methodological issues,
researchers must navigate complex terrain to conduct meaningful studies.
The work of sociologists such as M.N. Srinivas, A.R. Desai, and G.S. Ghurye provides essential
guidance in understanding local practices, social structures, and the impact of rapid social change
on Indian villages.
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Section - B
Question 5. Write short answers, with a sociological perspective, on the following
questions in about 150 words each: 10x5=50
a) Discuss law as an important instrument for women's empowerment. (10
Marks)
 Briefly introduce women empowerment
 Law as an Important Instrument for Women's Empowerment
 Limitations of Law in Women's Empowerment
 Conclusion
Women's empowerment is a critical aspect of societal progress, encapsulating the promotion of
women's self-worth, the facilitation of autonomous decision-making, and the assertion of their right
to contribute to social change. In this pursuit, the role of law becomes indispensable, serving as a
powerful instrument to challenge entrenched patriarchy and facilitate the advancement of women's
rights.
Law as an Important Instrument for Women's Empowerment:
 Challenging Patriarchy in Family: The legal landscape plays a pivotal role in challenging
patriarchal norms within families. The Child Marriage Restraint Act of 1929 stands as a
historical testament, liberating girl children from the shackles of early marriage. By
establishing a legal age for marriage, this act has been instrumental in safeguarding the rights
of young girls and fostering their personal development.
 Leadership in Local Administration: The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts of
1992 have been transformative in enabling over 15 lakh women to ascend to leadership
positions in local administration. These legal provisions not only democratize local
governance but also amplify women's voices, breaking traditional barriers and fostering a
more inclusive political landscape.
 Safe Marriage Institution: The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005, is a
significant legal stride in making the institution of marriage safer for women. By addressing
various forms of domestic abuse, this law empowers women to assert their rights within the
confines of matrimony, creating a legal framework that protects their physical and emotional
well-being.
 Protecting Employment Rights: The Maternity Benefit Act of 1961 is a crucial legislative tool
that safeguards the employment rights of women. By ensuring maternity benefits, including
paid leave and medical allowances, this law acknowledges and supports women's dual roles
as professionals and mothers, contributing to their economic empowerment.
 Ensuring Equal Pay: The Equal Remuneration Act of 1976 plays a pivotal role in addressing
gender-based wage disparities. By mandating equal pay for equal work, this legal provision
seeks to bridge the gender pay gap, promoting economic equity and recognizing the value of
women's contributions in the workforce.
Limitations of Law in Women's Empowerment:

 Uniformity in Age of Marriage: Despite legal strides, the recent change sought in the
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Prohibition of Child Marriage Act raises questions about the effectiveness of a uniform age
for marriage. Diverse socio-cultural contexts may demand a nuanced approach, emphasizing
the need for a more context-specific legal framework.
 “Pradhan Pati” Phenomenon: In local governance, the phenomenon of "pradhan pati"
illustrates a limitation where women elected as Panchayat leaders are sidelined, with their
husbands exerting undue influence. This underscores the need for comprehensive legal
measures to ensure the genuine empowerment of women in leadership roles.
 Marital Rape and Entitlements: The classification of marital rape under domestic violence
rather than IPC 375 highlights a gap in legal protection. Reformative measures are imperative
to explicitly criminalize marital rape, acknowledging it as a distinct offense and not merely a
subset of domestic violence.
 Entitlements Based on Patriarchy: Indira Jai Singh's critique exposes the broader issue of
laws and entitlements perpetuating patriarchal norms. An overhaul in legal frameworks and
societal attitudes is essential to dismantle entrenched gender biases and truly empower
women.
Conclusion
Andre Beteille's insight asserts that while law directs society's ideal path, family and culture shape
its actual course. In the realm of women's empowerment, acknowledging legal limitations
emphasizes the vital need for continuous reform, striking a delicate balance between legal
provisions and societal evolution to create an environment fostering women's meaningful
contribution to social change.
b) Examine different understandings of secularisation in India. (10 Marks)

 Explain concept of secularism in Indian context
 Historical roots of secularism
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 Constitutional Framework
 Sociological view on Indian secularism
 Conclusion
The concept of secularism in India emerged in the context of religious pluralism, as against religious
authoritarianism in the West. In India, the term secularism implies that the state will not identify
with any one religion but is tolerant of all religious practices. Thus the secular tenets of Indian
constitution are, "goodwill towards all religions", "sarvadharma sambhava" (equal respect for all
faiths), and "dharma nirpekshata" (indifference to religion).
Historical roots of secularism
 Born from the struggle for independence, secularism served as a rallying point to unite
diverse communities against colonial rule. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi championed it as
a necessity for a unified and inclusive nation, promoting tolerance and mutual respect
across religious lines.
 Jawaharlal Nehru envisioned it not just as a separation of religion and state, but as a
progressive and modern outlook crucial for a newly independent India.
 B.R. Ambedkar further emphasized the state's role in uprooting societal injustices deeply
rooted in religious ideologies like the caste system.
Constitutional Framework:
Embodied in the Constitution, India's secularism comprises three core principles:
 No State Religion: India has no official religion, ensuring no faith enjoys preferential
treatment by the state
 Freedom of Religion: As a fundamental right, all citizens have the liberty to believe, practice,
and propagate their chosen religion.
 Equality Among Religions: The state guarantees equal respect and protection to all religions,
preventing discrimination or favoring one over another.
Sociological view on Indian secularism
 Some scholars, like T.N. Madan, critique the "Nehruvian" model of secularism for potentially
creating an artificial separation between religion and other life spheres. They advocate for a
"modern secularism" adapted to India's cultural context, acknowledging the deep influence
of religion in everyday life.
 Ashish Nandy challenges the Western model of secularization, arguing it's not relevant or
desirable for India. He emphasizes the deep intertwining of religion and societal fabric. He
advocates for interfaith dialogue and respecting religious diversity rather than aiming for
complete separation of religion from public life.
 M.N. Srinivas views secularization as a transition from religious to non-religious domains.
He emphasizes differentiation: spheres like politics, economy, and law becoming
increasingly autonomous from religious influence.
 A.R. Desai highlights the seeming contradiction between the state's promotion of science and
secularism while simultaneously engaging in religious revivalism. He points to the use of
religious symbols like the Dharmachakra in national emblems and state-organized
pilgrimages, raising concerns about potential state interference in religious matters.
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Conclusion:
Secularism in India is a dynamic and evolving concept, intricately linked to its historical context,
diverse population, and constitutional framework. Understanding its various interpretations and
challenges is crucial for fostering a truly inclusive and progressive society that respects the plurality
of its religious fabric while upholding the principles of equality and national unity.
c) How do you view the growth of informal sector in India? (10 Marks)
 Explain informal sector
 Growth and drivers of informal sector
 Positive of the informal sector
 Negative Aspects of informal sector
 Conclusion
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The informal sector, coined by British anthropologist Keith Hart, encompasses economic activities
operating outside the formalized legal and regulatory framework.
The informal sector in India, characterized by lack of formal contracts, unregistered businesses, and
limited access to social security, plays a vital role in the economy. Encompassing agriculture, self-
employment, contract labor, household labor (predominantly women), and child labor, it presents
both opportunities and challenges for inclusive growth.
Growth and drivers of informal sector
The informal sector has witnessed robust growth in recent decades, particularly after the 1991
liberalization reforms. Sarath Davala's report highlights how informality rose from 91% in 1991 to
96% in 2014, reflecting a complex interplay of factors:
 Downsizing in organized industries: Automation and economic shifts lead to job losses in
formal sectors, pushing workers into informality.
 The emergence of gig and platform work has become a significant driver of informalization.
Jobs in this sector are often short-term, project-based, and characterized by informal working
arrangements, contributing to the overall growth of the informal economy.
 A substantial segment of the Indian populace faces barriers in accessing quality education
and skill development opportunities. This impediment hinders their ability to secure formal
employment, resulting in a surge in the informal sector. A 2022 UNESCO report found that
25% of Indian youth lack basic literacy and numeracy skills, limiting their formal
employment opportunities.
 India's annual population growth of roughly 1.2% translates to approximately 12 million
new entrants into the labor force each year. As of 2023, the formal sector only absorbs a
fraction of this growth, leaving millions with limited options outside informal work. A
specific example can be seen in cities like Delhi, where rapid population growth fuels the
expansion of informal settlements and street vending, where many residents find their source
of income.
Positive of the informal sector
 Employment Generation: In 2022, the World Bank estimated that 81% of non-agricultural
employment in India occurred in the informal sector, providing crucial income to millions.
 Local Economies: Street vendors in India contribute significantly to local
economies, estimated to account for 15% of urban employment and offering affordable goods
and services.
 Inclusive Growth: Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) in India empowers women
through microfinance, skill development, and advocacy, enabling their participation in the
informal sector and improving livelihoods.
 Flexibility - Arvind Panagariya's emphasis on labor reforms to boost formal job creation
aligns with the need for a balance between formal and informal sectors. The informal
manufacturing clusters in India, such as those in Tirupur and Moradabad, demonstrate
agility and adaptability to market demands, but there's potential for further growth with
improved formalization and infrastructure.
Negative Aspects of informal sector
 Lack of Social Security: A 2023 study by the International Labour Organization found that
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88% of Indian informal workers lack access to social security, leaving them vulnerable during
illness, injury, or old age.
 Low Productivity: According to McKinsey report noted that India's informal sector is
characterized by low productivity compared to formal enterprises, hindering overall
economic growth
 Regulatory Challenges: Lack of formal registration and licensing in the informal sector can
contribute to tax evasion and hinder government efforts to improve working conditions and
safety standards.
 Limited Access to Credit: informal businesses in India face significant challenges in accessing
formal credit, limiting their growth potential.
 Exploitation and discrimination: Women, children, and migrant workers are particularly
susceptible to exploitation within the informal sector. Indian Express reports that 70% of
informal workers belong to Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward
Classes.
The growth of the informal sector in India presents a multi-faceted challenge. Recognizing its
complexities while leveraging its potential necessitates a holistic approach that prioritizes the well-
being of workers, fosters inclusion, and promotes sustainable growth. By strengthening regulations,
investing in social security, and enabling smooth transitions to formalization, India can navigate
this rapidly evolving landscape to ensure a secure and equitable future for all.
d) Discuss the role of pressure groups in strengthening democracy. (10

Marks)
 Explain the concept of Pressure groups
 Role of pressure groups in strengthening democracy
 Role of pressure groups in undermining democracy
 Conclusion
Pressure groups, also termed interest groups, strive for specific changes in state decision-making
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without seeking political power. In any democracy like India, they influence governance through
various means like contacts with officials, parliamentary lobbying, party affiliations, media
campaigns, and direct action.
Role of pressure groups in strengthening democracy
 Representation: As scholar Rajni Kothari emphasizes, pressure groups offer crucial
"countervailing power" to the state, representing diverse communities like the Adivasi
Sangha (tribal rights) or the National Alliance of People's Movements (rural
development). This ensures their voices are heard in policy debates, enriching democratic
discourse.
 Policy Advocacy: The Right to Information movement, spearheaded by groups like Mazdoor
Kisan Shakti Sangathan, exemplifies how pressure groups can influence policy through
research, public campaigns, and lobbying, leading to landmark legislation promoting
transparency and citizen empowerment.
 Oversight and Scrutiny: Groups like the People's Union for Civil Liberties (PUCL) act as
watchdogs, exposing corruption like the Vyapam scam (education entrance exam
manipulation), holding the government accountable and strengthening democratic checks
and balances.
 Social Mobilization and Participation: The Narmada Bachao Andolan (Save Narmada River
movement) demonstrates how pressure groups can mobilize mass participation, raising
public awareness on environmental issues and encouraging citizens to engage in democratic
processes.
 Bridging the Gap: As political scientist Ashutosh Varshney argues, groups like the Bharatiya
Mazdoor Sangh (trade union) can act as bridges between communities and the
state, facilitating dialogue and understanding on issues like labor rights, fostering social
cohesion.
Role of pressure groups in undermining democracy:
 Unequal Influence: Critics like economist Jayati Ghosh argue that powerful groups like
corporate lobbies enjoy disproportionate access to decision-makers, influencing policies like
farm laws seen as detrimental to small farmers. This raises concerns about unequal
representation and potential policy capture.
 Dubious Methods: Instances of political funding scandals involving pressure groups in
India, as highlighted by scholars like Yogendra Yadav, raise concerns about the ethical
practices employed and their impact on democratic integrity.
 Limited Scope: Critics argue that groups often focus on specific agendas, potentially
neglecting broader societal concerns. For example, caste-based groups advocating for
specific reservations might overlook the need for holistic policies addressing systemic
inequalities.
 Identity Politics and Polarization: Groups advocating for narrow interests based on religion
or caste, like the Shiv Sena (regional party), can exploit group identities for political
gains, potentially fueling social divisions and hindering national unity. This can undermine
democratic values of tolerance and compromise.
 Middle-Class Bias: Dipankar Gupta observes that pressure groups often represent middle-
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class concerns, potentially sidelining issues faced by disadvantaged groups like Tribes and
other economically marginalized sections.
Pressure groups are a double-edged sword in India's democracy. While they can strengthen citizen
participation, hold the government accountable, and advocate for specific issues, their potential for
misuse and unequal influence cannot be ignored. Finding a balance through transparency, legal
frameworks, and promoting the voices of diverse groups is crucial to ensure pressure groups
contribute constructively to a vibrant and inclusive Indian democracy.
e) What role do co-operatives play in poverty alleviation in rural India? (10

Marks)
 Briefly explain the concept of cooperatives
 Role of cooperatives in poverty alleviation
 Issues related to cooperatives
 Conclusion
In rural India, cooperatives empower communities by offering financial aid and protection from
exploitation. Unlike traditional models, they are member-owned and democratic, with open
membership, legal status, limited liability, and democratic decision-making. By providing
resources, improving market access, and fostering skill development, they uplift individuals and
contribute to poverty reduction.
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According to A.R. Desai, cooperatives helped in stabilising agrarian social order and
complemented reforms in the agrarian landscape. B.S.Baviskar examined sugar cooperatives in
Maharashtra and discussed political class dominance in cooperatives, as well as the emergence of a
new kind of politics known as 'cooperative politics.'
Role of cooperatives in poverty alleviation –
 India's Five Year Plans have long recognized cooperatives as critical tools in the fight against
poverty. This isn't just rhetoric; cooperatives hold a proven track record in empowering
marginalized communities and driving inclusive growth.
 Access to resources and credit: In Kerala, the Kudumbashree Mission, a state-level women's
empowerment program, utilizes self-help groups (SHGs) as mini-cooperatives. These SHGs
provide access to microfinance, allowing women to start small businesses or invest in
agriculture, leading to increased income and improved livelihoods.
 Improved market access and bargaining power: The National Milk Producers' Federation
of India (NDDB), inspired by Amul's success, has helped establish dairy cooperatives across
the country. These cooperatives collect milk from individual farmers and collectively
negotiate better prices with processors, ensuring fairer returns for producers.
 Skill development and training: cooperatives provide skill development and training
programs to women in the informal sector, including tailoring, handicrafts, and food
processing. These programs equip women with marketable skills, enabling them to find
better jobs and earn higher incomes.
 Empowerment and social inclusion: The Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA), led
by Ela Bhatt, organizes women workers from diverse backgrounds like street vendors,
domestic workers, and home-based laborers. SEWA functions as a collective voice,
advocating for their rights, providing social security, and promoting their economic
participation.
 Gender equality: The Indian Farmers' Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), a fertilizer cooperative,
has implemented initiatives to encourage women's participation in its governance and
operations. This not only empowers women but also brings diverse perspectives to decision-
making, leading to more inclusive and sustainable practices.
 Beyond Economics: The Indian cooperative movement, under the leadership of iconic
figures like Vinoba Bhave, has transcended purely economic goals. It carries a strong
"spiritual content," promoting values of cooperation, equality, and collective upliftment,
fostering social cohesion and community development.
Issues related to cooperatives
 Inadequate Funds - The co-operative society has a restricted working capital that is
insufficient to undertake any course of action.
 Political Intrusion - Politicians take advantage of cooperatives to get an edge and increase
their vote bank. They cling to the co-operative society like a leech, reducing co-operative
output.
 According to Daniel Thorner, caste affiliation is vital in the operation of cooperatives.
 The crucial link in the cooperative finance system, i.e. cooperative banks, remains
deplorable. They are too little to function effectively, and some of them just exist on paper.
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Cooperative bank NPAs are higher than commercial bank NPAs, as measured by NPAs to
asset ratios - PMC crisis
 Regional differences in cooperative movement – the limited success of cooperatives in some
of the most fertile and populous regions suggest a link with demographic and cultural issues.
States such as Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and others responded
positively, whereas states like as Assam, Bihar, and West Bengal did not.
 Lack of attention to members - Favouritism has crept into this movement. Rich people, such
as large farmers and landlords, received a lot of attention, whereas ordinary people and poor
farmers were ignored. Satydev studied the Haryana Seed Cooperative and argued that
wealthy landlords obtain the best quality seeds.
 According to Chaturvedi, the cooperative movement benefited huge landlords and rich
peasants, but it did not aid landless or impoverished people.
In essence, co-operatives emerge not only as economic entities but as pillars of hope and change.
Their role in poverty alleviation is deeply intertwined with fostering resilience, empowering
communities, and embodying the ethos of collective progress. As India grapples with the complex
challenges of poverty, the cooperative model stands as a beacon, exemplifying the potential for
collaborative, inclusive, and sustainable solutions to uplift the socio-economic landscape of the
nation.
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Question 6.
a) Examine whether rural bondage still continues to be a social reality. Give
your argument. (20 Marks)
 Explain the concept of rural bondage
 Reasons for bonded labour
 Arguments for Continued Rural Bondage
 Arguments for Decline of bonded labour
 Conclusion
Bonded labor, also known as debt bondage, is a form of forced labor where individuals are
compelled to work to repay a debt. This practice often involves exploitative working conditions,
low wages, and restrictions on personal freedom. The Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act
(BLSAA) of 1976 in India aims to eradicate this inhumane practice and free individuals from such
bondage.
Reasons for bonded labour
 Economic factors play a significant role, with poverty being a key driver. The inability to
secure sustainable employment for livelihood, insufficient land holdings, lack of access to
loans for both rural and urban poor, and the impact of natural calamities like droughts and
floods can push individuals into bonded labor.
 Bonded labor, as per Breman, is a dual product of economic and social factors rooted in
feudal rural systems. Social causes, such as unequal opportunities, caste discrimination,
inadequate welfare, and corruption, perpetuate this exploitative system. Breman underscores
the intertwined nature of economic exploitation and social structures, highlighting the
influence of feudalism in the perpetuation of bonded labor in the countryside.
 Religious factors, such as the perception that low castes have a duty to serve higher castes,
along with ignorance and immaturity, contribute to sustaining these beliefs.
 Additionally, scholars like T. Brass highlight the dispersed and disorganized nature of
agricultural workers, while S. Jodhka emphasizes the relations of mortgaging that bind
individuals to bonded labor, perpetuating a cycle of exploitation and servitude.
Arguments for Continued Rural Bondage:
 Persistence of Root Causes: Poverty, unequal access to land and resources, limited
employment opportunities, and caste discrimination continue to drive people into debt
bondage. Amartya Sen emphasized the link between poverty and vulnerability.
 Inadequate Implementation of Laws: Despite legal frameworks like the Bonded Labour
System (Abolition) Act, 1976, weak enforcement and corruption leave loopholes for
exploitation. Activist Medha Patkar has extensively documented such failures in tribal
communities exploited through forced labor in construction projects.
 Shifting Forms of Bondage: Traditional debt-based bondage may decline, but new forms
emerge, like trafficking, disguised contracts, and subtle coercion, masking exploitation
under seemingly legal arrangements. T.M. Krishna, Carnatic vocalist and human rights
advocate, raises awareness about bonded labor in brick kilns and quarries.
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 Limited Awareness and Empowerment: Trapped in cycles of debt and social
pressure, individuals may lack awareness of their rights or fear reprisal, hindering escape
and self-advocacy
 Data Challenges: The hidden nature of bondage, coupled with fear of reporting, makes
accurate data collection and measurement difficult, potentially underestimating its true
prevalence. Asghar Ali Engineer, sociologist and human rights activist, emphasizes the need
for better data collection methods to understand the true extent of the problem.
Arguments for Decline of bonded labour
 Legal and Policy Efforts: Ongoing initiatives by the government like the National Legal
Services Authority and NGOs like the Gandhi Smriti and Darshan Samiti raise
awareness, provide rescue and rehabilitation services, and empower communities to resist
exploitation.
 Economic Development: Improved access to education, skill development, and alternative
livelihoods under programs like Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PMKVY) offer
escape routes and reduce vulnerability to debt bondage.
 Civil Society Activism: Increased mobilization of communities, advocacy groups like
National Campaign for Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR), and media attention put pressure on
authorities and highlight the issue's urgency.
 Technological Advancements: Digital tools and platforms like government e-governance
portals and NGO helplines facilitate communication, resource sharing, and reporting
mechanisms, empowering individuals and organizations.
 Shifting Social Norms: Growing awareness of human rights and evolving social structures
through movements like Beti Bachao Beti Padhao challenge traditional justifications for
bonded labor, creating a climate less conducive to its practice.
While legal frameworks and efforts exist, rural bondage persists in India due to deeply entrenched
socio-economic inequalities, inadequate implementation of laws, and evolving forms of
exploitation. Addressing root causes, empowering communities, and ensuring strong enforcement
are crucial for progress. Though challenges remain, recognizing persistent struggles and celebrating
victories offer a nuanced understanding and pave the way for a future free from exploitation.
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b) Define ethnicity. Discuss the factors responsible for the growth of ethnic
movements in India. (20 Marks)
 Briefly explain the concept of ethnicity
 Reason for growth of ethnic movements
 Issues related to ethnic movements
 Ways to address ethnic issues
 Conclusion
Ethnicity refers to a shared sense of belonging among a group based on cultural distinctiveness.
This distinctiveness can include shared language, religion, ancestry, customs, traditions, and values.
These shared markers provide a sense of group identity and differentiate the group from others.
Paul Brass identifies three types of ethnic movements: intra-ethnic, involving conflicts within a
group (e.g., Shia-Sunni divisions); inter-ethnic, involving conflicts between different groups (e.g.,
Shiv Sena against Muslims); and state vs. ethnic group, featuring conflicts between an ethnic group
and the state (e.g., the Naga movement in India seeking autonomy).
Reason for growth of ethnic movements
 Economic factors: As DL Seth suggests, relative deprivation and limited integration fuel
resentment. When communities feel economically marginalized and excluded from decision-
making, they may seek recognition and empowerment through movements.
 Superimposed identities: Imagine being forced to adopt a language or practice that clashes
with your cultural identity. This sense of imposition, like the Tamil movement against Hindi
in India, can be a potent trigger for mobilization.
 Historical baggage: The wounds of colonialism and past injustices run deep. Movements like
the Naga rebellion in India carry the weight of historical grievances, seeking redress and self-
determination.
 Internal colonialism: When a dominant community exploits a minority, resentment
festers. Movements like those by Dalits in India highlight this power imbalance and seek
social justice.
 External influences: External actors, like hostile nations, may exploit existing ethnic
tensions, providing funding and support to stir conflict, as seen in some Kashmir issues.
 Globalization and homogenizing forces can trigger anxieties about cultural erosion, leading
to movements aimed at preserving unique traditions and languages. Ethnic tension,
according to Rajni Kothari, is a consequence of modernization.
Issues related to ethnic movements
 Potential for Violence and Instability: Movements demanding autonomy or separate states
can escalate into violent conflicts, displacing communities and jeopardizing lives. For
instance, the decades-long insurgency in Manipur, fueled by ethnic sentiments, led to
significant human rights abuses.
 Inter-community Tensions: Competition for resources and political representation can ignite
ethnic tensions. The "sons of the soil" movements in Assam, discussed by scholars like Amal
Pramanik, have led to discrimination and violence against perceived 'outsiders,' impacting
social harmony.
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 Challenges to National Unity: Strong identity movements can challenge the idea of a unified
India, raising concerns about separatism and national integrity. The Kashmir conflict,
analyzed by Sumit Ganguly, exemplifies this complex tension between identity aspirations
and national cohesion.
 Exploitation and Misinformation: Political opportunists can exploit ethnic grievances for
personal gain, resorting to misinformation and divisive rhetoric. The Bodo movement in
Assam, studied by Sanjib Baruah, illustrates how legitimate demands can be manipulated for
narrow political agendas.
Ways to address ethnic issues
 Inclusive Dialogue and Power Sharing: Rajni Kothari advocate for inclusive dialogue and
power-sharing mechanisms. The establishment of the Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC) in
Assam, through such efforts, effectively addressed Bodo grievances while preserving
national unity.
 Addressing Socioeconomic Inequality: Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze emphasize tackling
socio-economic inequality. Affirmative action policies, such as reservations, attempt to rectify
historical disadvantages faced by certain communities, although debates surround their
efficacy.
 Decentralization and Empowerment: Granting greater autonomy to local governments,
exemplified in Nagaland, has demonstrated success in dampening separatist sentiments.
 Cultural Recognition and Respect: T.K. Oommen argued for cultural recognition. Policies
like language reforms and cultural festivals, celebrating diversity, contribute to fostering
inclusivity within the societal fabric.
 Justice and Addressing Historical Grievances: Truth and reconciliation commissions, as
seen in Punjab post-1984 anti-Sikh riots, play a crucial role in promoting healing and
accountability.
In India, ethnicity forms a complex tapestry woven from shared culture, giving rise to movements
expressing aspirations and frustrations. Rooted in historical baggage, socio-economic inequalities,
and political exploitation, these movements demand recognition. A multi-pronged approach is
needed, encompassing inclusive dialogue, addressing inequalities, empowering local communities,
and ensuring cultural respect, to transform these movements from expressions of discontent to
catalysts for a harmonious and inclusive India.
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c) Discuss the changing nature of structure of political elites. (10 Marks)

 Define political elites
 Evolution of political elites in India
o Pre-1960s
o 1970s onwards
o 1990s and beyond
 Features of modern day political elites
 Conclusion
Political elites are a select group holding disproportionate power, influencing societal direction.
Elite theory posits that a limited few dominate decision-making, shaping political and social
structures. Thinkers like Pareto, Mosca, Michels, and Mills contribute to elite theory, emphasizing
factors such as inheritance, psychological traits, and institutional positions that perpetuate elite
influence, often leading to criticisms of oversimplification and deterministic interpretations.
Evolution of political elites in India
 Pre-1960s: The Legacy of Independence and Upper Caste Ascendancy
o India's pre-independence struggle left a distinct mark on its early political elites. They
were predominantly upper-caste individuals, often carrying the historical legacy of
the national movement.
o Dominated by prominent families with historical ties to politics and administration.
o IP Desai noted, many were western-educated, sharing a common ideological ground
within the Congress party. These elites enjoyed both secular and ritualistic high status,
solidifying their position as the custodians of power.
o Examples: Jawaharlal Nehru: upper-caste, western-educated, national movement
figure. Rajendra Prasad: Kayastha caste (upper caste in Bihar), lawyer
 1970s onwards: Diversification and Caste Dynamics
o The 1970s witnessed a shift in the ideological landscape. Leaders from diverse
backgrounds emerged, although upper castes still held significant sway.
o Dominant caste leaders also began to rise, leveraging kinship, caste, and language
ties to navigate the political arena. This marked a gradual move away from the
Congress monopoly and a nascent diversification of political voices
o Regional and identity-based politics challenging national parties. M.
Karunanidhi: Tamil Nadu Chief Minister (multiple terms), Dravidian Movement
leader, challenged Brahminical dominance in South India.
 1990s and Beyond: Mandalisation and the Lower Caste Ascendancy
o The implementation of reservations and the Mandal Commission recommendations
in the 1990s had a profound impact. Lower caste leaders started making their presence
felt, leading to the "Mandalisation" of Indian politics.
o Yogendra Singh observed, this period saw an influx of rural-based leaders and a
significant rise of the middle class in political spheres. Regional and identity-based
politics gained prominence, challenging the once-exclusive domain of upper castes.
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o Example - Mayawati: Dalit community, Bahujan Samaj Party leader, championed
lower caste rights. Lalu Prasad Yadav: Yadav community, Rashtriya Janata Dal leader,
mobilized backward castes.
Features of Modern Day political Elites
 Ideological Fluidity: Defections and party-hopping have blurred rigid ideological
lines, leading to accusations of a lack of firm convictions. This "pragmatism" is often
criticized for prioritizing power over principles.
 Personality-Driven Politics: The rise of charismatic leaders and personality cults has
become a prominent feature. This can lead to concerns about cult of personality and
sidelining collective leadership. Example: Narendra Modi: BJP leader, built strong personal
brand and overshadowing other party leaders
 Balancing Tradition and Modernity: Modern elites blend primordial identities like caste
and religion with modern aspirations for development and growth. This delicate balancing
act poses both opportunities and challenges in uniting diverse constituents. Yogi Adityanath
monk turned politician, champions traditional identity while promoting development
initiatives.
 Internal Rivalry: In-fighting among elites for power-sharing remains a prevalent issue. This
can hinder collaboration and effective governance, creating instability and public
disillusionment.
The political elite composition in India has undergone a dynamic transformation, transitioning from
a predominant upper-caste leadership during the independence era to a more diverse, regionally
nuanced cadre. This evolution reflects both the democratization of political power and the rise of
identity politics. However, contemporary challenges encompass the emergence of personality cults
and internal power struggles. To ensure stability and equity, fostering ideological coherence,
embracing collective leadership, and prioritizing inclusive representation within the elite structure
are imperative for India's socio-political trajectory.
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Question 7.
a) "Instead of promoting equality in society, the present system of education
itself has contributed to increased socio-economic disparities." Comment.
(20 Marks)
 Explain education inequality in india
 Types of Disparities due to education
 Root Causes of disparites in education
 Impact of inequality of education
 Conclusion
The complex relationship between education and socio-economic disparities in India necessitates a
thorough review. Contrary to its goal of fostering equality, the current system may inadvertently
worsen divides. Despite a 73% national literacy rate, significant disparities persist across regions,
socio-economic classes, and social identity groups, highlighting the need for comprehensive reform.
Types of Disparities:
 Regional: The "Kerala Model" showcases high literacy and educational attainment,
contrasting sharply with states like Bihar. This highlights the uneven distribution of
resources and educational infrastructure across regions.
 Rural-Urban: The urban literacy rate (80.06%) significantly outpaces the rural rate (59.21%),
mirroring the lack of quality education infrastructure and opportunities in rural areas.
 Gender: A.R. Gore underscores the specific disadvantages faced by girls, particularly in rural
areas, lower castes, and economically disadvantaged families.
 Caste: Victor D'Souza emphasizes the deep-rooted influence of the caste system,
discriminatory behavior, and economic factors on access to education for marginalized
communities.
Root Causes:
 Linguistic Barriers: As Prasad argues, tribal children taught in non-native languages
struggle to comprehend, hindering their learning outcomes.
 Discriminatory Educational Systems: Pierre Bourdieu's concept of "cultural reproduction"
suggests that existing systems may favor privileged groups, perpetuating inequalities.
 Silenced Voices: Inspired by Marx and Althusser, the lack of empowered voices from
marginalized communities allows dominant ideologies to shape educational norms, further
disadvantageing them.
 Limited Resources: T.H. Tawney's "Tadpole Theory" implies that only a select few from
disadvantaged backgrounds benefit from state-sponsored support.
 Digital Divide: ASER reports and the rise of ed-tech highlight the lack of universal internet
access, creating new inequalities based on digital infrastructure.
 English Language Dominance: This creates a barrier for non-English speakers, exacerbating
social differences.
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Impacts of Inequality:
 Widening Knowledge Gap: A 2023 ASER report revealed that nearly 50% of Grade 5
students in rural India cannot read sentences from Grade 2 textbooks. This stark contrast in
learning outcomes between rural and urban students highlights the unequal access to quality
education.
 Homogenization of Thought: The dominance of English-medium education can create a
barrier for non-English speakers, limiting their ability to critically engage with diverse
perspectives and fostering a monoculture of thought. Gayatri Spivak critiques the "epistemic
violence" of imposing a single language and knowledge system, silencing marginalized
voices and homogenizing thought processes.
 Hindered Social Mobility: The persistence of the caste system restricts access to quality
education for Dalit and Adivasi communities, limiting their opportunities for career
advancement and social mobility. Babasaheb Ambedkar advocated for affirmative action
policies to address historical disadvantages faced by marginalized communities in education
and employment.
In re-evaluating the role of education in India, it becomes evident that a paradigm shift is
imperative. The present system, unintentionally reinforcing socio-economic inequalities, requires
substantial reform. By addressing issues of access, quality, and relevance, India can transform its
educational landscape to become a catalyst for societal equality, thus aligning with the nation's
vision of inclusive growth and development.
b) Discuss recent trends in the structure of migration. (20 Marks)

 Explain the concept of migration
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 Recent Trends in Migration in India
 Consequences of Migration
 Challenges related to migration
 Conclusion
Migration refers to the movement of people from one place to another, either within a country
(internal migration) or across international borders (international migration). This phenomenon has
shaped societies throughout history, impacting individuals, communities, and nations alike.
People migrate for various reasons, categorized as push factors (driving them away from their
original location) and pull factors (attracting them to a new destination).
Recent Trends in Migration in India
 Statistically, migrants constitute a significant portion of India's population, accounting for
37.8% of the total 121.03 Crore population.
 Breaking down the trends, females record a higher share of migration rate at 47.9%, with
marriage being the predominant reason. An astounding 86.8% of female migration is
attributed to marital ties. In comparison, male migration stands at 49.6%, primarily driven
by the search for employment, pursuing better job opportunities, or responding to job loss
and closures of units.
 Regional variations further shape migration patterns, with individuals from less developed
states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh drawn to the higher socio-economic development of the
southern states.
 The COVID-19 pandemic has introduced new dimensions to migration trends. Migrants,
facing job losses, closures of units, and lack of employment opportunities, have become
temporary visitors in households. Simultaneously, an alarming trend of anti-migration
sentiments has emerged, reflecting the vulnerabilities associated with migration.
 International migration, a significant aspect before the pandemic, witnessed brain drain
and labor migration to the Middle East. However, post-COVID-19, restrictions and concerns
of racial discrimination and xenophobia have added complexities to international migration
dynamics
 Urbanization: Migration predominantly flows towards urban centers, with cities like Delhi
and Mumbai witnessing exponential population growth. This trend strains urban
infrastructure and highlights the need for inclusive development in both rural and urban
areas.
Consequences of Migration
Migration yields various consequences, touching upon family structures, caste dynamics, women's
status, mobility, ethnic diversity, and the perspective of migrant children.
 In the realm of family dynamics, I.P. Desai notes a shift from traditional joint families to
functionally joint families due to the dispersion of family members.
 Caste dynamics witness a diminished caste identity, weakened caste solidarity, and
changes in caste panchayats. Migration challenges and transforms rigid caste hierarchies,
prioritizing economic and social class affiliations over historical caste identities. Andre
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Beteille's insight emphasizes the shift towards class ties in evolving societal structures.
 For women, migration brings a mixed bag of outcomes. While there is an improvement in
their status, divorce rates rise, and there is an increase in remarriage. However, Karuna
Ahmed points out that women still tend to cluster in low-status occupations.
 Mobility, both social and economic, sees an increase. Ashish Nandy notes that urbanization
has supported caste mobility, allowing individuals to transcend traditional social hierarchies.
 Ethnic diversity becomes more pronounced due to migration, resulting in a multi-ethnic
society.
Challenges related to migration
Migration poses a dual challenge, causing societal and individual problems.
 The rapid migration to cities has strained infrastructure, notably visible in Mumbai's
Dharavi, Asia's largest slum. Over-urbanization in cities like Delhi, Bangalore, and Kolkata
has exacerbated issues like pollution and inadequate housing, illustrating Yogendra Singh's
concerns.
 Economic challenges leading to unemployment are evident in Chennai, where rural
migrants often struggle to secure stable jobs, contributing to increased crime rates and
juvenile delinquency.
 Individual identity issues are starkly seen in cases like the Rohingya migrants who lack
proper documentation, impacting their political and economic rights. North Eastern
communities, such as the people from Nagaland or Manipur, often face non-acceptance
and discrimination in major cities like Delhi and Bengaluru.
 Living conditions forcing migrants into slums are exemplified in the sprawling slums of
Kolkata, where migrants, lacking proper housing, become susceptible to criminal activities,
trafficking, and prostitution rackets.
 Instances of bonded labor, compromising family life, are prevalent in regions like rural
Punjab, where migrant laborers work in agriculture under exploitative conditions.
India's migration landscape is in flux, driven by diverse factors like changing economies,
urbanization, and aspirations. While internal and international flows present challenges like social
strains and inequalities, focusing on empowering migrants, addressing regional disparities, and
harnessing their potential can forge a more sustainable future. Investing in skill development,
inclusive development policies, and fostering dialogue between communities are crucial steps
towards reaping the benefits of migration for a brighter India.
c) Discuss different forms of deprivation associated with slums. (10 Marks)

 Briefly introduce the concept of slums
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 Types of Deprivation
 Broader approaches to eradicate slum
 Conclusion
India's 2011 Census defines slums as areas lacking habitable housing, sanitation, and infrastructure.
Sociologically, Louis Wirth saw them as unhygienic lifestyles, while Oscar Lewis argued individuals
trapped in a "culture of poverty" accept their conditions and don't strive for change. Both definitions
highlight the harsh realities of slum life beyond physical deprivation.
Types of Deprivation
 Housing issues - Slums are notorious for their cramped, dilapidated dwellings, often lacking
basic amenities like proper ventilation, sanitation, and privacy. This can lead to
overcrowding, health problems, and a feeling of constant insecurity. For example, a 2018
study by the National Sample Survey found that over 70% of slum households in India live
in single-room dwellings.
 Unreliable infrastructure: Frequent power outages disrupt daily life, impacting livelihoods,
education, and access to essential services like refrigeration and water purification. This is
further compounded by inadequate transportation systems, making it difficult for residents
to reach job opportunities or healthcare facilities.
 Pollution: Slums are often located near industrial areas or dumpsites, exposing residents to
high levels of air and water pollution. This can cause respiratory problems, skin diseases, and
other health issues.
 Exclusion and poverty: Slum dwellers are often marginalized from mainstream society,
facing discrimination and social exclusion. This can limit their access to education, healthcare,
and employment opportunities, perpetuating a cycle of poverty. A 2018 report by the World
Bank found that slum dwellers in India are three times more likely to be illiterate than the
general population.
 Limited education and healthcare: Slums often lack access to quality education and
healthcare facilities, further hindering residents' chances of improving their lives. This can
lead to child labor, early marriage, and poor health outcomes. As sociologist Amartya Sen
argues, these capabilities are crucial for individuals to escape poverty and lead fulfilling
lives.
 Lack of political representation: Slum dwellers are often underrepresented in the political
process, making it difficult for them to have their voices heard and advocate for their needs.
This can lead to a feeling of powerlessness and lack of control over their lives.
 Stigma and discrimination: The negative stereotypes associated with slums can lead to
social stigma and discrimination, impacting the mental health and well-being of
residents. This can create feelings of shame, isolation, and low self-esteem.
Broader approaches to eradicate slum
 Welfarist approaches, exemplified by projects like Rajiv Awas Yojana, demolish slums
and rebuild them. However, Geeta Diwan Verma critiques this approach, citing issues like
sub-letting of new houses and increased corruption.
 Community development approaches, as exemplified by Kalpana Sharma's work in
Dharawi, Mumbai, empower residents by identifying leaders and working to improve their
living conditions and occupational opportunities. This bottom-up approach has shown long-
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term success in specific cases
 Modernization approaches view slums as temporary, believing that economic development
will eventually transform them into land ownership opportunities. However, this fails to
address the immediate needs of residents and risks displacement without ensuring
sustainable reintegration.
Conclusion
Addressing slum deprivation necessitates a contemporary, tailored strategy encompassing
infrastructure, essential services, and affordable housing. Empowering residents through education
and skills, promoting social inclusion, combating discrimination, and involving them in planning
processes are crucial for long-term sustainability and resilience in today's urban landscapes.
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Question 8.
a) Bring out the various issues involved in Dalit movements in India. (20
Marks)
 Introduce Dalit movements in India
 Various issues raised by dalit movement
 Challenges associated with Dalit movement
 Conclusion
Dalit mobilization in India, spearheaded by social reform movements in the early 20th century led
by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, progressed through distinct phases. The post-colonial era saw efforts to
secure constitutional rights and implement affirmative action policies.
The 1970s-1990s witnessed radicalization with militant factions advocating for land redistribution
and an end to caste atrocities, exemplified by the Dalit Panthers. In 1979, M.S.A Rao compared the
"Dalit movement" to the "Black movement" in America, highlighting their shared experience of
societal exclusion and fighting for equal rights.
Contemporary struggles address diverse issues such as Dalit women's rights, environmental
injustices, and reservations-related discrimination. The Bahujan Samaj Party, founded by Kanshi
Ram and led by Mayawati, plays a pivotal role. Recent events, like the Una Movement, highlight
ongoing Dalit resistance against discrimination in India's democratic journey.
Various issues raised by dalit movement
 Untouchability: Dalits have historically been subjected to untouchability, a practice where
they were considered impure and socially segregated. The Dalit movements aim to eradicate
this deeply ingrained social evil. Thinkers like B.R. Ambedkar and Phule have written
extensively about the dehumanizing effects of untouchability and the need for its eradication.
 Social Exclusion: Dalits have often been excluded from mainstream social, economic, and
cultural activities. Anand Teltumbde contends that deep-rooted caste prejudice fuels social
exclusion and perpetuates negative stereotypes of Dalits. This creates a hostile environment
and limits their access to opportunities.
 Landlessness and Poverty: Many Dalits face economic exploitation, often being landless
laborers and facing poverty. Movements work towards securing land rights, economic
opportunities, and fair wages for Dalit communities.
 Limited Access to Education: Dalits have historically faced barriers to accessing education.
In 2017-2018 at higher education level, the Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) for SCs was 25.2%,
compared to 53.5% for all categories. Movements advocate for equal educational
opportunities, scholarships, and policies to address the educational disparities.
 Lack of Political Representation: Dalits are often underrepresented in political institutions.
Thinkers like Kancha Ilaiah and Zoya Hasan explore strategies for increasing Dalit
political participation. Movements strive for increased political participation,
representation, and the implementation of policies that address their concerns.
 Violence and Atrocities: Dalits are frequently victims of violence and atrocities, including
physical assault, sexual violence, and social boycotts.
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 Thinkers like N. Chandrasekhar and Bezwada Wilson have documented these atrocities
and called for stricter laws and enforcement mechanisms to protect Dalits.
 Reservation Policies: The demand for reservation in education, employment, and political
representation is a crucial aspect of Dalit movements. It aims to provide affirmative action to
uplift and empower Dalit communities.
 Cultural Pride: Dalit movements often emphasize the need for cultural assertion and pride,
rejecting the stigmatization associated with their caste identity. This includes the promotion
of Dalit literature, art, and cultural heritage.
 Gender and Dalit Women: Meena Kandawai emphasizes that Dalit women experience a
double burden of discrimination based on both caste and gender. This compounds their
exclusion and requires intersectional approaches to address their unique needs
Challenges associated with Dalit movement
 Caste and Sub-caste Fragmentation: Yogendra Yadav highlights the existence of diverse
sub-castes within Dalits, leading to competing interests and challenges in presenting a
unified voice.
 Leadership Issues: The absence of a single, widely accepted leader creates challenges in
representing diverse interests and mobilizing large-scale action. Though B R Ambedkar is a
revered figure, his absence leaves a gap in terms of unifying the movement across factions.
 Limited Political Power: According to Gail Omvedt, despite reservations, Dalit political
representation remains low, limiting their influence on policymaking.
 Focus on Representation over Mobilization: Some argue that the movement overemphasizes
reservations and political representation, neglecting broader issues of economic
empowerment and social transformation
 Urban Bias: The movement may prioritize urban Dalit concerns, overlooking the specific
struggles of rural communities
 Media Representation and Narratives: Countering negative stereotypes and ensuring
positive and diverse media portrayals of Dalit identities and lived experiences. Bama
Faguniya advocates for Dalit cultural expression and control over narratives to challenge
dominant media representations.
Dalit movements in India, while making strides against social exclusion and gender discrimination,
still grapple with persistent issues like violence and economic disparity. A comprehensive strategy
is vital, encompassing legal reforms, education, economic empowerment, and internal unity, to
dismantle entrenched structures and foster true equality for all in India.
b) Critically examine environment the dialectics between 'development and

environment. (20 Marks)
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 Briefly explain the development and environment situation in India
 Arguments for Development
 Arguments for Environment
 Finding a Middle Ground
 Conclusion
In India, the quest for progress casts a long shadow on the environment, sparking a heated and
ongoing debate. On one hand, rapid economic growth and social development are seen as crucial
for lifting millions out of poverty and improving living standards. On the other hand, concerns
about environmental degradation, resource depletion, and climate change raise pressing questions
about the sustainability of this trajectory.
The rapid 7% GDP growth contributes to enhanced infrastructure, increased income, and poverty
alleviation, but concurrently poses significant environmental challenges. India's ranking of 177th in
the 2022 Environmental Performance Index underscores issues of air pollution, water scarcity, and
deforestation. This intricate trade-off necessitates innovative solutions that harmonize prosperity
with the imperative to safeguard the planet for succeeding generations.
Arguments for Development:
 Poverty Reduction - Over 21% of India's population lives below the national poverty line.
Development projects like dams and industries can create jobs, alleviate poverty, and
improve living standards for marginalized communities. Improved infrastructure like roads
and irrigation systems can connect remote areas to markets and resources, fostering
economic opportunities. For example, the Green Revolution led to increased food
production and reduced hunger in some regions.
 Infrastructure and Modernization: Development initiatives like roads, power grids, and
communication networks are seen as crucial for connecting communities, facilitating trade,
and promoting overall economic growth. The World Bank reports that improved
infrastructure can increase economic output by 2% annually.
 Technological Advancements: Technological innovations for renewable energy, sustainable
agriculture, and waste management are viewed as potential solutions for achieving both
development and environmental protection.
 Employment Generation: Large-scale projects create job opportunities, reducing
unemployment rates. The construction sector alone employed over 50 million people in
India in 2021, as reported by the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
Arguments for Environment:
 Climate Change: India is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts like extreme weather
events, rising sea levels, and water scarcity. These directly affect agriculture, food
security, livelihoods, and infrastructure, hindering development goals.
 Ecological Degradation: Many development projects lead to deforestation, water pollution,
biodiversity loss, and soil erosion, threatening ecosystems and livelihoods dependent on
them. The Narmada Dam project displaced communities and caused significant ecological
damage.
 Loss of land and resources: Displaced communities lose access to fertile land, forests, and
water bodies, essential for their subsistence and cultural practices. Biswaranjan Mohanty has
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argued how displaced tribals are treated as development refugees by the state.
 Social Disruption and Loss of Identity: Ashish Kothari emphasizes the disruption of social
networks, cultural practices, and traditional ways of life experienced by displaced
communities, impacting their sense of identity and belonging.
 Gendered Impacts: Sawhney and Malhotra raise awareness of the disproportionate burden
borne by women and children due to displacement, including increased risks of exploitation
and marginalization. Mridula Singh’s work on Narmada valley and tehri Dam project
highlight the gendered impact of displacement.
 Social conflict and unrest: Displacement can cause tension and conflict within communities
and with project developers, particularly due to inadequate compensation and resettlement
measures. A.K Nayak has pointed that involuntary displacements created conflict in the
context of Hirakud dam displacement.
Finding a Middle Ground:
 DN Dhanagre: "Growth with Justice" - advocates for balanced development that prioritizes
both economic progress and social equity alongside environmental protection.
 Post-modernist influence: Focuses on "ecological modernization," seeking technological
solutions to environmental challenges within existing structures.
 Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs): Rigorous and transparent EIAs to evaluate the
potential environmental and social costs of development projects. Example: The
Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant project in Tamil Nadu, involving public hearings and
stricter EIA regulations .
 Community Participation: Engaging local communities in decision-making processes to
ensure their concerns are addressed and benefits are shared equitably. The Joint Forest
Management (JFM) program, engaging local communities in forest protection and
decision-making, aligning with Ashish Kothari's concept of "pluriverse."
 Green Technologies: Embracing renewable energy sources, sustainable agriculture
practices, and resource-efficient technologies for a cleaner and more sustainable future.
 Climate Change Action: Implementing mitigation and adaptation strategies to address the
growing threat of climate change, recognizing its impact on development goals. Example:
The National Solar Mission's goal of achieving 100 GW of solar energy capacity.
Conclusion:
The development-environment debate in India is not a zero-sum game. Striking a balance requires
recognizing the needs of both sides, promoting inclusive and sustainable development that protects
the environment for future generations. Collaboration, innovation, and a commitment to ecological
justice are key to navigating this complex dialectic and building a prosperous and sustainable future
for India.
c) Discuss the changing nature of Industrial working class. (10 Marks)

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 Describe working class
 Features of Early Industrial Working Class
 Changes in the Modern Era:
 Conclusion
The "working class," as described by Holmstrom, transcends factory floors. It encompasses not just
industrial workers, but also diverse wage earners across sectors, and even self-employed
individuals struggling for economic stability.
India's industrial workforce, estimated at 53 million, forms the backbone of its manufacturing
power. However, it's a diverse group. Roughly 83% work in the informal sector with limited rights
and benefits, facing challenges like low wages , long hours, and hazardous environments. Yet, 17%
enjoy formal employment with better protections. Despite ongoing struggles, their contribution
remains vital.
Features of Early Industrial Working Class:
 In Lucknow's rickshaw pullers, Gould observed a weakening caste structure due to shared
experiences and the anonymity of city life. This challenged the rigid social
hierarchy, sparking new dynamics within the working class.
 Trade union and caste: While Gould saw a breakdown of caste, Beteille noted its persistence
in trade union organization. Caste often defined how jobs were allocated or leadership
chosen, though an increase in entrepreneurship cutting across caste lines was also emerging.
 M.S. Gore documented the crucial role of kinship networks in securing employment and
even influencing wage levels. This highlights the importance of social capital within the
working class, especially in navigating a new and often exploitative environment.
 Labor division based on caste: Dalits and Adivasis often relegated to the most hazardous
and physically demanding jobs in mines and steel plants. This exploitative practice
continues to be a major concern.
Changes in the Modern Era:
 Shifting landscape: The most striking change is the decline in agricultural workers and
the rise of individual entrepreneurial activities, reflecting a changing economy and the
informal sector's prominence. Data shows a drop from 48% of the workforce in agriculture
in 2004-05 to 28% in 2019-20, while informal sector workers rose from 48% to 54%.
 Social mobility: While still uneven, the pace of social mobility has accelerated, offering
some individuals opportunities to escape traditional occupations and improve their lives.
 Post-liberalization challenges: Economic reforms like LPG led to a rise in the informal
sector, widening disparities, and increasing vulnerability for many
workers. However, some argue that globalization can also lead to a reduction in overall
deprivations.
 Caste's persistent grip: Despite some progress, caste continues to shape the working
class. Lower castes are often confined to menial jobs, both formal and informal, while higher
castes occupy more privileged positions.
 Gender dynamics are also shifting, with increased female participation in the workforce,
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challenging traditional roles. However, women often face discrimination and lower wages.
 The vast informal sector, estimated at 83% of the workforce, presents challenges like lack
of job security, benefits, and social protection.
 Reservations and limitations: Even in the public sector, reservation policies aimed at
addressing caste-based discrimination haven't always achieved their goals. While quotas
exist, representation of Scheduled Castes and Tribes in higher positions remains low, with
Dalits and Adivasis often relegated to manual scavenging and other hazardous work.
Conclusion
Understanding the historical and contemporary challenges faced by India's working class is crucial
for ensuring a more equitable and just society. Addressing issues like persistent caste
discrimination, ensuring fair wages and working conditions, and promoting upward mobility
remain crucial tasks. Only then can India's industrial workforce truly prosper and contribute to a
sustainable and inclusive future.
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Mains 2023
Section - A
a) Highlight the significant features of A.R Desai's 'Dialectical Perspective'
to study Indian Society. (10 Marks)
 Briefly introduce A.R. Desai approach.
 Elaborate the dialectical perspective
 Write criticism
 Conclusion
A.R Desai (1915-1994) is considered as one of the pioneers in introducing the modern Marxist
approach to analyse Indian social structures and processes. He applied dialectical-historical method
in his works. The dialectical perspective seeks to explain everything in terms of change which is
caused due to constant contradiction of mutually opposite forces found in matter.
Dialectical perspective to study Indian society:
 Desai challenges the notion of tradition as solely religious or cultural. He views it as rooted
in economic realities, inextricably linked to power dynamics. While acknowledging the
importance of caste, religion, and language, he insists on analysing them within the evolving
context of class relations and economic structure.
 He views nationalism as a historical category, a modern phenomenon which comes into
existence at a certain point in history. In India, it evolved as result of a combination of
objective factors and subjective factors when the Indian people were political subjects of the
British Empire.
 Desai divided Indian history into three stages:
o Pre-colonial - characterized by self-sufficient village communities and diverse modes
of production.
o Colonial - marked by disruptions caused by British rule, including land reforms and
capitalist penetration.
o Post-colonial - struggling with inequalities, development challenges, and the
continuing influence of colonialism.
 Desai saw conflict between classes (landlords vs. peasants, bourgeoisie vs. proletariat) as a
driving force of social change. He believed marginalized groups like the peasantry played a
crucial role in revolutions. He challenged the assumption of a “passive peasantry”.
 Desai scrutinized the development planning and welfare policies of independent India.
Initiatives like the Green Revolution played a role in fostering the emergence of the rural
petty bourgeoisie. Expressing scepticism, A.R. Desai characterized new policies as
embodiments of false consciousness. He perceived these policies as intentional strategies
employed by dominant groups to exacerbate divisions among segments of society that are
marginalized culturally, politically, and economically.
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 Desai critically examines the role of the state in perpetuating capitalist structures. Desai
argues that Indian bourgeoisie built up a fundamentally secular bourgeois democratic state,
which has been imparting modern scientific, technological and liberal democratic education.
 He was critical of the prevalent academic ways of understanding Indian society. He argued
that the social scientific analyses are essentially ahistoric, static and synchronic in their
approach, pursuing a structural-functional, equilibrium model.
Criticism:
 Andre Beteille argues that Desai tends to exaggerate economic history to fit it into Marxist
theory, neglecting other bases of stratification such as caste and political mobility.
 Yogendra Singh criticizes Marxist theory for its failure to explore alternatives to social
change and its overall scepticism towards various elements, including government policies,
mass media, and popular movements. Singh highlights peasant and farmer movements
across the country as signs of democracy, a phenomenon unprecedented in history.
 Gail Omvedt points out that Marxist theory oversimplifies social classes into two polarized
categories, while in India, the degree of inequality varies among different classes. Dalits, in
particular, face immense suppression and are the worst victims of inequality.
 Jyoti Basu criticizes Marxist studies in India for overlooking castes and religion, asserting
that equating caste as class is invalid in the Indian context.
Desai’s dialectical perspective prompts a critical examination of the historical and current forces
influencing Indian society. It emphasizes the interplay of economic structures, class relations, and
power dynamics, providing insights into the challenges and opportunities for diverse social groups
in India. Despite critiques, Desai’s framework remains valuable for understanding the complexities
of Indian society and its ongoing pursuit of social justice.
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b) “The decade of 1950 was the golden period of village studies in Indian
Sociology.” Explain the statement. (10 Marks)
 Give the context of village studies in the 1950s
 Explain the significance of village studies
 Elaborate the limitations of village studies
 Conclusion
In the 1950s and 1960s, sociology, inspired by a growing interest in the study of peasantry in the
Western academia, extensively studied Indian villages. This trend emerged as newly independent
"third world" countries sought to transform their agrarian economies. The concept of 'peasantry'
gained prominence, linking with Robert Redfield's notion of the 'little community.'
Anthropologists, influenced by Redfield, conducted field studies, with works like "Village India"
and "Rural Profiles" contributing to the exploration of Indian village life. The ‘village community’
was identified as the social foundation of the peasant economy in Asia. Over 80% of India's
population resided in villages when India gained independence, making them central to
understanding the national character.
Significance of village studies:
 Rejuvenation of Sociology: Discovery of peasantry revitalized social anthropology during
the post-war period. Anthropologists saw themselves as significant contributors to
understanding the transformation of the "traditional social order" on a global scale.
Anthropologists viewed their perspective as superior to economists and planners,
emphasizing a holistic understanding of village life.
 Methodological Significance: Studying the village was considered methodologically
significant, representing "India in microcosm." Villages were viewed as observation centres
offering detailed insights into social processes and problems in India. The method of
participant observation that distinguished the social anthropological village studies from the
rural surveys that were conducted by economists and demographers. They also offered an
alternative to the dominant “book-view” of India constructed by Indologists and orientalists
from the Hindu scriptures.
 Village Studies and Development Agencies: Village monographs often emerged from
projects conducted by sociologists and social anthropologists for development agencies.
Studies by Dube, Srinivas Majumdar, and Lewis were notable examples. Understanding
village power structures, social networks, and cultural values was essential for designing
effective community development programs.
 Historical Continuity and Stability: The perceived historical continuity and stability of
villages strengthened the case for village studies. Villages were considered important
administrative and social units influencing inhabitants' behaviour patterns. Beteille
suggested that villages reflected the basic values of Indian civilization. Srinivas argued that
village provided identity to the residents.
 Comprehensive understanding of social and cultural dynamics: Village studies presented
comprehensive narratives of economic, social, and cultural aspects. Gender and caste played
significant roles in delineating labour roles within village settings. Many of the village
monographs provide detailed accounts of the patterns of social relations between men and
women in the rural society of India.
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Adrian Mayer argued that ‘women had less chance to meet people from other parts of the
village compared to men in Central Indian villages. Srinivas elucidated the empirical
functioning of caste in the village, distinct from the varna system through his concepts of
sanskritisation and dominant caste
 Urgency in Recording Traditional Social Order: The fast-changing Indian society in the
1950s and 1960s prompted anthropologists to record details of the traditional social order
before it underwent significant transformation. Urgency was emphasized to capture facts
about a changing society within a limited timeframe.
Limitations of Village Studies:
 Constraints with the method of participant observation: Since this method required a
certain level of acceptability of the researcher within the village community, most sociologists
entered the field through the dominant groups. Thus a conservative account of the village
was presented. Srinivas has been critiqued for an upper caste view of the village life.
 Selective Inquiry and Influence on Data: Fieldworkers avoided questions offensive to
dominant interests. There was limited access to subordinate groups.Example, Beteille in his
study of Sripuram village was supposed to live in Agrahara, follow Brahminical lifestyle and
not allowed to go to Cherri(place of Adi-dravidians)
 Static view: Early village studies, conducted in the 1950s and 60s, often prioritized analysing
static social structures over exploring dynamic change. They have exaggerated unity and self-
sufficiency of village.
 Neglect of Urban Dynamics: The exclusive focus on villages limited the understanding of
broader social dynamics, especially those occurring in urban areas. The rapid urbanization
and changes in urban societies were not adequately addressed in these studies.
It's important to recognize that while these critiques highlight limitations, village studies conducted
by social anthropologists in the 1950s and 1960s represent a critical chapter in Indian social sciences.
While primarily focused on social and ritual aspects, these studies contain valuable insights into the
political and economic realities of rural India during its first two decades of independence.
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c) Analyse the difference between the attributional and interactional

approach in studying the caste system. (10 Marks)
 Define caste system
 Explain the attributional and interactional approach through works of sociologists
 Briefly mention the criticism
 Conclusion
Caste is a system of social stratification. It lies at the root of Indian social structure. It involves
ranking according to birth and determines one’s occupation, marriage and social relationships.
There is a prescribed set of norms, values and sanctions which govern social behaviour within caste.
Sociologists have used the insights of Max Weber and Bougle to develop attributional(attributes
of a caste) approach to explain the caste system. Whereas interactional approach takes into account
how castes are actually ranked with respect to one another in a local empirical context.
Attributional Approach to Caste:
 Attributional approach discusses primarily the significant features of the caste system and
what distinguishes it from other forms of the social stratification. Attributes are inherent
inalienable qualities associated with the caste system. As such every caste in must necessarily
partake of these attributes. Sociologists like G.S Ghurye, M. N Srinivas, J.H Hutton have
utilised this approach.
 Ghurye has posited that castes have definite attributes such as- hierarchy, segmental
division, caste restrictions, caste pollution, occupation and endogamy. It is through these
attributes that each caste group maintained its caste identity.
 Hutton, in "Caste in India," identifies endogamy as central to the caste system. Restrictions
on interactions, particularly in commensality, reflect caste identity formation. Hierarchy,
purity, and avoidance of pollution shape caste interactions, aligning with Ghurye's
perspectives.
 Srinivas, employing an attributional approach, examines caste relations based on attributes.
He introduces the dynamic aspect through 'Sanskritization,' where lower castes emulate
higher castes to elevate their status. The concept of a dominant caste is characterized by
numerical strength, land ownership, and political influence, not necessarily the highest-
ranking caste.
Interactional approach to Caste:
 F.G. Bailey feels that caste dynamics and identity are united by the two principles of
segregation and hierarchy. He feels that "Castes Stand in ritual and secular hierarchy
expressed in the rules of interaction". The ritual system overlaps the political and economic
system.
 Mayer, in the study of Ramkheri village, analyzes caste hierarchy through commensality,
considering factors like food type, context of eating, seating arrangements, and vessel used.
The hierarchy is based on beliefs about pollution, impacting caste identity and ranking.
 Marriott has analysed the arrangement of caste ranking in ritual interaction. Usually
economic and political ranks tend to coincide. Important indicators of rank in village are
giving and receiving food and honorific gestures and practices.
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Thus Brahmins are ranked high since they officiate at the most exclusive and important
rituals. Again Brahmins accept only "pakka" food from another group of high castes.
 Dumont introduced an interactional perspective to caste studies, emphasizing inter-caste
relations over attributes. While acknowledging the influence of the local context on caste
ranking and identity, Dumont asserts that the broader ideology of hierarchy permeates the
entire caste system. Dumont identifies caste as a unique form of inequality, with hierarchy
serving as its foundational value, integral to the integration of Hindu society.
Criticism:
 Attributional approach had anomalies as there was discrepancy found between attribute of
a caste and its rank. Castes didn’t seem to derive their position in social hierarchy from their
attributes. There was also a concern regarding relative importance of attributes.
 Interactional approach was proposed as an alternative to the attributional approach. But it
was subject to few issues as well. Interaction alone cannot account for rank without reference
to attributes. Dumont’s approach make caste system appear as stagnant and a universally
accepted ordered system of values. Thus the dynamic changes in caste system and
numerous resistances and protests have been ignored.
The attributional approach focuses on inherent caste attributes and the preservation of caste
identity, while the interactional approach explores caste interactions in specific contexts,
emphasizing the role of rituals, religious values, and consensus in shaping caste hierarchy. Both
approaches seek to unravel the complexity of the caste system in Indian society, acknowledging its
diversity, and jointly contribute to expanding our comprehension of this enduring social
phenomenon.
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d) Are Tradition and Modernity antithetical to each other? Comment. (10

Marks)
 Define tradition and modernity while mentioning that they are not antithetical
 Explain how tradition and modernity co-exists in India through works of sociologists
 Mention the contradiction between tradition and modernity through examples
 Conclusion
The traditional is depicted as rural, agrarian, prescientific, resistant to change and innovation and
bound by perception to its past. By contrast, the modern is characterized as scientific, innovative,
future oriented, culturally dynamic, and industrial and urbanized. It is the alleged contrast that
grounds the polarity between the traditional and the modern. However, this contrast is based on
false assumptions, especially in the context of India.
Co-existence of Tradition and modernity in India:
According to Yogendra Singh, tradition refers to those ‘value-themes’ which encompass the entire
social system of Indian society prior to the beginning of modernization. He has posited that the
value themes of Hierarchy, holism, continuity and transcendence. His idea of modernisation is a
combination of cultural as well as structural change.
Evolutionary Perspective: This approach identifies sources of social change, such as Sanskritization,
Islamic influence, and Western impact, leading to cultural transformation. At the structural level,
the evolution involves the creation of institutions like bureaucracy, army, and middle class through
the modernization of tradition.
Micro Changes: Comparable to "Little tradition," these involve subtle alterations in structures like
caste and family.
Macro Changes: Resembling the "Great tradition," these encompass significant transformations in
political, industrial, bureaucratic, and urban structures.
Selective Modernization: The colonial rulers deliberately left certain micro structures untouched
during the modernization of tradition.
Singh's "Multiple Modernities" emphasizes that different regions and communities experience
modernity differently, challenging a singular narrative of conflict.
D.P Mukherji argued that there is dialectical relation between India’s tradition and modernity,
British colonialism and nationalism and individualism and collectivity. His concept of dialectics was
anchored in liberal humanism.
D.N Majumdar has argued that the past must be understood in the context of the present, and the
present will stabilize the future if it can find its fulfilment in the moorings of the past.
Sanskritisation and Westernisation: Indian society and culture defy the simplistic notion of
'tradition' as unchanging. The unique 'traditionalism' of Indian civilization lies in its adaptive
capacity, incorporating innovations into a dynamic cultural and social structure. M.N. Srinivas's
theory of Sanskritization explains social and cultural change, emphasizing the emulation of high
castes' customs by lower castes. According to Srinivas, modernization in India is synonymous with
westernization, especially in social change.
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Though the ideological perspectives of D.P. Mukerji and D.N. Majumdar are different – the former
being a Marxist and the latter a functionalist, both agree to a synthesis of tradition and modernity.
D.P. talks about adaptive changes to modernity whereas Majumdar argues that those who are
misfits to modernity will be obliged to fit themselves with the modernizing system.
Milton Singer in his work Beyond Tradition and modernity in Madras has suggested that in India
there is coexistence of tradition and modernity. He challenges the assumption of incompatibility
between tradition and modernity.
Dipankar Gupta in his work Mistaken modernity has argued that equating modernity with
technology and consumerism is a mistaken understanding. True modernity, according to him, lies
in attitudes and social relations, characterized by, Individual dignity and equality, Universalistic
norms and rule of law and Meritocracy over traditional hierarchies. He is critical of Indian middle
class for lacking these attitudes.
Contradiction of Tradition and modernity in India:
Caste system: Despite constitutional prohibitions, the caste system's enduring influence contradicts
the ideals of equality and social justice enshrined in the modern Indian state. Dumont’s work
highlight this contradiction.
Language: The dominance of English in higher education and professional spheres clashes with the
desire to preserve and promote regional languages, sparking debates about linguistic identity and
access to opportunity.
Gender roles: While modern education and employment opportunities empower
women, traditional gender norms and patriarchal structures often persist, creating conflicts in
expectations and opportunities. Maitrayee Chaudhari has explored this aspect.
Family values: Joint-family structures, rooted in tradition, are challenged by nuclear families
emerging from urban lifestyles, raising questions about social support systems and individual
autonomy.
Religious practices: Modern scientific advancements clash with certain religious beliefs, leading to
conflicts between faith and reason.
The relationship between tradition and modernity in India is far from a simple binary. While
tensions and contradictions exist, the dominant picture is one of coexistence, adaptation, and
negotiation. Partha Chatterjee has criticised the imposition of a Western model of modernity on
non-Western societies, arguing for alternative paths to development that respect local contexts and
traditions. Modernization theory is not universalistic, and in order to pursue an effective
understanding of social change one needs to go beyond the dichotomy of tradition and modernity
scheme or continuum.
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e) Discuss the main features of Land Reforms in post-independence India.

(10 Marks)
 Define land reforms
 Discuss the main features of land reforms emphasizing on positive aspects
 Mention the shortcomings of land reforms
 Conclusion
The term "Land Reform" refers to the establishment of a fair and relatively equitable land tenurial
system, involving the ownership, control, and conditions of land use and occupancy. In the post-
independence era, key objectives of land reforms in India include ensuring security, social justice,
and the redistribution of land to benefit poor and marginal farmers.
Main features of land reform:
 Abolition of intermediaries—This was important to remove a layer of intermediaries such
as zamindars and jagirdars between the cultivators and state
 This particular reform was the most effective, as it succeeded in taking away the superior
rights of the zamindars over the land and weakened their economic and political power.
According to Daniel Thorner, this was a revolutionary step in changing agrarian structure
of India.
 Tenancy reforms- These were introduced to regulate rent, provide security of
tenure and confer ownership to tenants. The reforms reduced the areas under tenancy,
however, they led to only a small percentage of tenants acquiring ownership rights. Thorner
argued that despite all evasions, leakages, loopholes and so on many millions of cultivators
who had previously been weak tenants or tenants-at-will were enabled to become superior
tenants or virtual owners.
 Ceiling on Landholdings- Land Ceiling Acts were passed, to legally stipulate the maximum
size beyond which no individual farmer or farm household could hold any land. The
imposition of the ceiling was to reduce the concentration of land in hands of a few.
Implementing this reform, the state was supposed to identify and take possession of surplus
land (above the ceiling limit) held by each household, and redistribute it to landless families
and households in other specified categories, such as SCs and STs.
 Consolidation of Land Holdings- The increasing pressure on land, combined with division
based on inheritance laws leads to distribution of single plot into fragments. Under the
scheme, all land in the village was first pooled into one compact block and divided into
smaller blocks to eventually be allotted to individual farmers. This move resulted in
increased productivity to farmers, as they could focus on their resources at one place. It
brought down cost of cultivation, reduced litigation, saved time and labour in cultivating
land earlier, in fragmented land holdings.
Drawback of the Land reforms:
 The Zamindars retained large tracts of land as under ‘personal cultivation’ and the landlords
tried to avoid the full impact of the effort at abolition of the zamindari system. This resulted
in large-scale eviction of tenants as well. Ashok Rudra has highlighted that limited impact
of land reforms in reducing the area under absentee landlordism.
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 Tenancy reforms led to only a small percentage of tenants acquiring ownership rights. The
repeated emphasis in the plan documents, did not ensure all states passing a legislation to
confer rights of ownership to tenants. Beteille has argued that due to lack of political will
and resistance from dominant landowning class this reform was less successful.
 Land ceiling act was also not very effective. The land owners kept control of their land, by
breaking up large estates into small portions, dividing them among their relatives and
transferring them to benami holders.
 Due to lack of adequate political and administrative support the progress made in terms of
consolidation of holding was not very satisfactory except in Punjab, Haryana and western
Uttar Pradesh. Sunil Sen has discussed the regional imbalance in implementation of land
reforms.
 KL Sharma studying six villages in Rajasthan. He found that neo rich peasantry has replaced
the old land lords and are emerging as the new rural bourgeoisie. The rise of the middle class
peasantry into new landlords can be described as embourgeoisement. Some ex-landlords
have slide down in status almost to the extent of proletarianization.
 Satish Deshpande has argued that land reforms had no significant effect on the landless
position of the lower castes, and their marginalization remains.
 Bina Agarwal has argued that the land reforms didn’t establish effective women’s land
rights.
M.S. Swaminathan, chairman of National Commission on agriculture, termed land reforms as an
‘unfinished agenda’. Land reforms in India did not create much upheaval, nor did they bring any
radical change. Measures regarding issues such as land titles, plugging loopholes in existing land
reform framework, special protection for marginal women farmers needs to be taken.
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Question 2.
Do you agree with the view of Andre Beteille that India's villages are
representative of Indian society's basic civilizational values? Present a
sociological overview. (20 Marks)
Overview:
 Briefly introduce the idea of village in sociological studies.
 Elaborate Beteille’s view on villages
 Critically analyze the above view
 Conclusion
Introduction:
Andre Beteille writes, ‘The village was not merely a place where people lived; it had a design in
which were reflected the basic values of Indian civilization’.
Beyond its role as a significant demographic and structural aspect defining present-day India, the
village holds crucial ideological significance. It serves as a category through which India has
frequently been envisioned and depicted in modern contexts. The village is often regarded as the
quintessential symbol of "authentic native life," representing a space where one can witness or study
the genuine essence of India. The village and its hamlets represented“India in microcosm.”
Villages as a reflection of Indian civilizational values:
 Social Structure: Village life often reflects the broader social hierarchy of India, with caste
systems and kinship networks influencing social interactions and roles. This can be seen as
a microcosm of Indian society's structure. Beteille’s work in Tanjore village, demonstrate
how caste system is deeply entrenched in the village life. . W.H. Wiser’s framework suggests
that despite the hierarchical nature of village social organization, the essence lies in the
'interdependence' among castes.
 Historical continuity: Indian villages have preserved values like collectivism, respect for
elders, and strong family ties, considered pillars of Indian civilization. Village, for
sociologists and anthropologists represented Gemeinschaft.
 Agrarian Lifestyle: Agriculture has been a central aspect of Indian villages for generations.
The agrarian lifestyle, with its dependence on the land, is seen as a manifestation of the
symbiotic relationship between nature and human life, reflecting certain cultural and
spiritual values. The village community was identified as the social foundation of the
peasant economy in India.
 Religious and Cultural Practices: Many of India's rich religious and cultural practices find
their roots and sustenance in villages. Festivals, rituals, art forms, and music flourish in these
communities, shaping and expressing core Indian values. M.N Srinivas highlighted the role
of ritual hierarchy and social practices in shaping relationships within communities
 Economic aspects: W.H Wiser in his work The Hindu Jajmani system conceptualised social
relationships among caste groups. The framework of reciprocity in Jajmani system implied
that though village social organisation was hierarchical, it was the ‘interdependence’ among
different caste groups that characterised the underlying spirit of the Indian village.
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D.N Majumdar has argued that despite economic competition and continued exploitation of
the lower by the higher castes, there existed common problems and common interests.
Srinivas too stressed on inter-caste complementarity.
 Unity of the village: Despite the diversities that marks the village life, it was the unity of
village that was emphasised by most anthropologists. S.C Dube and M.N Srinivas have
stressed how the village identity was significant when compared to other sources of
identification. A.C Mayer has talked about village patriotism.
Critical perspective:
 Heterogeneity of Village: Villages are not homogenous entities. They exhibit significant
variations in culture, customs, and social structures across regions. Treating all Indian
villages as representative of a singular set of civilizational values oversimplifies the rich
tapestry of India's rural life. Dube recognized that Indian villages vary greatly in their
internal structure and organization, in their ethos and world view.
 Critique of the communitarian unity of the village: Oscar Lewis in his study of Rampura
village suggested that a cohesive and united village hardly existed. Caste and kinship splits
the village into several communities. The village common land was more a source of
dissension than village unity. Dumont and Pocock contested the relevance of treating the
village as representative unit of Indian society as they saw inequality being the chief
characteristic feature of the village life.
 Villages undergoing change: Dipankar Gupta has argued that village as a sociological
reality is losing its significance. He has emphasised that economy and culture of the village
has been changing as a result of industrialisation and urbanisation. Agriculture is no more
the mainstay of rural economy and caste is no longer the sole determinant of social status.
 Village as a site of oppression: B.R. Ambedkar considered the idea of a village republic as one
based on undemocratic values. He said, “What is a village - a sink of localism, a den of ignorance,
narrow mindedness and communalism.” Emphasis on conservative values in some villages
may contribute to the marginalization of women and LGBTQ+ individuals, challenging
notions of inclusivity in civilizational values.
Conclusion:
Beteille's claim holds weight in highlighting the historical and cultural significance of Indian
villages. However, it's crucial to acknowledge the changing realities of India, the prevalence of social
inequalities, and the heterogeneity of village life.
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b) Elaborate the salient features and the role of the middle class in India's
democracy and development. (20 Marks)
Overview
 Brief context of the middle class in India
 Discuss the salient features of the middle class
 Elaborate its role in democracy and development
 Conclusion
Introduction:
The middle class, situated between the working and upper classes, gained prominence in 19th-
century India under British colonial rule, driven more by changes in law and administration than
economic development.
DL Seth examines the middle class evolution in India across three periods: 19th-century upper-caste
progressivism, late 19th-century diversification driven by colonial policies, and post-independence
expansion. In the contemporary period, the new middle class negotiates India's globalized economy
both culturally and economically.
According to B.B. Misra , the middle class has an occupational interest but it is bound together by
a typical style of living and behavioural patterns, and stands for democratic values, which they
express in their social and political lives.
Salient features of the middle class:
 Heterogeneity: According to Leela Fernandes, middle class derives power from authority,
skills and not just property. Andre Beteille has suggested that it’s more appropriate to speak
of middle classes than of the middle class in India.
 Consumerism: Indian “new” middle class contribute significantly to the country’s consumer
market growth since the economic liberalization of the 1991. Acts of consumption are
considered as indicators of modern status by them.
 Education: Educational and cultural capital is central to the middle class as it’s considered
as means for upward mobility. Gurucharan Das notes importance of English language for
the middle class. The new middle class is also called as the knowledge class as they are most
likely to have advanced education and technological expertise.
 Global perspective: The Indian middle class, with its emphasis on education and upward
mobility, often aspires to international standards of living, healthcare, and quality of
life. This aspiration spurs a global outlook and desire for engagement with the world.
 Cultural values: Indian urban middle class grapples with tradition-modernity clash in
personal lives. Patriarchy, social control, and normative expectations persist, even as
modernity expands options and fuels ambivalence. As Dipankar Gupta argues “though
the past is in our present, it is not as if the past in its entirety is our present”
Role of the middle class in India’s democracy and development:
 Political Influence: The middle class has been considered a significant force in shaping
political outcomes. DL Seth highlights the historical leadership role of the middle class
during the nationalist movement, contributing to the initiation of the nationalist movement
597
in the late 19th century and playing a decisive ideological role in representing the national
interest.
 Ideological role: The middle class, a small yet influential group, serves as a "moral
majority" shaping 21st-century India with shared aspirations for education, mobility, and
Westernized consumption.
 Hegemonic Project: Satish Deshpande argues that the middle class articulates the
hegemony of the ruling bloc. In the Nehruvian era, the middle class pursued its narrow self-
interest through rent-seeking while simultaneously claiming to represent the national
interest as agents of developmentalism.
 Shift in Power Dynamics: The middle class has transitioned from relying on the state to
playing a leading role in the market. Yogendra Yadav notes this shift aligns with the
emergence of a new social bloc in Indian politics, blending traditional caste-community
differences with class distinctions, notably seen in reactions to initiatives like Mandal,
where upper-caste groups resisted extending reservations to OBCs.
 Role in social change: In the post-independence era, the Indian middle class led movements
for linguistic states, anti-corruption (Anna Hazare movement), and educational reforms.
They actively participated in environmental causes, youth-led campaigns, urban protests,
and contributed to NGOs, impacting policy decisions in various domains.
Conclusion:
The formation of the Indian middle class is ongoing as suggested by Beteille, making it challenging
to precisely define its characteristics. While occasionally criticized for self-centeredness and
parochial perspectives, the middle class significantly contributes to upholding democratic traditions
and spearheading developmental pathways.
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c) Analyse the role of market and modern forces in understanding the

changing trends in marriage systems in India. (10 Marks)
 Define marriage in the context of India
 Discuss the changing trends in marriage system
 Explain the challenges
 Conclusion
Malinowski says that marriage is a “contract for the production and maintenance of children. The
religious texts of many communities in India have outlined the purpose, rights and duties involved
in marriage. Among the Hindus, for instance, marriage is regarded as a socio-religious duty.
Ancient Hindu texts point out three main aims of marriage. These are dharma (duty), praja
(progeny) and rati (sensual pleasure). Even among other communities in India, marriage is
regarded as an essential obligation. Islam looks upon marriage as “sunnah” (an obligation) which
must be fulfilled by every Muslim. Christianity holds marriage as crucial to life and lays emphasis
on the establishment of a mutual relationship between husband and wife and on their duty to each
other.
The spread and intensification of modernity and market economy has affected the institution of
marriage in India.
Changing trends in marriage system:
 Role of market forces in marriages: A consumerist, post-liberalisation economy now drives
the marriage market. It has led to commodification of marriage with trends like destination
wedding.
 In India over recent decades, not only the amount of money involved in dowry has increased
but also the nature of dowry. For example, dowry today often consists of consumer goods
such as electrical home appliances, cars and motor bikes and also land and property as
suggested by Madhu Kishwar.
 Online matrimonial sites: With rise in technology, arranged marriages have now changed
the traditional form. Online websites and apps like Jeevansathi, Shadi.com etc have
implications for family disintermediation, cultural convergence, continuous information
flows, ease of disengagement, virtual dating and reduced stigma in arranged marriages in
India.
 Increasing choice in partner selection: Ravinder Kaur observes that there is an increasing
use of the internet for matchmaking as it expands the horizon over which brides and grooms
can be surfed for. She also states that though the internet, is an aspect of ‘modernity’ (as it
expands choice and possibilities and overcomes barriers of geography and physical location),
this modernity does not encompass seeking marriage partners across traditional criteria of
caste, class, religion and region.
 Among urban areas, with the increasing number of women getting higher education and
being economically independent, there is an increasing trend to have late marriages.
Presently there is a debate on increasing the marriageable age of girls to 21 years. The
proportion of unmarried persons within the age bracket of 15-29 years has increased to 23
per cent in 2019 from 17.2 per cent in 2011, according to a government survey.
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 There is an increasing trend of divorce. In the past few years, India is witnessing a rise of 50%
to 60% in divorce rates, especially in the urban areas. This can also be cited as one of the
reasons for increasing number of people opting for Live in relationships rather than entering
into marriage. Marriage is losing its important as sacrament and its being considered as
personal choice.
 The inter-caste marriages in India have been gradually gaining acceptance due to increasing
education, employment, middle-class economic background, and urbanisation. As of the
2011 census, 5.8% of the marriages in India were inter-caste marriages.
 There is increasing awareness and acceptance around homosexual marriages even though
it’s not legally recognised. Non-heteronormative ideas of love and family are challenging
entrenched patriarchal norms.
 India is also witnessing increasing in the phenomenon of Double Income No kids. Rising
costs of raising children and changing expectations from marriage are influencing decisions
of married couples.
 Disintegration of joint family to nuclear family forces the couple to rely on other specialized
agencies in day to day work or on friends and extended family. Presently there are
specialized agencies like creches, day care centres for children and old, activity classes,
counsellors, which aids couples for smooth functioning of day to day affairs
Challenges:
 Conservative elements of patriarchy still holds significance. Incidents of honour killing tell
how choosing one’s spouse is not a free choice yet and community norms have to be followed.
Prem Chowdhry has explored this in her work.
 Inter-caste and inter-religious marriages still form a very small fraction. Arranged marriages
within the boundaries of caste, class and other socio-economic factors remain the norm.
 Double burden on women: Women’s increasing participation in labour force has increased
their responsibility as men still don’t contribute equally in household chores. Arlie
Hochschild calls this Double Shift.
 Erosion of social control and support systems: Weakening of traditional family structures
can leave individuals, particularly women, vulnerable to exploitation and abuse in the
absence of adequate social support systems.
 Increased social isolation and anxiety: Individualistic choices can lead to feelings of
loneliness and isolation, particularly for those struggling to find partners or facing failed
marriages.
In the dynamic landscape of Indian society, the interplay of market forces and modernity has
unmistakably redefined the dimensions of marriage. The institution has undergone metamorphoses
in its architecture, functions, and significances. Yet, amid these evolutions, marriage endures as a
vital and enduring societal foundation, embodying a fusion of tradition and responsiveness to
contemporary influences.
600
Question 3.
Contextualize Louis Dumont's concept of ‘binary opposition’ with reference
to caste system in India. (20 Marks)
Overview
 Briefly introduce Dumont’s theoretical perspective
 Elaborate the idea of binary opposition e
 Criticism of Dumont’s perspective
 Conclusion
Introduction:
Louis Dumont presented his caste analysis under a "structuralist" paradigm in his work Homo
Hierarchicus. Binary opposition refers to a pair of related terms or concepts that are opposite in
meaning. Dumont used this concept to analyse the caste system in India. He saw the caste system
as a balance of opposition and complementarity of pure and impure (pollution). The caste system
has always been interconnected. According to Dumont, caste is more than simply a structural
system; it is an ideology that exists on a pan-Indian scale. That is to say, all groups in India are
influenced by the purity-pollution ideology.
Dumont’s concept of binary opposition in caste system:
Concept of pure and impure
 Dumont’s analysis is premised on a single principle: the dichotomy of pure and impure.
This contrast underpins the concept of 'hierarchy,' which refers to the superiority of the pure
and the inferiority of the impure. This notion also underpins the concept of 'separation,'
which states that the pure and impure must be kept separate.
 According to him, in Hinduism, every area of life is categorised on purity and pollution.
Persons of higher caste keep their distance from lower caste; thus, customary rules of purity
impurity form boundaries between castes.
 The brahman is at the apex of the caste hierarchy, with the king second in rank. Other castes
absorb impurity, so that the brahman priest can be in a pure state when he transacts with the
gods. In the village, the dominant caste plays the role of the king, subordinate to the
brahman priest. So the religious encompasses the politico-economic in Hindu India, and,
according to certain ancient Sanskrit texts, has long done so.
 Dumont highlighted the practice of endogamy within castes, emphasizing the importance
of maintaining purity within the group.
 In terms of diet, vegetarians are the purest, and non-vegetarians (who consume dead meat)
are the least pure.
 According to him, menstruating women are not allowed to visit kitchens or temples because
blood is pure inside the body but becomes impure when it flows out. As a result, it is
considered that women become impure during menstruation and are hence forbidden.
 Bathing is a purificatory rite for a Hindu and death is the most impure thing. As a result,
persons who bury dead remains are deemed impure.
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 A Brahmin is regarded clean because he is affiliated with things that do not pollute him. A
barber, on the other hand, must cut hair and separate nails. So, a barber belongs to low caste.
So, social superiority of hierarchy is based on relative purity or impurity levels.
 Following from this, the caste system is viewed as a ‘whole’ which is founded on the
necessary and hierarchical co-existence of the opposites (the pure and impure). This
represents a view point of caste according to which both the pure and the impure have their
rightful place in the system and each has its privileges and co-exists with the other.
Criticism of Dumont’s perspective:
 This is a cultural perspective based on ancient texts. M.N. Srinivas referred to these points as
textual and rejected them.
 G.S. Ghurye chastised Louis Dumont for interpreting Indian texts to further a disguised
colonial purpose. According to him, Dumont attempted to argue that Indians have always
been a non-equal and unequal community, but westerns are equal and egalitarian.
 T.N. Madan believed that pollution and purity were not the basis of the Caste System's
hierarchy because, with the exception of a few Brahmins (Nambudari, Saryupari, Kanyikubj),
all Brahmins are non-vegetarians, whereas many Vaishya Castes are vegetarians, yet
Brahmins are ranked first and Vaishyas are ranked last.
 Dumont neglected the political perspective that essentially dictates the caste system's
hierarchy. For example, those castes that are politically powerful (dominant castes) are
ranked higher in one region, but they are ranked lower in another.
 Essentialization: The concept of pollution can be seen as essentializing different
castes, attributing fixed and inherent characteristics to entire groups of people.
Conclusion:
Louis Dumont's portrayal of the Caste System is termed a 'culture particularistic' viewpoint. He
aimed to pinpoint the distinctiveness of the Caste System, emphasizing its uniqueness with a focus
on purity and pollution. While overlooking other facets of its origin and existence, Dumont's
identification and articulation are widely seen as a legitimate perspective on the Caste System.
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b) Define the concepts of ‘Descent’ and ‘Alliance’. Differentiate between

North Indian and South Indian Kinship systems with examples. (20 Marks)
Overview
 Define descent and alliance in the introduction
 Elaborate key features of North Indian and South Indian kinship highlighting their
differences
 Conclusion
Introduction:
Descent is the principle whereby a person is socially affiliated with the group of his or her parents,
grandparents and so on. The individual belongs simultaneously to several descent groups – those
of two parents, the four grand-parents, the eight great grandparents and so on. Descent can be
unilineal(patrilineal or matrilineal), bilateral or cognatic.
In the context of kinship, Alliance refers to social relationships established through marriage. They
are also known as affinal relations. It involves the union of people from different descent groups,
creating networks of connections and interdependence. It operates on the principle of reciprocal
and mutual exchange.
The alliance theory, introduced Claude Levi-Strauss, posits that the fundamental purpose of kinship
systems in numerous societies is to establish alliances through marital bonds. G.S Ghurye has
elaborated on the role of descent in defining marriage, family and kinship in India. Andre Beteille
has suggested that kinship is India is so strong that voting is driven by kinship rather than merit.
Kinship system in North India:
Irawati Karve has distinguished between four different kinship systems- North, South, central and
east.
North Indian Kinship System:
 Areas of more Aryan culture influence and Odisha, Bihar and West Bengal.
 Patrikins and Matrikins are different.
 Within patrilineal system father’s brother is distinguished from father’s sister. Fathers,
brothers are also distinguished in terms of age, so differential respect is attributed to them.
Brothers are also distinguished in terms of age, so differential respect is attributed to them.
Rule of marriage is highly exhaustive- One is not supposed to receive a woman from a group
to which a woman is offered within 5 to 7 generations.
 One can’t receive a woman from his mother’s group, mother’s mother group, father’s mother
group, and his own village.
 Besides lineages and clans, the kinship system operates Kinship within the families of the
caste groups, living in one village or a nearby cluster of villages. As castes are endogamous,
i.e., one marries within one’s caste, people belonging to one caste group are kinspersons in
the sense that they are already related or can be potentially related to each other.
 Residential system is Virilocal, same as patrilocal involves a series of presentational
obligations. (In social anthropology, patrilocal residence or patrilocality, also known as
virilocal residence or virilocality, are terms referring to the social system in which a married
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couple resides with or near the husband's parents.)
 Veena Das- In north Indian kinship father son relationship precedes over husband wife
relationship-on analysis of Punjabi kinship system she said- the natural sexual relationship
between husband and wife is subdued to socially established father son relationship
glorifying patriarchy.
South Indian Kinship System:
 Across South India, certain area of Maharashtra (MH), and Odisha, there is no distinct
separation between patrilineal and matrilineal systems.
 Father's brother holds a similar status to mother's sister's husband
 Specific patrilineal kins are equated with specific matrilineal kins.
 The relationship equivalence extends to father's sister group and mother's brother group,
making mother's brother comparable to father's sister's husband. Specific patrilineal and
matrilineal kinship groups are identified and equated.
 The kinship system exhibits a blending of love for younger members and respect for elders,
transcending generational boundaries. For instance, father is regarded similarly to an elder
brother, while mother is likened to an elder sister, and younger brother is treated akin to a
son, and younger sister to a daughter.
 No special norms of behaviour are evolved for married girls in the south whereas in the
north, many restrictions are imposed on them.
 Unlike in North India, cross-cousin marriages are permissible, and the system of exogamy
is not as exhaustive.
 Concerning preferential marriages, certain castes in South India prioritize marriage between
a man and his elder sister's daughter. The next preferred category is marriage between a
man and his father's sister's daughter. The third type of preferential marriage involves a man
and his mother's brother's daughter
 Husband-wife relationships do not subordinate to father-son relationships, in contrast to
North India
 Additionally, the South Indian kinship system generally experiences a lower level of
hostility between in-laws, driven by suspicions, compared to North India.
Conclusion:
These differences highlight the diverse ways in which descent and alliance are conceptualized and
practiced in North and South Indian kinship systems. These systems mirror societal norms and
values, playing a pivotal role in social organization, marriage practices, inheritance rights, and
various aspects of social life.
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c) Critically examine the concept of Sanskritization with suitable

 Define Sanskritization
 Elaborate the concept with illustrations
 Discuss criticism
 Conclusion
The concept ‘Sanskritization’ was first introduced by Prof. M.N. Srinivas. He explained the concept
of Sanskritization in his book “Religion and society among the coorgs of South India” to describe
the cultural mobility in the traditional caste structure of Indian society. In his study of the Coorgs of
Mysore, he came to know that the lower castes were trying to raise their status in their caste
hierarchy by adopting some cultural ideals of the Brahmins.
Sanskritisation:
 It means caste placed lower in the caste hierarchy emulate ritual,traditions, beliefs of upper
castes , for upper mobility in caste hierarchy.
 Example, various non-elite pastoral communities such as Ahir, Gopa, Ahar, Goala,
etc., adopted the Yadav identity as part of their Sanskritization efforts to achieve upward
mobility in society from the late 19th century to the early 20th century. Similar endeavours
were made by historically non-elite cultivating communities like Kurmi and various others
such as Koeri, Murao, etc
 His second connotation of Sanskritisation is much broader because first Srinivas talked of
imitation of mere food habits, rituals and religious practices but later on he talked of imitation
of ideologies too (which include ideas of Karma, Dharma, Paap, Punya, Moksha etc.).
 According to him, the lower castes also imitated the cultural ways of other higher castes such
as Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, and the Sudras in various regions of the country. Example, The
Nadars of Tamil Nadu, originally a lower caste community engaged in toddy tapping,
adopted the vegetarian diet, teetotalism, and other Brahminical practices to raise their social
status. They also built temples and employed Brahmins to perform rituals.
 In his study of the Coorgs, he found that the lower castes adopted some customs of the
Brahmins and gave up some of their own, which were considered to be impure by the higher
castes in order to raise their position in the caste hierarchy. For example, they gave up meat-
eating, consumption of liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities. Lower caste imitated the
Brahmins in matter of food, dress and rituals.
 It acts as a endogenous social change and it is also a socio-psychological concept of
anticipatory socialisation that is Merton's reference group theory
 Describing social change in India in terms of Sanskritisation is to describe it primarily in
cultural and not in structural terms. Srinivas himself has conceded that Sanskritisation
involves positional change in the caste system without any structural change. It includes both
religious ( food, language, rituals) and secular ( education, wealth, employment , land )
changes.
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Criticism:
 Harold Gould - Sanskritization is not an imitation of a higher caste culture but a form of
rebellion. Caste mobility is unimportant, rather it is important for them to protest and pose a
direct challenge to the upper caste.
 Dirks criticized Sanskritization for using a single Brahmanical scale for upward mobility,
calls it a new colonial sociology.
 Sanskritization is not an all India phenomenon. Punjab saw Islamization, Uttarakhand saw
Tribalization. He ignored Periyar and Phule's movements against Brahmins - self
emancipation by challenging upper class authority.
 McKim Marriott finds no clear process of Sanskritization at the expense of the non-
Sanskritic traditions in his village studies. He sees Sanskritic rites being added on to non-
Sanskritic rites without replacing them.
 Anand Chakraborty argued that Srinivas neglected gender and other contemporary issues
like Dalit movements, peasant movements. He was too biased towards caste study and
village study and his sociological discourse remained traditional.
 Even when Sanskritisation allows for social mobility through elevation to a relatively higher
position in the caste hierarchy, it only modifies the rank/position of communities in the caste
hierarchy and reinforces graded inequalities and practices in the name of caste, while not
offering a strong critique and denunciation of the caste system as a whole.
 Yogendra Singh criticizes him for his traditional approach in advocating little change in
Indian tradition, says he ignored the structural factors of social change - studied social reality
only from caste and village standpoint, and hence myopic.
 TK Oommen criticizes Srinivas for objective idealism - his studies are purely fact based and
connected with idealistic traditional view of India.
While Sanskritization has witnessed a decline in relevance within contemporary Indian society, it
remains a crucial concept that sheds light on historical processes and societal transformations. The
advent of factors like reservation policies, heightened Dalit consciousness, the influence of
Westernization, and the establishment of a democratic polity has shifted the dynamics of social
change.
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Question 4.
Analyse the perspectives of Isolation, Assimilation and Integration in

understanding the trajectories of India Tribal Development.
Answer
Overview
 Briefly establish the context of tribes of India
 Elaborate the three perspectives along with criticism
 Write about contemporary debates regarding tribal development
 Conclusion
Introduction:
Tribe is defined as a social group bound together by kin and duly associated with a particular
territory; members of the tribe share the social cohesion and associated with the family together
with the sense of political autonomy of the nation.
Article 366 (25) of the Indian constitution defined scheduled tribes as “such tribes or tribal
communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under
Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this constitution”. The criteria for Schedule
tribes include primitive traits, geographical isolation among others.
Tribal development policies in India have primarily followed three approaches: Isolationist,
Assimilationist, and Integrationist.
Perspective of Isolation:
 The isolationist approach came to mean letting tribes live in their own way, not infringing on
their economic space and allowing them to develop in their own self-created development
design. It has been viewed as colonial construction.
 Verrier Elwin’s ‘National Park Policy’ of keeping the tribals as “museums, specimens became
the model for administration.
 Tribes were viewed through a lens of romanticized simplicity, portraying them as 'Noble
Savages.' This policy, rooted in the notion that tribes were too innocent to comprehend socio-
economic processes, led to the neglect of tribal development. The isolationist model,
implemented through legislation like the Inner Line Regulation of 1873 and the Scheduled
District Act of 1874, aimed to minimize tribal-non-tribal contact, hindering their integration
into the economy and polity.
 Thakkar Bapa criticized isolating tribes, likening it to placing them in a museum for
academic curiosity.
 S.C.Dubey: In India Tribe has never been isolated .There has been contact with non-tribal.
Perspective of Assimilation:
 G.S. Ghurye challenges the colonial tribe-non-tribe distinction, blaming British policies for
tribal exploitation. He considered tribes as “backward Hindus”. He argued for the complete
assimilation of tribes into mainstream Indian society, considering them as imperfectly
integrated Hindus.
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Ghurye's division of tribes into properly, loosely, and minimally integrated categories was
based on perceived similarities between Hindu and tribal religions.
 Critics contended that complete assimilation was impractical, as tribes had distinct beliefs,
practices, and egalitarian social structures.
 The policy of assimilation was seen as having aggressive and potentially violent
implications due to the fundamental differences in socioeconomic structures, culture, and
values between tribes and non-tribal sections of society.
Perspective of Integration:
 After Independence, debates over tribal development strategies emerged, contrasting British
policies. Nehru’s Panchsheel principles were developed as a middle ground between
isolation and assimilation.
 The Panchsheel principles were based on self-expression, land and forest rights, tribal
administration, minimal intervention, and human development focus.
 The focus of this policy was on faster socio-economic development while protecting tribal
rights. Government’s agenda was to address shortcomings of earlier approaches.
 The Nehruvian policy transitioned to progressive integration for faster socio-economic
advancement, emphasizing modernization in tribal areas.
Contemporary Debates:
 Constitutional provisions like Schedule V and Schedule VI and Government initiatives like
the Tribal Sub-plan, Panchayats (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA), the Forest
Rights Act, TRIFED aim to extend include tribals within the development agenda while
respecting their autonomy and rights.
 However, scholars argue that despite protective laws, exploitation and discrimination
persist. Economic development brings challenges like land alienation and migration.
Privatization threatens tribal livelihoods. Integration policy is criticized for absorption,
fostering separatist movements. The state protects civil rights, but tribal culture faces
challenges.
Conclusion:
India's diverse tribes, despite achievements in policies, rights, and programs, grapple with poverty
and inequality. Preserving their culture while enabling integration, education, healthcare, and
economic opportunities through a new social contract is key for their development.
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b) Explain the implication and the impact of globalization in situating the

changing agrarian class structure in India.
Answer
Overview
 Briefly define globalisation and agrarian class structure in India.
 Discuss the positive impact of globalisation and subsequently the negative impacts
 Conclusion
Introduction:
According to George Ritzer, “Globalization refers to the rapidly increasing worldwide integration
and interdependence of societies and cultures”.
Agrarian class structure in India traditionally feudal in character and governed around caste lines
have been shaped by long historical and politico- administrative process. Globalisation too has had
significant implications on the changing agrarian class structure.
Traditional Agrarian Class Structure:
 Daniel Thorner classified the agrarian class structure as Maliks(Landlords), Kisan(Tenants)
and Mazdoor(wage labour). D.N Dhanagare proposed five classes of Landlords, Rich
Peasants, Rich tenants, Middle peasants and Poor peasants.
Positive implication and impact of Globalisation on agrarian class structure:
 Access to new markets and opportunities: Globalization offers new markets for Indian
agricultural products, benefiting farmers with increased income, technology adoption, and
production diversification. Exposure to global practices promotes efficiency and enhances
marketability. K.C. Khanna emphasizes the benefits of increased productivity and
efficiency driven by global market integration.
 Increased investment and technology transfer: Global agribusinesses bring capital and
expertise, benefiting Indian farmers with access to advanced technologies, improved
infrastructure, and reduced post-harvest losses. Use of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) like
IR8 a semi-dwarf rice variety have significantly outperformed traditional varieties in the
presence of adequate irrigation, pesticides, and fertilizers.
 Improved access to inputs and services: Globalization enables farmers to access a broader
range of agricultural inputs, fostering efficient supply chains. This benefits all farmers by
potentially reducing costs and enhancing productivity. Increased market competition may
drive innovation and lower input prices, positively impacting the agricultural sector
 Emergence of new opportunities and sectors: Globalization supports the emergence of niche
markets for high-value agricultural products, offering income opportunities for
entrepreneurial farmers. Ashish Kothari has emphasised on the potential of organic farming
for rural development.
 Empowerment of vulnerable groups: Globalization can lead to increased awareness and
bargaining power for marginalized groups within the agrarian class structure. Bina Agarwal
has argued that increased market access can empower women and improve their livelihood.
Access to information and communication technologies can provide marginal farmers with
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platforms to voice their concerns and negotiate better prices for their produce.
Negative implications:
 Vicious debt trap and farmer suicides: Data from the National Sample Survey Organization
and the National Crime Records Bureau emphasize the widespread indebtedness among
farm households, much of it attributed to production-related expenses. The alarming
frequency of farmer suicides, notably in progressive states such as Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, and Madhya Pradesh, highlights the detrimental consequences of
globalization on the agricultural landscape.
 Large and capital-intensive farms: With increased market integration, agribusinesses and
large-scale farms benefit from economies of scale and access to technology, further
marginalizing small and marginal farmers who struggle to compete. This widens the
existing inequality gap within the agrarian class structure.
 Land dispossession: Globalization can fuel a surge in land acquisitions for infrastructural
projects, potentially leading to displacement of small farmers. A.R. Desai, in his work on
class contradictions in Indian agriculture, highlighted this risk of land alienation and its
detrimental impact on rural communities.
 Market volatility and price fluctuations: Dependence on global markets exposes farmers to
volatile prices, potentially devastating the incomes of those reliant on cash crops. Ranjit
Singh, in his research on agrarian class inequalities, emphasized how such volatility
exacerbates uncertainty and insecurity for vulnerable farmers. Recent farmer protests were
fuelled by such apprehensions.
 Intensification and resource depletion: The pressure to meet global market demands can
lead to overuse of fertilizers, pesticides, and water resources. K.C. Khanna, despite
highlighting the potential of technology for increased productivity, also warns against such
unsustainable practices.
 Caste and gender dimensions: Dalits and Adivasis often face additional challenges due to
historical marginalization and lack of access to resources. Additionally, women farmers
frequently struggle with limited land ownership and decision-making power, further
exacerbating their vulnerability within the changing agrarian structure. Though there has
been feminisation of agriculture in India due to increase in male migration from rural to
urban areas, but there is no parallel improvement in their lives.
 Commercialization and shift in crops: Focus on cash crops for global markets can lead
to abandonment of traditional, sustainable farming practices and loss of valuable local
knowledge. This not only impacts biodiversity but also weakens the cultural fabric of rural
communities.
Conclusion:
While the challenges of globalization for India's agrarian class structure are significant, it's
important to acknowledge the potential positive implications as well. More equitable policies are
needed to help the most marginalized in the agrarian structure.
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c) Critique the victory narratives of Green Revolution in the context of

Indian society. (10 Marks)
 Define Green Revolution
 Discuss the positive impacts
 Critique the victory narrative
 Conclusion
The Green Revolution was a period that began in the 1960s during which agriculture in India was
converted into a modern industrial system by the adoption of technology, such as the use of high
yielding variety (HYV) seeds, mechanised farm tools, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and fertilizers.
Positive Impacts of Green Revolution:

 Increase in Crop Produce: It resulted in a grain output of 131 million tonnes in the year 1978-
79 and established India as one of the world's biggest agricultural producers.
 Reduced Import of Food-Grains: India became self-sufficient in food-grains and had
sufficient stock in the central pool, even, at times, India was in a position to export food-
grains. The per capita net availability of food-grains has also increased.
 Benefits to the Farmers: The introduction of the Green Revolution helped the farmers in
raising their level of income. Farmers ploughed back their surplus income for improving
agricultural productivity. Andre Beteille has remarked, “The Green Revolution has indeed
created a new faith in the dynamism of the Indian farmer who has shown himself to be
capable not only of quickly absorbing technological innovations but also of handling social
arrangements with considerable dexterity.”
 Industrial Growth: The Revolution brought about large scale farm mechanization which
created demand for different types of machines like tractors, harvesters, threshers, combines,
diesel engines, electric motors, pumping sets, etc.
 Rural Employment: There was an appreciable increase in the demand for labour force due
to multiple cropping and use of fertilizers. The Green Revolution created plenty of jobs not
only for agricultural workers but also industrial workers by creating related facilities such as
factories and hydroelectric power station
 Emergence of bullock capitalists: Rudolph and Rudolph have said that the Green
Revolution has led to emergence of an economically well off farmers better known as bullock
capitalists, which has been instrumental in prosperity of economy.
Critiques of the Green Revolution's Victory Narratives:

 Widening socio-economic disparities: The Green Revolution relied heavily on expensive
inputs like fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation infrastructure. This benefited resource-rich
farmers, while marginalizing small and landless farmers unable to afford these inputs.
Thorner has explored this dimension. The advantages primarily accrued to the dominant
castes and large-scale farmers, exacerbating the marginalization of vulnerable sections in
society.
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 PC Joshi : GR has contributed for the rise of capitalist agriculture and offered an economic
foundation for the rise of big bourgeoise in the country side.
 Regional disparities: GS Bhalla and Chaddha found that study in 200 villages in Punjab to
find out that after Green Revolution the per capita income of a rich farmer's family is 200
times higher in comparison to income of poor farmer. Bagchi and Athreya argued that GR
gave rise to regional disparity in development - especially dry and non-irrigated areas.
 Gender dynamics: Families in green revolution zone definitely improved on economic
terms but there was also some dysfunctional consequences to female counterparts of family.
Green revolution involved heavy machinery to be used on fields and women were not
considered capable to handle heavy machines (a patriarchal mindset), and moreover because
of increased economic importance of land, son preference increased manifold in regions like
Haryana, Punjab etc. Utsa Patnaik has explained the disproportionate negative impact of
Green Revolution on women and children. Lakshmi Menon believes that women were worst
victim of Green revolution.
 Amit Bhaduri has argued that green revolution led to distress migration of agricultural
labourers to Punjab and Haryana, and this led to emergence of new forms of bondage.
 Environmental degradation: Overreliance on chemical inputs led to soil degradation, water
depletion, and pollution, threatening long-term sustainability. The Green Revolution
promoted monoculture, reducing crop diversity and resilience to pests and
diseases. Additionally, traditional varieties and local knowledge systems were ignored.
 KS Gill argued that mechanization led to de-peasantization and proletarianization of
peasants. Gail Omvedt argued that structural problems of agrarian economy were not
addressed.
The Green Revolution's story in India is complex, with both positive and negative consequences.
While the Green Revolution is often celebrated for its positive impact on agricultural productivity
and food security in India, a critical examination reveals a more nuanced reality. Recognizing these
complexities is crucial for developing more sustainable and equitable models of agriculture for the
future.
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Section B
Question 5. Write short answers, with a sociological perspective, on the following questions in
about 150 words each:
a) Citing some case studies, expand the concept of 'Development-induced

Displacement. (10 Marks)
 Define the concept of Development induced Displacement
 Mention few case studies
 Explain the consequences of displacement
 Discuss the issues with Resettlement policies
 Conclusion
Development-induced displacement is the outcome of the forcible eviction of people from their
homes or lands for the purpose of installing development projects such as dams, mining projects,
roads, Special Economic Zones, manufacturing plants and so on. These development initiatives or
projects meant for economic progress, bring many opportunities for people; however, it comes at an
enormous cost, which is usually borne by a society’s poorest and most vulnerable.
Case studies:
 Narmada Valley project: In 1979, the Indian government initiated construction of the Sardar
Sarovar dam to improve hydropower supply in Gujarat and provide water to the drought-
prone regions of Kutch and Saurashtra. According to the World Bank, the NVP has displaced
an estimated 250,000 people, many of whom have lost their homes, livelihoods, and
traditional way of life. The compensation offered to the displaced people is inadequate. The
resettlement sites are often poor quality and lack basic amenities. The project has had a
negative impact on the environment, leading to deforestation, soil erosion, and loss of
biodiversity.
 Tehri Dam Project : Displaced approximately 100,000 people, mostly from tribal
communities, disrupting their livelihoods and cultural heritage. The resettlement process
continues to face criticism for inadequate compensation and infrastructure. Women and
children formed majority of the displaced population as suggested by Vandana Asthana.
 Posco Steel Plant in Odisha: The proposed Posco steel plant in Odisha faced resistance from
local communities. The project, if implemented, would displace several villages and impact
the livelihoods of fishing communities. The debate surrounding the plant has brought
attention to issues of land acquisition and the rights of indigenous communities.
Consequences of displacement:
 Social Disruption and Loss of Identity: Ashish Kothari emphasizes the disruption of social
networks, cultural practices, and traditional ways of life experienced by displaced
communities, impacting their sense of identity and belonging.
 Livelihood Insecurity and Poverty: Studies document the challenges displaced communities
face in rebuilding livelihoods, often leading to increased poverty and vulnerability.
 Gendered Impacts: Sawhney and Malhotra raise awareness of the disproportionate burden
613
borne by women and children due to displacement, including increased risks of exploitation
and marginalization. Mridula Singh’s work on Narmada valley and tehri Dam project
highlight the gendered impact of displacement.
 Loss of land and resources: Displaced communities lose access to fertile land, forests, and
water bodies, essential for their subsistence and cultural practices. Biswaranjan Mohanty has
argued how displaced tribals are treated as development refugees by the state.
 Social conflict and unrest: Displacement can cause tension and conflict within communities
and with project developers, particularly due to inadequate compensation and resettlement
measures. A.K Nayak has pointed that involuntary displacements created conflict in the
context of Hirakud dam displacement.
 Loss of cultural heritage and identity: Displacement disrupts traditional knowledge
systems, social structures, and cultural practices, impacting community identity and sense of
belonging.
Development projects, while crucial for economic growth and improved living standards, can leave
communities shattered if they displace people without proper compensation and support. To truly
achieve equitable progress, we need development that prioritizes inclusivity and participation. This
means ensuring the rights and voices of all stakeholders, especially marginalized and vulnerable
groups, are heard and considered throughout the planning process.
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b) Examine the concept of 'Cultural Pluralism’ in the context of India's Unity

in Diversity. (10 Marks)
 Define Cultural Pluralism
 Explain features of Cultural Pluralism in India
 Discuss factors contributing to the unity
 Elaborate the challenges
 Conclusion
When many cultures co-exist in a given geographical area, without one dominating the other, it is
known as "cultural pluralism". India presents a seemingly multicultural situation within the
framework of a single integrated cultural whole, often termed as “Unity in Diversity”.
Features of Cultural Pluralism:

Religion: India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world. The religion of 80% of
the people is Hinduism. Islam is practiced by around 13% of all Indians. It is the birthplace of
Hinduism, Sikhism, Buddhism, Jainism and they are accepted within its rich cultural tapestry.
Language: There are 22 official languages and each has its distinctive script (Guha). The Indian one
rupee currency shows seventeen languages and seventeen scripts. Besides, there are 63 non-Indian
languages spoken in the country and a total of more than 1652 languages and dialects.
Festivals: India is a country that is divided among various provinces, cultures, and languages but
united by its festivals. Each state of India celebrates at least one festival from where the reason to
celebrate might have originated from historically.
Cuisine: India is known for its love for food and for its diverse multi cuisine. The cooking style
varies from region to region. Major Indian foods include South Indian, Punjabi, Mughali, Bengali,
Kashmiri, Rajasthani and Gujarati.
Art forms: Some of the world-famous dance forms that originated and evolved in India include
Bharatnatyam, Kathak, Kathakali, Kuchipudi, Manipuri. Indian dance too has diverse folk dance
forms such as Bhangra of Punjab, Yakshagana of Karnataka, Bihu of Assam and Chhau of
Jharkhand. Music also plays a very important role in the lives of Indians. Indian architecture has
evolved through various ages in different regions of the country.
This inherent diversity, however, doesn't negate a sense of unity. Several factors contribute to this:
 Shared History and Struggles: A shared history, particularly the struggle for independence,
fostered a sense of collective identity among Indians. This feeling of "being Indian"
transcends cultural differences.
 Constitutional Safeguards: The Indian Constitution enshrines the right to equality and
prohibits discrimination based on religion, language, or caste. This legal framework provides
a foundation for peaceful coexistence.
 National Symbols and Festivals: National symbols like the tricolour flag and pan-Indian
festivals like Diwali serve as unifying elements, fostering a sense of shared belonging.
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 Popular Culture and Media: Bollywood movies, cricket matches, and common epics like the
Ramayana create a shared cultural experience, bridging regional and cultural divides.
Challenges of Cultural Pluralism:

 Communalism and religious violence: Ashis Nandy emphasizes the role of historical
wounds, political manipulation, and competition for resources in fuelling communal
tensions. TN Madan has argued about the crisis of secularism in a culturally plural society.
 Caste discrimination and untouchability: Despite constitutional safeguards, Dipankar
Gupta argues that the caste system's deep-rooted structures continue to perpetuate social and
economic inequalities
 Linguistic chauvinism and regionalism: Gyanendra Pandey explores how language and
regional identities can be politicized, creating divisions and hindering national integration.
Ethnic and secessionist movements threaten national unity.
 Divisive politics: Sometimes, ascriptive identities such as caste, religion etc. are evoked by
politicians in order to garner votes. This type of divisive politics can result in violence, feeling
of mistrust and suspicion among minorities.
 Erosion of traditional values and cultural identity: Arjun Appadurai warns of the
homogenizing forces of globalization that can threaten diverse cultural expressions and
traditional values.
 Unequal access to resources and opportunities: Satish Deshpande argues that cultural and
social barriers limit access to education, healthcare, and economic opportunities for
marginalized communities, hindering inclusive development
 Challenges in implementing national policies: T.K. Oommen highlights the complexities of
formulating and implementing uniform national policies when considering diverse cultural
needs and practices. For example, implementing Uniform civil code is fraught with
challenges.
In-spite of the challenges posed by diversity, there can be no doubt on the role played by
sociocultural diversity in sustaining and developing Indian society. Problem is not of diversity per
se, but the handling of diversity in India society. The problems of regionalism, communalism, ethnic
conflicts etc. have arisen because the fruits of development haven’t been distributed equally or the
cultures of some groups haven’t been accorded due recognition.
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c) Highlight the salient features of the New Education Policy (NEP) 2020.
(10 Marks)
 Introduce NEP
 Discuss the salient features of NEP
 Explain the challenges
 Conclusion
The new National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 is the first education policy of the 21st century in
India, which replaces the previous National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986. It aims to transform
India into a vibrant knowledge society and global knowledge superpower by making both school
and college education more holistic, flexible, and multidisciplinary and aimed at bringing out the
unique capabilities of each student.
Salient features of NEP:

 Focus on holistic development: By emphasizing on critical thinking, discussion, and
analytical learning to enrich India's talent and human resource pool. Dr. K. Kasturirangan,
who led the drafting committee, emphasizes the policy's student-centric and holistic
approach, focusing on overall development beyond academics.
 Integration of vocational education: The policy recognizes the importance of vocational
education and aims to integrate it with mainstream education.
 Dr. Poonam Batra appreciates the recognition of early childhood education, gender
sensitivity, and efforts to reduce the curriculum load.
 Emphasis on technology-enabled learning: The new education policy recognizes the
importance of technology in education and encourages the use of digital tools and platforms
to enhance the learning experience.
 Promotion of multilingualism along with the right to choose: The new policy emphasizes
the importance of multilingualism and encourages the teaching of regional languages
alongside English and Hindi with the much-needed flexibility.
 Flexible and multidisciplinary curriculum: NEP 2020 offers subject selection, software
training in schools, transfer of credits, multiple entries, and exit system to allow for more
internal autonomy to institutions.
 Lifelong Learning and Social Change: The NEP promotes lifelong learning and skill
development, recognizing that education is not limited to a specific age or stage of life. This
sociological perspective aligns with the idea that learning is a continuous process that
contributes to personal growth and societal change.
Challenges
 Dr. Krishna Kumar, raises concerns about the centralization of power, potential
commercialization, and the risk of marginalizing regional languages. He says that NEP-2020
offers more of the same remedy.
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 According to Meenakshi Thapan , a one-size-fits-all approach would not work; policies
must take into account the many types of conditions that exist on the ground in a country as
diverse, multifarious, and complicated as India.
 Capacity limitation: The internal capacities within the education ministries (centre and
states) and other regulatory bodies are inadequate to steer the magnitude of transformations
envisaged in the NEP. There is lack of roadmap for implementation on the ground.
 Language Policy: The policy proposes a three-language formula, which has raised concerns
regarding the imposition of certain languages and potential disregard for linguistic diversity.
The approach needs careful implementation to respect regional languages and preserve
cultural diversity.
 Digital divide: The NEP 2020's emphasis on digitization and e-learning may not take into
account the digital divide in India, as only around 30% of the population can afford
smartphones, and even fewer have access to computers. Use of technology can increase gap
between various sections of the society. Pierre Bourdieu introduces the notion of cultural
capital, which specifies class systems in addition to economic, social, and symbolic capital.
 Inclusivity and Equity: While NEP 2020 aims to address inclusivity and equity in education,
ensuring effective implementation and reaching marginalized communities, including those
from rural areas, economically disadvantaged backgrounds, and marginalized groups, may
present challenges. Adequate support mechanisms and targeted interventions will be needed
to address these disparities.
 Satish Deshpande is critical of the multi-exit options in higher education. He says that “ It
will certainly help in renaming drop-outs as certificate or diploma-holders. But they cannot
ensure that these credentials will bring significant benefits for holders.”
 Foreign educational institutions are free to set their fee structure. This will affect accessibility
of economically weaker sections. Lack of reservation in foreign educational institutions will
hinder India’s social justice agenda.
NEP 2020 holds promise for transforming India's education system, but its success hinges on
addressing existing social inequalities and ensuring equitable implementation.
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d) Analyse the sociological interconnections between Social Media and

Mass Mobilization in India. (10 Marks)
 Define Social Media
 Elaborate on the sociological connection between social media and mass mobilization
through examples
 Discuss the concerns and challenges
 Conclusion
Andreas Kaplan and Michael Haenlein define social media as "Internet-based applications that are
developed on the principles of Web 2.0, enabling the creation and sharing of user-generated content.
Social media facilitates lateral communication free from hierarchical influence, informing
mainstream media about social movements, thereby amplifying their impact and contributing
significantly to the sustained momentum of campaigns during and after the movements. Modern
communication technologies have revolutionized the potential of social movements globally, and
India, with one of the largest populations of social media users, has emerged as a pivotal platform
for mass mobilization.
Social media and Mass mobilization in India:

 Communication and Connectivity: Manuel Castells introduces the concept of the "Network
Society," emphasizing the role of digital networks in shaping contemporary social structures.
Social media platforms serve as the conduits for information flow, enabling rapid and
widespread communication among individuals and groups. Example, The
#SaveAareyForest campaign used social media to mobilize citizens and successfully halt the
deforestation of Mumbai's green lung.
 Collective Identity and Solidarity: Social media platforms create a digital public sphere
where individuals can share opinions, experiences, and grievances. This helps in the
formation of collective identities and a sense of solidarity among like-minded individuals,
crucial for mass mobilization. Example, Me too movement allowed women from different
walks of life to share their experiences
 Mobilization and Activism: Resource Mobilization Theory highlights how social
movements mobilize resources, including human, organizational, and media resources.
Social media facilitates resource mobilization by providing a platform for coordination,
recruitment, and dissemination of information. Example, Justice for Nirbhaya movement of
2012.
 New Forms of Protest: Social media has given rise to virtual activism or "clicktivism," where
individuals engage in activism through online platforms. This can translate into offline
actions and on-the-ground mobilization. Recent farm protests utilised social media
applications extensively.
 Counter publics and Alternative Narratives: Nancy Fraser's concept of counter publics
refers to marginalized groups creating alternative spaces for discourse. Social media allows
for the emergence of counter publics challenging mainstream narratives and providing a
voice to marginalized communities. Example, #DalitLivesMatter provide a platform for
sharing experiences and highlighting issues faced by Dalit communities.
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 Rapid Dissemination of Information: Social media accelerates the spread of information
through information cascades. Influencers with large following play key role in reaching
large number of people quickly. Example, Social media platforms facilitated the
dissemination of health guidelines, emergency resources, and calls for help, connecting
people across regions.
Challenges and Concerns:

 Misinformation and Propaganda: False information and manipulated narratives can spread
quickly, influencing public opinion and potentially inciting violence.
 Example: Fake news and hate speech circulated on social media contributed to communal
tensions and violence in several instances like Muzzafarnagar riots.
 Echo Chambers and Polarization: Algorithms and user preferences can create online echo
chambers, reinforcing existing biases and hindering constructive dialogue. Example, political
parties use social media to target specific groups with biased information, polarizing the
public sphere.
 Digital Divide and Inequality: Unequal access to technology and digital literacy limits
participation and perpetuates existing social inequalities. Example, Rural communities and
marginalized groups might be excluded from online mobilization, hindering their voices and
access to justice.
 The Marxist cultural effects model views social media as a potent ideological influencer
primarily focused on shaping ideologies and contributing to power inequalities.
 Privacy concerns: Government surveillance and data collection through social media raise
concerns about privacy violations and chilling effects on free speech.
 Mental health impact: Cyberbullying, online hate speech, and the pressure to maintain
curated online identities can negatively impact mental health, particularly among young
people.
 The rapid dissemination of information on social media can challenge the authority of
traditional institutions like media outlets and governments, potentially undermining trust
and social order.
The sociological connections between social media and mass mobilization in India highlight both
the pros and cons. While it enhances connectivity and amplifies voices, the challenges of
misinformation, digital exclusion, and surveillance must be addressed for a more inclusive and
effective activism.
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e) Discuss the nature of regional variations in sex ratio in India. Stating

reasons thereof. (10 Marks)
 Define sex ratio
 Chart out the regional variation in sex ratio
 Explain the reasons behind the variation
 Conclusion
Sex Ratio measures the number of females per 1000 males. India has been suffering from a
declining sex ratio in India for more than a century, from 972 females per 1000 males at the turn of
the twentieth century, the sex ratio in India has declined to 933 at the turn of the twenty-first
century.
However, as per the National Family Health Survey 5 (NFHS 5 ) report, the sex ratio in India
stands at 1020 which is a major improvement from the past.
Regional Variation in sex ratio in India:

 Green Revolution's Legacy: Prosperous states like Punjab and Haryana have historically
imbalanced sex ratios, attributed to son preference and the mechanization of agriculture
reducing women's roles. Mechanization led to smaller landholdings, favouring fewer sons to
avoid division. Utsa Patnaik’s work explore this issue. Sex-selective abortions fuelled by the
desire for a male heir.
 Urban Paradox: A decline in sex ratio observed in states like Delhi, Himachal Pradesh, and
Gujarat. Despite prosperity and literacy, patriarchal norms and preference for male child
persist.
 Tribal Communities: States like Meghalaya and Nagaland exhibit relatively balanced sex
ratios. Tribal cultures traditionally value both sons and daughters more equally. Exposure to
education and Western influences might also play a role.
 Southern States: Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh demonstrate better sex ratios,
likely due to progressive social indicators. Kerala's high female literacy rate and emphasis on
gender equality contribute to a more balanced society.
 Western and Central India: Maharashtra and Gujarat display a mixed picture, with some
districts faring better than others. Variations highlight the influence of local socio-cultural
contexts and entrenched practices.
Reasons for Regional Variations:

 Son preference: Deeply rooted cultural norms favouring sons for inheritance, lineage, and
social status. A study by Arokiasamy and Goli (2012) found a positive association between
landholding size and Child Sex Ratio in rural India, with land ownership associated with
having more boys than girls.
 Dowry system: Financial burden associated with daughters in some regions. The idea that
girls are “Paraya Dhan” makes them less desirable than male child.
 Agrarian economy: Higher demand for female labour force in rice-producing areas is linked
to better sex ratio as seen in southern and north-eastern states.
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 Limited economic opportunities for women: Lower economic value ascribed to
females, incentivizing son preference.
 Patriarchal social structures: Unequal power dynamics marginalizing women and their
choices.
 Lack of education and awareness: Limited knowledge about the consequences of skewed
sex ratios and gender equality.
 Health infrastructure: Access to quality healthcare services also play a crucial role in sex
ratio.
 Implementation of policies: Effective implementation of government policies regarding sex-
selective abortion is an important determinant.
 Schemes like Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao scheme have helped to improve the social perception
around girl child.
Regional variations in India's sex ratio reflect a complex web of social, economic, and cultural
factors. Tackling this issue necessitates a multi-pronged approach that empowers women,
dismantles harmful practices, and fosters a culture of gender equality.
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Question 6.
How do you account for the increasing significance of religion in public and
personal spheres in the context of secularization thesis in India? Explain.
 Briefly introduce secularisation and Indian model
 Increasing significance of religion
 Promotion of Secularization in Contemporary India:
 Conclusion
Secularization, indicating the diminishing impact of religion in contemporary societies, takes a
unique form in India. Departing from the separation model, India's situation involves both
modernization and a robust religious presence in public and private domains, distinguishing it from
Western norms. Despite a secular constitution, religion holds centrality in Indian life due to diverse
historical, cultural, and socio-political factors.
Increasing significance of religion
 Historical and Cultural Legacy: India's deep-rooted historical and cultural legacy
contributes significantly to the enduring influence of religion. The works of scholars like
Ashis Nandy emphasize that Indian secularism differs from the Western concept, as it
does not entail the rejection of religion but rather a coexistence of diverse religious
traditions.
 Politicization of Religion: Scholars like Kothari and Jaffrelot have highlighted the
politicization of religion in India. Political parties often use religious identity as a tool for
mobilization, and a notable example is the rise of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) with its
promotion of Hindutva (Hindu nationalism) and involvement in the Ayodhya dispute.
 Religion, Caste, and Identity: The intertwining of religion and caste, as pointed out by
M.N. Srinivas, is a distinctive feature of Indian society. Policies like caste-based
reservations in education and employment reflect this complex relationship, emphasizing the
role of both religion and caste in shaping individual and community identities.
 Religious Revivalism & Globalization: Scholars like Peter van der Veer argue that
globalization may contribute to religious revivalism. India's spiritual leaders and gurus,
exemplified by figures like Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, showcase the country's global religious
influence.
 Counter to Western Modernity: Partha Chatterjee notes that as India modernizes, some
segments of the population assert religious values against perceived Westernization. The
popularity of the 'Ramayan' TV show is cited as an example, illustrating how traditional
religious narratives can gain prominence in the face of modernity.
 Inter-religious Dynamics: T.N. Madan emphasizes the intricate nature of inter-religious
interactions in India due to its diverse religious landscape. Incidents like the Gujarat 2002
riots and the 1984 anti-Sikh riots underscore the prominence of religious identity in shaping
social dynamics.
Promotion of Secularization in Contemporary India:
 Judicial Actions: The Supreme Court plays a vital role in interpreting secularism. For
instance, in the Shah Bano case, the court advocated for a uniform civil code, promoting a
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more secular legal framework.
 Educational Curriculum: Scholars like Krishna Kumar argue that education acts as a
secularizing force. The National Curriculum Framework emphasizes inter-religious
understanding, contributing to a more inclusive and tolerant society.
 Media & Civil Society: Amartya Sen stresses the importance of open public discourse in
shaping a secular society. The media and civil society play crucial roles in promoting
understanding and tolerance among diverse religious communities.
 Legislative Steps: Laws such as the Right to Education Act aim to promote secular values
from the grassroots level, ensuring equal access to education irrespective of religious
background.
In conclusion, India's unique blend of modernization and the enduring significance of religion stems
from its rich historical and cultural tapestry. The intricate interplay of religion, politics, and identity
necessitates a nuanced approach to secularism, where the coexistence and equal treatment of diverse
religious traditions are emphasized rather than the rejection of religion outright.
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b) In the face of rising global climatic concerns. how do you contextualize

the relevance of Chipko Movement and its Gandhian tone? Answer
analytically.
 Introduce Chipko movement
 Chipko movement and Gandhian thoughts
 Relevance of Chipko movement in the Age of Climate Change
 Challenges Associated with Such Movements
 Conclusion
The Chipko Movement, originating in the 1970s in India's Himalayan region, epitomized grassroots
environmental activism. Derived from the Hindi word 'embrace', it saw villagers, especially women,
hug trees, protesting against rampant deforestation and asserting the profound interdependence
between humans and their natural environment.
Chipko movement and Gandhian thoughts
 Non-violent resistance: Gandhi and Chipko leaders endorsed non-violent resistance
(Satyagraha) for social and environmental change. Chipko's tree-hugging protests
exemplified this principle, physically embracing trees to prevent their felling.
 Respect for all life: Gandhi's "ahimsa" (non-harming) and Chipko's reverence for nature
emphasized the interconnectedness of all living beings.
 Local empowerment: Both advocated for empowering local communities and sustainable
utilization of resources, aligning with Gandhi's vision of Swaraj (self-rule). Madhu Ramnath
notes Gandhian values of swaraj and sadbhavana in Chipko
 Simple living and ecological consciousness: Gandhi and Chipko promoted simple living,
self-sufficiency, and ecological respect against unsustainable development.
 Women's role in activism: Gandhi's Satyagraha paved the way for women's activism, echoed
in Chipko where women like Gaura Devi and Sudha Bahuguna led the movement. Bina
Agarwal has highlighted the central role of women in environmental preservation.
Chipko's women-led activism prefigures the globally recognized pivotal role of women in
climate action.
Relevance of Chipko movement in the Age of Climate Change:
 A Microcosm of a Global Problem: The Chipko movement's focus on protecting forests aligns
perfectly with the fight against climate change. Forests act as vital carbon sinks, absorbing
greenhouse gases and mitigating the effects of global warming.
 Local and community participation : The movement's emphasis on community
participation, sustainable development, and respect for nature offers valuable lessons for
tackling the global climate crisis. It demonstrates the power of ordinary people coming
together to make a difference. Mehta, a conservationist, collaborated with the Bishnoi
community in Rajasthan to protect trees from felling. Their deep reverence for nature and
their non-violent resistance against environmental destruction offer valuable lessons for
sustainable development approaches.
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 A Model for Inspiration: The Chipko movement's success story has inspired similar
environmental movements around the world, from Kenya's Green Belt Movement to
Bolivia's indigenous forest defenders. It serves as a beacon of hope, proving that grassroots
activism can truly make a difference
 Climate Adaptation: The Chipko Movement highlighted the connection between forests and
water conservation. As climate change leads to shifts in precipitation patterns, the role of
forests in regulating water resources becomes increasingly important for climate adaptation
strategies.
 Promotion of local knowledge - Inspired by Chipko, the Appiko movement in the
Philippines, particularly in Mindanao, uses non-violent protest and community engagement
to protect ancestral forests and promote sustainable forestry practices. This offers a model for
addressing deforestation and climate change in partnership with local communities.
Challenges Associated with Such Movements:
 Government Opposition: Authorities may resist grassroots movements. Example: India's
Narmada Bachao Andolan faced government opposition to dam construction.
 Limited Resources: Grassroots initiatives often lack funds. Example: The struggles of local
environmental groups like Save Western Ghats against resource-intensive projects.
 Infiltration and Repression: Movements face infiltration and repression. Example: India's
Greenpeace experienced government scrutiny and funding restrictions.
 Media Misrepresentation: Media bias can misrepresent movements. Example: Stereotyping
affected India's anti-nuclear protests like those against Kudankulam.
Conclusion
The Chipko Movement, rooted in Gandhian principles, offers a blueprint for understanding and
addressing contemporary climate concerns. While such movements highlight the potential of
grassroots activism, they also face substantial challenges in navigating complex sociopolitical
landscapes. To address the global climate crisis, the synthesis of local wisdom, as seen in Chipko,
with global collaborative efforts is imperative.
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c) What actionable measures would you suggest to curb the recurrent child
labour menace in India? (10 Marks)
 Define child labour and provide the current scenario of child labour in India.
 Discuss the causes behind prevalence of child labour
 Suggest actionable measures
 Conclusion
According to the Census of India definition, a child worker is one who works for the major part
of the day and is below the age of 14 years. There is no agreement about the definition of the ‘child’.
The 1989 UN Convention on the ‘Rights of the Child’ sets the upper age at 18. The International
Labour Organisation refers to children as those who are under 15 years. In India children above the
age of 14 years are old enough to be employed.
Total child population (5-14 years) in India is 259.6 million as per the 2011 Census.
Causes behind Child Labour:

 Poverty: Poverty is the primary driving force behind child labour in India. Families living in
poverty often rely on the income generated by their children to meet basic needs, forcing
children to work instead of attending school. Jean Dreze see a strong correlation between
poverty and child labour.
 Lack of Access to Quality Education: Inadequate access to quality education, particularly in
rural areas, leads many children to drop out of school and enter the workforce.
 Social and Cultural Factors: Traditional beliefs, social norms, and cultural practices often
perpetuate child labour in India. Kavita Chowdhury has highlighted that Dalit children
account for largest section of child labourers in Bihar.
 Ineffective Legal Framework and Implementation: Implementation and enforcement of
laws that prohibit child labour are often weak. Corruption, lack of resources, and inadequate
monitoring systems contribute to the limited effectiveness of existing laws and policies.
Actionable measures:
 Strengthening Education Infrastructure: Investment in improving school infrastructure,
ensuring adequate classrooms, sanitation facilities, and learning resources is required.
Measures should be implemented to encourage school attendance and reduce drop-out rates.
Kanbargi and Kulkarni have found inverse relation between child labour and child
schooling. Neera Burra in her extensive work on child labour in factories has proposed that
education should be compulsory for children below fourteen years.
 Economic Empowerment and Livelihoods: Implementing schemes like the National Child
Labour Programme (NCLP) to provide income-generating opportunities to families,
alleviating their dependence on child labour.
 Enforcing fair minimum wages for adults will reduce the economic pressure to send children
to work.
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 Changing attitudes : It is important that the attitudes and mindsets of people are changed to
instead employ adults and allow all children to go to school and have the chance to learn,
play and socialize as they should. A sector-wide culture of child labour-free businesses has
to be nurtured. Coordinated policy efforts should be taken to provide employment and
income support to all informal sector workers to stimulate the economy and labour demand.
 Strict implementation of laws: Strengthening policy and legislative enforcement, and
building the capacities of government, workers’ and employers’ organisations a s well
as other partners at national, State and community levels should be prioritized.
 Community engagement: Mobilizing communities to report violations, raise awareness, and
break intergenerational cycles of child labour. Encouraging governmental and non-
governmental agencies to monitor and report instances of child labour. Many NGOs like
Bachpan Bachao Andolan, ChildFund, CARE India, Talaash Association, Child Rights and
You, Global march against child labour etc. have been working to eradicate child labour in
India.
 Addressing the gender difference: Neera Burra has highlighted the gendered dimension of
child labour in India. Concerted efforts are required to send female children to school.
 Caste dimension: Tackling caste-based discrimination that restricts access to education and
decent work for marginalized communities, pushing children towards labour. Active
monitoring at grassroot is level is necessary to identify children belonging to marginalised
castes and checking whether they face discrimination in schools.
Creating a society that prioritizes the well-being and education of its children is not only a moral
obligation but also a vital step towards building a future free from the shackles of child labour. Only
through collective determination can we strive towards a nation where every child is afforded the
right to a childhood filled with education, growth, and dreams.
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Question 7.
a) Do you think that the decades of Dalit political mobilizations and

movements have helped in strengthening India’s democracy? Substantiate
your arguments with facts. (10 Marks)
 Briefly introduce history of Dalit political mobilizations
 How Dalit mobilization strengthened the democracy
 Issues related to Dalit mobilization
 Conclusion
Dalit mobilization in India, spearheaded by social reform movements in the early 20th century led
by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, progressed through distinct phases. The post-colonial era saw efforts to
secure constitutional rights and implement affirmative action policies. The 1970s-1990s witnessed
radicalization with militant factions advocating for land redistribution and an end to caste atrocities,
exemplified by the Dalit Panthers.
Contemporary struggles address diverse issues such as Dalit women's rights, environmental
injustices, and reservations-related discrimination. The Bahujan Samaj Party, founded by Kanshi
Ram and led by Mayawati, plays a pivotal role. Recent events, like the Una Movement, highlight
ongoing Dalit resistance against discrimination in India's democratic journey.
Arguments Supporting the Contribution of Dalit Mobilization to Democracy:
 Constitutional Safeguards: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent Dalit leader, ensured that the
Constitution contained provisions safeguarding the rights of marginalized communities. Dr.
Ambedkar envisioned democracy as encompassing both political rights and social equality.
 Electoral Significance: Dalit-based political parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) have
achieved considerable electoral success.The BSP's victory in states like Uttar Pradesh
highlights the political empowerment of Dalits.
 Local Governance: The 73rd and 74th amendments reserve seats for Dalits in local
governance. Through Panchayati Raj Institutions, many Dalits have attained leadership
positions, promoting grassroots democracy.
 Social and Cultural Assertion: The rise of Dalit literature, art, and academia has
democratized India's cultural and intellectual spheres. Gopal Guru underscores the
significance of cultural and ideological expressions in the democratization process.
Arguments Highlighting the Limitations or Adverse Impacts:
 Electoral Fragmentation - While Dalit parties highlight marginalized issues, they can also
lead to political fragmentation. Sudha Pai argues that identity politics, while empowering,
can sometimes limit broader coalition-building in democratic systems.
 Tokenism Over Substantial Change: Reserved political positions for Dalits might lead to
token representation without necessarily ensuring substantial change in grassroots realities.
Despite political representation, atrocities against Dalits remain high, as seen in incidents like
the Khairlanji massacre.
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 Co-option by Major Parties: Larger parties sometimes co-opt Dalit leaders without
addressing core Dalit issues, diluting their political essence. Rajni Kothari emphasizes the
possible co-option of caste-based groups in the broader framework, weakening their distinct
political stance.
 Divisive Politics: Caste-based mobilization can sometimes exacerbate social divisions. Inter-
caste conflicts have sometimes been fueled by political competitions, as seen in some regions
of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Conclusion:
Dalit political mobilization has played a dual role in India's democracy. While it has significantly
contributed to democratizing India's socio-political fabric and making politics more inclusive,
challenges remain. The very nature of identity politics can sometimes fragment political discourse
and limit broader social coalitions. Balancing these dynamics is crucial for India's democratic
evolution.
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b) What is 'reverse migration'? Discuss its features, causes and consequences

 Briefly introduce reverse migration
 Features of reverse migration
 Causes of reverse migration
 Consequences of reverse migration
 Conclusion
'Reverse migration' in India denotes a significant trend, involving the return from urban to rural or
developed to less developed areas. Migration, whether temporary or permanent, is prompted by
diverse factors. Conversely, reverse migration sees individuals returning to native homes, a
phenomenon intensified during India's COVID-19 pandemic. This shift underscores evolving socio-
cultural and economic landscapes, accentuating the substantial impact on migrant workers as they
return to villages.
Features of reverse migration
 Return to Origins: Typically involves migrants returning to their hometowns or villages,
representing a shift from urban to rural settings.
 Temporary or Permanent: Can be a short-term return due to specific reasons (e.g., economic
downturns) or a long-term resettlement.
 Driven by Various Factors: Includes economic downturns, socio-political issues, or personal
reasons, making it a multi-faceted phenomenon.
Causes of reverse migration
 Economic Reasons: Downturns or recessions in urban areas or foreign countries can prompt
migrants to return. Example: After the 2008 global economic crisis, many Indian professionals
returned from the USA and Europe.
 Environmental Factors: Natural disasters or adverse conditions can compel people to return.
 Sociopolitical Issues: Discrimination, xenophobia, or political instability can trigger reverse
migration. Example: S. Irudaya Rajan's studies highlight how changing geopolitical
conditions affect Gulf migration patterns.
 Health Concerns: Epidemics or health crises in urban centers can lead to the return of
migrants. Example: The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 witnessed massive reverse migration in
India from cities to villages.
 Emotional and cultural reason - As sociologist Ashish Nandy posits, the "mystical
tradition" embedded in Indian society often offers emotional sustenance and a sense of
belonging that urban anonymity struggles to match.
Consequences of reverse migration
 Ripple Effects on Rural Economies: The sudden influx of returnees can strain the limited
resources of rural areas. Healthcare systems, educational facilities, and basic infrastructure
often struggle to accommodate the increased population, posing a challenge to sustainable
development.
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 Impact on big cities - Continuous large-scale reverse movement of labour would result in a
significant shortage of semiskilled and unskilled employees in all of the country's
metropolitan centres. States with large manufacturing presence, such as Maharashtra and
Gujarat, were particularly affected, as was Delhi with trader bodies estimating that 60-70%
of the labour force employed in Delhi left the city during the 2020 lockdown.
 Reshaping Social Dynamics: Reverse migration can lead to shifts in social hierarchies and
power structures. Skills and experiences acquired in urban settings can create new dynamics
within communities, potentially leading to conflicts or adjustments in traditional social
fabric.
 The Potential of 'Brain Gain': However, this influx of talent also presents an opportunity.
As sociologist Binod Khadria argues, skilled professionals returning to their villages can
inject new knowledge and expertise, fueling local innovation and entrepreneurship. This
"brain gain" can drive rural development and create fresh avenues for economic growth.
 Health Implications: If driven by pandemics, reverse migration, without adequate checks,
can lead to the spread of diseases in less equipped rural areas.
 Impact on policy making: The plight of migrant workers amid the COVID-19 pandemic
exposed a significant gap in social security measures. There's a critical need to universalize
provisions such as medical insurance and unemployment benefits to ensure comprehensive
protection for workers.
Conclusion:
Reverse migration, while a reactive phenomenon, has profound implications on socio-economic and
cultural structures, especially in countries like India with significant internal and external migration.
Addressing the causes and managing the consequences effectively requires integrated policy
measures, economic interventions, and societal awareness.
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c) Discuss the phenomenon of rural-urban continuum with suitable

 Define the concept of rural-urban continuum
 Mention key sociological perspectives
 Explain the key features of rural-urban continuum in India
 Conclusion
The Rural-Urban Continuum is an alternative perspective that acknowledges the existence of
intermediate areas that blur the distinction between rural and urban. Such formations evolve due
to interactions of a complex set of geographical, cultural, economic, and historical processes. The
transition from rural to urban follows a graded curve of development, and opportunities for social
and economic development depend on one’s location along this curve.
Sociological views:
 Robert Redfield has given the concept of rural-urban continuum on the basis of his study of
Mexican peasants.. Redfield formulated the concept of folk–urban continuum. While folk
society refers to the communities of the past, the urban society represents contemporary
living. The rapid process of urbanization through the establishment of industries, urban traits
and facilities has decreased the differences between villages and cities.
 M. S. A. Rao points out in the Indian context that although both village and town formed
part of the same civilization characterized by the institution of kinship and caste system in
pre-British India, there were certain specific institutional forms and organizational ways
distinguishing social and cultural life in towns form that in the village.
 Maclver remarks that though the communities are normally divided into rural and urban the
line of demarcation is not always clear between these two types of communities. There is no
sharp demarcation to tell where the city ends and the country begins. Every village possesses
some elements of the city and every city carries some features of the village.
 Ramkrishna Mukherjee prefers the continuum model by talking of the degree of
urbanization as a useful conceptual tool for understanding rural-urban relations.
 Ramachandran in his study on urbanisation in India, examines the concept of rural-urban
continuum beginning from the morphology of settlements, if and how large settlements
differ from the small ones. Irrespective of their size, settlements are places where human
beings engage with one another. Moreover, small and large settlements hardly differ with
regard to social structure.
Key features of rural-urban continuum in India:

 Agricultural Transition: Many areas in India showcase a gradual shift from agrarian
economies in rural settings to more diverse economic activities in urban areas. However, the
continuum is evident in peri-urban zones, where agriculture and non-agricultural activities
coexist. Example, regions like Punjab showcase a gradual shift from traditional agrarian
practices in rural areas to peri-urban spaces where agriculture coexists with emerging
industries.
633
 Urbanization Patterns: The rural-urban continuum is exemplified in the varying degrees of
urbanization. While some areas experience rapid urban development, others witness slow-
paced or sporadic urban growth, maintaining a continuum of rural features within urban
spaces. For example, Kerala has unique Rural-urban continuum settlement pattern.
 Informal Settlements: In large cities, informal settlements or slums often bridge the rural-
urban gap. These areas may lack urban amenities but are integral parts of urban landscapes,
reflecting a continuum where traditional rural living meets urban challenges. For example,
Dharavi slum in Mumbai.
 Peri-urban areas: The outward expansion of larger metros, gradual changes in land use and
occupations have transformed the rural hinterland into per-urban areas. Example,
Gurugram has surrounding rural villages like Sohna and Manesar which exhibit
agricultural activities combined with industrial zones and service-oriented businesses
catering to the urban population.
 Cultural Practices: The continuum is not solely economic; it extends to cultural practices.
Traditional customs and rituals may persist in urban areas, while urbanization influences
lifestyle changes in rural settings, blurring the lines between rural and urban cultures.
Example, tribal belts like Ladakh exhibit both traditional practices like yak herding and
tourism services like adventure sports.
 Migration Dynamics: Migration between rural and urban areas further reinforces the
continuum. Seasonal migration, for example, leads to a continuous exchange of labour, skills,
and cultures between rural and urban spaces.
Economic Activities: The continuum is observable in economic activities such as cottage industries
existing on the outskirts of urban centres, showcasing a blend of rural and urban economic elements.
Digital connectivity has increasingly connected rural and urban markets. Model villages are being
developed with schemes like Adarsh Gram Yojana.
Transportation Networks: Well-established transportation networks connect rural and urban areas,
facilitating the movement of people, goods, and ideas. This interconnectedness contributes to the
rural-urban continuum.
The rural-urban continuum in India presents a nuanced picture of settlements, transcending the
simplistic rural-urban divide. The rural-urban continuum is getting more pronounced with
urbanisation and social change. Recognizing this interconnectedness is crucial for effective
development policies and inclusive progress for all communities in India's diverse landscape.
634
Question 8.
a) Explain the thematic linkages between 'Patriarchy' and 'Honour killing'

in India. citing some recent cases. (10 Marks)
 Briefly explain Honour killing and link with patriarchal system
 Linkages between Honour killing and Patriarchy
 Social Implications of Honour Killing
 Conclusion
Honour Killing is an act of murdering a family member (typically a woman) due to perceived
dishonour or shame she has brought upon the family, commonly due to relationships or marital
choices deemed unacceptable.
The patriarchal system can contribute to honor killings by perpetuating rigid gender norms,
controlling women's lives, and enforcing family honor. In such societies, patriarchal values may fuel
the belief that preserving family honor justifies violence against women who defy traditional roles
or engage in perceived immoral behavior.
Linkages between Honour killing and Patriarchy
 Women's Autonomy & Honour: In patriarchal setups, women's actions, particularly
regarding their sexuality and marriage, are often tied to family or community honour. Any
perceived deviation becomes a dishonour, justifying violent reactions, including murder.
 Control Over Women's Choices: The foundational principle of patriarchy is controlling
women's choices. 'Honour killings' are extreme manifestations of such control when
autonomy, especially in relationships, is exercised.
 Purity and Cultural Norms: Patriarchy perpetuates notions of purity and propriety for
women, where their bodies and choices are policed. Breaches lead to 'honour killings' as
corrective measures.
 Caste connection - Leela Dube sees women guarding caste purity, facing harsh
consequences for transgressions.
Social Implications of Honour Killing:
1. Reinforcement of Patriarchal Norms:
 Honour killings bolster the patriarchal idea that men or the community at large have the
authority over women's behaviour, especially regarding their sexuality and marriage
choices.
 Uma Chakravarti highlights how "Brahmanical patriarchy" in India enforces rigid caste
and gender hierarchies. Honour killings, especially stemming from inter-caste marriages,
manifest this oppressive structure.
2. Culture of Fear:
 Honour killings spread an atmosphere of fear, dissuading individuals from challenging
societal norms. Example: The Manoj-Babli case in Haryana (2007) created an atmosphere
of fear among young couples in the region, discouraging them from inter-caste
relationships.
3. Stigmatization & Social Ostracization:
635
 Families associated with honour killings, whether as victims or perpetrators, can face
community exclusion. Veena Das, in her ethnographic works, delves into how
communities react to such violence and the ripple effects of stigma.
4. Entrenchment of Caste & Religious Barriers:
 Honour killings often discourage inter-caste or inter-religious alliances, deepening
societal divides. Example: The killings due to the Khap Panchayat's decisions have led to
divisions within communities in North India.
5. Obstruction to Social Progress:
 By penalizing dissenters, honour killings suppress societal movement towards more
liberal views. Amartya Sen has frequently discussed how the freedom and autonomy of
individuals, especially women, are key to societal progress.
6. Legal and Institutional Distrust:
 With perpetrators often escaping due to community backing or lax law enforcement,
there’s growing skepticism about the legal system. Example: The 2011 verdict on the
Manoj-Babli case was seen as a landmark, but numerous cases go unreported or don't
receive justice.
 Kishwar emphasizes the clash between Indian constitutional law and pervasive
violence against women, underscoring the urgency for comprehensive legal re-
evaluation.
7. Generational Impact:
 The trauma and repercussions impact younger community members, embedding gender
prejudices deeper. Gail Omvedt has discussed how traditional hierarchies and prejudices get
transmitted across generations, affecting societal dynamics.
Conclusion:
"Honour killings" in India are rooted in the violent expressions of its patriarchal structure. The
connection between patriarchy and honour killings is evident through the reinforcement of
traditional gender roles, the existence of a patriarchal bargain, and the perpetuation of cultural
norms that subject women to violence. To effectively eliminate such practices, it is essential to
address deeply ingrained patriarchal mindsets alongside implementing legal measures. True
societal transformation toward gender equality can only be achieved when both cultural attitudes
and legal interventions work in tandem to challenge and reshape the existing norms.
636
b) Discuss the challenges faced by the cooperative movements in India.

Suggest measures to strengthen the movement at the grass-roots level. (10
Marks)
 Brief Introduction of Cooperatives
 Issues related to cooperatives
 Measures to Strengthen the Cooperative Movement
 Conclusion
A cooperative society is an organisation intended to help its members financially. The members
are in charge of raising funds to assist individuals in need. It primarily safeguards the vulnerable
segments of rural communities from exploitation by wealthy individuals and corporations.
Cooperative societies feature open and voluntary membership without discrimination, formal
registration for legal standing, limited liability for members, government oversight to protect
financial interests, and adherence to democratic principles with elected management committees
making crucial decisions.
According to A.R. Desai, cooperatives helped in stabilising agrarian social order and complemented
reforms in the agrarian landscape. B.S.Baviskar examined sugar cooperatives in Maharashtra and
discussed political class dominance in cooperatives, as well as the emergence of a new kind of
politics known as 'cooperative politics.'
Issues related to cooperatives.
 Inadequate Funds - The co-operative society has a restricted working capital that is
insufficient to undertake any course of action.
 Political Intrusion - Politicians take advantage of cooperatives to get an edge and increase
their vote bank. They cling to the co-operative society like a leech, reducing co-operative
output.
 According to Daniel Thorner, caste affiliation is vital in the operation of cooperatives.
 Lack of cost competitiveness as a result of issues such as overstaffing, as well as overall
competitiveness as a result of MNC entry into the Indian market.
 The crucial link in the cooperative finance system, i.e. cooperative banks, remains
deplorable. They are too little to function effectively, and some of them just exist on paper.
Cooperative bank NPAs are higher than commercial bank NPAs, as measured by NPAs to
asset ratios - PMC crisis
 Regional differences in cooperative movement – the limited success of cooperatives in some
of the most fertile and populous regions suggest a link with demographic and cultural issues.
States such as Maharashtra, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and others responded
positively, whereas states like as Assam, Bihar, and West Bengal did not.
 Lack of attention to members - Favouritism has crept into this movement. Rich people, such
as large farmers and landlords, received a lot of attention, whereas ordinary people and poor
farmers were ignored. Satydev studied the Haryana Seed Cooperative and argued that
wealthy landlords obtain the best quality seeds.
 According to Chaturvedi, the cooperative movement benefited huge landlords and rich
peasants, but it did not aid landless or impoverished people.
637
Measures to Strengthen the Cooperative Movement at the Grass-roots Level in
India:
 Education and Training: Increase awareness about the cooperative model, its benefits, and
best practices. Amartya Sen emphasizes the importance of information and education in
grassroots mobilization.
 Local Participation: Ensure active participation of members in decision-making processes,
ensuring transparency and local relevance.
 Government Support: Enhanced governmental support through incentives, training, and
easy credit facilities can invigorate grassroots cooperatives
 Technological Integration: Adopting digital solutions can streamline cooperative operations,
making them more efficient. Example: E-choupals, initiated by ITC, that leverage technology
to empower small farmers.
 Linking with Markets: Establish direct linkages with markets to reduce middlemen and
ensure better prices.
 Economic support -According to the Reserve Bank of India, there is a need to increase credit
flow to rural and agricultural cooperatives. Specialized credit schemes for cooperatives,
ensuring easy access to financial resources.
 Legal Framework: Implement a simplified, clear, and supportive legal framework that eases
the functioning of cooperatives.
 Collaboration with NGOs: Partnering with NGOs can provide cooperatives expertise,
training, and better networking opportunities. M.S. Swaminathan's work underlines the
significance of collaborations to enhance the grassroots cooperative movement, especially in
agriculture.
 Diversification: Encourage cooperatives to diversify into different areas based on local needs
and resources, from farming to crafts to retail.
 Women Empowerment: Actively involve women, given their critical role in grassroots
development. Example: The Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) has effectively
showcased the potential of women-led cooperatives.
In conclusion, unlocking the full potential of cooperative movements in India requires a
transformative approach. A renewed dedication to democratic values and community engagement
can revive cooperatives as dynamic agents of socio-economic progress. With effective leadership,
policy advocacy, and widespread participation, cooperatives can truly foster financial
independence and support small businesses, ensuring sustainable rural economic growth.
638
c) what is 'Ageing'? Discuss the major problems of aged people in India. (10
Marks)
 Define Ageing in the Indian context
 Explain the various problems faced by aged people in India
 Suggest few measures
 Conclusion
Charles S Becker defines ageing as those changes occurring in an individual, which are the result
of the passage of time. These may be, according to him, anatomical, physiological, psychological
and even social and economic.
Indian culture emphasizes filial responsibility, with a tradition of older parents living with their
eldest sons. This patriarchal structure, combined with societal pressures, ensures care and respect
for elders. However, traditional joint family systems is now giving way to nuclear families,
impacting the caregiving dynamics for the elderly. As per the report, there were 149 million persons
aged 60 years and above in 2022, comprising around 10.5% of the country’s population. And, by
2050, this population will double to 20.8%, with the absolute number at 347 million.
Problems faced by aged people in India:

 Economic challenges: Economic factors play a crucial role in elderly care, affecting the well-
being of older individuals. Many elderly lack formal pensions, leaving them financially
vulnerable. Existing social security programs often provide insufficient support. Inflation
and increasing healthcare costs put further strain on their finances. Siva Raju has emphasised
on the issues of living arrangement of senior citizens.
 Healthcare Challenges: Inadequate access to healthcare services especially in rural areas
where healthcare facilities are scarce and often ill-equipped to handle age-related ailments.
High healthcare costs can be prohibitive for many elderly people. Lack of geriatric
specialists: Shortage of doctors trained in geriatric care reduces the quality of specialized care
available. Alam Moneer’s work on socio-economic and health dimensions of ageing is
significant in this context.
 Social Isolation and Loneliness: Increased prevalence of nuclear families and migration for
work can leave elderly people feeling isolated and alone. Inadequate support
systems, particularly for widowed or single elderly people, can exacerbate loneliness and
mental health issues. Negative societal attitudes towards the elderly can further marginalize
the elderly. Kay and Post have shown that depression in old age is associated with
continually increasing losses such as loss of close relatives, intimate friends, status of job.
 Physical and Mental Health Issues: Ageing is associated with a higher risk of chronic
diseases like diabetes, heart disease, and dementia. Depression and other mental health
issues are common among the elderly, but access to proper care is limited. Physical
limitations due to age can make daily activities and mobility difficult. Dr.
Swaha Bhattacharya and Dr. Monimala Mukherjee have discussed the psychological
impact on ageing population.
 Elder Abuse and Neglect: Unfortunately, some elderly people experience abuse and neglect
from family members or caregivers. They may be targeted for financial exploitation or scams
639
due to their vulnerability. Stigma and fear often prevent them from reporting abuse, making
it difficult to address the issue. A study conducted among aged widows in Haryana (Sushma,
Vamani & Darshan, 2004) revealed that the majority had multiple health problems. Elderly
widows from poor socio-economic families had very poor health status. Women amongst the
aged are the worst victims of apathy and neglect. Today, more of the aged men (82%) as
compared to the aged women (47%) are living with their spouses. While men are likely to be
cared by their spouses, the same may not be true for women.
Way ahead:
 Efforts should be made to strengthen the family care. The reciprocal care and support within
multi-generational families of parents, grandparents and children should be encouraged.
Traditional values of filial obligations can also be reinforced in school curricula and through
the media.
 Technological solutions: Increasing access to healthcare consultations and services
remotely, especially in rural areas. : Providing tools and devices that promote independent
living and mobility for older adults. Empowering older adults with digital skills to access
information, services, and connect with others.
 The existing health care systems are not sufficient to meet the physical and health needs of
the ageing population such as old age security, establishing old age homes, expanding
geriatric services and liberalizing the welfare policy for older persons. Expanding coverage
and ensuring adequate pay-outs to provide financial security. It is necessary to increase
public awareness of the need for protection of this sub group. There is a great need to protect
the target group i.e. rural old, and old women, and widows.
 There is also need for the elderly to remain active, to know that they still have a part to play
in the family or community to which they belong and can make a useful co contribution to
nation and society as a whole.
 NGOs like Helpage India can play significant role in elderly care. Community-based support
networks should be encouraged.
The challenges associated with ageing in India demand collaborative efforts from both the
government and society. A concerted approach is essential to enhance the quality of life for the
elderly, encompassing the reinforcement of social security structures, enhancements in healthcare
provisions, fostering a culture of respect for older individuals, and cultivating an inclusive societal
environment that appreciates and supports its ageing population's well-being.
640

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T.

(b) Compare and contrast Sociology with Anthropology? 10 marks

Emergence In response to the Anthro ology arose from

Objectivity Sociologists' methods are Anthropologists

Scope Sociologists quite often Social anthropology

Research Method Sociologists frequently Social anthropologists

Subject Matter Sociology is primarily Anthropology also

(c) Critically examine positivistic approach in sociological studies. 10 marks

(d) Examine science and technology as agents of social change. 10 marks

e) Analyse the contemporary trends in family with examples. 10 marks

(b) Critically examine the functionalist tradition in sociology. 20 marks

(c) Analyse the salient features of historical materialism. 10 marks

Points of Difference Durkheim Karl Marx

Work on Division of Division of Labour in Society, Das Capital, 1867

Causes of Division of The division of labour in It is not viewed by Marx as a

Nature of Division of According to Durkheim, the Marx views the division of

Consequence of Division It leads to integration in society. It leads to dehumanization

(b) Critically analyse the contribution of G.H. Mead to 'symbolic

c) Examine the salient features of Weberian bureaucracy? 10 marks

(b) Is patriarchy a universal phenomenon? Critically examine how does

(c) Examine the role of pressure groups in parliamentary democracy? 10

(b) Define social movement. Elucidate the role of reformist movement in

(d) Examine the social dimensions of displacement induced by

hard but receive a small share of the

(b) Examine the social impact of globalisation on labour and society. 20

(c) Examine the relevance of Parsonian social system in present society? 10

(c) Critically examine the role of civil society in Democracy. 10 marks

(c) Is religion antithetical to science? Comment 10 marks

(c) How is sociological approach to human action different from that of

(b) Identify the similarities and differences between Marx’s theory of

(b) In what way 'Interpretative' method different from 'positivist' approach

(c) Discuss T. H. Marshall’s views on citizenship. 10 marks

(d) Distinguish between Political Parties and Pressure Groups. 10 marks

(e) “According to Durkheim, the essence of religion in modern society is the

(b) Critically examine the functionalist views on the institution of family.

(c) What do you understand by institutionalization of ‘live-in relationship’?

(b) Education is often viewed as an agency of social change. However, in

(c) According to Marx, capitalism transforms even the personal relationships

(b) Write a short essay on the Latin American perspective on ‘dependency’.

(e) “No society can either be absolutely open or absolutely closed.”

(b) Examine the problems of maintaining objectivity and value neutrality in

How random sampling increase validity and reliability

(b) Differentiate between Marxian and Weberian theories of Social

(c) How had Enlightenment contributed to the emergence of Sociology? (10

How enlightenment helped in emergence of sociology

Types of non - positivistic methodology

(b) How is social equilibrium maintained in Parsonian framework? (20

(c) “Anomie is rooted in social structure.” Explain with reference to R.K.

(b) “Ideology is crucial for social transformation in a democracy.” Discuss

(d) Is male authority absent in matrilineal society? (10 Marks)

(c) Caste ideology appears to have strengthened democracy. Comment (10

How caste ideology strengthen democracy

How caste ideology weakens democracy

(c) Elaborate the views of Durkheim on “The Elementary Forms, of

(b) What is 'value-free sociology"? Clarify. (10 Marks)

(c) Analyze the importance of qualitative method in social research. (10

(d) Evaluate Marx's ideas on mode of production. (10 Marks)

(e) "Vertical mobility brings structural change even in a closed social

(b) Describe the functional prerequisites of social system as given by Talcott