INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

 International relations refer to the cooperation or interaction between individuals or

groups of nations the world.
 International relations can also be defined as a state where sovereign nations from
different continents of the world interact politically, economically and socially through
forming organizations.

 Nations interact at different levels. These can be categorized as follows: -

a) Economic relations- this involves trade and other commercial activities among nations.
Developed nations give foreign loans and grants to developing nations and trade with them.
b) Diplomatic relations - diplomacy refers to the conduct of relations of one state with
another through peaceful means. Diplomatic relations among nations are regulated by the
exchange of ambassadors and High Commissioners. They enhance relations by encouraging
social, economic and political cooperation between their countries and others.
c) Socio-cultural relations - socio-cultural relations take place in form of exchange between
dance troops, musicians, athletes, sports teams etc. For instance, Kenyan sportsmen and
women participate in the All-Africa games, commonwealth games and the Olympic Games.

Reasons for International Relations

i) The world today is a global village due to modern forms of transport and
communication that have enhanced human interaction as well as movement of goods.
ii) Countries of the world are close knit in most cases just like members of one family
and there is socio-economic interdependence.
iii) What happens in one country affects the others e.g. Effects of war, terrorism,
pollution, HIV/AIDS scourge and the value of international currency.
iv) No country is self-reliant to the extent that it will in no way depend on others.
v) There is need for collective responsibility of all nations in solving world problems and
promoting world peace.

Benefits of International Relations

i) Good relations among countries promote economic growth in the world. The
expanded international trade has enabled countries to acquire goods which they don't
produce.
ii) Developed countries have continued to provide financial and technical assistance to
developing nations. Countries have continued to exchange skills, knowledge and
technology, which have speeded up industrial development.
iii) Peace and security have been enhanced. This is due to diplomatic policies of the
nations that call for peaceful settlement of disputes.
iv) World understanding has been promoted through cultural exchange.
v) Countries are today able to collectively solve some problems of global concern e.g.
desertification, armament, environmental pollution and global warming.

International Organizations
There are two types of international organizations
 International Governmental Organization (IGO's) - they are created by two or more
sovereign states e.g. UN, the Commonwealth, NAM and the African Union.
 International Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO's) - created by individuals or
private organizations e.g. International Red Cross, Amnesty International and
Transparency International.

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Importance of International Governmental Organizations
i. They provide member states with a forum to consult and tackle problems of concern.
ii. They act as regulators in their fields to ensure the welfare of human kind e.g. WHO
regulates the health sector through immunization, vaccination etc.
iii. They enhance peace and security through peace keeping missions, response to
disasters and providing assistance to war victims.
iv. They contribute to charity and facilitate equitable distribution of resources in the
world. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank advance loans to
developing nations.

THE UNITED NATIONS

 The UN is an association of independent nations whose main aim is promotion and
maintenance of international peace and security.

Formation of the UN
 The UN was formed to replace the League of Nations in a conference held in San
Francisco, USA on 25/4/1945 to 26/6/1945 by 50 countries that drew the UN charter.
 The UN started its official functions on 24th October 1945 after the ratification of the
UN charter by USSR, USA, Britain, China and France.
 The UN headquarters are in New York, USA.

Membership of the UN
 Membership to the UN is open to all peace-loving nations irrespective of their
political, ideological or economic differences.
 Members must accept the obligations of the UN charter and abide by it.
 Admission of any state to the UN is affected by the General Assembly upon the
recommendation of the security council. By 24th April 2003, the UN membership had
grown to 191 states.

Reasons for the Formation of the UN

The aims of the UN are: -
i. To maintain international peace and security.
ii. To develop friendly relations among nations.
iii. To promote respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms.
iv. To promote social progress and better living standards of the people.
v. To cooperate and promote cultural interaction between member nations.
vi. To prevent the occurrence of another world war.
vii. To protect the interests of the minority groups such as women and children.
viii. To promote economic development among member states as they work to reconstruct
the world economy, which was destroyed by World War II.
ix. To replace the League of Nations, which had collapsed, for continuity in the
maintenance of peace and security.
x. To promote international understanding and cooperation among nations.

To achieve its aims, the UN spelt out in its charter the following principles: -
i. It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members.
ii. All member states must fulfill, in good faith, their charter obligations.
iii. They must settle international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering
peace, security and justice.

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iv. They must refrain, in their international relations, from the threat or use of force
against others.
v. They must give the UN assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the
Charter, and shall not assist states against which the UN is taking preventive or
enforcement action.
vi. The UN must ensure that states which are not members act in accordance with these
principles in so far as necessary for the maintenance of international peace and
security.

Structure/Organs of the UN
The structure of the UN as spelt out in the UN charter comprises six principal organs
 The General Assembly
 The Security Council
 The International Court of Justice
 The Economic & Social Council
 The Trusteeship Council
 The Secretariat

a) The General Assembly

 It comprises of all member states.
 It is like a parliament of nations.
 Each member is entitled to one vote. The Assembly meets once a year but may have
special sessions at the request of the Security Council.
 Decisions are taken by a 2/3 majority vote on important issues.
 Decisions on other issues are reached by simple majority.

Functions & Powers of the General Assembly

 To consider and make recommendations on the principles of cooperation in the
maintenance of peace and security.
 To discuss any question relating to international peace and security and make
recommendations.
 To discuss and make recommendations on any question within the scope of the charter or
affecting the powers & functions of any organ of the UN.
 To initiate studies and make recommendations to promote international political
cooperation, development of international law, realization of human rights among others.
 To admit new members, suspend or dismiss members from the UN with the
recommendation of the security council.
 To make recommendations for the peaceful resolution of any situation, regardless of its
origin, which might impair friendly relations among nations.
 To receive and consider reports from the security council and other UN organs.
 To consider and approve the UN budget and to apportion the contributions among
members.
 To elect the non-permanent members of the security council, the economic and social
council & members of the Trusteeship Council.
 To elect jointly with the security council, the judges of the international court of justice,
and appoint the Secretary General with the recommendation of the security council.
 To promote higher standards of living e.g. employment and enhancement of the economic
& social well-being of the people.

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 To deal with colonial Trusteeship & to recommend measures for peaceful settlement of
any situation likely to interfere with the general welfare or friendly relations among
nations.

b) The Security Council

 The security council has 15 members. Five permanent members - USA, United
Kingdom, France, Russia and China. The five permanent members of the UN have
veto powers.
 Veto power is the power that allows the five permanent members of the UN security
council block any resolution or decision to be made by the UN.
 Ten non-permanent members are elected by the General Assembly for a two-year
term.
 Each member of the Council has one vote.
 Decisions on procedural matters are made by an affirmative vote of at least 9 of the 15
members.
 Decisions of substantive matters require the agreement of all the permanent members
who have the right of veto.
 Members of the security council must have representatives in New York (UN HQs) at
all times to ensure they can be reached on short notice.

Functions of the Security Council

 It maintains peace and security in the world. In the event of a dispute, they advise on ways
and means of settlement disputes peaceful.
 It investigates any dispute or any situation that might lead to international friction or cause
dispute.
 It calls upon states to settle their disputes peacefully through negotiations, mediations,
conciliation, & arbitration.
 It admits, suspends and expels members from the UN.
 It calls upon some or all members to provide forces, or to facilitate military action against
aggressors.

c) The International Court of Justice

 The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN, is based at the Hague, Netherlands.
 Some of the disputes arbitrated by the court include international borders, treatment of
diplomatic staff, fishing rights, nuclear tests, territorial water delimitation & crimes
against humanity.
 The UN charter compels all members to comply with the decisions of the court.
 The court consists of 15 judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security
Council.

d) The Economic & Social Council

 The ECOSOC comprises delegates from 54 UN member states elected by the General
Assembly for a term of three years.
 Its main task is to coordinate the economic and social activities of the UN and
supervise the operations of the UN agencies.
 To achieve this, the Council has set up the following commissions;
 The Statistical Commission
 The Population Commission
 The Commission for Soc ial Development
 The Commission of the Status of Women
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 The Commission on Narcotic Drugs
 ECOSOC is the UN organ for promoting standards of living, employment, social,
health, international cultural and economic cooperation, and universal respect for
human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.

Functions of ECOSOC
i. Making or initiating studies and reports with respect to international economic, social,
cultural, and educational, health and related matters, and making recommendations to
the General assembly.
ii. Making recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect and observance of
human rights and fundamental freedoms for all.
iii. Drafting conventions and presenting them to the General Assembly on matters within
its jurisdiction.
iv. Convening international conferences on economic and social issues.
v. Coordinating the activities of specialized agencies such as the World Health
Organization, the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development among
others.
vi. Offering Non-Governmental Organizations (NGO's) the opportunity to bring their
expertise to the UN, thereby maintaining a vital link between the organization and the
civil society.

e) The Trusteeship Council

 The Trusteeship Council consists of five permanent members and six members
appointed by the General Assembly.
 It was given the responsibility over the territories under colonial rule.
 The Council was to promote political, economic, social and educational advancement
of the inhabitants of the trust territories and other progressive development towards
self-government or independence.
 Some countries that attained political independence under the Trusteeship Council
include Ghana (1957), Somalia (1960), Togo (1960), Tanzania (1961)

f) The Secretariat
 It is the main administrative organ of the UN concerned with the day to day running of
the UN.
 It is headed by the Secretary-General who is elected by the General Assembly for a
five-year term from among the world’s minor powers.

Functions of the Secretariat

i) To bring to the attention of the Security Council any problem that threatens
international peace and security.
ii) To administer peace-keeping operations and mediate international disputes or
exercise ‘quiet diplomacy’ to resolve disputes.
iii) To survey economic and social trends and problems.
iv) To prepare studies (research) on subjects such as human rights and sustainable
development.
v) To organize international conferences on issues of worldwide concern.
vi) To monitor the extent to which the decisions of the UN bodies are carried out.
vii) To interpret speeches and translate documents into the UN’s official languages.

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viii) To conduct information programs to acquaint the world’s communication media
with the work of the UN i.e. correspondence, publication of reports etc.
ix) To register treaties.
x) To implement policies laid down by other organs.
xi) To draw the world’s attention to global issues, from development to human rights.

g) Specialized Agencies
Specialized agencies are separate autonomous organizations related to the UN by special
agreements. They report annually to ECOSOC. They include;
 International Labour Organization (ILO) – it deals with world labour issues. It
promotes peace by advocating for better living and working conditions for workers in
the world.
 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) - It is concerned with world food
supplies and agricultural development in developing countries. It coordinates
agriculture, forestry, fisheries, hunger & malnutrition programmes.
 United Nations Educational, scientific & Cultural Organization (UNESCO) – It
coordinates educational research and promotes international scientific & cultural
cooperation.
 World Health Organization (WHO) - it gives financial aid to countries to develop
their health services to ensure the highest standards of health and to fight diseases.
 International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) or World Bank
– its basic function is to give long term loans to finance development projects.
 International Monetary Fund (IMF) – it is concerned with short term loans,
especially those needed to ease currency crises. It also helps in stabilizing the different
currencies of the world.
 International Development Association (IDA) - It advances loans to the least
developed member countries, allowing them about 50 years to repay with no interest.
 International Finance Corporation (IFC) – It invests in private enterprises in
developing countries.
 International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) – It promotes safe and orderly
growth of the civil aviation industry.
 World Meteorological Organization (WMO) – It supports the world wide network
for observation of weather, climate, water levels and other physical conditions on
earth.
 International Maritime Organization (IMO) – it establishes shipping regulations to
raise safety standards and to prevent pollution from ships.
 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) – It protects legal rights in
artistic and literacy works.
 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) – It is concerned with
the needs of refugees all over the world.
 United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) – it is now
referred to as United Nations Children’s Fund. It deals with special problems of child
care in countries affected by war or other calamities.

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Achievements of the U.N.
1. Promoting world peace and security by settling several disputes e.g. between Iran and
the Soviet Union in 1946, India and Pakistan In 1949, Iraq and Kuwait in 1990 among
others.
2. It helped in decolonization process. The Trusteeship Council helped countries like
Tanzania, Cameroon and Togo gain independence.
3. UN has initiated development programs in developing countries by giving financial
aid and technical aid. It also promotes trade and industry.
4. Disarmament efforts – the UN has encouraged reduction of arms within the first 40
years by signing arms control treaties e.g. the Antarctic Treaty of 1959, Treaty of
Tlatelolco of 1967, South Pacific Nuclear Zone treaty of 1955 etc.
5. The UN has helped in the promoting of human rights by adopting the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights that spells out rights and freedoms of individuals.
6. Promoting the rights of women by obtaining equal rights for women in voting,
education and other legal rights.
7. Humanitarian assistance – the UN provides relief services to victims of war, drought,
earthquakes, floods, hurricanes etc.
8. Promotion of democracy and good governance. The UN provides electoral assistance
to countries during elections. The send observers to monitor national elections to
ensure they are free and fair.
9. The UN addresses issues like pollution, environment, and desertification and energy
crisis.
10. Combating terrorism. The UN condemns all forms of terrorism. They have signed
agreements that constitute legal grounds to combat terrorism e.g. the UN International
Convention for Suppression of Terrorist Bombings of 1997.
11. Ridding the world of land mines - the UN is spearheading an international campaign
to clear landmines from former battle fields e.g. in Angola, Afghanistan, Cambodia.
12. Promotion of healthcare. The UN is involved in vaccination and prevention, and
general healthcare of the world population. UNAIDS programs are fighting against the
pandemic.
13. International protocols. UN agencies have helped in setting safety standards for sea
and air travel.
14. Cultural exchange. The UN has encouraged scholarly and academic cooperation,
networking of institutions and promotion of cultural experiences. It has helped to
preserve historic cultural and architectural sites.

Ways through which United Nation has promoted peace in the world
 It hears cases between states through international court of justice.
 It sends peace keeping forces to areas ravages by war and conflict.
 It provides humanitarian assistance to the needy by giving them protection
 It promotes democracy and good governance.
 It condemns all forms of terrorism.
 By authorizing the use of force to restore peace in different regions.
 It promotes human rights by enforcing application of international laws.
 Through encouraging the peaceful settlement of dispute between member
states.
 By imposing mandatory sanction against countries that are seen as a threat to
world peace in an effort to bring them to line.

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Ways in which United Nations provides humanitarian assistance
 It assists refugees /displaced persons with clothes in order to preserve
human dignity.
 It assists in resettling displaced persons by negotiating for their
resettlement in safe areas.
 It provides relief food in drought-stricken areas in order to avert loss of
lives.
 It provides medieval supplies to the victims of war/other calamities to
restore human health.
 It provides shelter to the deserving cases by building houses/giving
materials for construction.
 It provides education to vulnerable groups in order to promote literacy.
 It assists in evacuating people affected by flood to safer grounds to
avert suffering.
 It protects refugees by ensuring their respect /observance of basic
human rights.

Ways through which the United Nations promotes good governance in the
world
 It sends observers to monitor national elections in various states.
 It provides financial/logistical assistance to countries during national
elections.
 It helps countries to attain independence /establish democratic
government.
 It sends peace keeping forces to war torn countries.
 It ensures representation of member states in the general assembly.
 It arbitrates disputes between countries.
 It monitors and condemns

Challenges of the United Nations

1. Ideological differences. Different forms of government and ideologies have caused
differences among nations of the UN.
2. Inadequate funds. Some members are poor while others fail to remit their financial
contributions to the UN. This hinders UN’s operations.
3. The UN has no army of its own. It depends on the goodwill of its member states.
4. The veto power of the big five. The use of veto power has undermined the
implementation of some UN policies.
5. Some deeply rooted conflicts have hampered UN operations. Conflicts like the one
between Palestine and Israel are difficult to resolve.
6. Loyalty to other international organizations. There is conflict of interest since
members of other organizations do not give their full commitment to UN programs
e.g. African Union, Commonwealth, Arab League etc.
7. The issue of nationalism. Countries have placed their national interests before
international concerns that the UN stands for.
8. The formation of an Afro-Asian-Latin America bloc. The bloc was formed to counter
the power of the big five by developing nations. They vote as a bloc rather than
individual countries which has delayed some UN policies.

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9. Natural disasters e.g. drought, famine, floods, epidemics, earthquakes has created
unexpected demand for UN resources hence delaying new initiatives planned by the
world body.
10. Terrorism. It undermines efforts to promote peace and security by the UN.
11. Arms race. The issue of re-armament brought about suspicion among members.
Accumulation of arms by powerful nations undermines the UN’s ability to promote
world peace.
12. Different levels of development. Some countries are too poor while others are very
rich. Some members feel there is little to gain from the cooperation.
13. The decisions of the UN have often been ignored and member stated have taken action
without any reference to the UN e.g. the USA/British invasion of Iraq in 2003 was
without UN’s approval.

THE COMMONWEALTH
 The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of independent states which were
formally part of the British Empire.

Membership of the Commonwealth

 The Commonwealth is a unique family of 54 members spread over every continent
and ocean. Membership is voluntary.
 It allowed the membership from independent non-British colonies i.e. Togo,
Mozambique and Cameroon.
 All nations of the commonwealth recognize the Queen/king of England as the symbol
of their free association.
 Commonwealth countries work together and share values, skills, experiences and
ideas to achieve positive results.
Members are categorized as follows;
 Britain and her dominions of Canada, Australia & New Zealand.
 African nations.
 Asian Nations
 Islands from the Caribbean, Pacific & Mediterranean.

Aims & Principles of the Commonwealth

i) To promote world peace and international understanding. Members are expected to
support the UN peace programs.
ii) To promote development in poorer member states.
iii) To intensify cooperation between member states in matters such as education,
transport, sports and economic development.
iv) To ensure personal liberty and equality of rights to all citizens regardless of race,
color, creed or political beliefs.
v) To fight social prejudice as it threatens the healthy development of the human race.
vi) To oppose all forms of colonial domination by being committed to the principles of
human dignity and equality, and furthering the principles of self-determination and
non-racism.
vii) To fight poverty, ignorance and disease; to remove wealth disparities and raise
living standards, and achieve a more equitable international society.
viii) To enhance free international trade by removing trade barriers, but at the same time
giving due consideration to the special requirements of developing nations.
ix) To promote cooperation among nations so as to combat injustices and to facilitate
development.

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x) To promote the exchange of knowledge, professionalism and cultural, economic,
legal and political issues.
xi) To form a multi-national association based on consultation, discussion and
cooperation in pursuing their principles.

Characteristics of Commonwealth States

i) Members of the Commonwealth use English as a common language.
ii) Members maintain cultural ties e.g. they participate in the Commonwealth games
every four years.
iii) Members cooperate in the field of education through education exchange programs
which have assisted it less developed members.
iv) Members recognize the Queen/King of England as the head of the Commonwealth.
v) Members have a common military tradition based on the British military system.
They promote military exchange programs.
vi) Members share common democratic institutions from Britain such as the
parliamentary system of government, independent judiciary and civil service free of
politics.

Structure of the Commonwealth

a) Heads of State Summit
 The heads of state/government meet for a week once every two years for extensive
discussions and consultations.
 Members usually discuss economic and political problems affecting them.
 Decisions are reached by consensus rather than voting.
 The summit is the main policy making body.

b) Ministerial Meetings
 Ministerial meetings are held regularly.
 The Commonwealth Ministers of Finance, Foreign Affairs and Defense meet once
every year. Ministers of Health, Education and Law hold their meetings once every
three years.

c) The Secretariat
The commonwealth secretariat is the main agency for consultation and the exchange of
information among member states. It was established in 1965. The secretariat;
 Coordinates several programs of cooperation among member states.
 Circulates information and anything of general interest to member countries. This
information may assist governments in formulating policies.
 Coordinates business by studying commonwealth organizations that deal with
economic and financial matters.
 Organizes the Heads of State summit which takes place every two years as well as
Ministers’ Conferences.
 Encourages projects that are of benefit to members.

 The secretariat has a staff of 350 drawn from member states. It is headed by a
Secretary-General, assisted by two assistant Secretary-Generals.
 The first assistant secretary-general deals with international affairs, legal cooperation
and information.

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 The second assistant deals with economic affairs, export market and food production
within member countries. One of them is also in charge of supervision of the work in
education, health and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation.

d) Specialized Agencies
 Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau – provides cooperation in the field of Agriculture.
 Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation – provides advice, expertise and
training to member states.
 Commonwealth Youth Programmes – aims at involving young people in activities
aimed at achieving national goals.
 Commonwealth Science Council – promotes collaboration in developing regional
programmes such as energy and rural technology.
 Commonwealth Regional Health Secretariat for East, Central & Southern Africa –
promotes cooperation in the medical sector.
 Commonwealth Press Union – enhances communication between member countries.
 Commonwealth Parliamentary Association – enables members to have regular
parliamentary meetings in the various branches in member states.

Financing the Commonwealth

 The Commonwealth has an assed budget and three specialized funds. The assessed
budget covers the secretariat operating costs and programmes.
 The specialized funds support specific Commonwealth activities e.g., the
Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation.

Functions of the Commonwealth

1. It promotes partnership and cooperation among members as they consult on various
issues affecting their countries.
2. It provides financial assistance to members from less developed countries.
3. It supports education and training through the commonwealth scholarship for students to
study in other countries.
4. It encourages trade among member states.
5. It promotes technical cooperation among member states through the Commonwealth
Fund for Technical Cooperation which provides advice, experts and training facilities.
6. It enhances social and cultural interactions among members e.g. the commonwealth
games.
7. It promotes understanding and tolerance among members through exchange of ideas.
8. It promotes democracy and good governance through parliamentary meetings and
sending of observers during elections
9. It provides a forum for member states to air their views on international affairs with one
voice.
10. It promotes respect and encourages trust and friendship among members to work
towards economic prosperity.
11. Provides machinery to provide peace among member states e.g. sending peace keeping
missions.
12. It promotes development of legal systems of member countries to promote human rights
and rule of law.
13. It supports youth programs geared towards national development.

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Challenges Facing the Commonwealth
1. Domination by some nations. Britain in particular undermines decisions and policy
matters.
2. Political instability. Some member countries are involved in civil wars which affect
peace and good governance.
3. Inadequate funds. The organization is unable to raise enough funds since most of its
members are from the developing countries.
4. Withdrawal of some members. Since it is a voluntary organization e.g. South Africa
withdrew in 1961 and Pakistan in 1972.
5. Colonial rivalry. During its formation, Britain still occupied many territories. The
colonized countries were fighting for their independence from their colonizers (Britain).
6. Divided loyalty. Members of the commonwealth are also members of other
organizations hence divided attention which has weakened the organization.
7. Non-existence of an executive authority. It lacks an army that it can use to enforce its
decisions.
8. The spirit of national interest. The national interests came first as the grappled with
the challenges of their nations. The interests of the commonwealth came second.
9. Racial discrimination. Racial and colour divided the members. Free movement of
members is restricted by visa rules.
10. Ideological differences. The members were divided on capitalism and communism
ideologies.
11. Personality differences. This is common among heads of state.

THE COLD WAR

 The cold war refers to the struggle or hostility between the communist nations and the
capitalist nations or strained relationship that existed between the capitalist west and
communist east.
 Capitalism refers to a system of production based on private ownership of wealth,
free trade and little industrial activity by the government.
 Communism advocates for a classless society in which means of production are
owned by the community.
 Each group tried to spread their systems of government throughout the world creating
mistrust and suspicion between USA & USSR.
 The cold war did not necessarily involve firing of guns and killing of people.
 The weapons (tools) of the cold war included; Propaganda, Boycotts, Arms race,
Economic sanctions, Military aid, & Financial aid.

Causes of the Cold War

1. Ideological differences – USA & USSR wanted to spread their ideologies, capitalism and
communism throughout the world which created hostility between them.
2. Re-armament – there were disagreements over disarmament between USA & USSR.
They failed to agree on an arms reduction plan and continued to manufacture more deadly
weapons threatening world peace.
3. Economic rivalries – USA came up with the Marshall Plan to assist West European
countries financially so as to resist communist pressure in Europe. USSR also came up
with a similar plan known as Council for Mutual Economic Assistance COMECON. The
Marshall Plan was more successful hence leading to increased hostility between the two
power blocs.
4. Formation of Military Alliances – USA signed the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) with Canada, UK, Denmark, Iceland, Italy, Belgium, France,

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Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway & Portugal in 1949. Russia resented the establishment
of NATO and responded by signing the Warsaw Pact – a communist military alliance in
1955 with East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Albania &
Romania. These alliances fostered hostility.
5. Use of Russian veto power in the UN – the UN was basically pro-USA, a situation that
the Russians detested. Russia used her veto power to defeat UN proposals. The powers
struggled to dominate the UN, hence increasing tension between them.
6. Differences over Germany – western allies wanted a strong Germany to assist in the
economic prosperity of other western European nations. However, the Soviet Union
wanted a weak Germany to safeguard against another invasion. This division over
Germany bred hostility.

Easing of the Cold War/Relaxing cold war

The following factors led to the easing of the cold war.
1. The death of Josef Stalin
Josef Stalin was a hardliner who would never negotiate with Americans. After his death, his
successors were more flexible and accommodative such as Nikita Khrushchev who favored
the policy of peaceful co-existence between communists and capitalists.

2. Disarmament Conferences
Negotiations between USA & USSR resulted in signing of strategic arms limitation
agreements which helped control arms that both powers had e.g. the Nuclear Test Ban
(1963), the Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) among others.
3. Accession to Mikhael Gorbachev to Power IN 1985
Gorbachev adopted liberalized policies which immensely contributed to the relaxation of the
Cold War. He cooperated with the USA & undertook a series of summit meetings that led to
arms reduction.
4. Disintegration of USSR
Communist rule in Eastern Europe collapsed in 1989, which weakened Russia’s position in
Europe. As communism crumbled, tension eased and a new friendship between USA &
Russia became stronger.
5. Reagan’s Policy
US president Ronald Reagan longed for peace & asked Russian leaders to consider easing
tension between their states. Russian leaders like Gorbachev were receptive to Reagan’s
quest.
6. Unification of Germany
With the coming down of the Berlin Wall, East & West Germany were re-united in 1990.
This was a major sign that the Cold War had come to an end.
7. Russia’s support for the Gulf war
The campaign by American led allies to liberate Kuwait from Iraq in the Gulf war of 1991
had the support of Russia which was proof that the Soviet Union was willing to cooperate
with western capitalists.

8. Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact

With the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact started to fall apart. In 1990,
the Paris Charter was signed, effectively dissolving the Warsaw Pact.
9. Arms reduction

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At a Moscow summit in July 1991, Gorbachev and Bush signed the Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty (START) cutting their weapons by about a third. In 1993, USA & Russia
signed START II, where they agreed to cut their nuclear warheads to between 3000 to 3500 in
a decade.

Effects of the Cold War

1. The cold war undermined international peace and security. Each of the superpowers
struggled to dominate the world causing tension.
2. The world was polarized into two blocs; hostility, suspicion and deep-seated mistrust
developed among nations, as the two blocs attempted to undermine the other.
3. There was development in science and technology due to the cold war. Military
technology was highly developed as spacecraft such as space rockets were developed.
4. The cold war led to the Korean and Vietnam wars with USA & USSR supporting
opposing sides.
5. As superpowers strengthened their positions, they formed economic & military alliances
such as NATO (1949), the Warsaw Pact (1955) & COMECON (1949).
6. It led to the spread of capitalist and communist ideologies e.g. the spread of communism
in Eastern Europe is attributed to the cold war.
7. As a result of the cold war, emerging nations in Asia & Africa formed an Afro-Asian bloc
and adopted the policy of non-Alignment.

THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT (N.A.M.)

Formation of NAM
This is a group of states from Africa, Middle East and Latin America considering themselves
non-aligned formally with or against any power bloc rivalry between communists and
capitalists.
It was founded in Belgrade in 1961. Among the founders were;
 Jawaharlal Nehru – India’s first prime minister.
 Josip Broz Tito – president of Yugoslavia.
 Gamal Abdel Nasser – Egypt’s 2nd president.
 Kwame Nkrumah – Ghana’s 1st president.
 Achmad Surkano – 1st president of Indonesia.
 Haile Selassie – emperor of Ethiopia.
As of 2012, the movement had 120 members and 21 observer countries.

Reasons for the rise of NAM

i. The newly independent states did not wish to join the power bloc rivalry between
USA & USSR.
ii. Developing nations wanted to safeguard their independence and be free to protect their
national interests.
iii. They wanted to have a forum that would influence world politics.
iv. To enable them get maximum aid from both blocs for economic development.
v. The emerging nations did not want to be involved in the cold war because allying with
one bloc meant preparing for any war eventually.
vi. They wanted to reduce tension between nations and foster world peace so as to save
the world from another world war.

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Aims of NAM
1. To safeguard the sovereignty of member states.
2. To fight for the decolonization of the third world countries.
3. To work for the disarmament of the superpowers.
4. To discourage military alliances advocated by the superpowers.
5. To promote active participation in the UN’s programs by member states to enable them
speak with one voice.
6. To promote economic independence of member countries with the aim of discouraging
neo-colonialism.
7. To fight racism in the world.
8. To pursue an independent policy of peaceful co-existence.
9. To promote neutrality among member nations.
10. To establish a new economic world order to ensure favorable terms of trade.
11. To make funds available for improvement of agriculture to ensure increased food
production and for purchase of food stocks, and to ensure stability in prices.

Achievements of NAM
1. The movement helped speed up the attainment of freedom in states that were still under
colonial bondage.
2. NAM has helped its members to safeguard their national security and territorial integrity.
Non-aligned states also worked to eliminate conflict between superpowers thus promoting
peace and security in the world.
3. It contributed to relaxation of international tension between USA & USSR thus creating a
conducive environment for peace, justice, equality, & international cooperation.
4. The movement strengthened members diplomatically since they exerted their voting
power as the Afro-Asian bloc and influenced world affairs.
5. It provided an international forum where members’ voices could be heard. As a result, it
worked to dismantle apartheid and eradicate racism.
6. NAM played a leading role in disarmament. Several disarmament conferences were held
which advocated for disarmament. The treaty of Tlatelolco signed by 22 states set up a
Nuclear weapon free zone in Latin America.
7. NAM helped in several international crises e.g. in 1961 during the Berlin crisis, Nehru of
India and Nkrumah of Ghana went to Moscow on a peace mission, Achmad Surkano of
Indonesia and Modibo Keita of Mali went to Washington DC.
8. NAM worked towards the creation of a new international economic order. Members
traded with both blocs, in addition to being members of UNCTAD. For example, India
received economic aid from USA while she expanded trade with the Eastern European
countries.
9. The Harare Summit of 1986 set up a special solidarity fund that gave financial assistance
to frontline states. This cushioned the states against the economic sanctions imposed on
apartheid South Africa.
10. NAM has also worked to create a new scientific and technological order. This was in
order to bridge the “technological gap” between developed and developing nations.

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Challenges of NAM
1. Lack of enough funds to carry on day-to-day activities because most members were poor.
2. The end of the cold war and rivalry has made the organization to lose meaning.
3. Continuous civil strife among member states continues to be a problem for members of
NAM.
4. Divided loyalty of member states because they are also members of other organizations
e.g. the AU, commonwealth.
5. Personal differences between leaders of member states have undermined the movement
e.g. several leaders rejected the views of Fidel Castro.
6. Lack of an established army to help her carry out her activities effectively.
7. Nationalistic interests among members of NAM have outweighed the movement’s
objectives.

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