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TBA- European History notes 01

political science (The University of Lahore)

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TORCHBEARER ACADEMY - TBA “First Step

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Ph: 03359448866
PAPER: EUROPEAN HISTORY (100 MARKS)

Part –I (Marks 50)

I. The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (1789-1815)

• The causes of French Revolution

• The consequences of Revolution
• Napoleon’s rise to power
• Creation of Empire
• The Continental system
• The fall of Napoleon

II. The Concert of Europe (1815-1830)

• The Congress of Vienna

• Metternich’s Era
• The Concert of Europe and Congress System
• Balance of Power

III. Forces of Continuity and Change in Europe (1815-1848)

• Nationalism
• Liberalism
• Romanticism
• Socialism
• Industrial Revolution
• Colonialism
• Consequences

IV. The Eastern Question (1804-1856)

• The nature of the Eastern question

• The Crimean War
• Russo Turkish War 1877
• Consequences

V. Unification of Italy

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• The effects of the revolution of 1848

• The obstacles to unification
• Cavour and the unification of Italy
• The Process of Italian unification (1859-1871)

VI. Unification of Germany

• The rise of Bismarck

• Diplomatic events
• The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
• The Franco- Prussian War (1870-1871)
• The triumph of Bismarck and process of unification

VII. The Origins of First World War (1890-1914)

• Formation of Alliances and Counter Alliances

• The Balkans War (1912-1913)
• The outbreak of the World War 1

Part –II (Marks 50)

VIII. The First World War and its aftermath

• The War (1914-1918) and peace treaties

• The League of Nations

IX. Dictatorships in Europe

• Fascism in Italy under Musssolini

• Hitler,Nazism and Germany
• Russia , Marxism Revolution and its working under Stalin
• Great Depression and its effects on Europe
• Appeasement
• The Arm race
• The Sudetenland Crisis (1938)
• The distraction of Czechoslovakia (1939)

X. The World War 11and its effects on Europe

XI. Post- War Europe

• The post war settlements

• The United Nations
• Economic Recovery of Europe,Marshal Plan
• German Question
• NATO

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• Decolonization

XII. Cold War Europe (1955-1991)

• Effects of cold war

• Warsaw Pact (1955)
• The European Economic Community (EEC)
• Nuclear Non-Proliferation Agreement
• Charles Degaule and France
• Spread of communist regimes in Europe

XIII. Europe (1991-2012)

• The Gorbachev and Disintegration of USSR

• The reunification of Germany
• The Balkan crisis of 1990s
• The European Union
• Role of Europe in War against terrorism
• Global Economic Crisis and Europe

SUGGESTED READING

1. A History of Modern Europe (1789-1991)-------------------------------------- H.L. Peacock,

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FRENCH REVOLUTION
Background
A. Pre-Revolutionary Context in Europe
• Economic challenges and financial instability in France.
• Social hierarchies and discontent among the lower classes.
• The absolutist monarchy and the role of King Louis XVI.
B. Enlightenment Ideas and their Influence

• The Enlightenment's impact on intellectual and philosophical developments.

• Key Enlightenment thinkers and their ideas on liberty, equality, and democracy.

French Revolution is one of the most important events of history for democracy specifically. It provided the
basis for democracy, and gave hope to the masses for the first time that they can bring a change if desired, and the
old methods of ruling were not meant to be adamant. People started to believe that the society can be changed by
their own will.

To have a better understanding of the events leading to the uprise of French Revolution it is best to understand
the class divide and sufferings of war faced by the common people. The society at the time can be divided into three
major categories, namely: Aristocracy and Nobility (Top Elites), Clergy (Bishops, Priests, etc.), and the Peasants
(Poor/Working class – mainly farmers) ruled under a single Monarch/King. The Monarchs enjoyed absolute immunity
in the eyes of general public due to the prevalent idea of The Doctrine of Divine Right of Kings. Aristocrats and
the Nobility benefited due to their flattery or ties to the Monarchs. Conversely, Clergy were scene as the Guardians
of Spirituality and Religion. In all this, the Peasants faced immense suffering at the hands of poverty and war
mongering of their rulers. They viewed their suffering as a trial or blessing from God and felt content with their
situation. In such scenario, King Louis of the France continued to indulge in unnecessary warfare, and it costed lives,
resources (peasants paid taxes to the Monarchs and Clergy also), and lands of peasants.

In such tumultuous situations, French people started to question their beliefs and the injustices that they were
a subject to. Simultaneously, Mathematicians, Scientists, and Philosophers were also emphasizing on the importance
of thinking and reason, and were emerging as a challenge to the conventional thought. Religious exploitation and
conventional ways were starting to become difficult to defend for their representatives and harbingers. Ideas such as
DIESM (by Edward Herbert) started to emerge and the authorities of Church and the Monarchs were being
questioned. Jhon Locke condemned the idea Divine Rights of Kings and instilled the basis for democracy in the
people, such as: Government was considered as responsible for the well being and protection of rights of its citizens,
otherwise the people had the right to overthrow it. Ideas of liberty and freedom of man was also coined by
philosophers like Jean–Jacques Rosseau. This whole era is referred as the Age of Enlightenment.

Role of Philosophers in French Revolution and Spread of Enlightenment

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A. Enlightenment and its Impact on the French Revolution

• Philosophical Foundations of Enlightenment
• Spread of Enlightenment Ideas
B. Key Philosophers and Their Contributions
• Voltaire
• Montesquieu
• Rousseau
• Diderot
• Condorcet
C. Influence on Revolutionary Thought and Action
• Concepts of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity
• Separation of Powers and Constitutionalism
• Social Contract and Popular Sovereignty
• Critique of Old Regime Institutions
D. Philosopher's Role in Shaping Revolutionary Discourse
• Pamphlets, Journals, and Salons
• Intellectual Precedents for Revolutionary Ideas

The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a watershed moment in European history, characterized by profound
social, political, and cultural transformations. One of the significant factors contributing to the French Revolution was the
influence of Enlightenment philosophers who laid the ideological groundwork for revolutionary change.

A. Enlightenment and its Impact on the French Revolution

Philosophical Foundations of Enlightenment

The Enlightenment, an intellectual movement of the 18th century, emphasized reason, rationality, and individual
rights. It challenged traditional authority and advocated for human progress through knowledge and science.

Spread of Enlightenment Ideas

Enlightenment ideas spread across Europe through various mediums, including books, salons, and intellectual
circles. These ideas questioned the divine right of monarchs and called for more equitable and just societies.

B. Key Philosophers and Their Contributions

1. Voltaire
• Critique of religious intolerance and advocacy for religious freedom.
• Emphasis on reason, tolerance, and civil liberties.

Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet) was one of the most influential Enlightenment philosophers whose ideas and
writings had a significant impact on the French Revolution and its intellectual underpinnings.

Voltaire's Role in the French Revolution:

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Advocate of Reason and Tolerance: Voltaire was a staunch advocate of reason, critical thinking, and religious
tolerance. His works criticized religious dogma, superstition, and intolerance, advocating for a more rational and
open-minded society.

Champion of Civil Liberties: Voltaire championed civil liberties such as freedom of speech and freedom of the
press. His writings often challenged the authority of the Church and the monarchy, contributing to a growing
atmosphere of questioning traditional institutions.

Satirical Critique: Voltaire's satirical works, such as his satirical novella "Candide," criticized the injustices and
absurdities of society. Through wit and humor, he exposed the flaws and inequalities of the old regime, indirectly
influencing revolutionary thought.

Influence on Revolutionary Leaders: Voltaire's ideas of equality and justice resonated with many Enlightenment
thinkers who were instrumental in the French Revolution. His emphasis on the importance of individuals and their
rights helped shape revolutionary ideals.

Popularization of Enlightenment Ideas: Voltaire's writing style was accessible to a wide audience, which helped
disseminate Enlightenment ideas to the general public. His plays, essays, and letters conveyed key principles of the
Enlightenment, including the rejection of arbitrary authority.

Defender of Victims of Injustice: Voltaire often took up the causes of individuals who were unjustly treated by
the authorities, using his influence to shed light on cases of religious persecution and legal abuses.

Legacy: While Voltaire did not play a direct role in the events of the French Revolution, his emphasis on reason,
tolerance, and individual rights contributed to the intellectual climate that fueled revolutionary aspirations. His
ideas continued to inspire reformers and revolutionaries in France and beyond.

In summary, Voltaire's writings and ideas laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment values that played a
role in shaping the French Revolution. His advocacy for reason, tolerance, and civil liberties contributed to the
intellectual atmosphere that challenged the existing order and paved the way for revolutionary change.

2. Montesquieu
• Concept of separation of powers to prevent tyranny.
• Influence on modern constitutionalism and checks and balances.

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu, commonly known as Montesquieu, was a key
Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas on political theory and governance had a significant influence on the French
Revolution.

Montesquieu's Role in the French Revolution:

Separation of Powers: Montesquieu is best known for his concept of the "separation of powers," which he outlined in his
seminal work "The Spirit of the Laws" (1748). He argued that political power should be divided among different branches
of government (executive, legislative, and judicial) to prevent tyranny and safeguard individual liberties. This idea became
foundational to modern constitutionalism and influenced the structure of revolutionary institutions.

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Influence on Revolutionary Leaders: Montesquieu's ideas on the separation of powers resonated with revolutionary
thinkers who sought to create a new political order that would prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a single
authority. His principles were incorporated into the design of revolutionary governmental bodies, such as the National
Assembly.

Checks and Balances: Montesquieu's advocacy for checks and balances between different branches of government helped
shape the constitutional frameworks of revolutionary France. His ideas provided a theoretical basis for limiting the authority
of the monarchy and ensuring a system of mutual control and accountability.

Critique of Despotism: Montesquieu's writings critiqued the absolute authority of monarchs and promoted the idea of
limited government. His analysis of despotism and its detrimental effects on society contributed to a broader intellectual
movement questioning the legitimacy of the old regime.

Empirical Approach: Montesquieu's approach to studying political institutions and laws was empirical and comparative.
He examined various forms of government from different historical and geographical contexts, seeking to identify patterns
and principles that could guide the construction of more just and effective societies.

Legacy: Montesquieu's ideas played a significant role in shaping the ideological foundations of the French Revolution. The
separation of powers and the principles of checks and balances became integral components of revolutionary discourse
and influenced subsequent constitutional developments.

Montesquieu's emphasis on the separation of powers, checks and balances, and his critique of despotism
contributed to the intellectual climate that fueled revolutionary aspirations. His ideas not only influenced the structure of
revolutionary institutions but also provided a theoretical framework for constructing a more just and equitable political
order.

3. Rousseau
• "Social Contract" theory advocating for popular sovereignty.
• Idea of the general will and direct democracy.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau was a pivotal Enlightenment philosopher whose ideas on democracy, social contract, and
popular sovereignty played a significant role in shaping the intellectual landscape that contributed to the French Revolution.

Rousseau's Role in the French Revolution:

Social Contract Theory: Rousseau's most influential work, "The Social Contract" (1762), introduced the concept of the
social contract, which laid the foundation for the idea of popular sovereignty. He argued that legitimate political authority
arises from the consent of the governed and that individuals collectively create a government to secure their common
interests and rights.

General Will and Direct Democracy: Rousseau's notion of the "general will" emphasized the common good and the
collective decision-making of a community. This idea resonated with revolutionary thinkers who sought to establish
democratic institutions and involve citizens directly in decision-making processes, especially during the early phases of the
French Revolution.

Advocacy for Participatory Democracy: Rousseau's ideas on direct democracy and the importance of citizen participation
influenced revolutionary leaders who aimed to replace the autocratic rule of the monarchy with more inclusive forms of

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government. His writings contributed to the intellectual foundation of the revolutionary concept of a government based on
the will of the people.

Critique of Inequality: Rousseau's works, including "Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men" (1755),
criticized social inequality and the corrupting influence of materialism. These critiques resonated with those who sought to
address social and economic injustices in revolutionary France.

Influence on Revolutionary Ideals: Rousseau's emphasis on the sovereignty of the people and the importance of civic
virtue informed revolutionary slogans and aspirations. His ideas helped shape the rhetoric of equality, liberty, and popular
empowerment that became central to the revolutionary discourse.

Legacy: While Rousseau did not directly participate in the French Revolution, his writings provided a theoretical framework
for justifying revolutionary change and the establishment of a new social and political order. His emphasis on the
importance of civic engagement and the pursuit of the common good left an enduring mark on revolutionary thought.

Rousseau's social contract theory, emphasis on popular sovereignty, and advocacy for participatory democracy
contributed to the intellectual underpinnings of the French Revolution. His ideas provided a theoretical basis for the
transformation of the old regime and the aspiration to create a more equitable and just society based on the will of the
people.

4. Diderot
• Editor of the "Encyclopedia," a compilation of human knowledge.
• Dissemination of rational and critical thinking.

Denis Diderot was a significant Enlightenment philosopher and writer who, while not directly involved in the French
Revolution, played an important role in shaping the intellectual climate that contributed to revolutionary ideals.

Diderot's Role in the French Revolution:

Editor of the "Encyclopedia": Diderot is best known for being the co-editor of the "Encyclopedia, or a Systematic
Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts." This monumental work aimed to compile and disseminate human knowledge,
covering a wide range of subjects. The "Encyclopedia" played a crucial role in spreading Enlightenment ideas, questioning
traditional authority, and promoting scientific inquiry.

Dissemination of Rational and Critical Thinking: Through the "Encyclopedia," Diderot and his collaborators aimed to
promote rationality, critical thinking, and empirical knowledge. This effort challenged the established norms and beliefs of
the time, including religious dogma and absolute monarchy.

Advocacy for Education: Diderot believed in the transformative power of education and the dissemination of knowledge.
He argued that education could lead to social progress and individual empowerment, aligning with the Enlightenment's
emphasis on human improvement and reason.

Impact on Revolutionary Thought: Diderot's efforts to compile and disseminate knowledge contributed to the intellectual
foundation of the French Revolution. The "Encyclopedia" exposed readers to a wide range of ideas, including those critical
of the old regime, and helped foster a climate of questioning and inquiry.

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Inspiration for Revolutionary Writers: Many of Diderot's contemporaries and later revolutionary writers drew inspiration
from his emphasis on reason, knowledge, and individual liberty. His writings and ideas influenced a generation of thinkers
who sought to challenge traditional institutions and envision new social and political orders.

Legacy: Diderot's commitment to rationality, education, and the dissemination of knowledge left a lasting legacy on
Enlightenment thought and its impact on revolutionary movements. While he did not directly participate in the French
Revolution, his contributions to the Enlightenment discourse contributed to the intellectual groundwork that fueled
revolutionary aspirations.

Diderot's role as the editor of the "Encyclopedia" and his advocacy for rationality and education contributed to the
dissemination of Enlightenment ideas that challenged the old regime and influenced the intellectual climate that
contributed to the French Revolution.

5. Condorcet
• Support for universal suffrage and equal rights for women.
• Belief in human progress and perfectibility.
Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas de Caritat, Marquis of Condorcet, was an Enlightenment philosopher and mathematician
who played a notable role in advocating for progressive and egalitarian ideas that had an influence on the French
Revolution. His ideas, including support for a liberal economy, free and equal public instruction, constitutional government,
and equal rights for women and people of all races, have been said to embody the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment, of
which he has been called the "last witness", and Enlightenment rationalism. A Freemason, he died in prison after a period
of hiding from the French Revolutionary authorities.

Condorcet's Role in the French Revolution:

• Advocate for Human Rights: Condorcet was a passionate advocate for human rights, equality, and social justice.
His writings, such as "Reflections on Negro Slavery" (1781), condemned slavery and racial inequality, reflecting his
commitment to the principles of liberty and universal rights.
• Supporter of Universal Suffrage: Condorcet was a proponent of universal suffrage, arguing that all citizens,
regardless of social status or gender, should have the right to participate in political decision-making. His ideas laid
the groundwork for later discussions on citizenship and voting rights.
• Champion of Women's Rights: Condorcet's work "On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship" (1790)
was a landmark in advocating for women's rights and gender equality. He argued that women should have the
same political rights as men, challenging the prevailing gender norms of his time.
• Belief in Human Progress: Condorcet was a firm believer in the perfectibility of humanity through reason and
education. He envisioned a future where scientific and social progress would lead to a more just and equitable
society, free from oppression and inequality.
• Influence on Revolutionary Thought: Condorcet's ideas on universal suffrage, women's rights, and human progress
were influential in shaping the revolutionary discourse on equality and citizenship. His writings provided intellectual
support for those advocating for broader political participation and social reform.
• Legacy: While Condorcet's vision of a more inclusive and egalitarian society was not fully realized during his lifetime,
his ideas continued to inspire later generations of reformers and activists. His commitment to human rights and
social justice left an indelible mark on Enlightenment thought and its impact on the course of history.
In summary, Condorcet's advocacy for universal suffrage, women's rights, and human progress contributed to the
intellectual foundations of the French Revolution. His dedication to equality and social justice helped shape revolutionary
aspirations and influenced discussions on citizenship and political participation.

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C. Influence on Revolutionary Thought and Action

Concepts of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity
• Enlightenment philosophers introduced notions of liberty, equality, and fraternity into public discourse.
• These ideals became central to revolutionary goals and slogans.

Separation of Powers and Constitutionalism

• Montesquieu's ideas influenced the structure of revolutionary institutions.
• National Assembly and later governments implemented separation of powers.

Social Contract and Popular Sovereignty

• Rousseau's concept of the social contract inspired revolutionary leaders to seek popular sovereignty.
• Legitimacy of new governments derived from the will of the people.

Critique of Old Regime Institutions

• Philosophers' criticisms of absolutism and feudalism fueled anti-monarchical sentiment.
• Calls for reform and change in traditional institutions.

E. Philosophers’ Role in Shaping Revolutionary Discourse

Pamphlets, Journals, and Salons

• Philosophers contributed to the spread of revolutionary ideas through writings, pamphlets, and journals.
• Salons became centers for intellectual exchange and revolutionary discussions.

Intellectual Precedents for Revolutionary Ideas

• Revolutionary leaders drew upon Enlightenment concepts to justify their actions.
• Philosophers provided theoretical foundations for revolutionary changes.
The role of philosophers in the French Revolution was pivotal in shaping the ideological framework and aspirations of
the revolutionary movement. Enlightenment ideas of reason, individual rights, and social progress provided the intellectual
underpinning for the transformative events of the era.

The French Revolution

A. Causes and Triggers of the Revolution
• Economic Factors and Financial Crisis
o France's debt and the burden of taxation.
o The role of economic mismanagement in triggering the revolution.
• Social Inequities and the Estates System
o The privileges of the clergy and nobility.
o Discontent among the Third Estate and the bourgeoisie.
• Political Dissatisfaction and Absolutism
o Criticisms of absolute monarchy and the lack of representation.
o The Estates-General and its significance in the revolutionary process.
B. The National Assembly and the Fall of the Bastille
• The Formation of the National Assembly
o The Tennis Court Oath and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

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o The transition to a constitutional monarchy.

• The Storming of the Bastille and Symbolic Significance
o The Bastille as a symbol of royal tyranny and oppression.
o The impact of the event on the revolutionary spirit.
C. Radicalization and the Reign of Terror
• Emergence of Radical Political Factions
o The Jacobins and the Girondins: Ideologies and goals.
o The role of Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety.
• Execution of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
o The trial and execution of the royal couple.
o International reactions and implications of regicide.
• The Committee of Public Safety and Maximilien Robespierre
o The establishment and functions of the Committee.
o Robespierre's role and the pursuit of revolutionary purity.
• The Reign of Terror and its Impact on Society
o The extent of repression and the use of the guillotine.
o The social and political consequences of the radical phase.

The era of the French Revolution was characterized by a complex web of causes and triggers that culminated
in one of the most significant and tumultuous periods in European history. Economic factors and the ensuing financial
crisis were crucial in setting the stage for the revolution. France's debt had been steadily increasing due to the costly
involvement in wars, such as the Seven Years' War and the American Revolutionary War, and extravagant spending
by the monarchy, particularly King Louis XVI (made Palace of Versailles despite economic crisis) and his queen, Marie
Antoinette (extremely extravagant lifestyle). This accumulation of debt placed an immense burden on the common
people, who were subjected to heavy taxation. The economist Arthur Young, who visited France in the 1780s, noted
in his book "Travels in France" that the tax system was riddled with inefficiencies, with the burden falling
disproportionately on the lower classes, exacerbating their economic hardships and fostering discontent.

Social inequities, deeply rooted in the archaic Estates System, were another crucial factor. The First and
Second Estates, consisting of the clergy and nobility, enjoyed numerous privileges, including exemption from most
taxes and the ability to impose their will on the Third Estate. This stark contrast in privileges and treatment fueled
resentment among the common people, who were part of the Third Estate and bore the brunt of financial hardships.
The philosopher and political theorist Jean-Jacques Rousseau, in his influential work "The Social Contract," criticized
the inequality prevalent in society and argued for a more egalitarian social structure, laying the philosophical
groundwork for the revolution's demand for social justice.
Political dissatisfaction was also pervasive, and it was primarily directed at the absolute monarchy and the lack of
representation for the people. The monarch's unchecked power and inability to address the nation's grievances were major
sources of discontent. Philosophers like Voltaire, in his writings on political and religious freedom, challenged the notion of
absolute authority and advocated for a more enlightened and accountable government. Furthermore, the lack of
representation for the common people in decision-making processes was a point of contention. The Estates-General, the
traditional representative assembly that included delegates from the three estates, had not been convened since 1614,
leaving the Third Estate and others feeling voiceless in matters that directly affected them. This lack of political agency and
participation drove them to seek significant political reforms.

Therefore, the French Revolution was a product of multifaceted causes and triggers, each playing a vital role in bringing
about this momentous event. Economic mismanagement, social inequities entrenched in the Estates System, and political
dissatisfaction with absolute monarchy and lack of representation all intersected, creating an explosive environment ripe

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for revolutionary change. The writings of scholars, philosophers, and observers of the time provide valuable insights into
the grievances and discontent that drove the people of France to challenge the existing order, leading to a revolution that
profoundly transformed the nation and reverberated across Europe.

The National Assembly and the Fall of the Bastille

• The Formation of the National Assembly

o The Tennis Court Oath and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
o The transition to a constitutional monarchy.
• The Storming of the Bastille and Symbolic Significance
o The Bastille as a symbol of royal tyranny and oppression.
o The impact of the event on the revolutionary spirit.

The formation of the National Assembly during the French Revolution marked a pivotal moment in the quest
for political change and social reform. In June 1789, the representatives of the Third Estate, feeling marginalized and
frustrated by the privileged First and Second Estates, decided to take matters into their own hands. On June 20th,
they gathered at the indoor tennis court in Versailles and took the famous Tennis Court Oath, vowing not to disband
until a new constitution was established that would grant equal rights and representation to all citizens. This
momentous event showcased the growing unity and determination of the common people to challenge the old order
and usher in a more just and equitable society. Shortly after, on August 26th, the National Assembly adopted the
Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, inspired by Enlightenment principles, which declared that all men
were born free and equal in rights. It emphasized the protection of individual liberties and the need for a government
based on the will of the people. The formation of the National Assembly and the adoption of the Declaration signaled
a significant step towards dismantling the absolute monarchy and transitioning to a constitutional monarchy that
would grant more power and representation to the people.

The Storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789, remains one of the most iconic events of the French Revolution,
symbolizing the beginning of the people's struggle against royal tyranny and oppression. The Bastille, a medieval
fortress and prison in Paris, had come to represent the monarchy's arbitrary use of power and the suppression of
dissent. The decision to attack the Bastille was not merely driven by a desire to free its few remaining prisoners but
was more importantly a demonstration of the people's defiance against the monarchy's authority. The storming of
the Bastille instilled a renewed sense of purpose and solidarity among the revolutionary forces, as it showcased the
people's willingness to rise against the oppressive regime. Moreover, the fall of the Bastille had a profound impact on
the revolutionary spirit, as it triggered a wave of uprisings across France, with people in various regions rising against
local authorities and oppressive landlords. This collective uprising further fueled the revolutionary fervor and led to a
cascade of events that would eventually culminate in the radical phase of the revolution.

The formation of the National Assembly and the fall of the Bastille were two critical episodes during the French
Revolution that shaped the course of history. The Tennis Court Oath and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of
the Citizen marked the beginning of a determined effort to bring about political change and social equality. The
storming of the Bastille, on the other hand, was a symbolic act that demonstrated the people's rebellion against royal
oppression and became a rallying point for the revolutionary movement. Both events highlight the immense power
that collective action and the quest for liberty and justice can have in shaping the destiny of a nation. The French
Revolution, as a whole, serves as a poignant reminder of the impact of popular movements in challenging oppressive
regimes and advocating for fundamental human rights and freedoms.

Radicalization and the Reign of Terror

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• Emergence of Radical Political Factions

o The Jacobins and the Girondins: Ideologies and goals.
o The role of Maximilien Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety.
• Execution of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
o The trial and execution of the royal couple.
o International reactions and implications of regicide.
• The Committee of Public Safety and Maximilien Robespierre
o The establishment and functions of the Committee.
o Robespierre's role and the pursuit of revolutionary purity.
• The Reign of Terror and its Impact on Society
o The extent of repression and the use of the guillotine.
o The social and political consequences of the radical phase.

The French Revolution took a radical turn during its most tumultuous phase, known as the Reign of Terror,
which was characterized by intense political upheaval and widespread violence. The emergence of radical political
factions, notably the Jacobins and the Girondins, played a significant role in shaping this period. The Jacobins, led by
figures like Maximilien Robespierre, advocated for a more centralized and egalitarian government, with a strong
emphasis on promoting the interests of the lower classes. On the other hand, the Girondins represented a more
moderate faction, favoring a decentralized government and advocating for the rights of the provinces. The struggle
for power between these factions led to internal divisions and, eventually, the dominance of the Jacobins.

Maximilien Robespierre's rise to power and his role as a member of the Committee of Public Safety were
instrumental in directing the radicalization of the revolution. The Committee, established in April 1793, was granted
extraordinary powers to protect the republic from internal and external threats. Robespierre, as one of its leading
members, became a key figure in implementing policies aimed at consolidating revolutionary gains and protecting the
revolution from perceived enemies. Under his influence, the Reign of Terror was initiated, marked by a wave of
executions, particularly targeting perceived counter-revolutionaries. Robespierre's pursuit of revolutionary purity and
his belief in the use of terror as a tool for achieving political goals led to a climate of fear and suspicion in France.

The execution of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette in January and October 1793, respectively, was a
defining moment of the Reign of Terror. The trial of the royal couple was a highly contentious issue, with divisions
among the revolutionaries themselves. Eventually, both were found guilty of conspiring against the state and were
sentenced to death by the guillotine. The execution of the monarchy sent shockwaves across Europe, leading to
international reactions and further isolating the revolutionary government. Many European monarchies were alarmed
by the regicide, and several of them formed coalitions to intervene in France and restore the monarchy. This external
pressure exacerbated the internal turmoil and intensified the revolutionary fervor.

The Reign of Terror was characterized by a brutal and relentless crackdown on perceived enemies of the
revolution. Thousands of people were executed, including aristocrats, clergy, and even some former revolutionaries
who fell out of favor. The guillotine became the symbol of the terror, and its indiscriminate use sent a message of fear
to anyone who opposed the revolutionary government. This period of repression had profound social and political
consequences. The revolutionary ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity were overshadowed by the atmosphere of
fear and suspicion, and many began to question the direction the revolution had taken. The economic and political
instability during the Reign of Terror also had severe repercussions, leading to further radicalization and eventually
culminating in the downfall of Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety.

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Eventually, the radicalization of the French Revolution and the Reign of Terror were characterized by intense
political struggles, the emergence of extremist factions, and the implementation of oppressive measures to safeguard
the revolution. The executions of King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, as well as the widespread use of the guillotine,
had far-reaching consequences both within France and internationally. The Reign of Terror left a lasting impact on
French society, and the revolutionary ideals were tested amidst the chaos and violence. The events of this period
continue to be studied and debated by historians as a crucial and controversial chapter in European history.

The Napoleonic Era and The Continental System

A. The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

• Political Climate during the Revolution
o Instability and the decline of the Directory.
o The Coup of 18 Brumaire and Napoleon's rise to power.
• Napoleon's Military Achievements and Rise to Power
o Napoleon's military campaigns and victories.
o The consolidation of power as First Consul.
B. Consolidation of Power and Domestic Reforms
• Napoleon as First Consul and the Napoleonic Code
o The consolidation of power and centralization of authority.
o The Napoleonic Code and its significance in legal reform.
• The Concordat with the Catholic Church
o The reconciliation between the state and the Church.
o The impact on religious freedom and Church-state relations.
• Administrative and Educational Reforms
o The reorganization of the government and bureaucracy.
o Napoleon's efforts to reform education and promote meritocracy.
C. The Napoleonic Empire and Continental System
• Military Campaigns and Conquests
o Napoleon's military strategies and expansion of the French Empire.
o The Battle of Austerlitz and other major victories.
• Establishment of the Continental System
o The Berlin Decree and the Continental Blockade against Britain.
o Economic warfare and the isolation of Britain from European markets.
• The Economic Warfare against Britain
o The impact of the blockade on European economies
o Challenges and consequences of enforcing the Continental System.
• The Peninsular War and Napoleon’s Diplomatic failure
D. Challenges and Defeats – Fall of Napoleon
• Resistance from European Nations

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o The response of European countries to the Continental System.

o The persistence of smuggling and illicit trade.
• Russian Campaign and Retreat from Moscow
o The reasons for the invasion of Russia and its consequences.
o The disastrous retreat and its impact on Napoleon's power.
• The Sixth Coalition and Napoleon's Exile
o The formation of the Sixth Coalition against France.
o Napoleon's first abdication and exile to Elba.
E. Challenges The Hundred Days and the Battle of Waterloo
• Napoleon's Return from Exile
o The circumstances and events of the Hundred Days.
o Napoleon's brief return to power.
• The Final Defeat at Waterloo
o The Battle of Waterloo and its significance.
o Napoleon's second abdication and exile to St. Helena.

As the Revolution entered its most radical phase, known as the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), Napoleon's
reputation continued to grow. He supported the revolutionary cause and was involved in several successful military
campaigns against foreign invaders and internal counter-revolutionary forces. In 1795, when royalists attempted to
overthrow the revolutionary government, Napoleon was instrumental in thwarting the insurrection, earning him
further recognition and the nickname "The Savior of the Republic." In view of his commanding prowess and ability to
direct discipline among the troops earned him the post of Commander in Chief of military in Italy. This pawed the path
for him to further solidify his prowess in the eyes of the governing body. Consequently, he began military conquests
of the region and France got control of majority of Austria (Treaty of Campo-1797), and captured vast territories of
Europe.

The era of the French Revolution witnessed significant political upheaval, leading to the rise of Napoleon
Bonaparte as one of the most influential figures in European history. The political climate during the Revolution was
marked by instability and the decline of the Directory, the government established after the fall of Robespierre's
radical regime. The Directory was plagued by corruption, economic challenges, and a lack of popular support, which
created an atmosphere ripe for change. This paved the way for the Coup of 18 Brumaire in November 1799,
orchestrated by Napoleon Bonaparte, who at that time was a highly successful and respected military general.

Napoleon's rise to power was facilitated by his military achievements and strategic prowess on the battlefield.
He had already gained prominence through his military campaigns in Italy and Egypt, which showcased his exceptional
leadership and tactical brilliance. These victories not only established him as a skilled commander but also earned him
considerable public support and admiration. With the Coup of 18 Brumaire, Napoleon effectively ended the Directory
and established the Consulate, effectively becoming the First Consul, a position he held with the powers of a de facto
dictator.

As First Consul, Napoleon embarked on significant reforms that solidified his position and transformed France.
He initiated a series of domestic policies, known as the Napoleonic Code, which streamlined laws and consolidated
the principles of the Revolution, ensuring equality before the law, religious freedom, and property rights. Additionally,
he centralized power, allowing for a more efficient and effective government.

Moreover, Napoleon's military achievements played a crucial role in consolidating his power. He embarked
on numerous military campaigns, expanding French territories and subduing enemies across Europe. His most notable
victories include the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805 and the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806. These conquests not only

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secured his reputation as a military genius but also fueled a sense of national pride and unity among the French
population.

Napoleon's rise to power and his ability to consolidate it as the First Consul paved the way for his eventual
proclamation as Emperor Napoleon I in 1804. The Napoleonic era witnessed significant changes in European politics,
society, and culture, shaping the continent's course for years to come.

In conclusion, the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte during the era of the French Revolution was a result of the
political instability and the decline of the Directory. Napoleon's military achievements and strategic brilliance on the
battlefield earned him immense popularity and paved the way for his rise to power during the Coup of 18 Brumaire.
As First Consul, he implemented crucial reforms that centralized power and strengthened the French state. His military
conquests further solidified his position and allowed him to assume the title of Emperor later on. Napoleon's impact
on European history cannot be understated, as he left a lasting legacy that reshaped the continent and its political
landscape for decades to come.

Consolidation of Power and Domestic Reforms

• Napoleon as First Consul and the Napoleonic Code
o The consolidation of power and centralization of authority.
o The Napoleonic Code and its significance in legal reform.
• The Concordat with the Catholic Church
o The reconciliation between the state and the Church.
o The impact on religious freedom and Church-state relations.
• Administrative and Educational Reforms
o The reorganization of the government and bureaucracy.
o Napoleon's efforts to reform education and promote meritocracy.
• Napoleon’s immediate conquests and their outcomes happening simultaneously with the reforms.

During the Napoleonic Era, Napoleon Bonaparte took significant steps to consolidate power and implement
various domestic reforms, reshaping France and its institutions. As First Consul, Napoleon aimed to centralize
authority and establish a strong, stable government. One of his most enduring contributions was the Napoleonic Code,
also known as the Civil Code of 1804. This comprehensive legal reform standardized French law, replacing the
confusing and often contradictory patchwork of regional laws that existed before. The Napoleonic Code emphasized
principles of equality before the law, protection of property rights, and religious freedom. It solidified the gains of the
French Revolution, providing a clear and concise legal framework that has had a lasting impact on legal systems
worldwide.

Furthermore, Napoleon sought to reconcile the state with the Catholic Church through the Concordat of 1801.
This agreement with Pope Pius VII reestablished the Catholic Church's position in France after years of conflict during
the Revolution. The Concordat recognized Catholicism as the majority religion but also acknowledged the existence
of other religions, promoting religious tolerance within the framework of a Catholic state. While the Concordat
brought peace between the Church and the state, it also granted Napoleon significant influence over the appointment
of bishops, further enhancing his power and control.

Napoleon's administrative and educational reforms were also crucial in reshaping French society. He
reorganized the government and bureaucracy, streamlining the administration and reducing corruption. The prefect
system, with appointed local officials, ensured efficient governance and enhanced the central government's control
over regions. Additionally, Napoleon introduced meritocracy in the civil service, allowing individuals to advance based

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on competence and skills rather than social status or connections. This move aimed to create a more efficient and
capable government, reinforcing Napoleon's authority while attracting talented individuals to public service.

In the realm of education, Napoleon recognized the importance of knowledge and merit in building a strong
nation. He established a comprehensive system of state-controlled public education, providing access to education
for all citizens, including girls, which was a progressive step for the time. The University of France, founded in 1808,
oversaw education at all levels and promoted a standardized curriculum. Napoleon believed that an educated
populace would foster loyalty to the state and contribute to the nation's progress.
In conclusion, the Napoleonic Era witnessed Napoleon Bonaparte's consolidation of power through various
domestic reforms. As First Consul, he centralized authority and introduced the groundbreaking Napoleonic Code,
which established a clear legal framework based on the principles of the French Revolution. The Concordat with the
Catholic Church brought stability to Church-state relations and promoted religious tolerance. Napoleon's
administrative and educational reforms reorganized the government and bureaucracy, fostered meritocracy, and
established a state-controlled education system. These reforms aimed to create a more efficient and cohesive society,
underpinning Napoleon's authority and leaving a lasting impact on French governance and institutions.

During this era:

❖ Napoleon survived several assassination attempts including the one pursued by monarchist rebels
with a homemade bomb. This was the first time a bomb was used for an assassination attempt. The
assassination was known as “The Infernal Machine Plot” (1800 A.D.). This also gave emergence to the
idea of Terrorism, and Terrorism became synonymous with acts that attempted to dismantle or
destroy a leader or ideology.
❖ Napoleon also set his sight on further conquest and expansion of the Empire. Hence, in 1802; sent his
forces to West Indies to protect France’s interests in the region. He also planned to have an Empire in
America and began to assert dominance in the new world. He was mildly successful in his pursuits.
However, his Navy was not powerful enough to defeat the British Naval forces. Hence, France also
faced several defeats at the hands and ships of the rival nation. Consequently, Napoleon decided to
consolidate his military and SOLD the Louisiana territory to the United States. This purchase is referred
as the Louisiana Purchase. This provided France with the much-needed capital it required for its
reforms and development.

The Napoleonic Empire and Continental System

• Military Campaigns and Conquests
o Napoleon's military strategies and expansion of the French Empire.
o The Battle of Austerlitz and other major victories.
• Establishment of the Continental System
o The Berlin Decree and the Continental Blockade against Britain.
o Economic warfare and the isolation of Britain from European markets.
• The Economic Warfare against Britain
o The impact of the blockade on European economies
o Challenges and consequences of enforcing the Continental System.
• The Peninsular War and Napoleon’s Diplomatic failure

During the Napoleonic Era, Napoleon Bonaparte's military campaigns and conquests played a significant role
in the expansion of the French Empire. His military strategies were marked by speed, surprise, and decisive action,
earning him the title of a military genius. One of his most famous victories was the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, also
known as the "Battle of the Three Emperors." In this battle, Napoleon's forces decisively defeated a combined army

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of Russian and Austrian troops, further extending French control over Central Europe. This victory solidified
Napoleon's position as a dominant force in Europe and allowed him to redraw territorial boundaries to benefit France
and his allies.
To consolidate his power and weaken Britain, Napoleon established the Continental System in 1806. The
Continental System aimed to economically isolate Britain by forbidding European countries under French influence
from trading with Britain. The Berlin Decree, issued in the same year, was the cornerstone of this policy, declaring that
all British goods, as well as goods from countries trading with Britain, were prohibited in continental Europe. The
objective was to weaken Britain's economy by cutting off its access to European markets and disrupt its overseas
trade.

The Continental System

The Continental System was a key economic policy implemented by Napoleon Bonaparte during the
Napoleonic Era with the aim of isolating and weakening Britain. It was officially established in 1806 with the issuance
of the Berlin Decree and later the Milan Decree. The primary objective of the Continental System was to enforce a
blockade that would prevent European countries under French influence, as well as those allied with France, from
trading with Britain.

Berlin Decree aimed to economically isolate Britain and weaken its economy by forbidding European
countries under French influence from trading with Britain.
All British goods, as well as goods from countries trading with Britain, were prohibited from entering French-
controlled territories or those of Napoleon's allies.
Milan Decree, also known as the Continental System Decree, prohibited any country or neutral vessel
from trading with Britain or its colonies.
• The decree declared that any ship (even neutral ships like of America) that had stopped in Britain or
been searched by the British Navy would be subject to seizure and confiscation when entering French-
controlled ports or those of Napoleon's allies.
• The Milan Decree intensified the blockade and added further restrictions, attempting to strengthen
the economic pressure on Britain and make the Continental System more effective. However, similar
to the Berlin Decree, the Milan Decree faced difficulties in enforcement, and smuggling and black-
market trading continued to undermine the blockade's impact. It also strained France’s relations with
America and other neutral states.

Map Depicting Countries Influenced

18 Under Continental System

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The Failure of Continental System

The implementation of the Continental System had significant economic consequences for European
countries. While some states complied with the blockade, others resorted to smuggling and continued to trade with
Britain, undermining the effectiveness of the policy. Additionally, the blockade led to economic hardships for
European merchants and industries that relied on British trade, causing widespread discontent in some regions.

The stance of countries like Spain and Portugal was also significant for the continental system due to their
strategic locations and their notable trade ties with the Britain. However, Portugal’s non-compliance with the
continental system triggered Napoleon to invade Portugal while forming a secret alliance with Spain for a safe passage
in return for division of Portugal; known as “The Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 1807)”. However, the treaty was
short-lived because reportedly Napoleon’s intentions were to deceive the King of Spain. This led to an all-out
Peninsular War for France against the coalition of Spain and Portugal. The major mishap for Napoleon was that the
Britain carried out full support of Portugal and it greatly undermined the continental system. This can be viewed as
a Diplomatic Failure on Napoleon’s part to omit the possibility of Britain’s intervention in his obsession.

Enforcing the Continental System also presented considerable challenges for Napoleon. The British
responded with their own countermeasures, such as the Orders in Council, which restricted neutral nations from
trading with France and its allies. This led to tensions and conflicts with neutral powers like the United States,
culminating in the War of 1812 between the United States and Britain. Moreover, the Continental System strained
relations with countries like Russia, whose rulers became increasingly resentful of Napoleon's dominance and
economic pressure. This tension ultimately led to the disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, which marked the
beginning of Napoleon's decline.

The Napoleonic Era saw Napoleon Bonaparte's successful military campaigns and conquests expand the
French Empire across Europe. The establishment of the Continental System and the implementation of the blockade
against Britain were part of Napoleon's efforts to weaken his primary rival. However, the economic warfare had mixed
results, leading to economic hardships for European countries and causing challenges in enforcement. The Napoleonic
Empire and the Continental System had profound effects on the European continent, reshaping political and economic
dynamics and setting the stage for the eventual downfall of Napoleon's empire.

Challenges and Defeats – Fall of Napoleon

• Resistance from European Nations
o The response of European countries to the Continental System.
o The persistence of smuggling and illicit trade.
• Russian Campaign and Retreat from Moscow
o The reasons for the invasion of Russia and its consequences.
o The disastrous retreat and its impact on Napoleon's power.
• The Sixth Coalition and Napoleon's Exile
o The formation of the Sixth Coalition against France.
o Napoleon's first abdication and exile to Elba

Challenges The Hundred Days and the Battle of Waterloo

• Napoleon's Return from Exile
o The circumstances and events of the Hundred Days.

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o Napoleon's brief return to power.

• The Final Defeat at Waterloo
o The Battle of Waterloo and its significance.
o Napoleon's second abdication and exile to St. Helena.

Napoleon Bonaparte faced numerous challenges and defeats that ultimately led to his downfall. One of the
significant obstacles was the resistance from European nations to the Continental System, Napoleon's economic
blockade against Britain. Despite his efforts to enforce the blockade, many European countries were reluctant to
adhere fully, as the policy brought economic hardships and disrupted their trade with Britain. Smuggling and illicit
trade continued to thrive, undermining the effectiveness of the Continental System and limiting its impact on Britain's
economy.

The invasion of Russia in 1812 was a critical turning point in Napoleon's downfall. The reasons for the invasion
were complex, but key factors included Russia's withdrawal from the Continental System and Napoleon's desire to
punish and assert control over the vast Russian Empire. The Russian Campaign was marked by a massive French
invasion force, but as they advanced deeper into Russia, the harsh Russian winter and the scorched-earth tactic
employed by the Russians severely weakened Napoleon's forces. The disastrous retreat from Moscow in the winter
of 1812 resulted in heavy losses of soldiers due to freezing temperatures, food shortages, and relentless attacks by
the pursuing Russian army. This defeat significantly diminished Napoleon's military power and eroded the perception
of his invincibility.

The Russian Campaign also sparked the formation of the Sixth Coalition against France, as many European
nations saw an opportunity to resist Napoleon's expansionist ambitions and perceived vulnerability after the Russian
defeat. The coalition included major European powers such as Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden, who were
united in their determination to bring an end to Napoleon's dominance. The combined strength of the Sixth Coalition
proved formidable, and they decisively defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, also known as the "Battle
of Nations."

Following the defeat at Leipzig, Napoleon was forced to abdicate the throne in 1814 under The Treaty of
Fontainebleau (1814) and was exiled to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean. This marked the end of his reign as
Emperor of the French and the restoration of the Bourbon Monarchy in France. However, Napoleon's exile to Elba
was not the end of his story. He managed to escape in February 1815 and made his way back to France, where he was
welcomed by supporters and the military who remained loyal to him. The Hundred Days began with Napoleon's
triumphant return to Paris and the rapid reestablishment of his rule. Despite his initial popularity, his return was met
with resistance from the European powers who had previously defeated him. They quickly formed a new coalition
against him, fearing the threat he posed to the balance of power in Europe.

The culmination of the Hundred Days was the Battle of Waterloo, fought on June 18, 1815, in present-day
Belgium. This battle marked the final defeat of Napoleon and the end of his rule. The opposing forces consisted of the
Seventh Coalition, led by the Duke of Wellington representing Britain and General Blücher leading the Prussian forces.
Napoleon's army, though still formidable, was not as well-equipped and faced challenges in terms of morale and
supplies. The battle was fiercely fought, with both sides experiencing heavy casualties.

The turning point came when the Prussian army arrived to reinforce the British forces, resulting in a combined
assault that overwhelmed Napoleon's troops. The defeat at Waterloo was decisive, and it signaled the end of
Napoleon's ambition for a comeback and his attempt to regain power in France. Following this crushing loss, Napoleon

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was once again forced to abdicate, and he was subsequently exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South
Atlantic, where he would spend the remaining years of his life in captivity.

The Hundred Days and the Battle of Waterloo were significant events that shaped the course of European
history. They demonstrated Napoleon's enduring appeal and the impact he could still have on France and Europe,
even after his initial defeat and exile. The Battle of Waterloo, in particular, became a symbol of the final defeat of
Napoleon and the end of the Napoleonic Era. Waterloo solidified the European powers' determination to
prevent another rise of French dominance and to maintain the balance of power on the continent. After the
devastating loss at Waterloo, Napoleon was once again forced to abdicate, and he faced a second exile, this
time to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic. The British government chose Saint Helena
as his place of exile to ensure his captivity and prevent any further attempts at escape. It also solidified the
position of the European powers in restoring monarchies and preserving the balance of power in the post-Napoleonic
era, known as the Concert of Europe.

In conclusion, the Napoleonic Era was characterized by significant challenges and defeats that led to
Napoleon's fall from power. Resistance from European nations to the Continental System weakened Napoleon's
position and fueled smuggling and illicit trade. The disastrous Russian Campaign and the subsequent defeat of the
Sixth Coalition further eroded Napoleon's military strength and united Europe against him. His abdication and exile
first to Elba and then to Saint Helena marked the end of an era that had profoundly shaped European history. Waterloo
marked the conclusion of a tumultuous and transformative period in European history, setting the stage for a more
stable yet politically complex future.

The concert of Europe (1815-1830)

The Concert of Europe, a diplomatic framework established in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, aimed
to maintain peace and stability in Europe through collective decision-making and cooperation among major powers.
This comprehensive study explores the origins, principles, operation, achievements, limitations, decline, and legacy
of the Concert of Europe.

Background
Post-Napoleonic Europe
• The upheaval caused by the Napoleonic Wars left Europe in a state of political and territorial flux.
• The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) aimed to redraw borders and restore stability, but concerns about future
conflicts remained.
Need for Stability and Balance
• European powers recognized the need to prevent further large-scale conflicts and maintain a balance of
power.
• The idea of a collective security mechanism emerged as a means to address crises and maintain peace.

Emergence and Principles of the Concert of Europe

Vienna Congress (1814-1815)

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• Representatives of major European powers convened to redraw the map of Europe and establish a new
international order.
• Concert of Europe principles included territorial integrity, legitimacy of rulers, and cooperation among
powers.
Key Players and Their Objectives
• Major powers such as Austria, Russia, Britain, and Prussia played central roles in shaping the Concert's
decisions.
• The objectives included preventing aggression, resolving disputes, and containing revolutionary movements.
Principles of Collective Security
• Concert diplomacy emphasized regular meetings and consultations among powers to address common
concerns.
• A framework of cooperation and intervention was established to address potential conflicts.

Operation and Diplomacy of the Concert

Early Meetings and Cooperation
• Concert meetings, such as the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) and Troppau (1820), aimed to manage
post-Napoleonic challenges.
• Powers collaborated to suppress revolutions and ensure stability, as seen in interventions in Spain and Italy.
Management of Crises and Conflicts
• The Concert responded to crises like the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829) and the Belgian Revolution
(1830).
• Powers sought to avoid major conflicts by finding diplomatic solutions and balancing competing interests.

Achievements and Limitations

Preservation of Peace
• The Concert contributed to a relatively peaceful period in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.
• By promoting dialogue and cooperation, it reduced the likelihood of large-scale conflicts.
Suppression of Revolutions
• Concert powers intervened to suppress revolutionary movements that threatened existing monarchies.
• This approach aimed to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideals and maintain political stability.
Impact on Colonial Empires
• The Concert's focus on European affairs limited its influence on colonial matters.
• Colonial powers, while cooperating in Europe, pursued individual imperial objectives abroad.
Challenges and Criticisms
• The Concert's decisions were often guided by the interests of major powers, potentially neglecting smaller
states.
• The rise of nationalism and the spread of ideologies posed challenges that the Concert struggled to address.

Decline and Transformation

Unrest and Nationalism
• Growing nationalist movements challenged the Concert's ability to control internal conflicts.
• The Revolutions of 1848 exposed the limitations of the Concert's ability to suppress widespread uprisings.
The Crimean War (1853-1856)

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• The Crimean War highlighted the weakening influence of the Concert as powers pursued divergent interests.
• The war marked a turning point in European diplomacy and contributed to the decline of the Concert.
Evolution into New Diplomatic Frameworks
• The decline of the Concert paved the way for new diplomatic arrangements and alliances, including the rise
of nationalism and power politics.

Legacy and Significance

Precedent for International Cooperation
• The Concert of Europe set a precedent for international cooperation and diplomacy.
• Its mechanisms of consultation and intervention contributed to the development of modern diplomatic
practices.

Lessons for Modern Diplomacy

• The Concert's achievements and failures offer lessons for addressing contemporary international challenges.
• Its emphasis on cooperation, dialogue, and collective security remains relevant in the study of diplomacy.

The Napoleonic Wars of the early 19th century had ravaged Europe, leaving behind a continent scarred by political
upheaval, territorial disputes, and social turmoil. The fall of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814 marked a pivotal moment in
European history, as leaders of the major powers convened at the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) to address the
complex task of reestablishing order and stability. However, the Congress' efforts to redraw borders and restore
monarchies were not without their challenges, leading to the emergence of a collective security mechanism
known as the Concert of Europe.

The Congress of Vienna: A Quest for Stability

The Congress of Vienna, guided by the principles of legitimacy and the balance of power, sought to achieve
a delicate equilibrium in a post-Napoleonic Europe. Diplomats and statesmen, including figures like Klemens von
Metternich of Austria and Lord Castlereagh of Britain, deliberated on the reorganization of territories and the
reinstatement of legitimate rulers. The aim was to prevent any single power from becoming excessively dominant and
thereby reduce the likelihood of future conflicts. The treaties and agreements forged during this congress aimed to
establish a new order that could safeguard against the resurgence of revolutionary fervor and unchecked
expansionism.

The Need for Stability and Balance: Collective Security and the Concert of Europe
While the Congress of Vienna set the stage for a more stable Europe, concerns persisted about the longevity
of the established order and the potential for new conflicts. European powers recognized that a mechanism was
needed to address crises and disputes without resorting to all-out war. This recognition gave rise to the concept of a
collective security mechanism, which eventually culminated in the formation of the Concert of Europe.

The Emergence of the Concert of Europe

The Concert of Europe, often referred to as the Congress System, represented a diplomatic framework
through which major European powers aimed to safeguard peace and stability. It was not a formal institution with
a fixed structure, but rather an informal arrangement characterized by regular consultations and negotiations among
the great powers. The major players involved included Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and, to a certain extent, France.

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The Concert in Action: Addressing Crises and Preventing Conflict

One of the notable achievements of the Concert of Europe was its role in managing and resolving various
crises that emerged in the years following the Congress of Vienna. For example, during the Greek War of
Independence (1821-1829), the Concert played a role in mediating conflicts and influencing the eventual outcome.
Similarly, the Belgian Revolution of 1830 and the subsequent creation of an independent Belgium were managed
through diplomatic negotiations within the framework of the Concert.
Limitations and Decline of the Concert
While the Concert of Europe demonstrated its effectiveness in preventing major conflicts and maintaining
stability during its early years, it faced limitations and challenges. The interests and priorities of the major powers
sometimes diverged, leading to disagreements and inaction. The advent of new ideologies such as nationalism and
the spread of revolutionary fervor in various parts of Europe strained the unity of the Concert. The 1848 Revolutions,
for instance, showcased the difficulties in maintaining a collective approach in the face of rapidly changing domestic
and international dynamics.
Legacy and Significance
The Concert of Europe represented a pioneering effort to establish a collective security mechanism in the
aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars. While its influence waned over time and it could not prevent all conflicts, the
Concert contributed significantly to maintaining relative peace and stability during a critical period in European
history. Its emphasis on diplomacy, negotiation, and the balance of power set important precedents for international
relations and laid the groundwork for later efforts to prevent global conflicts.

Emergence and Principles of the Concert of Europe

Vienna Congress (1814-1815)
• Representatives of major European powers convened to redraw the map of Europe and establish a new
international order.
• Concert of Europe principles included territorial integrity, legitimacy of rulers, and cooperation among
powers.
Key Players and Their Objectives
• Major powers such as Austria, Russia, Britain, and Prussia played central roles in shaping the Concert's
decisions.
• The objectives included preventing aggression, resolving disputes, and containing revolutionary movements.
Principles of Collective Security
• Concert diplomacy emphasized regular meetings and consultations among powers to address common
concerns.
• A framework of cooperation and intervention was established to address potential conflicts.

Emergence and Principles of the Concert of Europe

Vienna Congress (1814-1815): A New International Order
The Vienna Congress, a monumental gathering of representatives from major European powers, marked a crucial
turning point in the history of post-Napoleonic Europe. In the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, the Congress sought
to reconfigure the continent's political landscape and establish a foundation for lasting stability. Diplomats and
statesmen converged in Vienna to redress the disruptions caused by years of conflict, upheaval, and territorial shifts.

Concert of Europe Principles: Toward a Balanced Order

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The principles that underpinned the Concert of Europe were crafted during the Vienna Congress and provided the
framework for cooperation and diplomacy among the continent's major powers. Central to these principles were the
concepts of territorial integrity, the legitimacy of rulers, and the recognition of the established balance of power. By
endorsing the legitimacy of monarchs and their territorial possessions, the Concert aimed to prevent aggressive
expansion and reduce the potential for further conflicts.

Key Players and Their Objectives

Major Powers and Central Roles

The Concert of Europe was shaped by the collective efforts of key players that held significant sway in European
politics. Austria, Russia, Britain, and Prussia emerged as the major powers central to the Concert's decision-making
processes. These nations, each with their own geopolitical interests, wielded their influence to uphold the principles
of territorial integrity and balance of power.

Objectives: Preventing Aggression and Resolving Disputes

The major powers' objectives within the Concert of Europe were closely aligned with the principles established during
the Vienna Congress. Their primary goal was to prevent aggressive actions and contain any potential resurgence of
military conquest or expansionism. Furthermore, the Concert aimed to provide a platform for the peaceful resolution
of disputes and conflicts among nations, thereby reducing the risk of large-scale warfare.

Principles of Collective Security

Diplomacy and Cooperation: Regular Meetings and Consultations

At the heart of the Concert of Europe lay the principles of collective security and diplomatic engagement. The Concert
emphasized the necessity of regular meetings and consultations among the major powers to address shared concerns
and challenges. This ongoing dialogue allowed for the exchange of information, the identification of potential sources
of instability, and the formulation of collaborative strategies to maintain order.

Framework of Cooperation and Intervention

The Concert of Europe established a structured framework of cooperation and intervention to address potential
conflicts and crises. This framework was designed to enable the major powers to intervene diplomatically, or even
militarily, if necessary, to maintain the established balance of power and prevent any single nation from becoming too
dominant. By intervening collectively, the Concert aimed to curtail the outbreak of conflicts that could disrupt the
newfound stability and trigger widespread hostilities.

Operation and Diplomacy of the Concert

Early Meetings and Cooperation

• Concert meetings, such as the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) and Troppau (1820), aimed to manage
post-Napoleonic challenges.
• Powers collaborated to suppress revolutions and ensure stability, as seen in interventions in Spain and Italy.
Management of Crises and Conflicts

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• The Concert responded to crises like the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829) and the Belgian Revolution
(1830).
• Powers sought to avoid major conflicts by finding diplomatic solutions and balancing competing interests.
The Concert of Europe: Operation and Diplomacy

Early Meetings and Cooperation

Concert Meetings: Aix-la-Chapelle and Troppau

The Concert of Europe came to life through a series of meetings that aimed to address the complex challenges facing
post-Napoleonic Europe. Two notable early gatherings were the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) and Troppau
(1820). These conferences provided platforms for the major powers to engage in diplomatic discussions and
collaborative decision-making.

Managing Post-Napoleonic Challenges

The Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle and Troppau were instrumental in managing the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars.
The powers recognized the need to uphold the principles of territorial integrity and legitimate rulers established
during the Vienna Congress. These meetings facilitated dialogue on various issues, including the stabilization of
borders, the restoration of monarchies, and the prevention of further revolutions.

Suppression of Revolutions and Ensuring Stability

A core objective of the Concert was to suppress revolutionary movements and maintain stability across Europe. This
goal led to joint interventions in regions experiencing upheaval. Notably, the Concert powers collaborated to quell
revolutions in Spain (1820) and Italy (1821), aiming to protect established monarchies and prevent the spread of
revolutionary fervor.

Management of Crises and Conflicts

Responding to Crises: Greek War of Independence and Belgian Revolution

The Concert of Europe's diplomatic machinery was put to the test when faced with crises such as the Greek War of
Independence (1821-1829) and the Belgian Revolution (1830). These events presented challenges to the established
order and triggered debates among the major powers regarding the appropriate course of action.

Diplomatic Solutions and Balancing Competing Interests

Rather than resorting to immediate military action, the Concert powers demonstrated a commitment to finding
diplomatic solutions to crises. In the case of the Greek War of Independence, the Concert facilitated negotiations to
address the conflict and maintain stability. Similarly, during the Belgian Revolution, the major powers engaged in
discussions to manage the situation and prevent the escalation of violence.

Balancing Competing Interests to Avoid Major Conflicts

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A hallmark of the Concert's diplomacy was the ability to balance competing interests and prevent major conflicts. The
major powers recognized that an outright military confrontation could undermine the stability they sought to
maintain. By engaging in diplomatic negotiations and seeking compromises, the Concert aimed to de-escalate tensions
and ensure that conflicts were managed without disrupting the broader European order.

Conclusion: The Concert's Diplomatic Legacy

The Concert of Europe demonstrated the power of diplomatic cooperation and collective security in managing post-
Napoleonic challenges. Through regular meetings and joint interventions, the major powers worked to uphold the
principles of territorial integrity, legitimate rulers, and stability. While not without limitations and occasional
disagreements, the Concert's emphasis on diplomacy and negotiation laid the groundwork for future diplomatic
initiatives and contributed to a prolonged period of relative peace in Europe.

Achievements and Limitations

Preservation of Peace
• The Concert contributed to a relatively peaceful period in Europe after the Napoleonic Wars.
• By promoting dialogue and cooperation, it reduced the likelihood of large-scale conflicts.
Suppression of Revolutions
• Concert powers intervened to suppress revolutionary movements that threatened existing monarchies.
• This approach aimed to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideals and maintain political stability.
Impact on Colonial Empires
• The Concert's focus on European affairs limited its influence on colonial matters.
• Colonial powers, while cooperating in Europe, pursued individual imperial objectives abroad.
Challenges and Criticisms
• The Concert's decisions were often guided by the interests of major powers, potentially neglecting smaller
states.
• The rise of nationalism and the spread of ideologies posed challenges that the Concert struggled to address.

The Concert of Europe: Achievements and Limitations

Preservation of Peace

Contributing to Relative Peace

The Concert of Europe played a significant role in fostering a relatively peaceful period in Europe following
the tumultuous Napoleonic Wars. By establishing a framework of diplomatic cooperation and collective security, the
Concert helped to reduce the likelihood of large-scale conflicts that had characterized earlier decades. Regular
consultations and discussions among the major powers provided a platform for addressing grievances, resolving
disputes, and maintaining a fragile equilibrium.

Suppression of Revolutions

Preserving Stability Through Intervention

One of the notable achievements of the Concert was its success in suppressing revolutionary movements that
posed a threat to existing monarchies. The Concert powers collaborated to intervene in regions experiencing
revolutions, such as Spain and Italy, with the goal of quelling uprisings and maintaining political order. This approach

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aimed to prevent the dissemination of revolutionary ideals that could destabilize the established social and political
structures.

Impact on Colonial Empires

Limited Influence on Colonial Matters

While the Concert of Europe proved effective in addressing European affairs, its influence on colonial matters
was relatively limited. The major powers focused primarily on maintaining stability within Europe itself, and as a result,
their collaborative efforts did not extend significantly to their respective colonial empires. Colonial powers continued
to pursue their individual imperial objectives abroad, often independent of the diplomatic mechanisms established by
the Concert.

Challenges and Criticisms

Major Power Dominance and Neglect of Smaller States

One of the criticisms leveled against the Concert of Europe was its tendency to prioritize the interests of major
powers, potentially neglecting the concerns of smaller states. Decisions made within the framework of the Concert
were often influenced by the strategic and geopolitical considerations of the major players, leaving smaller nations
with limited influence in shaping the diplomatic agenda.

Struggles in the Face of Changing Dynamics

The Concert faced challenges in addressing the changing dynamics of 19th-century Europe. The rise of
nationalism and the spread of ideological movements, such as liberalism and socialism, posed new challenges that the
Concert struggled to effectively address. The principles and mechanisms that had served the Concert well in
maintaining stability faced difficulties when confronted with the growing influence of national aspirations and the
demands of increasingly diverse populations.
Concert of Europe left a complex legacy in European history. While it succeeded in preserving a degree of
peace and stability during its active years, it also faced limitations and criticisms. Its achievements in preventing major
conflicts and suppressing revolutions were balanced by its inability to address the rising tide of nationalism and
ideological fervor. The Concert's diplomatic efforts laid the groundwork for future international cooperation and set
a precedent for addressing common challenges through collective action.

Decline and Transformation

Unrest and Nationalism

• Growing nationalist movements challenged the Concert's ability to control internal conflicts.
• The Revolutions of 1848 exposed the limitations of the Concert's ability to suppress widespread uprisings.
The Crimean War (1853-1856)
• The Crimean War highlighted the weakening influence of the Concert as powers pursued divergent interests.
• The war marked a turning point in European diplomacy and contributed to the decline of the Concert.
Evolution into New Diplomatic Frameworks
• The decline of the Concert paved the way for new diplomatic arrangements and alliances, including the rise
of nationalism and power politics.

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Unrest and Nationalism

Challenges from Growing Nationalism

The Concert of Europe faced a formidable challenge from the rise of nationalist movements sweeping across
the continent. These burgeoning nationalist sentiments were driven by aspirations for self-determination, cultural
identity, and political autonomy. The Concert's established principles of territorial integrity and legitimacy clashed
with the demands of these nationalist movements, which sought to reshape the political landscape of various states.

The Revolutions of 1848: Limits of Control

The Revolutions of 1848 exposed the inherent limitations of the Concert's ability to suppress and manage
widespread uprisings. The revolutionary wave, characterized by demands for constitutional reforms, civil liberties, and
social equality, showcased the Concert's inability to effectively intervene in the face of popular unrest. As the major
powers struggled to address the revolutionary upheavals, it became evident that the Concert's mechanisms were ill-
equipped to address the evolving socio-political dynamics.

The Crimean War (1853-1856)

Weakening Influence and Divergent Interests
The Crimean War marked a poignant demonstration of the Concert's declining influence as major powers
pursued divergent interests. The war, triggered by conflicts in the Balkans and the crumbling Ottoman Empire,
highlighted the fragmentation of the Concert's unity. Powers like Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire formed an
alliance against Russia, showcasing how individual state objectives increasingly superseded collective diplomatic
efforts.

Turning Point in European Diplomacy

The Crimean War served as a watershed moment that heralded a new era in European diplomacy. It signaled
the transition from the Concert's cooperative approach to a more pragmatic and power-driven diplomatic landscape.
The war underscored the notion that national interests, alliances, and strategic considerations were shaping
international relations, superseding the Concert's once-prominent role in maintaining peace and stability.

Evolution into New Diplomatic Frameworks

Decline Paving the Way for New Arrangements
The decline of the Concert of Europe set the stage for the emergence of new diplomatic frameworks and
alliances. The emphasis shifted from a collective security mechanism to a system driven by the interests of individual
powers. The rise of nationalism and the growing pursuit of power politics reshaped the landscape, leading to the
formation of new alliances based on shared strategic objectives and priorities.

Legacy and Significance

Precedent for International Cooperation

• The Concert of Europe set a precedent for international cooperation and diplomacy.
• Its mechanisms of consultation and intervention contributed to the development of modern diplomatic
practices.

Lessons for Modern Diplomacy

• The Concert's achievements and failures offer lessons for addressing contemporary international challenges.

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• Its emphasis on cooperation, dialogue, and collective security remains relevant in the study of diplomacy.

Precedent for International Cooperation

Establishing a Model of International Cooperation
The Concert of Europe left an enduring legacy as it established a model of international cooperation and
diplomacy among major European powers. The mechanisms and principles devised during the Concert laid the
foundation for future diplomatic endeavors, demonstrating the potential of collaborative efforts to maintain peace
and stability. The Concert's regular consultations and joint interventions offered a template for nations to address
common challenges through dialogue and collective action.

Contributions to Modern Diplomatic Practices

The Concert of Europe significantly contributed to the development of modern diplomatic practices. The
emphasis on diplomatic dialogue, negotiations, and consensus-building became integral to the conduct of
international relations. The Concert's interventions, although imperfect, demonstrated the value of diplomatic
engagement in preventing conflicts and managing crises, influencing the evolution of diplomatic norms and protocols
in the years that followed.

Lessons for Modern Diplomacy

Relevance of Achievements and Failures
The achievements and failures of the Concert of Europe offer valuable lessons for addressing contemporary
international challenges. Its successes in preventing large-scale conflicts and managing crises highlight the importance
of international cooperation and collective security in addressing global issues. Equally important are the failures and
limitations the Concert faced, serving as cautionary tales about the complexities of navigating diverse interests and
the changing dynamics of the international arena.

Emphasis on Cooperation, Dialogue, and Collective Security

The Concert's emphasis on cooperation, dialogue, and collective security remains relevant and instructive in
the study of modern diplomacy. In a world where conflicts and crises continue to arise, the Concert's principles of
regular consultations, joint decision-making, and diplomatic solutions provide a framework for addressing pressing
issues without resorting to armed conflict. The Concert's legacy underscores the value of sustained diplomatic
engagement and multilateral efforts in maintaining peace and stability.

Conclusion: A Lasting Impact

The Concert of Europe's legacy endures as a testament to the possibilities of international cooperation and
diplomacy. Its establishment of diplomatic mechanisms and its contributions to the evolution of modern diplomatic
practices have left an indelible mark on the field of international relations. While the Concert faced challenges and
ultimately underwent transformation, its principles and lessons continue to inform diplomatic strategies and efforts
aimed at promoting global peace and cooperation.

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Review
The Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna: Redrawing the Map of Europe and Establishing a New Order
Introduction: Post-Napoleonic Europe and the Need for Stability
The Congress of Vienna, held from 1814 to 1815, stands as a pivotal moment in European history. It was
convened in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, a period of upheaval and transformation that left Europe in a state
of political and territorial flux. The Congress aimed to restore stability and reshape the continent, while addressing
the complex challenges posed by the aftermath of Napoleon's rule.

Foundations and Objectives of the Congress

Redrawing Borders and Restoring Legitimacy
One of the primary objectives of the Congress of Vienna was to redraw the map of Europe and restore
legitimacy to the thrones that had been affected by the Napoleonic upheaval. Representatives from major European
powers, including Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia, and France, gathered to negotiate the territorial changes
necessitated by the collapse of the Napoleonic Empire. The Congress sought to establish a new order based on the
principles of legitimacy, territorial integrity, and a balance of power.

Balancing Power and Preventing Future Conflicts

A central theme of the Congress was the concept of the balance of power. The major powers aimed to prevent
any one nation from becoming excessively dominant, thus reducing the potential for future conflicts. The balance of

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power principle was intended to create a stable equilibrium that would prevent a single power from upsetting the
fragile peace that was being established.

Key Agreements and Outcomes

Territorial Adjustments and Compensation
The Congress of Vienna resulted in significant territorial adjustments across Europe. Territories that had been
conquered by Napoleon were returned to their original rulers, and compensation was provided to those who had lost
territory. For instance, Prussia gained new territories in western Germany, while Austria expanded its influence in
Italy. The goal was to create a more cohesive and balanced European political landscape.

The German Confederation and the Concert of Europe

The Congress led to the establishment of the German Confederation, a loose association of German states
that aimed to provide a degree of political unity while maintaining individual sovereignty. Additionally, the Congress
laid the groundwork for the Concert of Europe, an informal mechanism for major powers to consult and collaborate
on matters of mutual interest, with the goal of preventing future conflicts and maintaining stability.

Legacy and Impact of the Congress

Stability and Longevity
The Congress of Vienna succeeded in its immediate objective of restoring stability to Europe. The principles
of legitimacy and the balance of power, enshrined in the agreements and treaties of the Congress, contributed to a
prolonged period of relative peace in Europe. The diplomatic framework established during the Congress set
important precedents for international relations and shaped the practice of diplomacy in the 19th century.

Challenges and Criticisms

While the Congress of Vienna achieved a measure of stability, it also faced challenges and criticisms. The
balance of power, while effective in preventing major conflicts, did not address the rising tide of nationalism and
ideological movements that would emerge in the following decades. Additionally, smaller states often felt
marginalized in the decision-making processes dominated by the major powers.

Conclusion: A New Order for a Post-Napoleonic Europe

The Congress of Vienna was a monumental event that shaped the course of European history in the 19th
century. It redrew borders, established principles of legitimacy and balance of power, and laid the foundation for a
diplomatic framework that aimed to prevent further large-scale conflicts. While the Congress was not without its
limitations, its legacy endured as a testament to the capacity of diplomacy to shape the destiny of nations and ensure
a measure of stability in a rapidly changing world.

The Metternich’s Era

The Metternich Era and Its Impact on the Concert of Europe

Introduction: The Metternich Era and the Concert of Europe
The Metternich Era, spanning from the Congress of Vienna in 1814 to the outbreak of the Revolutions of 1848,
was characterized by the dominance of Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich and his influential role in shaping
European politics. This period closely aligned with the Concert of Europe, a diplomatic framework established to
maintain stability and prevent conflicts in post-Napoleonic Europe. Metternich's ideas and policies significantly
influenced the functioning and evolution of the Concert.

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Metternich's Principles and Diplomacy

Metternich's Conservative Vision
Klemens von Metternich was a staunch conservative who believed in maintaining the traditional monarchical
order and suppressing revolutionary ideals that had emerged during the Napoleonic era. His vision for Europe
emphasized the importance of stability, legitimacy, and hierarchical authority, all of which aligned with the principles
of the Concert of Europe. Metternich's influence extended beyond Austria, as he played a central role in shaping the
policies of other major powers involved in the Concert.

Balance of Power and Containment of Revolutions

Metternich's diplomatic strategy revolved around the preservation of the balance of power and the
containment of revolutionary movements. He advocated for a cooperative approach among the major powers to
prevent any single state from becoming too dominant. Metternich also actively sought to suppress revolutionary
uprisings, as demonstrated by his involvement in efforts to quell the Italian and German revolutions of the 1820s and
1830s. These efforts were in line with the Concert's goal of preventing internal conflicts that could disrupt the
European order.

Metternich's Influence on the Concert of Europe

Key Player and Spokesperson
Metternich's prominence within the Concert of Europe cannot be overstated. As the chief architect of
Austria's foreign policy and a dominant figure in European diplomacy, Metternich often represented the Concert's
collective interests in negotiations and conferences. His skillful diplomacy and ability to forge alliances among the
major powers played a crucial role in maintaining the Concert's cohesion during its early years.

Role in Crisis Management

Metternich's influence was particularly evident in crisis management within the Concert. He actively
participated in addressing various challenges and conflicts that arose, using diplomatic channels to find solutions and
prevent escalations. His involvement in the Eastern Question, which centered on the decline of the Ottoman Empire
and potential power shifts in the Balkans, showcased his dedication to upholding the Concert's principles and
preventing disruptions to the European balance of power.

Challenges and Transformations

Nationalism and Unrest
Despite Metternich's efforts to maintain stability, the Metternich Era faced growing challenges from
nationalist movements and internal unrest. The rise of nationalism in various regions, as well as the outbreak of the
Revolutions of 1848, strained the Concert's ability to control and suppress internal conflicts. These developments
revealed the limitations of Metternich's conservative vision and raised questions about the Concert's long-term
viability.

The Decline of the Metternich Era and the Concert

The decline of the Metternich Era was marked by the outbreak of widespread revolutions in 1848. The
Concert's mechanisms and Metternich's conservative policies could no longer contain the pressures for political
change and national aspirations that had been building over decades. The Revolutions of 1848 signaled a turning point,
leading to the erosion of the Concert's influence and the eventual transition to new diplomatic arrangements and
power dynamics in Europe.
Conclusion: Metternich's Legacy and the Evolution of the Concert
The Metternich Era left a complex legacy within the context of the Concert of Europe. Metternich's influence
on the Concert's principles and functioning was profound, as his conservative vision aligned with the Concert's goals
of maintaining stability and the balance of power. However, the challenges posed by nationalism and the Revolutions

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of 1848 revealed the limitations of both Metternich's approach and the Concert's ability to address the changing
political landscape. The Metternich Era serves as a reflection of the tensions between conservatism and the forces of
change in 19th-century Europe, contributing to the ongoing evolution of diplomatic practices and power dynamics.

The Concert of Europe and Congress System

The Concert of Europe and the Congress System: Forging Stability in a Post-Napoleonic Era
Context and Necessity
The Concert of Europe and the Congress System emerged as crucial mechanisms to address the challenges of
a Europe reeling from the upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars. Following the fall of Napoleon, the continent faced a
complex task of restoring stability, redrawing borders, and preventing future conflicts. The Concert of Europe and the
Congress System were innovative diplomatic approaches that aimed to achieve these goals through cooperation and
collective security.
The Congress System: Foundations and Mechanisms

Establishment of a Diplomatic Framework

The Congress System was initiated with the convening of major European powers in a series of international
congresses, most notably the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815). These congresses provided a platform for negotiations
and discussions among the key players of Europe. The Congress System was characterized by its regular gatherings,
where representatives from major powers deliberated on a range of issues, including territorial adjustments, border
disputes, and the preservation of the European balance of power.

Principles of the Congress System

The Congress System was built on several key principles, many of which aligned with the goals of the Concert
of Europe. These principles included territorial integrity, the legitimacy of rulers, and the maintenance of a balance of
power. The system aimed to prevent any single power from gaining dominance and thereby reducing the likelihood
of future conflicts. The Congress System emphasized diplomacy, dialogue, and negotiation as the means to address
crises and ensure stability.

The Concert of Europe: Collective Security and Cooperation

Emergence and Objectives of the Concert
The Concert of Europe was an informal alliance of major powers, including Austria, Russia, Britain, and Prussia,
who aimed to collaborate in maintaining the post-Napoleonic order. The Concert built upon the foundation of the
Congress System and aimed to ensure peace and stability through collective security mechanisms. The Concert
emphasized the importance of regular meetings, consultations, and joint interventions to address common concerns
and prevent internal upheavals.
Collective Security and Diplomatic Cooperation
The Concert of Europe marked a departure from traditional power politics by promoting the concept of
collective security. Powers within the Concert pledged to consult and collaborate when faced with crises or potential
conflicts. Interventions, such as the joint suppression of revolutionary movements in Spain and Italy, demonstrated
the Concert's commitment to preserving the established monarchical order and preventing the spread of
revolutionary ideals.

Legacy and Assessments

Achievements and Limitations
The Concert of Europe and the Congress System left a lasting impact on European diplomacy. Their
achievements included the restoration of stability, the prevention of major conflicts, and the establishment of a

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framework for international cooperation. The Concert's principles influenced the evolution of modern diplomatic
practices and laid the groundwork for future international organizations.

Challenges and Transformations

However, the Concert of Europe and the Congress System also faced challenges and limitations. The rise of
nationalism, the Revolutions of 1848, and the changing power dynamics in Europe exposed the constraints of the
Concert's mechanisms. The system struggled to effectively address the growing demands for political change and the
aspirations of diverse national and ideological movements.
Conclusion: A Historical Precursor
The Concert of Europe and the Congress System stand as innovative responses to the complex challenges posed by a
post-Napoleonic Europe. They represent early attempts at international cooperation, collective security, and
diplomatic negotiations. While the Concert's influence waned over time and the Congress System faced limitations,
their legacy endures as a historical precursor to later efforts at maintaining peace, stability, and cooperation on the
international stage.

Romanticism
Romanticism: A Cultural and Artistic Movement in 19th Century Europe
Introduction: Defining Romanticism
Romanticism emerged as a significant cultural and artistic movement in 19th century Europe, characterized
by a profound shift in artistic expression, philosophy, and literature. Rooted in a reaction against the rationalism and
scientific focus of the Enlightenment, Romanticism celebrated emotion, nature, individualism, and the power of
imagination. It exerted a transformative influence across various domains, from literature and visual arts to music and
philosophy.

Key Characteristics of Romanticism

Emotion and Individualism
Romanticism rejected the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason and celebrated the power of emotion and
individual experience. Artists and writers sought to evoke intense feelings and often explored themes of passion,
longing, and inner turmoil. The individual, with all its complexities and emotions, became a central focus of artistic
expression.

Nature as a Source of Inspiration

Romanticism was marked by a deep connection to nature, viewing it as a source of inspiration, spiritual
renewal, and solace. Nature's grandeur, beauty, and unpredictability were often depicted in art and literature,
reflecting the Romantics' reverence for the natural world and their desire to connect with the sublime.

Imagination and Escapism

The Romantics celebrated the power of imagination as a means of transcending the constraints of reality.
Artistic works often delved into fantastical realms, dreams, and the supernatural. This emphasis on imagination
allowed for escapism from the mundane and a exploration of the mysterious and otherworldly.

Historical and Cultural Reverie

Romanticism often looked to the past with nostalgia, idealizing medieval and ancient cultures. Historical
themes and settings were frequently employed to convey a sense of timelessness, and many Romantic works explored
themes of heroism, chivalry, and patriotism.

Impact on Literature and the Arts

Literature: The Triumph of Emotion

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In literature, Romanticism produced a rich array of poetry, novels, and essays. Literary giants such as William
Wordsworth, Lord Byron, Mary Shelley, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe embraced Romantic ideals, creating works
that explored the complexities of human emotion, individualism, and the relationship between man and nature.

Visual Arts: The Sublime and the Exotic

In the visual arts, Romantic painters like Caspar David Friedrich and J.M.W. Turner captured the awe-inspiring
beauty of nature and the sublime. Their works often depicted vast landscapes, stormy seas, and dramatic skies,
evoking a sense of wonder and awe. The fascination with the exotic and distant cultures also found expression in art
through vibrant and imaginative depictions.

Music: Emotional Resonance

In music, Romantic composers such as Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
infused their compositions with emotional depth and intensity. The Romantic era witnessed the rise of programmatic
music, where compositions told stories and evoked moods and emotions, reflecting the broader Romantic themes of
individual experience and emotional expression.

Philosophical and Political Implications

Individual Freedom and Expression
Romanticism's emphasis on individualism and emotional expression had philosophical implications. It
challenged traditional societal norms and hierarchical structures, advocating for personal freedom and the pursuit of
one's passions.

Nationalism and Identity

The movement played a significant role in the growth of national identity and pride. Romantic writers often
drew on folklore, myths, and local traditions to highlight the uniqueness of their respective cultures, contributing to
the rise of nationalism and the eventual political upheavals in various European regions.
Conclusion: A Profound Cultural Shift
Romanticism stands as a profound cultural shift that permeated all aspects of European society. It celebrated the inner
world of emotions, the awe-inspiring beauty of nature, and the power of imagination. Its influence on literature, visual
arts, music, and even philosophy contributed to the creation of a new cultural landscape that celebrated the
individual, the emotional, and the mystical.

1. Forces of Continuity and Change in Europe (1815-1848)

• Nationalism
• Liberalism
• Romanticism
• Socialism
• Industrial Revolution
• Colonialism
• Consequences

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1.1) Nationalism:
What is Nationalism?
Nationalism was an ideology used to drive and unite the population to form a unified state where members of a country
shared the same cultural and linguistic background. Different countries adopted this ideology in Europe to fight for their
independence from the imperialism of the German and the Russian Empire. Several factors that led to nationalism in
Europe included the rise of the middle class, the Industrial Revolution, and the spread of the ideas of the Enlightenment.

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

The making of nationalism and its subsequent rise in Europe was encouraged by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic
Wars. “Nationalism requires individuals to identify with their national group’s interests and support the formation of a state
– a nation-state – to promote those interests,” says Leon Baradat, a political science professor in the United States.

Self-determination and newly formed national governments superseded monarchical power and foreign control of the land.
Some nations, such as Germany and Italy, were founded through the union of several regional republics with a shared
“national character.” Like Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Poland, others sprang through revolts against the Ottoman and
Russian empires. Romania is an outlier, having been created in 1859 from the merger of Moldavian and Wallachian
principalities and winning independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878.

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Factors That Led to Nationalism in Europe

There are several factors that led to Nationalism in Europe. Some of them were assisted by the following causes.

• The feudal system was a significant impediment to nationalism.

• The church was influential throughout the Middle Ages, wielding immense control over the globe.
• Many conflicts have also elicited patriotic sentiments from the general populace.
• Foreign rulers often decided to oppress their subjects, contributing to the rise of nationalism.
• Reactions drove the nationalist feeling about injustice and the arbitrary reign of unjust kings.
• Famous poets, politicians, and philosophers like Machiavelli, Mills, Mazzini, and Garibaldi contributed significantly to the
public’s political awareness and national pride.

Introduction to Nationalism by Ernst Renon and

Frédéric Sorrieu
Introduction to Nationalism by Ernst Renon and Frédéric Sorrieu (2011, Manchester University Press) is an exhaustive
survey of the diverse ways that nationalism has been studied and refined over the past two centuries. The book is written in
an engaging style, rich in historical detail and replete with scholarly insight. But the authors’ purpose is not to present a
survey but to define a consensus definition of nationalism. They do not get around to representing nationalism until page
180, about halfway into the book.

After rejecting several earlier definitions, including the simple definitional scheme that `Nationalism is a political doctrine
or ideology’ (1), they finally settled on the following definition: `Nationalism is a social, political, and cultural ideology
that considers the nation, in its cultural, linguistic, and political dimensions, as the most important primary group of human
identity and loyalty. The book makes an excellent contribution to the study of nationalism for several reasons. It emphasises
the diversity of nationalism, particularly the varieties of radical and conservative nationalism. It also explains how different
definitions of nationalism have served other political functions.

Conclusion:

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe in 19th century Europe, a feeling of nationalism radically transformed countries, leading
to radical changes in political and social scenarios. Until the nineteenth century, before the rise of nationalism in Europe,
there were no distinct nations. At the same time, the nation-state concept is the modern outcome of the rise of nationalism
in Europe. The ideas of nation-unity in Europe at the beginning of the nineteenth century were strongly associated with
ideologies of liberalism. During the nineteenth century, nationalism emerged as the force that brought sweeping changes in
Europe’s political and intellectual world.

1.2) Liberalism:

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Introduction:

Of the modern political labels that emerged and spread in the early-nineteenth-century “Age of
Revolutions,” none is more difficult to pin down than “liberal.” Conservatism, socialism, and nationalism all
take manifold forms, but liberalism is the most protean of all. Liberals have been royalists and republicans,
anti-clericals and Catholics, individualists and communitarians, opponents and supporters of government
action in society and the economy. There have been liberal advocates of universal suffrage and of restricted
voting rights, liberal defenders of capitalism and liberal critics of it, liberal imperialists and liberal foes of
empire. Do the terms liberal and liberalism point to one thing or many? Is there a solid core to being liberal
that gives substance to all its variations, or does it owe its diffusion to some fickle fluidity that allows it to
take on the shapes people and circumstances impose on it? These questions point to yet another, especially
critical for historians: Just who should count as a liberal? Self-declared anti-liberals have sought to tar each
other with the label, while some among those who claim it for themselves contest the right of others to bear
it.

Liberalism:
• In the political sphere, liberalism rejects absolutism. It defended constitutional regimes, a monarchy
controlled by parliaments, separation of powers, male suffrage and public freedoms.
• In economics, he defended the non-intervention of the State (laissez-faire).
• Middle and upper bourgeoisie represented the social composition of liberalism.
Liberalism rejected all absolute power. Hence, it proposed a set of measures to prevent absolutist powers:
first, the need to draft a constitution that established rules to delimit the absolute power of monarchies.

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The triumph
of the 1820 revolution in Spain led to the Liberal Triennium
Liberalism also established the separation of powers between the executive, the legislative and the judicial
as means to avoid the abuse of power. It defended the monarchy, but subject to a constitution (constitutional
monarchy). The Parliament had to be composed of two chambers: the lower house (Congress) and the upper
house (Senate). The Congress had to be elective, but the Senate did not. All those elected by male census
suffrage (vote of wealthy men with property) could be representatives.
Liberalism defended public freedoms: freedom of opinion, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly,
freedom of press...
Economic doctrine of liberalism
• Defence of non-intervention by the state in economic matters.
• Subjection of these matters to private initiative. Laissez-faire.
Liberalism was the expression of a concrete group, the bourgeoisie. During the first half of the nineteenth
century, liberalism gained strength in those states where the bourgeoisie had a certain importance. Within
liberalism, there was the industrial and commercial bourgeoisie.
The British historian Eric Hobsbawm claimed that within liberalism were comprised also the liberal
aristocracy, and the upper middle class: the elites of society, rich and educated. Those who can benefit the
most from the free and economic political game, from "non-intervention". It did not produce equality, but
inequalities.
Conclusion:

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Liberalism did not manifest itself against inequalities. It was in favour of economic, political and religious
freedoms. Liberalism posed a threat to the absolutist regimes. These liberal movements played an important
role in ending the Old Regime.

1.3) Romanticism in Europe:

The literary period and movement known as "Romanticism" (c. 1785/1789 - 1830) emerged in an Age of
Revolutions and instituted revolutions in literature marked by sharp and conscious departures from past
literary philosophies and practices. However, literary movements do NOT emerge out of nowhere and the
roots of Romanticism can be traced back to earlier 18th century developments.
Literature of "SENSIBILITY":

Influenced by these mid- and later 18th-century philosophies asserting the innate human capacity for
"benevolence," "exaggerated forms of sympathy and benevolence became a prominent aspect of eighteenth-
century culture and literature. It was a commonplace in popular morality that readiness to shed a
sympathetic tear is the sign of both polite breeding and a virtuous heart, and such a view was often
accompanied by the observation that sympathy with another's grief, unlike personal grief, is a pleasurable
emotion, hence to be sought as a value in itself . . ." (Abrams 190). Famous examples of the "novel of
sensibility" include The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774), by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (German,
1749-1832); and Henry MacKenzie's The Man of Feeling (England, 1771). Young Werther has
exquisitely heightened "aesthetic sensitivities" to beauty and the sublime, experiences painful "emotional
tribulations" over his unrequited love for a woman betrothed to another, cannot "adapt his sensibility to the

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demands of ordinary life," and ends by shooting himself (Abrams 191). MacKenzie's hero is likewise "a
hero of such exquisite sensibility that he goes into a decline from excess of pent-up tenderness toward a
young lady, and dies in the perturbation of finally declaring to her his emotion" (Abrams 191). The fashion
of novels of sensibility declined by the end of the 18th century: Sense and Sensibility (begun 1797;
published 1811) is period novelist Jane Austen's satiric treatment of a young Englishwoman of
"sensibility" [Marianne Dashwood] contrasted with her sister of "sense" [Elinor Dashwood].

Jean-Jacques ROUSSEAU (France, 1712-1778):

He influenced the European Romantic movement. Rousseau believed that human beings (male human
beings, any way, for Rousseau did not necessarily apply this view to female human beings) are born
innately good in a natural state of innocence (vs. the traditional Christian view that human beings are
born weighted with the burden of original sin). But children, however naturally good and innocent they
begin, must grow up in a corrupt world; and the longer they live in, and the more experiences they
acquire from living in, the corrupted adult world of so-called "civilization," the more corrupted they
themselves become. "God makes all things good," Rousseau states, but "man meddles with them and
they become evil."

However, a man of "feeling," as Rousseau believed himself to be, who stays attuned to heart and emotion,
can resist these corrupting influences [a precurser of our contemporary efforts to access our "inner child,"
one might argue]. Rousseau's novel Julie, or the New Héloise (1761) dealt with lovers of "sensibility," and
in his great autobiography, The Confessions (written 1764-70; published 1781-1788), Rousseau
"represented himself, in some circumstances and moods, as a man of extravagant sensibility" (Abrams
191).

The Confessions is also a ground-breaking assertion of individuality: Rousseau claims that his story
is unique (rather than an illustration of "general [human] nature" ), guided by the ancient classical Greek
maxim "Know thyself." Rousseau's Reveries of a Solitary Walker (1782) describes his feelings of
tortured alienation and spiritual awe induced by Nature, which became a persistent subject of later
Romantic poetry.

PRIMITIVISM:

Rousseau was also at the center of 18th-century "Primitivism." M. H. Abrams defines "Primitivism"
as "the preference for what is conceived to be 'nature' and 'the natural' over 'art' and 'the artificial'
in any area of human culture and values". Abrams outlines the characteristics of "Primitivism" as
follows:

"Primitivists" preferred "natural" or innate "instincts and passion" vs. "the dictates of reason and
prudential forethought".
"Primitivists" preferred "simple and 'natural' forms of social and political order" vs. "the anxieties
and frustrations engendered by a complex and highly developed social organization".
"Primitivists" preferred "outdoor 'nature,' unmodified by human intervention" vs. "cities or artful
gardens".
"Primitivists" preferred "spontaneity, the free expression of emotion, and the intuitive products of
'natural genius'" vs. mannered, reasoned literary and other arts that conformed to "'artificial' forms, rules
and conventions".

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Conclusion:

Romanticism can be construed as an opposite to "classicism," drawing on Rousseau's notion of the

goodness of the natural. Romanticism holds that pure logic is insufficient to answer all questions. Despite
a founding French influence, Romanticism was most widespread in Germany and England, largely as a
reaction to the French Enlightenment. It also was a response to French cultural domination, particularly
during the Napoleonic Wars. The Romanticist emphasis on individualism and self-expression deeply
impacted American thinking, especially the transcendentalism of Emerson.

1.4) Socialism:

Socialism is a political, social, and economic philosophy that encompasses a variety of economic and
social systems that are distinguished by social ownership of the means of production rather than private
ownership. There are two types of socialist systems: non-market and market. Socialism in Europe throws
light on the emergence of socialism in Europe. Here, you can learn how the thinking of this age was
spearheaded by different groups of people like liberals, radicals, and conservatives. Enlightenment and
new ways of thinking made people overthrow oppressive capitalist regimes in France and Russia.

Also, this chapter explains the Russian Revolution brought about by major socio-economic and political
reasons. The Russian Revolution brought forth the issue of economic equality as well as the welfare of
workers and peasants. The new Soviet government initiated major changes like mechanization of
agriculture and industrialization.

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The age of social change

Post the French Revolution, enlightenment ideas were propagated throughout the world. The French
Revolution started questioning the unequal society of ‘estates’ and ‘orders.’ People had more confidence
to rise against their rulers or the church.

Some people had radical ideas of changing society, while others were moderate in their approach.

Liberals

Liberals were a group of people who took a more tolerant approach towards change. For example, they
did not favour religious discrimination or the rule of monarchs. They wanted an equal society with an
elected parliamentary government. However, they did not believe in ‘universal adult franchise’ or the
rights of all citizens to vote. According to liberals, only men with properties could vote, and women
shouldn’t be allowed to vote.

Radicals

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As opposed to liberals, radicals believed in the drastic change of societal values. Many of them supported
women’s voting rights and equal distribution of wealth and property.

Conservatives

As compared to liberals and radicals, conservatives were against drastic changes in society. Though they
accepted that change was necessary, it had to take place gradually over a period of time.

Industrial society and social change

Industrialization brought about remarkable changes in society. The opening of factories brought many
men and women to work in factories. However, their condition remained deplorable. Low wages, poor
sanitation, cramped accommodation, and unsafe workplaces dampened the spirit of the workers. This
oppression at the hands of the land-owning aristocratic class further fuelled the winds of revolution.

Many liberals and radicals sympathized with these workers and fought for their rights. They had support
from the common masses who called for the end of dynasty rule in Italy, Germany, France, and Russia.
Giuseppe Mazzini was one of the famous Italian nationalists whose writings became famous far across
countries like India.

The coming of socialism to Europe

Socialism became a popular theory in Europe by the mid-nineteenth century. The socialists saw private
property as exploitative to the workers. According to them, the capitalists or the industry owners worked
for their profit and did not care about workers’ benefit. Unless there is societal control of the private
property as a whole, the workers will not progress.

In its early days, socialism was tried and tested by many people in different scenarios:

• An English businessman Robert Owen put forth the theory of cooperatives for workers’ welfare. He made
initial efforts to set up a cooperative society called New Harmony in the USA
• Louis Blanc of France believed that governments must set up cooperatives. Here, workers share the
profits collectively
• Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believed in overthrowing the capitalist society to own private property
socially

The support for socialism

Socialism became a strong ideology in Europe by 1870. An international body by the name of Second
International was set up to coordinate the efforts of socialists the world over.

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A brief timeline of socialist organizations:

• Associations for workers’ welfare were set up in Germany and England. Many of these associations were
involved with the Socialist Democratic Party (SDP) of Germany
• In 1905, the Socialist Party of France and the Labour Party of Britain were set up

The Russian Revolution and its implications on Europe

The Russian Revolution was a landmark event that popularized socialism across the world. This
revolution took place in two phases, the February revolution of 1917 and the October Revolution of 1917.

The background of the Russian Revolution can be traced back to the rule of the oppressive Czarist regime
in Russia. The government successfully put down the revolution of 1905, and half-hearted reforms were
made. One of them was the creation of the Parliament or the Duma.

Further, Russia’s poor performance in World War I (1914 – 1918) enhanced public anger against the
government. With its major trade route through the Mediterranean Sea cut off, Russia faced an
ammunition shortage, leading to the low morale of the army. Also, the war resulted in a food crisis,
leading to increasing protests from the Russian public.

The February Revolution of 1917 began with the demonstrations at Petrograd due to food shortage.
Women led many of these strikes. Eventually, the Tsar quit and made way for a provisional government.
A democratically elected constituent assembly was set up to oversee Russia’s future.

The Bolshevik party led by Lenin led the October Revolution of 1917. The Bolsheviks vouched for
complete socialism in Russia to redistribute land to peasants and bank nationalization.

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1.5) Industrial Revolution:

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What Was the Industrial Revolution?

The Industrial Revolution was a period of major mechanization and innovation that began in Great Britain
during the mid-18th century and early 19th century and later spread throughout much of the world. The
British Industrial Revolution was dominated by the exploitation of coal and iron.

The American Industrial Revolution, sometimes referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution, began in
the 1870s and continued through World War II. The era saw the mechanization of agriculture and
manufacturing and the introduction of new modes of transportation including steamships, the automobile,
and airplanes.

Causes of the Industrial Revolution:

• The Agricultural Revolution: Between 1750 and 1900 Europe’s population was dramatically increasing, so
it became necessary to change the way that food was being produced, in order to make way for this change.
The Enclosure Movement and the Norfolk Crop Rotation were instilled before the Industrial
Revolution;they were both involved in the separation of land, and the latter dealt more with developing
different sections to plant different crops in order to reduce the draining of the land. The fact that more land
was being used and there weren’t enough workers it became necessary to create power-driven machines to
replace manual labor.

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• Socioeconomic changes: Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the European economy was based on
agriculture. From the aristocrats, to the farmers, they were linked by land and crops. The wealthy land
owners would rent land to the farmers who would in turn grow and sell crops. This exchange was an
enormous part of how the economy ran. With the changes that came with the Industrial revolution, people
began leaving their farms and working in the cities. The new technologies forced people into the factories
and a capitalistic sense of living began. The revolution moved economic power away from the aristocratic
population and into the bourgeoisie (the middle class).

Impacts of Industrial Revolution:

Social effects of Industrial Revolution

Due to industrial revolution, new cities were set up. It became the centers of commerce, business and
industries. The rural region people rushed to the urban sectors. as a result, population of urban areas
increased tremendously. Due to machines, cottage industries were stopped. Many craftsmen became jobless.
Workers were being squeezed. Women and child labor were paid less. Economic disparity increased in the
society. The overcrowded towns lacked sanitary amenities. Houses for labors were very much filthy and
negatively compact. Air, water and noise pollution affected the health of the people. Industrially developed
European countries adopted the policy of expansion of their business and trade for which they went to Asia
and Africa and established colonies.

Political effects of Industrial Revolution:

The emergence of big towns necessitated parliamentary reforms. A number of parliamentary reforms were
introduced. The factory acts were passed in 1819, 1833 and 1837 to improve the condition of labourers and
to give them protection from the exploitation of capitalists. In 1825, trade unions were organized to fight for
their rights. In order to abolish disparity, seeds of socialism were sown. Labour movements, Chartist
movements, women's right to equality started taking place in the European countries due to which the
concept of constitutional and welfare state rooted deeply. Educated people became aware of their rights and
so in England and France democratic concepts prevailed powerfully.
Economic effects of Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution changed the economic face of England. England became the most advanced
country in the world. It developed its trade relations which increased its national income. The establishment
of factories saw the rise of many new industrial towns like Manchester, Lancashire, Birmingham and
Sheffield. Economic conditions of countries where industrialization took place were developed. Trade and
commerce developed on the international level. The whole world had become a market.

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1.6) Colonialism:

In the 1800s, colonialism in Europe reached its peak, with European powers expanding their empires to
various regions of the world through exploration, conquest, and colonization. The 19th century saw
significant territorial acquisitions, resource exploitation, and the spread of European influence across Africa,
Asia, and the Pacific. Here are some key aspects of colonialism in Europe during the 1800s:

1. Scramble for Africa: The 1800s witnessed the "Scramble for Africa," where European powers competed to
acquire territories in Africa. This period saw the colonization of vast areas of the continent, often through
treaties, military conquest, or manipulation of local power dynamics.
2. British Empire: The British Empire was the largest colonial power during the 19th century. British colonial
holdings included territories in India, Southeast Asia, Africa (such as Nigeria, South Africa, and Egypt), the
Caribbean, and Pacific islands.
3. French Colonial Empire: France also had significant colonial holdings in Africa (Algeria, Senegal, and
others), Southeast Asia (Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos), and the Pacific (French Polynesia and New
Caledonia).
4. Dutch Colonial Empire: The Netherlands had colonies in Southeast Asia (Indonesia) and the Caribbean
(Suriname and the Netherlands Antilles).

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5. Spanish and Portuguese Empires: Although in decline compared to their earlier dominance, Spain and
Portugal still had colonies in Latin America and Africa.
6. Imperialism in Asia: European powers expanded their influence in Asia through colonial acquisitions,
unequal treaties, and spheres of influence. For example, Britain's control over India increased, and China
was forced to open up to trade with Western powers through the Opium Wars.
7. Impact on Indigenous Peoples: Colonialism had severe consequences for indigenous populations, including
forced labor, displacement, cultural assimilation, and loss of land and resources. The exploitation of labor,
especially in Africa and the Americas, was often driven by the demand for raw materials to fuel Europe's
industrial revolution.
8. Nationalism and Independence Movements: As European powers established and consolidated their
colonies, nationalist sentiments and independence movements emerged in the colonized territories. This led
to resistance and struggles for self-determination throughout the 19th century and into the 20th century.
9. Colonial Rule and Governance: European powers implemented various forms of colonial governance,
ranging from direct rule to indirect rule. Indirect rule often involved using local elites as intermediaries,
while direct rule was more centralized and controlled by officials sent from the colonial power.
10. Scientific Exploration and Ethnography: European colonial powers also engaged in scientific exploration
and ethnographic studies of the territories they colonized, which contributed to the development of
anthropology and other disciplines.

The 19th-century colonial expansion in Europe set the stage for the complex and often turbulent history of
decolonization in the 20th century, as many former colonies gained independence after World War II. The
legacy of European colonialism continues to impact the political, social, and economic dynamics of these
regions even in the present day.

2: The Eastern Question (1804-1856)

2.2) The nature of the Eastern Question:

By the eighteenth century, the over-large and cumbersome Ottoman Empire was starting to crumble.
According to B. Lewis in The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961) it 'reverted to a medieval state with a
medieval mentality and a medieval economy - but with the added burden of a bureaucracy and a standing
army which no medieval state had to bear'. Symptoms of this decay were:

1. Administrative fragmentation: The tendency for local provincial officers such as Ali, Pasha of Yanina
to try to establish themselves as independent rulers.

2. Nationalist movements: Vested interests such as native noblemen seeking to break the Turkish
monopoly of jobs in the public service, or Greek merchants seeking a relaxation of trade restrictions,
became the focus for more popular insurrections by the Christian subjects of the Empire. Religious

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discrimination, the harsh rule of the Ottoman representatives, the influence of the ideas of the French
Revolution and sheer peasant desperation and brigandage accounted for this development.

The 'Question' arose because of the interests of the European states in these events, and especially in the
European provinces of the Empire which covered 238,000 square miles and had about 8 million subjects in
1800.

Russia:
Russian interests arose from two sources:
(a) Strategic ambition: As a landlocked state, Russia wanted a warm water port and access to the Black
Sea and Mediterranean.
(b) Natural affinities: In terms of ethnic origin and religion there were close links between Russia and
the Ottoman Christian subjects. In fact, how these interests should be best pursued was less obvious.
Russian policy varied between support for the Ottoman Empire as a sort of protectorate or a neutral
buffer state, or partition of the Empire by the European powers. Nor was it always clear which
policy was being followed. From the 1760s a series of RussoTurkish conflicts resulted in extensive
gains for Russia in the Black Sea region. The treaty of Kutchuck Kainardji (1774) gave her key
fortresses and other holdings and guarantees of freedom of navigation of the Black Sea and
Bosphorus and Dardanelles. In 1783 Russia annexed the Crimea. Then another Russo-Turkish war
between 1806-12 resulted in the Treaty of Bucharest (1812) which gave Bessarabia to Russia.

Britain:

British interests were also complex, but on the whole were based on a sensitivity to any extensive
expansion by any power in the eastern Mediterranean which was likely to threaten her interests there
or in India. In fact, as Professor Anderson points out, Britain tended to exaggerate the degree of the
threat posed by Russia especially. Her naval power was overestimated and from the 1820s her
essentially defensive policy was misread. Nevertheless, until the later nineteenth century it was
British policy to exclude non-Turkish fleets from the Bosphorus and Dardanelles and to sustain the
Ottoman Empire, although policy was confused by emotional urges to protect Greek Orthodox
subjects of the Turks. In 1791 Britain had attempted to force Russia to disgorge the Black Sea
fortress of Ochakov. In 1799, Britain guaranteed the integrity of the Empire. By the Peace of
Dardanelles of 1809 it was agreed that the Straits should be closed in peacetime to non-Turkish
warships but open to Turkey's friends in wartime.

France:

France was active in the region from the 1770s-80s, providing advisers for the Turkish armed forces.
Then in 1797-8 there was the invasion of Egypt by Bonaparte to threaten British power in India, to
'stop that source of its corrupting wealth'. This had failed by 1801, but throughout the nineteenth
century France had an interest in Asia Minor and in north Africa with her expanding territorial
holdings to reinforce this.

Austria:

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Although a traditional enemy of the Ottoman Empire, Austria found herself driven to support its
integrity because of:
1. Strategic concern. The danger of the lower Danube falling into the hands of a strong power.
2. The danger of infection. Slav nationalism could be a double-edged sword.
Metternich's secretary Gentz wrote in 1815, 'the end of the Turkish monarchy could be survived by
the Austrian for but a short time'. In fact, in 1788-91 Austria actually joined Russia in a war with the
Ottoman Empire to partition the Balkans, and received some of northern Bosnia. This was an
aberration. Additional Balkan territories were a nuisance to Austria, and she distrusted Russian
interest in the region.

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2.2) The Crimean War:

The background to the Crimean War

The great powers in Europe (France, Austro-Hungary, Britain, and Russia) had been carefully balanced
since the 1815 Treaty of Vienna. However, the Ottoman Empire had been in decline since 1820. This
provided an opportunity for other European powers to expand their influence.

What caused the Crimean War?

Tsar Nicholas I saw the decline of the Ottoman Empire as an opportunity to increase Russian influence in
the Middle East. Nicholas called himself the Protector of Slavs and Christians and demanded the right to
protect the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Sultan. The Slavonic Benevolent Committee, a pan-Slavic
movement of Russian intellectuals, put pressure on the Tsar to intervene. Tsar Nicholas’ demands were
opposed by Turkey, Britain, and France, who wanted to stop Russia from expanding.

The Crimean War battles

In June 1853, Tsar Nicholas I sent a Russian army to Moldavia and Walachia. Turkey responded by
declaring war in October 1853. After Russia sank a Turkish squadron in Sinope, Britain, and France
entered the war in defence of Turkey. In September 1854, France and Britain began a joint Crimean
campaign. They sent over 60,000 troops to the Crimea, attacking the naval base of Sebastopol. The Russians
were defeated at Balaclava in October and Inkerman in November 1854.

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Tsar Nicholas died in March 1855, passing on command to his son Alexander. By September 1855
Sebastopol had fallen. Peace negotiations began in Paris in February 1856. This resulted in the signing of
the Treaty of Paris in March 1856.

Crimean War dates

The Crimean War spanned around three years. Below are the most important dates:

• The Battle of Sinop, November 1853.

• The Battle of Balaclava, October 1854.
• The Siege of Sevastopol, October 1854.
• The Siege of Taganrog, May 1855.
• The Congress of Paris, March 1856.

The short term consequences of the Crimean War

• 450,000 Russians died

• The Treaty of Paris prevented Russian warships from using the Black Sea in peacetime - this was
humiliating and limited Russia's influence in the Middle East
• Economic disruption - the Crimean War had prevented trade and used up much of Russia’s grain and
industrial capacity
• Peasant unrest - serfs protested against conscription and against Alexander II’s delay in freeing
conscripted serfs after the war had ended

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The long term consequences of the Crimean War for Russia

The Crimean War revealed Russia's pre-existing military inadequacies. Let’s explore them in detail.

1. Poor transport

Transport across the Empire was underdeveloped. It took the Russians longer to send equipment to the front
line than for France and Britain to send resources from their ports.

2. Inferior technology

Military equipment was outdated and in short supply. The Russian troops had just one musket to every two
soldiers. The Russian navy still used sails, wooden ships, and even galley boats rowed by conscripted serfs.
Western ships were steam-powered and had metal cladding.

3. Inadequate leadership

Military offices were given to nobles on the basis of status, not ability. While the Russian army
outnumbered the French and British forces, they lacked a winning strategy.

Military failure shocked the government and led to public discussions about the future of the Russian
empire. Dmitry Milyutin, a Russian military scholar and member of the intelligentsia, argued that military
reform was necessary to avoid similar failures. The Crimean War was a key factor for future reforms, most
significantly the Emancipation of the Serfs.

3.3) Russo-Turkish War 1877:

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Introduction:
The Russo-Turkish War was a conflict between the Ottoman Empire and a coalition led by the Russian Empire, and
including Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. Fought in the Balkans and in the Caucasus, it originated in
emerging 19th-century Balkan nationalism. Additional factors included the Russian goals of recovering territorial
losses endured during the Crimean War of 1853–56, re-establishing itself in the Black Sea and supporting the political
movement attempting to free Balkan nations from the Ottoman Empire.

Triggering factors of war:

1. Treatment of Christians in the Ottoman Empire:

Article 9 of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty, concluded at the end of the Crimean War, obliged the Ottoman
Empire to grant Christians equal rights with Muslims. Before the treaty was signed, the Ottoman
government issued an edict, the Edict of Gülhane, which proclaimed the principle of the equality of
Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced some specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was
abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army.

2. Crisis in Lebanon, 1860:

In 1858, stirred by their clergy, the Maronite peasants of northern Lebanon revolted against their
predominantly Druze feudal overlords and established a peasant republic. In southern Beirut vilayet, where both
Maronite and Druze peasants worked under Druze overlords, Druze peasants sided with their co-religious and against

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the Maronites, transforming the conflict into a civil war. Although both sides suffered, about 10,000 Maronites were
massacred at the hands of the Druze.

3. The revolt in Crete, 1866–1869:

The Cretan Revolt, which began in 1866, resulted from the failure of the Ottoman Empire to apply reforms for
improving the life of the population and the Cretans' desire for enosis – union with Greece. The insurgents gained
control over the whole island, except for five fortified cities where the Muslims took refuge. The Greek press claimed
that Muslims had massacred Greeks and the word was spread throughout Europe. Thousands of Greek volunteers
were mobilized and sent to the island.

4. Changing balance of power in Europe:

Although on the winning side in the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire continued to decline in
power and prestige. The financial strain on the treasury forced the Ottoman government to take a
series of foreign loans at such steep interest rates that, despite all the fiscal reforms that followed,
pushed it into unpayable debts and economic difficulties. This was further aggravated by the need to
accommodate more than 600,000 Muslim Circassians, expelled by the Russians from the Caucasus,
to the Black Sea ports of north Anatolia and the Balkan ports of Constanța and Varna, which cost a
great deal in money and in civil disorder to the Ottoman authorities.

5. Russia after the Crimean War

Russia ended the Crimean War with minimal territorial losses, but was forced to destroy its Black Sea
Fleet and Sevastopol fortifications. Russian international prestige was damaged, and for many years revenge
for the Crimean War became the main goal of Russian foreign policy. This was not easy though – the Paris
Peace Treaty included guarantees of Ottoman territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria; only
Prussia remained friendly to Russia.
Other clauses of the Paris Peace Treaty, however, remained in force, specifically Article 8 with guarantees of Ottoman
territorial integrity by Great Britain, France and Austria. Therefore, Russia was extremely cautious in its relations
with the Ottoman Empire, coordinating all its actions with other European powers. A Russian war with Turkey would
require at least the tacit support of all other Great Powers, and Russian diplomacy was waiting for a convenient
moment.

6. Balkan crisis of 1875–1876

In 1875, a series of Balkan events brought Europe to the brink of war. The state of Ottoman
administration in the Balkans continued to deteriorate throughout the 19th century, with the central
government occasionally losing control over whole provinces. Reforms imposed by European
powers did little to improve the conditions of the Christian population, while managing to dissatisfy
a sizable portion of the Muslim population. Bosnia and Herzegovina suffered at least two waves of
rebellion by the local Muslim population, the most recent ending in 1862.

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Balkan uprisings
Albanian revolts
István Deák states that the Albanian highlanders resented new taxes and conscription, and fought against the
Ottomans in the war.

Herzegovina Revolt:
An uprising against Ottoman rule began in Herzegovina in July 1875. By August almost all of Herzegovina
had been seized and the revolt had spread into Bosnia. Supported by nationalist volunteers from Serbia and
Montenegro, the uprising continued as the Ottomans committed more and more troops to suppress it.

Consequences of War:

Intervention by the Great Powers:

a) Under pressure from the British, Russia accepted the truce offered by the Ottoman Empire on 31
January 1878, but continued to move towards Constantinople.

b) The British sent a fleet of battleships to intimidate Russia from entering the city, and Russian forces
stopped at San Stefano. Eventually Russia entered into a settlement under the Treaty of San
Stefano on 3 March, by which the Ottoman Empire would recognize the independence of Romania,
Serbia, and Montenegro, and the autonomy of Bulgaria.
c) Alarmed by the extension of Russian power into the Balkans, the Great Powers later forced
modifications of the treaty in the Congress of Berlin. The main change here was that Bulgaria would
be split, according to earlier agreements among the Great Powers that precluded the creation of a
large new Slavic state: the northern and eastern parts to become principalities as before (Bulgaria
and Eastern Rumelia), though with different governors; and the Macedonian region, originally part
of Bulgaria under San Stefano, would return to direct Ottoman administration.

d) The 1879 Treaty of Constantinople was a further continuation of negotiations between Russia and
the Ottoman Empire. While reaffirming provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano which had not been
modified by the Berlin Treaty, it set compensation terms owed by Ottoman Empire to Russia for
losses sustained during the war. It contained terms to release prisoners of war and to grant amnesty
to Ottoman subjects, as well as providing terms for the inhabitants nationality after the annexations.
Article VII allowed subjects to opt within six months of the signing of the treaty to retain Ottoman
subjecthood or become Russian subjects.
e) A surprising consequence came in Hungary (part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire). Despite
memories of the terrible defeat at Mohács in 1526, elite Hungarian attitudes were becoming strongly
anti-Russian. This led to active support for the Turks in the media, but only in a peaceful way, since
the foreign policy of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy remained neutral.

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Impacts on Bulgaria's Jewish population

Thousands of Bulgarian Jews found refuge at the Ottoman capital of Constantinople and reported that many
Jewish communities had fled in their entirety with the retreating Turks as their protectors. However, this is
directly contradicted by census figures, which, instead of a decrease, indicate a substantial increase in
Bulgaria's Jewish population before and after the war. While there were only 4,595 males or 9,190 male and
female Jews in the five vilayets to form the future Principality of
Bulgaria – Rusçuk, Vidin, Sofia, Tirnova and Varna – according to the pre-war Ottoman salname of 1875
(0.4% of the population), the 1880 Bulgarian census indicated a total of 14,342 Jews, who accounted for
0.7% of the post-war Bulgarian population. Moreover, an increase by 5,152 people, or 56%, in less than five
years, cannot be explained by natural increase alone and would rather indicate substantial net immigration
rather than emigration of Jews from the Principality. Obviously, any such immigration or return of refugees
would happen only after the postwar situation stabilized, offering necessary personal and economic security.

Internationalization of the Armenian Question:

The conclusion of the Russo-Turkish war also led to the internationalization of the Armenian Question.
Many Armenians in the eastern provinces (Turkish Armenia) of the Ottoman Empire greeted the advancing
Russians as liberators. Violence and instability directed at Armenians during the war by Kurd and
Circassian bands had left many Armenians looking toward the invading Russians as the ultimate guarantors
of their security. Influential pro-Russian Armenian thinker Grigor Artsruni encouraged Armenians to
migrate to Russia in order to form a more concentrated block.

In January 1878, Armenian Patriarch of Constantinople Nerses II Varzhapetian approached the Russian
leadership with the view of receiving assurances that the Russians would introduce provisions in the
prospective peace treaty for self-administration in the Armenian provinces. Though not as explicit, Article
16 of the Treaty of San Stefano read:

“As the evacuation of the Russian troops of the territory they occupy in Armenia, and which is to be
restored to Turkey, might give rise to conflicts and complications detrimental to the maintenance of
good relations between the two countries, the Sublime Porte engaged to carry into effect, without
further delay, the improvements and reforms demanded by local requirements in the provinces
inhabited by Armenians and to guarantee their security from Kurds and Circassians.”

UNIFICATION OF ITALY
The effects of the revolution of 1848
1. Revolutions of 1848 and the First Italian War of Independence:
A. The Young Italy Movement and the nationalist uprising under Giuseppe:

Secret societies popped up all over Italy that spread nationalism and hopes for a future unified Italian
country that could be controlled by the people, rather than a sovereign or papal power, giving rise to

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the Risorgimento movement. Nationalists like Giuseppe Mazzini rose to the top of the movement and
created the secret society, Giovane Italia, or Young Italy. Giovane Italia was one of the early nationalist
societies that influenced and encouraged idealists, to fight for Italian independence. Many influential
leaders of the movement, like Giuseppe Garibaldi, were members of these societies.

B. The First Italian War of Independence: Policies adopted by Charles Albert to exert the
Austrian influence in Italy:

King Charles Albert of Piedmont-Sardinia was under great pressure from his people to take up the Italian
cause and declared war on the Austrian Empire. He received support from Pope Pius IX and the Papal
States, from Naples and other princely states came to the assistance of Charles Albert. The Austrians
defeated King Albert and his Italian army, at the Battle of Custozza, in what became known as the First
Italian War of Independence. After the failure, nationalists regrouped and focused their sights on the
northern state of Piedmont. King Charles Albert abdicated, his son King Victor Emmanuel II as monarch
and diplomat Count Camillo de Cavour became the Prime Minister of Piedmont. They focused on the idea
of real-politik which included civil liberties, elections, and less influence from the Catholic Church.

C. The Kingdom of Piedmont after 1848:

The new King, Victor Emmanuel II wanted to strengthen Piedmont to take the lead in the liberation
movement. The strengthening was to be achieved by maintaining the new liberal constitution and by the
development of the economic power. Victor Emmanuel II supported the idea of reducing the political
power of the church. Consequently, laws were passed which deprived the Church of its law courts and its
inheriting property was now subjected to the approval of the State. Although this brought about
longstanding opposition between the Pope and Piedmont, the government was determined that there
should be no “state within the state”.

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The obstacles to the Unification of Italy

Challenges to National Unity in Italy (1845 – 1930):

1. Introduction:

Achieving national unity in Italy faced countless internal and external challenges in the late
nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The French and Austrian occupation in the North and
Spanish occupation in the South meant varying linguistic, cultural and political influences affected
the lives of the Italian population, making the process of unification a very arduous one. While
political, economic and social issues were central in threatening the unification of Italy, it was the
dominance and authority the Papacy that posed the greatest challenge to the confederation of the
Italian states. Commanding a mass following for centuries, the Pope had always had a strong
influence on Catholic believers and their lifestyles. Whilst unification of kingdoms meant creating
governance equal to the power of the Pope, it was a controversial matter since for centuries it was
the Church that protected and unified people through faith.

2. Internal challenges to the unification of Italy:

A. Social differences between the North and South:

It is important to consider that a major difficulty in creating national unity was the Northern and
Southern divide that had long existed throughout the provinces of Italy, which had intensified poor
economic infrastructures of Southern regions. Southern areas of Italy were under a great
disadvantage as they were affected by poor climate, lack of constitutional organization and
abnormally high crime rates. Whilst Lombardy was benefiting from the strong trade links between
neighboring countries, Naples was regularly experiencing poor crop yields and heavy deforestation.
By the year 1860, a plebiscite demonstrated the majority of people’s desire for unity under Victor
Emmanuel, with majority voting for amalgamation. This signifies that it was not the lack of interest
in unification, but more the inability and inconsistencies present throughout the areas of Italy that
resulted in divisions, both socially and politically.

B. Economic constraints:

The Italian peninsula lacked raw materials and dynamic trade markets, which therefore led to
complications in maintaining a productive industry. Economic strains were consistently apparent,
especially in the South of Italy where conditions only seemed to be worsening. Although politics
were never initially the focal concern of peasants – who were largely illiterate and interested in more

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direct matters such as the costs of living – dire conditions and rising unemployment led to public
revolts in 1848 with masses campaigning for a parliament and press freedoms. Despite being a
turning point in Italian history, these revolts did not amount to much and the status quo remained
unchanged. A reason for the failure of these revolts was the fact that the participants all had differing
agendas and were a divided force. Economic volatility evidently posed a challenge to integration, as
people were concerned with their own plans and immediate gratification.

C. The divided Italians based on their differing agendas:

Though the population of Italy was looking forward to a unified base and substantial change that
benefitted the classes, it was evidently clear that each group had differing agendas which forbade
their communion as singular state. The peasants wanted jobs and financial development to improve
the transport links, trade markets and infrastructure of the cities while the intellectuals and rebellious
students were involved to attain political independence from the Bourbon rulers. The discontented
youth desired a need for national unification under one state, in order to reap the benefits of
nationalized governance. Giuseppe Mazzini, leader of the Risorgimento (a movement for the
unification and independence for Italy), was a reason behind the growing sentiments of nationalism
amongst the Italian people and though he gathered a lot of attention and respect, people still failed
to work together to set goals and achieve them.

D. The influence of the Papacy:

The dominance of the Papacy in Italy with a pre-dominant Catholic population was one of the most
significant and ongoing challenges towards achieving and maintaining national unity. Seen by
Catholics as God’s representative on Earth, over the years the Popes had made clear that the
unification of the kingdoms of Italy were “contrary to God’s wishes”. Establishing such an idea
meant forming a negative view toward unification amongst much of the nation. Anyone who
intended to go against this judgment was deemed to be going against the divine cause of protecting
the Church. Geographically, the Papal States had divided the peninsula from East to West through
the middle that had to be dismantled in order to combine the North and South. The integration of
Rome was also substantial as it was symbolically the most appropriate capital for the new Italy.
Consequently, it is the Church that posed the greatest challenge in unifying the Italian State.

3. External challenges to the unification of Italy:

A. Foreign control and influence: Austria in the position of an aggressor:

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Various European powers, including Austria, France, and Spain, had vested interests in maintaining
the status quo of a divided Italy. Austria, in particular, under the Habsburg Dynasty controlled
significant parts of Northern Italy, including ruled Lombardy and Venetia, and their dominance in
Northern Italy posed a significant obstacle to unification due to its own territorial ambitions and
fears of losing influence in the region. Therefore, Austria was viewed as a critical threat to its
unification. The widespread uprising that erupted across the Italian states, the Italian nationalists
sought to overthrow their rulers and establish independent and unified Italian states. However,
Austria swiftly intervened and defeated the nationalist forces, reaffirming its dominancy over the
Italian territories it controlled.

4. Conclusion:

In conclusion, the process of integrating the Italian provinces into one nation state was a very
problematic one. It faced political conflicts both domestically and internationally and resulted in
several intense social, economic and religious struggles throughout the decades leading up to the
final stages of unification; the acquiring of Rome. Whilst collectively they all posed a substantial
challenge against constructing national unity, the factor that posed the greatest strain was the
Papacy’s ongoing claims of sovereignty over the Papal States. Although unification of Italy had
been finalized territorially by 1870, the social unification of people’s beliefs and loyalties remained
incomplete and the power of Catholicism was never abolished. Internal divisions remained amongst
the people and social cohesion was not immediately achieved.

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5. The Map of Italy before unification:

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Cavour and the unification of Italy

1. Count Cavour’s domestic policy:

Within a few years Cavour transformed Piedmont into a completely modern state by promoting the
interests of the middle class of manufacturers and traders. He created new state banks through which
money could be invested in railway, in shipping lines, in agriculture. He supported the development by
bringing some free trade treaties by which Piedmont was able to gain much-needed industrial goods from
more advanced countries. Besides these he gave much attention to the strengthening of the army of
Piedmont. He re-equipped the whole force and made the promotion of middle-class officers easier.

2. Count Cavour’s foreign policy:

Cavour also realized that Piedmont needed a strong alliance to stand against Austria and in 1854 Cavour
offered the support of the Piedmontese army to France and England during the Crimean war. Napoleon
III was impressed by the efficiency of the Piedmontese army and the fact that they were prepared to survive
in terrible conditions. Representing Piedmont at the Peace Conference at Paris 1856, he brought before
France and England the cause for Italy. In 1858 Napoleon III made a secret agreement with Cavour to
support Piedmont against Austria and receive the city of Nice and the territory of Savoy as a return to their
service.

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The process of Italian Unification (1859 – 1871)

1. Introduction:

For centuries, the Italian peninsula was a conglomeration of different city-states. Each had its own
culture, a form of government, and non-Italian rulers. The path to unification was a long, windy, and
bumpy road. The beginning of the unification movement, called the Risorgimento, is kicked off
by Napoleon and ends with the savvy diplomat Count Camillo de Cavour.

2. The War against Austria 1859:

The story of Italian unification begins when the French military leader Napoleon Bonaparte pushed
the Austrians and Sardinians out of Northern and Central Italy in 1796. By the 19th century, the Italian
peninsula became the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy. Napoleon's army also brought ideas about
government and society that had been at the center of the French Revolution like banishing old feudal
practices and promoting popular sovereignty. These new ideologies inspired thoughts
of unification and stirred nationalist sentiment among the Italian people. Nationalists pushed for
liberal reforms, as they believed that political equality and freedom should be the basis of a nation.

3. Garibaldi and the expedition of the thousand:

One of the most ambitious efforts of the Risorgimento was the Expedition of the Thousand. The
Expedition was led by Giuseppe Garibaldi on the ground, but other leaders like Camille de
Cavour, Giuseppe Mazzini, and King Victor Emmanuel II played a vital role in planning certain
aspects. Garibaldi led a group of young Northern Italian men, easily identified by their red shirts that
were often referred to as "redshirts." The campaign began in May of 1860 when they set sail toward
Sicily. The Redshirts quickly took the Sicilian city of Palermo and gathered Sicilians who were eager
to defeat their Bourbon rulers. They continued up the peninsula and entered Naples, where the
Bourbon rulers were defeated and Garibaldi conquered Naples and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies into
the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia.

4. The Kingdom of Italy and the Third War of Italian Independence:

In 1861, The Kingdom of Italy was officially declared with King Victor Emmanuel II on the throne.
An Italian parliament was founded and opened in Turin. A government was created that represented
all of the Italian peninsula, leaving out the Papal States (which included Rome) and Venice, which
would not be a part of Italy until 1866 and 1871 respectively. King Victor Emmanuel II saw the war

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between the Austrians and Prussians, as an opportunity to annex the Papal States and Venice. He
strategically allied Italy with Prussia and declared war on Austria. The Italian army pushed the
Austrians out of Venice, and after a series of diplomatic decisions, Venice was given to the Kingdom
of Italy as outlined in the Peace of Prague treaty. Rome and the Papal States were added to the
Kingdom of Italy in 1870 when the Italian army captured the Vatican. And finally, the unification of
Italy was complete.

5. The Map of the Italian Peninsula in 1860:

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UNIFICATION OF GERMANY
The rise of Bismarck
1. Introduction:

The man responsible for the great change and the United Germany, Otto von Bismarck, was born into an
aristocratic family of Berlin. Determined to unite the German states into a single empire, with Prussia at
its core, he used the expanded Prussian army to capture the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein from
Denmark. He then escalated a quarrel with Austria and its German allies over the administration of these
provinces into a war, in which Prussia was the victor. Prussia then annexed further territory in Germany.

2. About Prince Otto Von Bismarck:

Otto Von Bismarck was a Prussian aristocrat. He spent a great part of his life in attempting to suppress
socialism, communism and liberalism. After spending a few years as a Prussian civil servant, he entered
politics and in 1847 became a member of the Prussian Parliament. In 1851, when the German
Confederation had been revived on Austrian terms, the King appointed Bismarck as a Prussian
representative in the Diet. Bismarck soon came to the realization that Prussia could never by strong in a
divided Germany controlled by the Austria.

3. Bismarck called to office: His suppression of the Liberals:

The Liberals in the Prussian Parliament in Berlin had gained a majority. And when the King proposed
taxation his demands were rejected and the Liberals proposed certain amendments to the military laws as
a condition of their accepting the new taxes. A very tense situation had developed and Von Roon,
important military personnel persuaded the King to recall Bismarck from Paris and appoint him head of
government as Minister-President. Bismarck’s first task was to maintain the morale of the King and carry
him through the struggle with the Liberals. Bismarck showed no compromise with the Liberals and
declared, “The great question of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolutions of majorities,
but, by blood and iron.” Through this statement, he made clear his aims of might, power and success
through the use of blood and iron.

4. Bismarck’s Foreign Policy:

Bismarck had a great task at hand, he had to justify his claim and take measures by carrying through to
success the policy of uniting Germany under Prussian control. To achieve this he first had to defeat Austria
and expel her from the German Confederation. Secondly, to consolidate such a position and make
Germany the strongest state in Europe he would have to defeat the France of Napoleon III.

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The Austro-Prussian War (1866)

1. Introduction:

In 1866 Germany was divided into several dozen mini-states, of which Prussia was the largest. Prussia's
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck (1862 1890) sought to unify Germany under Prussian leadership. To
achieve this aim he had to release the German Confederation of the Austrian authority. He took certain
steps that ultimately led to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866.

2. Events leading to the Austro-Prussian War of 1866:

A. The Convention of Gastein 1866:

To settle the question of the duchies Bismarck reached an agreement with Austria. Bismarck posed that
the duchies question should be settled by a European Conference of the Great Powers. The Danes refused
leading to the entry of armies of Prussia and Austria into the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein and
defeated the Danes. Under the Convention of Gastein; signed in August 1866, between Prussia and
Austria, Prussia was to administer Schleswig and Austria was to administer Holstein

B. Bismarck’s accusation of Austrian support in Augustenburg:

To provoke Austria into war, Bismarck accused the Austrians of continuing to support Augustenburg
and was also stirring up trouble for Prussia in Schleswig. In June, 1866 Prussian troops marched into
Holstein and took over control. Austria now appealed to the Confederation against Prussia and was
supported by majority of the German States. This amounted to a declaration of war by Austria against
Prussia.

C. The Austro-Prussian War:

The troops that had entered into Schleswig began to move against the North German States of Hanover
and Saxony, who had once supported Austria. The lesser German States were overrun and with little
resistance, the final battle of the war took place in Sadowa in Bohemia. The Austrian troops had been
redirected towards the Italians, weakening the forces facing the Prussians, whose armament was far more
up-to date and modern to fight the Austrian army and led to an overwhelming victory for the Prussians in
only seven weeks.

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3. The Map of the Austro-Prussian War 1866:

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The Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

1. Introduction:

The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a
conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of
Prussia. Prussian chancellor, Otto von Bismarck deliberately provoked the French into declaring war on
Prussia in order to induce four independent southern states -Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse-
Darmstadt—to join the North German Confederation.

2. The events leading to the Franco-Prussian War 1870:

A. Bismarck’s aim to unite the South German States of Bavaria:

The first aim of Bismarck after 1866 was to win over the South German States of Bavaria. This was
important to Bismarck because Napoleon III had made strenuous efforts to secure the alliance of these
states for France. Bismarck had his demands published in order to convince the South German states of
Napoleon’s aggressive designs. The South German states entered into an agreement with Bismarck by
which the Prussians would have complete control of their armies in times of war.

B. Napoleon IIIs demand to purchase Luxemburg:

The Napoleon III put forward the demand for purchase of Luxemburg from Holland and also proposed
Bismarck should help him obtain Belgium. Refusing these demands, he proceeded to rouse the opposition
of the German States. Eventually the European Conference was held in which he agreed to draw some
Prussian garrisons from Luxemburg, which were stationed as a safeguard to the French agression and
secured an agreement to keep Luxemburg neutral and also guaranteeing Belgian neutrality under the
Treaty of London, 1839, thus thwarting the aims of Napoleon III.

C. The Spanish Succession Question:

By 1869 the Prussian Army was fully prepared and positioning Bismarck’s political and military strength
he was prepared for a war against France. In the same year the revolutions of Spain broke out which
Bismarck turned to his favor. The succession to the Spanish throne which had become vacant through the
disposition of the reigning queen by a military rising, the throne was offered to Leopold of Hohenzollen-
Sigmaringen and Bismarck provoked him to accept it, with the aim of encircling France. On the other
hand, King William I of Prussia, asked Leopold to decline the position of candidature. It appeared that the
French government formulated a demand that German candidature of the Spanish would never be renewed

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and requested an interview with King William I of Prussia. King William declined the requested and
regarded the matter closed. When details of the incident reached Bismarck through a telegram sent by
King William I, he altered the wording before publishing it that it appeared that King William I had
insulted the French Ambassador by deliberately refusing to see him. This created a wave of hysteria and
a war supported by the Empress Eugenie over France. Bismarck achieved his objective and made public
Napoleon IIIs demands for Luxemburg and Belgian, isolating France from Great Britain.

3. The Events at the war Franco-Prussian War of 1870:

A. French troops were not ready for war:

From the beginning of the war Napoleon found that his troops were ill-organized, transport broke down
on several vital occasions and there was poor liaison work between the French armies. When the French
troops arrived at Metz to take command, not a single crop was properly equipped to take the field. None
of these faults of poor organization and delay characterized the Prussians. They won the war due their
own efficiency and the weakness of the enemy. The French soldiers fought bravely and stubbornly in
hopeless circumstances and because they were too weak to resist the pressure the French were decisively
defeated by the Prussians at Sedan.

4. The Map of the Franco-Prussian War:

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The triumph of Bismarck and the process of unification

1. Economic growth in Germany between 1850 – 1870:

The basic source of Germany’s increased strength lay in its rapid economic growth. During these two
decades Germany underwent an industrial revolution which made her the most powerful nation after
Europe. Germany’s industrial revolution differed in two respects; firstly the German government fostered
industrialization for building up the political power of Germany, secondly, Germany was the last f the
great powers to enter the industrial field and so was able to take advantage of the latest technical
developments. Coal mines and steel works sprang up in Western Germany of Saxony and Silesia and
similar advances were made in the production of cotton and woolen goods. In at least two new industries
Germany jumped to the foremost position; the invention of Siemens provided an outstanding support to
the field of electrical engineering and Germany was also the pioneer of the new chemical industry.

2. Timeline of the process of the unification of Germany:

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THE ORIGINS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR

The Formation of the Alliance and Counter Alliance

The formation of Allies:

1. Introduction:

By 1914, Europe's six major powers were split into two alliances. Britain, France, and Russia formed the
Triple Entente, while Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy joined in the Triple Alliance. These alliances
weren't the sole cause of World War I, as some historians have contended, but they did play an important role
in hastening Europe's rush to conflict.

2. The Formation of Allies

A. The Dual Alliance:

Bismarck knew an alliance with France wasn’t possible because of lingering French anger over Alsace-
Lorraine, a province Germany had seized in 1871 after defeating France in the Franco-Prussian War. Britain,
meanwhile, was pursuing a policy of disengagement and was reluctant to form any European alliances.
Bismarck turned to Austria-Hungary and Russia. In 1873, the Three Emperors League was created, pledging
mutual wartime support among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. Russia withdrew in 1878, and
Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the Dual Alliance in 1879. The Dual Alliance promised that the parties
would aid each other if Russia attacked them or if Russia assisted another power at war with either nation.

B. The Triple Alliance:

In 1882, Germany and Austria-Hungary strengthened their bond by forming the Triple Alliance with Italy.
All three nations pledged support should any of them be attacked by France. If any member found itself at
war with two or more nations at once, the alliance would come to their aid. Italy, the weakest of the three,
insisted on a final clause, voiding the deal if the Triple Alliance members were the aggressor. Shortly after,
Italy signed a deal with France, pledging support if Germany attacked them.

C. Russian 'Reinsurance:

Bismarck was keen to avoid fighting a war on two fronts, which meant making some form of agreement with
either France or Russia. Given the sour relations with France, Bismarck signed what he called a "reinsurance
treaty" with Russia, stating that both nations would remain neutral if one was involved in a war with a third
party. If that war was with France, Russia had no obligation to aid Germany. However, this treaty lasted only

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until 1890, when it was allowed to lapse by the government that replaced Bismarck. The Russians had wanted
to keep it. This is usually seen as a major error by Bismarck's successors.

3. After Bismarck:
A. The policies of Kaiser Wilhelm II:

Once Bismarck was voted out of power, his carefully crafted foreign policy began to crumble. Eager to expand
his nation's empire, Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm II pursued an aggressive policy of militarization. Alarmed by
Germany's naval buildup, Britain, Russia, and France strengthened their own ties. Meanwhile, Germany's new
elected leaders proved incompetent at maintaining Bismarck's alliances, and the nation soon found itself
surrounded by hostile powers.

B. The formation of the Triple Entente:

Concerned about the threat rival powers posed to the colonies, Great Britain began searching for alliances of
its own. Although Britain had not supported France in the Franco-Prussian War, the two nations pledged
military support for one another in the Entente Cordiale of 1904. Three years later, Britain signed a similar
agreement with Russia. In 1912, the Anglo-French Naval Convention tied Britain and France even more
closely militarily.

4. Heading to the Great War of 1914:

When Austria's Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in 1914, the great powers of
Europe reacted in a way that led to full-scale war within weeks. The Triple Entente fought the Triple Alliance,
although Italy soon switched sides. The war that all parties thought would be finished by Christmas 1914
instead dragged on for four long years, eventually bringing the United States into the conflict. By the time
the Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919, officially ending the Great War, more than 8.5 million
soldiers1and 7 million civilians were dead.

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The Balkan Wars (1912 – 1913)

1. Origin of the Balkan Wars:

A. The immediate results of the “Young Turks” revolution:

In 1908 a section of the Turkish people attempted to put an end to the corruption and inefficiency of the
Empire led by the Young Turks movement and there was an outright rebellion against the rule of the corrupt
and cruel Abdul Hamid, the real author of the Bulgarian and Armenian Massacres. The Young Turks
movement demanded constitutional, liberal, government on Western lines and absolute equality between
the Christians and the Mohammedans. Resultantly, on account of the movement’s strong support Abdul
Hamid was forced to grant a parliamentary ensuring complete freedom of political organization. The
immediate results of the “Young Turks” revolution was to encourage the further break-up of the Balkan
states which disrupted their nationalist sentiments, creating a tense political situation in Europe.

B. The Treaty of Berlin 1878:

The Treaty of Berlin, (July 13), 1878 was a diplomatic meeting of the major European powers under the
chairmanship of the German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck. The congress solved an international crisis
caused by the San Stefano treaty by revising the peace settlement. According to the treaty Bulgaria was
divided into three; the northernmost being independent under a Bulgarian prince, the central district placed
under a Christian Governor – General but under direct military and political authority of the Sultan and the
southernmost part, including Macedonia was reverted to Turkey. Under this treaty Austria-Hungary was
given the administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, thereby increasing their influence in the Balkan region.
The congress failed to consider adequately the aspirations of the Balkan peoples themselves and, thereby,
laid the foundation for future crises in the Balkans. Furthermore, the congress left Russia humiliated by
substantially reducing the gains that it had made under the San Stefano treaty.

C. The formation of the Balkan League:

The League of the Balkans was a quadruple alliance formed by a series of bilateral treaties concluded in
1912 between the Eastern Orthodox kingdoms of Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia and Montenegro, brokered by
Russia and directed against the Ottoman Empire. Under Russian influence, Serbia and Bulgaria settled their
differences and signed an alliance, originally directed against Austria-Hungary on 13 March 1912, but by
adding a secret chapter to it essentially redirected the alliance against the Ottoman Empire. Serbia then
signed a mutual alliance with Montenegro, while Bulgaria did the same with Greece. This laid the
foundation of a strong alliance united on the fronts to reunite the Slav populations as a unified nation.

D. The promotion of nationalist sentiments among the Serbs:

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In 1908, Austria ended the ‘protectorate’ of Bosnia and Herzegovina given to her in the Treaty of Berlin,
1878 and incorporated the provinces completely in the Austrian Empire to forestall the Serbian ambition of
forming a union of these two territories that the Serbs for long had aimed at forming a Slav State by
incorporating Bosnia, Herzegovina and Montenegro. Therefore, there was a strong racial and national
movement for the union of these territories with Serbia that regarded the Austrian move of 1908 as an act
of hostility towards themselves and their perfectly justified aims. Another frustration of the Serbian national
aims was the formation of Albania as an independent state on the Adriatic, which represented Austria’s
determination to keep Serbia a landlocked state, hindering her trade and power, thus restricting her
expansion, which the Serbs saw as acts threatening their national sovereignty.

2. The First Balkan War:

The First Balkan War was fought between the members of the Balkan League—Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece,
and Montenegro—and the Ottoman Empire. Montenegro opened hostilities by declaring war on Turkey on
October 8, 1912, and the other members of the league followed suit 10 days later. The Balkan allies were
soon victorious. In Thrace (Turkey) the Bulgarians defeated the main Ottoman forces, advancing to the
outskirts of Constantinople and laying siege to Adrianople (Edirne). In Macedonia the Serbian army
achieved a great victory at Kumanovo (North Macedonia) that enabled it to capture Bitola and to join forces
with the Montenegrins and enter Skopje. A peace conference was begun in London, but, after a coup
d’état by the Young Turks in Constantinople in January 1913, war with the Ottomans was resumed. Again
the allies were victorious: Ioánnina fell to the Greeks and Adrianople to the Bulgarians. Under a peace treaty
signed in London on May 30, 1913, the Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its remaining European territory,
including all of Macedonia and Albania. Albanian independence was insisted upon by the European powers,
and Macedonia was to be divided among the Balkan allies.

3. The Second Balkan War:

The Second Balkan War began when Serbia, Greece, and Romania quarreling with Bulgaria over the
division of their joint conquests in Macedonia. On June 1, 1913, Serbia and Greece formed an alliance
against Bulgaria, and the war began when King Ferdinand of Bulgaria ordered his troops to attack Serbian
and Greek forces in Macedonia. The Bulgarian offensive, benefiting by surprise, was initially successful,
but Greek and Serbian defenders retired in good order. The Serbian army counterattacked on and drove a
wedge into the Bulgarian line. In an effort to save their force from being cut off entirely, the Bulgarians
launched a desperate attack on the Serbian lines. Once again, the Bulgarians achieved momentary success.
The Romanian army crossed the Bulgarian frontier and began an unopposed march on Sofia, the Bulgarian
capital. With enemy columns converging on Sofia, the Bulgarians bowed to the inevitable and a peace treaty

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was signed between the combatants on August 10, 1913. Under the terms of the treaty, Greece and Serbia
divided most of Macedonia between themselves, leaving Bulgaria with only a small part of the region.

4. Map of the Balkan Wars:

5. How did the Balkan Wars sow seeds for WWI:

A. Intensified adverse relations between the Austrian Empire and Serbia:
B. Aimed at the formation of a united Slav state of Serbs: regarding the acts of 1908 as acts of
hostility:
C. Declaration of Albania as a state independent from Serbia on the Adriatic:
D. Austrian aims of expansion from the Adriatic to the Aegean Sea:

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The Outbreak of WWI

1. Introduction:

The First World War began in the summer of 1914, shortly after the assassination of Austria’s
Archduke, Franz Ferdinand, and lasted more than four years, ending in 1918. Though the
assassination of Archduke Ferdinand was the direct precipitating event leading to the declaration
of war, there were many other factors that also played a role in leading up to World War I (WWI).

2. The causes of the WWI:

A. Immediate Cause: Assassination of Duke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungry:

On June 28, 1914, as Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, along with his wife, Sophie was on an
official visit to the capital of Bosnia, Sarajevo; he was made a target of an assassination attempt
by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian nationalist, who shot him and his wife by firing in the car. Ferdinand
was chosen as a target because he was to be the heir of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. This was in
protest to Austria-Hungary having control of this region. Serbia wanted to take over Bosnia and
Herzegovina, in wake of the nationalist sentiments that emerged and caused unrest among the
Serbians. Following the assassination, Austria-Hungary issued an ultimatum to Serbia, which was
rejected and led Austria-Hungary to declare war against Serbia, with German support. Russia then
came to Serbia’s defense, therefore initiating the First World War.

B. Growing Imperialism in Europe and the creation of the Allied Powers and Central
Powers:

The expansion of European nations as empires (also known as imperialism) can be seen as a key
cause of World War I, because as countries like Britain and France expanded their empires that
resulted in increased tensions among European countries. The tensions were a result of many
colonies often being acquired through coercion. Then, once a nation had been conquered, it was
governed by the imperial nation: many of these colonial nations were exploited by their mother
countries, and dissatisfaction and resentment was commonplace. As British and French
expansionism continued, tensions rose between opposing empires, including Germany, Austria-
Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, leading to the creation of the Allied Powers (Britain and France)
and Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire) during World War I.

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C. Intensifying Serbian nationalism, striving to form a unified Serbian State:

Nationalism was one of many political forces at play in the time leading up to World War I, with
Serbian nationalism in particular, playing a key role. Serbian nationalism can be dated to the mid-
and late-1800s, though two precipitating nationalism events are directly linked to the start of WWI.
In the Balkans, Slavic Serbs sought independence from Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire,
and in 1878, they tried to gain control of Bosnia and Herzegovina to form a unified Serbian state.
With the decline of the Ottoman Empire, Serbian nationalism continued to rise, culminating in the
assassination of the Archduke of Austria in 1914 by a Bosnian Serb and officially triggering the
start of the Great War.

D. Formation of the Mutual Defence Alliance:

Over time, countries throughout Europe made mutual defense agreements that would pull them
into battle. These treaties meant that if one country was attacked, allied countries were bound to
defend them. Before World War 1, the following alliances existed:

✓ Russia and Serbia

✓ Germany and Austria-Hungary
✓ France and Russia
✓ Britain and France and Belgium
✓ Japan and Britain

Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia got involved to defend Serbia. Germany seeing
Russia mobilizing, declared war on Russia. France was then drawn in against Germany and
Austria-Hungary. Germany attacked France through Belgium pulling Britain into war. Then Japan
entered the war bringing all the allies to war, resulting in a Great War.

E. The Blank Check Assurance: Conspired Plans of Germany and Austria-Hungary

The alliance between Germany and Austria-Hungary at the start of World War I is also commonly
known as the “blank check assurance.” In July 1914, during a meeting between members of the
Austrian Foreign Ministry, the Ambassador to Berlin, the German Emperor and the German
Chancellor, Germany offered Austria-Hungary unconditional support in the wake of the
assassination of Franz Ferdinand. This “blank check,” via unconditional support, sought military

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and political triumph in securing the Balkans. It also gave Austro-Hungarian leaders the
confidence needed to embark on war against Serbia. It is widely recognized as one of the main
reasons Germany is seen as responsible for the escalation and continuation of World War I.

F. The Kaiser’s Policy: Increased Militarism leading to an arms race between Britain
and Germany:

Kaiser’s; the German Counselor’s aggressive policies gave the governments of Britain, France and
Russia every cause to fear that their vital interests were threatened. Kaiser focused on building
Germany as a naval power and for this purpose he quickly developed a fleet beyond the needs of
mere defence doubling their fleet under the leadership and head of the German Navy, Admiral
Von Tirpitz. Britain replied by producing a new type of battleships, more competent than any
existing battleships. This naval competition went on till 1914 and all efforts of disarmament failed
and Kaiser refused to accept any British offer to reach an agreement through the disarmament of
German fleet, which led to a growing conflict bringing each other at mere ends of their allies during
the outbreak of the WWI.

3. Summary Of Events of WWI:

A. The Start of the War:

The assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand (June 28, 1914) was the main catalyst
for the start of the Great War (World War I). After the assassination, the following series of events
took place:

✓ July 28 – Austria declared war on Serbia.

✓ August 1 – As Austria’s ally, Germany declares war on Russia, an ally of Serbia
✓ August 3 – Germany declares war on France, an ally of Russia and immediately begins an
invasion of neutral Belgium
✓ August 4 – Great Britain, an ally of France, declares war against Germany
✓ The United States (President Wilson) declares that the United States will remain neutral
B. The Western And Eastern Fronts:

The first month of combat consisted of bold attacks and rapid troop movements on both fronts. In
the west, Germany attacked first Belgium and then France. In the east, Russia attacked both
Germany and Austria-Hungary. In the south, Austria-Hungary attacked Serbia. Following the

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Battle of the Marne (September 5–9, 1914), the western front became entrenched in central France
and remained that way for the rest of the war.

C. The Ottoman Empire:

Late in 1914, the Ottoman Empire was brought into the fray as well, after Germany tricked Russia
into thinking that Turkey had attacked it. As a result, much of 1915 was dominated by Allied
actions against the Ottomans in the Mediterranean. First, Britain and France launched a failed
attack on the Dardanelles. This campaign was followed by the British invasion of the Gallipoli
Peninsula. Britain also launched a separate campaign against the Turks in Mesopotamia. Although
the British had some successes in Mesopotamia, the Gallipoli campaign and the attacks on the
Dardanelles resulted in British defeats.

D. Trench Warfare:

The middle part of the war, 1916 and 1917, was dominated by continued trench warfare in the east.
Both sides had built a series of trenches that went from the North Sea and through Belgium and
France. Soldiers fought from dug-in positions, striking at each other with machine guns, heavy
artillery, and chemical weapons. The land between the two enemy trench lines was called “No
Man’s Land.” This land was sometimes covered with barbed wire and land mines. The enemy
trenches were generally around 50 to 250 yards apart. Though soldiers died by the millions in
brutal conditions, neither side had any substantive success or gained any advantage.

E. The United States’ Entrance And Russia’s Exit:

Despite the stalemate on both fronts in Europe, two important developments in the war occurred
in 1917. In early April, the United States, angered by attacks upon its ships in the Atlantic and
declared war on Germany. Then, in November, the Bolshevik Revolution prompted Russia to pull
out of the war.

F. The End of the War and Armistice:

Although both sides launched renewed offensives in 1918 in an all-or-nothing effort to win the
war, both efforts failed. The fighting between exhausted, demoralized troops continued to plod
along. A deadly outbreak of influenza, meanwhile, took heavy tolls on soldiers of both sides.
Eventually, the governments of both Germany and Austria-Hungary began to lose control as both

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countries experienced multiple mutinies from within their military structures. And on November
11, 1918, the Germans signed an armistice in which they agreed to surrender their arms, give up
much of their navy, and evacuate occupied territory.

VIII-The First World War and its aftermath

The World War one (1914-1918)

Europe After the Unification of

Italy and Germany- An Era of
Colonialism

Formation of New Alliances in

Europe

Balkan Crisis- War of 1912 to

1913

Causes of The World War One

Outbreak of World War one :

Events during the Course of WWI

Consequences of WWI :
Ratifications of Treaties

1- Background of WWI: Colonialism of European Powers

At the end of 19th century almost the whole world was ruled by the European states under the
umbrella of second wave of imperialism after the wave of nationalism. The Metternich System
had been broken with the age of revolution and the Crimean war. States like Germany and Italy

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after the unification seek for conquering the colonies. The portion of the Europe that European
powers controlled was one-Third in 1800, two-third in 1870 and fourth-fifth in 1912.The Great
Britain was the Largest and the most successful of the imperial powers. It had withdrew itself
from the Congress of Vienna on the difference of conservatism and liberalism. In the “The
struggle for mastery in Europe, 1848-1918. By A. P. J. TAYLOR”, author believes all the major
and minor crises from 1848 to 1914 pushed the European states to indulge into the great war for
power struggle.

2- The Breakdown of Congress of Vienna: Solidification of Alliances

By the waning years of 19th century, the collective security system of Congress of Vienna had
weakend. It showed all major powers had different opinions related to security, like Franco-
Prussian war 1870 and the Russian invasion of Turkey in 1877 had shattered the Concert of
Europe. On the contrary, alliances began to solidify which were more rigid than the previous
alliances in the Europe. Two camps emerged in 1880s. The Triple Alliance comprised of
Germany, Austro-Hungary and Italy in 1882. The seond one was Entente Cordiale constituted by
France, Britain and Russia in 1893.

A- Tangled Alliances
Growing rivalries and mistrust among the great powers led to the creation of military
alliances. Alliances were meant to keep peace among the great powers in Europe but
instead of it, these alliances pushed the continent into the Great War. Otto von Bismarck,
the Chancellor of Prussia used war to unify the Germany and then formed the League of
Triple Alliance or Military alliance among Austro-Hungary, Germany and Italy
preceding towards the WWI. The treaty of 1881 was therefore a practical agreement
about the Near East, without even a monarchical flourish. Its only general principle was a
pact of neutrality if one of the three empires was involved in war with a fourth Power.

On the other hand, Since Germany and France, Austria-Hungary and Russia would
always cancel each other out, two ambitious and aggressive Powers, France and Russia
expectations seemed fulfilled against the Austro- Hungary. England and France had been
more often allies than rivals during the nineteenth century even in the Mediterranean. It
brought Britain into the Entente Cordiale.

3-Causes of the World War one

A-Franco-Russian Alliance (1894)
Both Russia and France, which had been humiliated in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71,
feared the rising power of Germany, which had already formed alliances with Austria-Hungary
and Italy. So the two nations decided to join forces for mutual protection as well. It was the start
of what would become the allied side. Britain into an alliance with Germany on German terms,”
explains Eugene Beiriger, an Allied side, the Triple Entente, in World War I.

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“To my mind, it is the coming together of the Triple Entente in stages—the Franco-Russian
Alliance in 1894, the British-French Entente Cordiale of 1904, and the Anglo-Russian Entente of
1907—that really solidified the system of diplomatic agreements that formed the main
antagonistic blocs that went to war in 1914

B-First German Naval Law, (1898)

This legislation, advocated by Germany’s newly-appointed Secretary of the Imperial Navy,
Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, dramatically expanded the size of Germany’s battle fleet. It was the
first of five laws dictating a buildup in which the Germans envisioned building a force that was
superior to Britain’s Royal Navy.
“Tirpitz aimed at force associate professor of history, peace, justice and conflict studies at
DePaul University, and author of the 2018 book World War I: A Historical Exploration of
Literature.
Instead, the British responded by building even more ships, and by ending their late 1880s
policy of “splendid isolation” to form alliances with Japan, France and Russia.
“The German Naval Laws created unintended consequences,” Beiriger says “They ended up
alienating both the government and public of Britain prior to the war.”

C- The Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905)

Russia’s Czar Nicholas II wanted to obtain a port that gave his navy and commercial ships access
to the Pacific, and he set his sites on Korea. The Japanese saw Russia’s rising aggressiveness as a
menace and launched a surprise attack on Nicholas’ fleet at Port Arthur in China. The
resulting war, fought both at sea and on land in China, was won by the Japanese, and as Beiriger
notes, it helped shift power the power balance in Europe.
D-Austria-Hungary’s Annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (1908)
Under an 1878 treaty, Austria-Hungary was governing Bosnia and Herzegovina, even though
technically they were still part of the Ottoman Empire. But after the Austro-Hungarian
government annexed their territory, the move backfired. The two provinces’ mostly Slavic
population wanted to have their own country, while Slavs in nearby Serbia had the ambition of
appropriating the provinces themselves.
“In multi-ethnic empires, nationalistic fervor fueled resistance to distant rulers,” Doran Cart,
senior curator of the National World War I Museum and Memorial, says. “Tension was
powder-keg high in the Balkans, where Slavic people, aided by the Slavs of Russia, resisted the
rule of Austria-Hungary.”
E-The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911)
The French and Germans butted heads for several years over Morocco, where Germany’s Kaiser
Wilhelm II meddled in an attempt to pressure the French-British alliance. In the First Moroccan

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Crisis in 1905, he actually sailed to Tangiers to express his support for the sultan of Morocco
against French interests. But instead of backing away from the conflict, the British rose in
support of France.
The Balkans In the Second Moroccan Crisis in 1911, the German foreign secretary, Alfred von
Kiderlen- Wächter, sent a naval cruiser to anchor in a harbor on the Moroccan coast, in reaction to
a tribal revolt that the Germans thought was being backed by France as a pretext for seizing the
country. Again, the British backed the French, and eventually, Germany was forced to agree to
recognize a French protectorate in Morocco. The two crises pushed the British and French closer
together, and only hastened an eventual confrontation with the Germans.
F-Italy Invades Libya (1911)
The modern Italian state, which didn’t begin until 1861, had been “largely left out of the scramble
that built Britain, France, and other powers into worldwide empires,” Fogarty explains. The Italian
government set its sights on Libya, a North African country that hadn’t been claimed by another
Western European power, and decided to take it from the Ottoman Empire. The Italo-Turkish War
ended with a peace treaty, but the Ottoman military left Libya and let the Italians colonize it. It
was the first military conflict that featured aerial bombing, but as Fogarty notes, the real
significance was that it exposed the shakiness of the Ottoman Empire and its slipping control over
peripheral territories. That, in turn, was one of the factors that ultimately led to World War I, which
Fogarty describes as “a war of empires, some expanding or seeking to expand, some keen to hold
on to what they had, others trying desperately not to lose what they had left.

4- Balkan Crisis: The First and Second Balkans War

A- The Ottoman Empire Factor
It was known as the Sick man of the Europe due to the internal and external issues faced
the the Empire in the late 19th century. The Ottoman Empire was continuously involved
in wars with Austria and Russia due to the nationalistic pressure caused by Balkan states.
Despite the Tanzimat reforms in 1839 to 1876, the decline of Ottoman Empire was
continued.

B-The Balkans

The Balkans were known as the powder keg because there were very high nationalistic
tensions in these region. The countries in the Balkans include, Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria,
Albania and Greece. The Ottoman Empire had been in decline fro a long time. Austria
was worried that Serbia might try to spread its influence by taking the neighbouring
territories of Bosnia. Thus, it would lead to the weakening of the Austro-Hungary empire
itself. Following the revolt against the Ottoman rule because of the revolution by Yong
Turks, it had been decided that Austria would be allowed to administer the Ottoman
province Bosnia Herzegovina.

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C- The Balkan Wars 1912-1913

Balkan Wars, (1912–13), two successive military conflicts that deprived the Ottoman
Empire of all its remaining territory in Europe except part of Thrace and the city
of Adrianople (Edirne). The second conflict erupted when the Balkan
allies Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria quarreled over the partitioning of their conquests.
The result was a resumption of hostilities in 1913 between Bulgaria on the one hand and
Serbia and Greece, which were joined by Romania, on the other.

Origin:
Having nationalistic tensions in Balkan region, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and
Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large elements of their
ethnic populations remained under the Ottoman rule. In 1912, these states formed the
Balkan league to drive the Ottomans from Europe. In 1913, members of the Balkan
league had a war over the division of the conquered territory, especially Macedonia and
Bulgaria. Though, Britain and Germany brokered the treaty to end the conflict.

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5- Outbreak of the World War One: Course of Events

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➢ The major cause of WWI was the occupation of colonies among European powers and
they all wanted to protect the world by expanding their power.
➢ WWI was started from Serbia, a state in Eastern Europe, which was under control of
Russia, Britain, and France.
➢ Austro-Hungary was the neighbor of Serbia and it was supported by Germany and the
Ottoman Empire.On 28th June 1914, Archeduke Franz Ferdinand, the successor of the
Austro-Hungary was shot ad killed by the Serbian man.
➢ As their leader had been shot, Austro-Hungary blamed on Serbia and declared war
against it.
➢ As a result Russia got involved because Russia had an alliance with Serbia.
➢ Germany then declared war on Russia because Germany had an alliance with Austro-
Hungary.
➢ France and Britain declared war on Germany because of their agreements to protect
Serbia. The world was divided into two blocs, named the triple allies and the triple
Entente.
➢ In last, United States severs diplomatic relations with Germany and in 1917, The United
States declares war on Germany
➢ In 1918, Germany signs the Armistice at Compiègne, ending World War I

6- Consequences of WWI : Changes in the Map of Europe

➢ The Great World war destroyed both life and property which was about 10 million lost of
innocent lives.
➢ It changed the map of Europe because three multi ethnic empires- The Austro-Hungarian,
Russian and the Ottoman Empire were collapsed. In the replacement of these, the small
states enjoyed the independence including Poland, Czechslovakia, and yougoslavia.
➢ The war also contributed to the indendence of the Republic of Ireland from Britain in
1920.
➢ The Russian Czar empire was overthrown in 1917 by Bolshieviks and communism
came under the leadership of Viladimir Lenin.
➢ League of Nations was formed in 1919 on the suggestion of victorious American
President Widrow Wilson’s fourteen points in order to protect further wars in the future.
➢ The tragic treaty, Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1918. In which Germany was
charged to start war, its military was cut. Heavy financial sanctions were imposed.

8- Treaty of Versailles

On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed at the Palace of Versailles outside Paris,
France. The treaty was one of several that officially ended five years of conflict known as the

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Great War—World War I. The Treaty of Versailles outlined the conditions of peace between
Germany and the victorious Allies, led by the United States, France, and the United Kingdom.
Other Central Powers (significantly, Austria-Hungary) signed different treaties with the Allies.
The Treaty of Versailles is one of the most controversial armistice treaties in history. The treaty’s
so-called “war guilt” clause forced Germany and other Central Powers to take all the blame
for World War I. This meant a loss of territories, reduction in military forces, and reparation
payments to Allied powers.

Chapter 2 part VIII:

League of Nations: A Baby Step of
Institutionalism

A-Introduction
League of Nations, an organization for international cooperation established on January
10, 1920, at the initiative of the victorious Allied powers at the end of World War I.To
administer the former territories of the defeated countries, a system of mandates was set
up, to be operated by League members – mostly Britain, the British Dominions, France
and Japan – on agreed conditions, and with annual reports to the League. The league also
set up Special Commissions to administer areas such as Danzig and Saar.
B- Origins of the League of Nations

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The central, basic idea of the movement was that aggressive war is a crime not only
against the immediate victim but against the whole human community. This idea was
revolved around the 20 points of Widrow Wilsonian democracy. Accordingly it is the
right and duty of all states to join in preventing it; if it is certain that they will so act, no
aggression is likely to take place. Such affirmations might be found in the writings of
philosophers or moralists but had never before emerged onto the plane of practical
politics. Statesmen and lawyers alike held and acted on the view that there was no natural
or supreme law by which the rights of sovereign states, including that of making war as
and when they chose, could be judged or limited. However, the premise of collective
security was, for practical purposes, a new concept engendered by the unprecedented
pressures of World War I.

C- The Covenant: The Document

The Covenant of the League of Nations was an official document. This text was
published, as a draft, on February 14, 1919. The Covenant was a short and concise
document of 26 articles.
The first seven articles established the constitutional basis of the new system.
• Article 1 defined the League’s original members, which consisted of all the Allied
signatories of the peace treaties.
• Articles 2–5 created the directing organs of the League: an Assembly composed of
representatives of all members and a Council composed of representatives of the United
States, Great Britain, France, Italy, and Japan as permanent members, with four others
elected by the Assembly.
• Articles 6 and 7 created a permanent Secretariat, provided for the expenses of the League,
and named Geneva as its headquarters.
• Articles 8 and 9 dealt with armaments. All members undertook to reduce their
armaments to the lowest possible level, to suppress the “evil effects” of the private
manufacture of arms, and to exchange full information as to their existing armaments and
their programs for the future. A permanent commission was provided to advise the
Council on all military, naval, and air questions.
• Articles 10–17 embodied what may be called the central and basic idea of the
League: collective security, together with the various procedures for peaceful settlement
of disputes. Each member undertook (Article 10) to respect the integrity and
independence of all the others and to join in preserving them against aggression.
• Article 22 established the mandates system.
• Articles 23 and 24 corresponded to the proposals for worldwide economic and social
cooperation under the authority of the League.
For the next 20 years the Covenant continued to be, in theory, not only the guide and
authority for all the activities of the League, but also the criterion by
which liberal opinion in many developed countries judged the conduct of their own and
other governments.

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4- Structure of the League of Nations

1. The General Assembly
2. The Council
3. The Secretariat
4. The International court of Justice
5. International labour organization.

5- Successes of League of Nation

6- Failures of League of Nation

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Major Crises Led to the Outbreak of the Second Great War

A-The Manchurian Affair 1931 – 1933 had 3 very important results: 1. The League
showed it is incapable of enforcing world peace, 2. the Affair encouraged the European
dictators to try the same tactics in Africa and Europe, 3. Japan continues in violent policy
and launches full-scale attack in 1937.
B-Abyssinia, 1935: Benito Mussolini, the Fascist dictator of Italy, dreamed of building a
new Roman Empire. Mussolini wanted to fight a war. He believed this would help
Italians forget their problems at home. It would also win the coal, iron and oil Italy
lacked. Mussolini wanted to add Abyssinia - now called Ethiopia - to the Italian Empire.
Abyssinia was sandwiched between the Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland. It was
an independent country ruled by the Emperor Haile Selassie. Country was a member of
the League of Nations.
C- In 1935 the Italians invaded. The Italian soldiers used tanks, poison gas, bombs and
flame-throwers against Abyssinian troops armed with spears and outdated rifles. Selassie

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appealed to the League of Nations for help. Britain and France, two leading members of
the League, could have stopped Italy by closing the Suez Canal to Italian ships – cutting
the Italian supply route to Abyssinia. Instead they agreed with the rest of the League to
impose certain economic sanctions on Italy. These measures had little effect, because
they did not include steel, oil and coal, which were vital to the Italian war effort. In May
1936 the Italian captured the capital of Abyssinia, Addis Ababa.

IX. Dictatorships in Europe

a- Fascism in Europe After the Second World War

1- Introduction
Fascism was a totalitarian political ideology that gained control in several European
countries in the interwar period, particularly in the 1920s and 1930s. It emerged as a
response to the aftermath of World War I and the perceived failures of liberal
democracies. Fascist regimes sought to establish centralized, authoritarian rule, often
characterized by nationalism, militarism, and suppression of political opposition.

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Figure: Totalitarian Rule in Europe

2- Causes of the fascism in Europe:

Following are the key ways fascism gained control in Europe and the causes that
contributed to its rise after World War I:

A. Political and Economic Turmoil: The aftermath of World War I left Europe
in a state of political and economic upheaval. The harsh terms of the Treaty of
Versailles, which placed heavy reparations and territorial losses on defeated
countries, led to bitterness and resentment. Many Europeans were
disillusioned with the traditional political parties and systems, seeking strong
leaders who promised stability and solutions to their economic woes.

B. Nationalism and Populism: Fascist movements capitalized on nationalist

sentiments and promoted a sense of national pride and identity. They often
appealed to the frustrations of the working class and sought to unify the nation
under a charismatic leader who promised to restore greatness and past glory.

C. Fear of Communism: The rise of communism in Russia with the Bolshevik

Revolution of 1917 alarmed conservative elites and bourgeoisie across
Europe. They viewed communism as a threat to their traditional social and
economic order. Fascist movements positioned themselves as staunch
opponents of communism, presenting themselves as defenders of property,
order, and traditional values.

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D. Militarism and Paramilitary Groups: Fascist movements often relied on

paramilitary groups, such as the Brownshirts (SA) in Germany and the
Blackshirts (MVSN) in Italy, to intimidate and suppress political opponents.
These armed groups contributed to the erosion of democratic institutions and
the establishment of a climate of fear and violence.

E. Charismatic Leaders: Fascist movements were often led by charismatic

figures who could appeal to the emotions and aspirations of the masses.
Leaders like Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy used
propaganda and mass rallies to rally support and consolidate their power.

F. Weak Democratic Institutions: In many European countries, democratic

institutions were relatively young and weak after World War I. Political
instability, frequent changes in government, and ineffective leadership created
an atmosphere of uncertainty, making it easier for fascist movements to gain
support.

G. Economic Hardships: The Great Depression of the 1930s exacerbated

economic hardships in Europe, leading to widespread unemployment and
poverty. Fascist leaders promised economic revival and employed public
works programs and military expansion to stimulate the economy and create
jobs.

H. Cult of Personality: Fascist leaders cultivated a cult of personality,

promoting their image as strong, infallible leaders who embodied the nation's
destiny. They often suppressed dissenting voices and consolidated power in
their hands.

I. Propaganda and Mass Media: Fascist regimes effectively used propaganda

and controlled mass media to shape public opinion, demonize enemies, and
portray the leader and the movement as the only solution to the nation's
problems.

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Figure2: Analyzing the Fascist Rule in Europe

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Part IX: b- Fascism in Italy under

Musssolini

Mussolini led Italy to fascism

Introduction
Fascism arose in Europe after World War I when many people yearned for national unity and
strong leadership. In Italy, Benito Mussolini used his charisma to establish a powerful fascist
state.
Benito Mussolini coined the term “fascism” in 1919 to describe his political movement. He
adopted the ancient Roman fasces as his symbol. This was a bundle of rods tied around an ax,
which represented the power of Rome.
Mussolini established the first fascist regime, followed soon after by others, including Nazi
Germany. Fascism, however, differed somewhat from one nation to another.

Philosophy of Fascist Benito Mussolini for Government

• Absolute Power of the State: Fascist regimes have a strong centralized state, or national
government. The fascist state seeks total control over all major parts of society.
Individuals must give up their private needs and rights to serve the needs of the whole
society as represented by the state.
• Rule by a Dictator: A single dictator runs the fascist state and makes all the important
decisions. This leader often uses charisma, a magnetic personality, to gain the support of
the people.
• Corporatism: Fascists believe in taming capitalism by controlling labor and factory
owners. Unions, strikes, and other labor actions are illegal. Although private property
remains, the state controls the economy.
• Extreme Nationalism: The fascist state uses national glory and the fear of outside threats
to build a new society based on the “common will” of the people. Fascists believe in
action and looking at national myths for guidance rather than relying on the “barren
intellectualism” of science and reason.

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• Superiority of the Nation’s People: Fascists hold up the nation’s people as superior to
other nationalities. They typically strengthen and unify the dominant group in a nation
while stifling dissent and persecuting minority groups.
• Militarism and Imperialism: Fascists believe that great nations show their greatness by
conquering and ruling weak nations. Fascists believe the state can survive only if it
successfully proves its military superiority in war.

Mussolini’s Rise to Power: Course of Events

➢ Building the Sense of Ultra nationalism: After serving in the Italian army during
World War I, Mussolini returned home, looking for a way to unify the Italian people.
In 1918, he began to deliver emotional speeches, calling for a dictator to head the
country. He argued that only a strong leader could unite the people to overcome
Italy’s postwar mass unemployment, chaotic political party conflicts, and strikes by
socialists and communists.
➢ Hiring Private Force: In 1919, Mussolini organized his fascist movement in the
northern city of Milan. He formed squads of street fighters who wore black shirts. His
“Blackshirts” beat up socialists and communists and threw them out of local
governments.
➢ Running Anti-Communist wave: The communist revolution in Russia had taken
place only two years earlier. Mussolini’s fascist movement quickly gained the support
of anti-communist business people, property owners, and middle-class professionals
like teachers and doctors.
➢ Legalizing National Fascist Party: In 1921, Mussolini formed the National Fascist
Party. But he still lacked a clear fascist program. He only knew one thing for sure: He
wanted to rule Italy.
➢ Mobilizing Mass Movement: In a speech before thousands of his supporters in
October 1922, Mussolini declared, “Either the government will be given to us, or we
will seize it by marching on Rome.” A few days later, he unleashed his followers on a
massive march to Italy’s capital city. As tens of thousands converged on Rome,
government leaders became so unnerved that they resigned.

➢ Holding the Government Seat: King Victor Emmanuel had the constitutional duty
to appoint a new prime minister, who would form the next government. With his
Blackshirts and other supporters swarming the streets of Rome, Mussolini demanded
that the king appoint him prime minister. The king gave in, and at age 39, Mussolini
became Italy’s youngest prime minister on October 29, 1922.

The Fascist State: Social Reforms

A-Nationalizing the Education System:

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➢ Mussolini chose Giovanni Gentile, a noted Italian philosopher, as his minister of

education. Gentile reorganized Italy’s school system. He also wrote many articles and
books, clarifying the basic ideas of fascism. Gentile taught that the “common will” of the
people is the law of the state. Therefore, individuals must submit to the fascist state in
order to be truly free. Later, Mussolini put it this way: “Far from crushing the individual,
the fascist state multiplies his energies, just as in a regiment a soldier is . . . multiplied by
the number of his fellow soldiers.”
➢ Building on the ideas of earlier European philosophers like Friedrich Nietzsche, Gentile
claimed that the peoples of the world are engaged in a survival of the fittest. He declared
it is the natural right of the stronger to conquer and rule the weaker. Gentile stated that
war has another function in the fascist state: It unites the people and proves their
superiority as a nation.
➢ Gentile, sometimes called the philosopher of Italian fascism, believed he could combine
philosophy with raw power. He once praised Mussolini as being dedicated to Italy in “its
honor, its glory, its security and prosperity, and, therefore, in its power and its value
in the history of the world.”
B-Restricting basic rights of citizens: Duce II in Power
➢ Mussolini called new elections for the Italian parliament in 1924. Intimidation and fraud
marred the election. Mussolini’s Fascist Party together with a smaller allied party won 66
percent of the vote.
➢ After the election, Mussolini closed opposition newspapers and banned public protest
meetings. He declared all political parties illegal except for his own Fascist Party. He
outlawed labor unions and strikes. He also established a political police force, the
Organization for Vigilance and Repression of Antifascism.
➢ A Fascist Grand Council rubber-stamped Mussolini’s decrees and made parliament
irrelevant.
➢ By 1925, Mussolini had adopted the title, Il Duce (the Leader). He delivered emotional
public speeches, swaying back and forth, puffing his chest, and holding his hands on his
hips. The crowds chanted back fascist slogans such as “Il Duce is always right!” and
“Believe, obey, fight!”
C- Pushing Youth towards War:
➢ Mussolini compared the “new man” of Italy to the hardened soldiers of ancient Rome. As
for women, Il Duce saw their role as giving birth and caring for a new generation of
warriors. The Fascist Party organized youth organizations for all boys and girls aged 8–
18. These groups promoted physical training, military drills (for boys), and the ideals of
the fascist state.
D- Reforming the Catholicism:
➢ Mussolini had little use for religion. Italy, however, was a strongly Catholic country.
Gentile, as minister of education, continued the teaching of Catholic doctrine in the

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elementary schools. But he replaced it with philosophy at the secondary level. The
Catholic Church objected to this reform.
➢ Hoping to keep the church from opposing his fascist regime, Mussolini adopted pro-
Catholic policies against abortion and divorce. Then in 1929, he signed a treaty with the
church that made Catholicism the state religion. This agreement also restored the
teaching of Catholic doctrine in secondary schools. For its part, the church accepted
Mussolini’s fascist state and ended its involvement in Italy’s political affairs.
E- Blending the economic ideologies for maximum Gain: The Third Way Corporatism
➢ Mussolini wanted to create an economic system that provided a “third way” between
capitalism and socialism. Capitalism depends on private property, employer-owned
competing enterprises, and the profit motive.
➢ During the 1930s, Mussolini organized industry, agriculture, and economic services into
state-controlled labor unions and employer associations called “corporations.”
Government officials appointed the heads of each union and employer corporation. They
negotiated wages and working conditions with each other.
➢ This “third way” corporatism attempted to unify workers and employers by requiring
them to set aside their private interests in favor of the best interests of the fascist state. In
practice, however, the employers usually benefited more than the workers did.
F- Controlling the law and enforcement agencies
➢ Police crackdowns on dissent were mild compared to fascism in Hitler’s Germany. But a
special court tried anti-fascists, those working against Mussolini’s regime.
➢ The Jewish population of Italy was small, and neither Mussolini nor most other Italians
were very anti-Semitic (anti-Jewish). Jews had fought for Italy in World War I and
participated in Mussolini’s march on Rome.
➢ Before World War II, popular support for Mussolini’s fascist state was high. His
charismatic style of leadership convinced many that Italy was on a path to greatness.
When the Great Depression hit Italy after 1929, Mussolini acted quickly and boldly with
a large program of public construction projects, which put many jobless Italians back to
work.
Il Duce the Benito Mussolini at War
A- Glorifying the Militarism: Mussolini agreed with Gentile that the strong nations
of the world had a natural right to subdue and rule the weak. Mussolini glorified
military values like physical strength, discipline, obedience, and courage. “A
minute of the battlefield is worth a lifetime of peace,” he declared.

B- Invading the territories: In 1935, Mussolini ordered the invasion of Ethiopia, a

poor African country that had once humiliated Italy in battle. Seeking revenge,
Mussolini used planes, artillery, and poison gas against tribesmen with old

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muskets. Mussolini announced to cheering crowds that the Roman Empire was
back.

C- Ratifying the Steel Pact agreement with Hitler: Mussolini decided to invade
Greece. But his army was beaten badly and had to be rescued by German troops.
In 1941, he sent 200,000 of his soldiers to aid Hitler’s invasion of the Soviet
Union. The harsh winter and Soviet guerilla fighters killed huge numbers of
German and Italian soldiers.

Fate of Mussolini in the World War II

➢ By 1943, British, American, and other Allies had defeated Mussolini’s army in North
Africa, taken Sicily, and bombed Rome. The Italian people had had enough and
abandoned Il Duce.
➢ Mussolini returned to Italy and established a new fascist regime in the north near Milan,
an area that the Germans had occupied. But he was merely a puppet of the Nazis.
➢ When the Allies neared Milan, Mussolini tried to escape. But anti-fascist Italian fighters
captured and shot him on April 28, 1943. The next day, crowds cheered as they hung
Mussolini’s body by its heels in Milan where he had started the fascist movement 25
years earlier.

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IX-c Hitler, Nazism and Germany

Germany After the Treaty of Versailles

1-Kaiser Wilhelm I and the Weimer Republic
During the First World War of 1914-1918, Germany was run by the Kaiser (King).The Kaiser
was in charge of the Government and the army. The Government decisions were made by the
Chancellor and Chancellor works under Kaiser.The Kaiser was obsessed with the miltary – he
spent millions on building up a strong army for the war, and borrowed millions trying to win it.
The German people liked this form of Government. They loved their military tradition, and felt
that being told what to do was a sign that the Government was strong .The Kaiser ran away
into exile 2 days before the war ended.

2- Effects of World War I on Germany: Aftermath of Treaty

of Versailles
A-Political effects:
With the Kaiser running away, all that was left of a Government were the Reichstag parties that
had previously had no real power or experience of running the Government. The Kaiser had even
put many of the best opposition leaders in prison during the war, meaning there were even fewer
able men to take power.
B-Physical and financial effects
Farming had been disrupted during the war, so by 1918 Germany was producing only half the
milk and 60% of the meat it needed. The British Navy was blockading German ports, meaning
they could not get food from other countries. Around 750,000 Germans died from hunger and
disease Also, Germany had borrowed money to pay for the war, and was now effectively
bankrupt.
C-“The Stab in the Back”

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It was actually the army that signed the surrender – but people started saying it was the new
Government, the Weimar Republic, that was to blame. People couldn’t understand why they had
lost the war when Germany had not been invaded – they assumed the politicians had “stabbed
the army in the back” by surrendering when they could have won. The army were delighted to
pretend this was true.
D-Psychological effects
Germany had been a proud, ambitious country and had worked extremely hard and made many
sacrifices to win the war. Throughout the war they were assured by their leaders that Germany
would win. Losing was devastating to the pride of most Germans. They automatically looked for
someone to blame, and felt that weak politicians in the New Weimar Republic had cost them the
war.

3-Article 48 (The suicide clause) And the Weimar Republic

This was the 48th article of the constitution. It allowed the President to rule by decree in an
emergency; this meant that he could make decisions and laws without having to ask the
Reichstag to vote on it. This was designed to protect Germany in an emergency, But This meant
that the President could rule as a dictator in an emergency – and it was up to the President to
decide what an Emergency was. This clause was open to abuse and needed the President to be
honest and want to protect the Republic.

4-An Analysis of Treaty of Versailles

A- Why did Germany expect a fair treaty?
Germany was in real trouble. WWI had bankrupted the country, and some were starving. The
Weimar government assumed the treaty would be light so as not to cost any more German lives.
The Kaiser was gone, and a new, democratic government was in place, just like the allies had.
Germans assumed the winning powers would like this and want to help it remain stable.
•Woodrow Wilson, president of the USA, wanted a fair treaty. He declared “14 points” that
would make a better world, and believed the treaty should allow Germany to recover.

B-At Practical Ground:

France – Georges Clemenceau wanted to crush Germany and forever prevent her from being a
major world power. He wanted Germany to pay massive reparations and have no army.
Britain – David Lloyd-George wanted to punish Germany harshly and get money from them;
but he wanted Germany to be able to recover.
USA – Woodrow Wilson believed the war was everyone’s fault. He feared that Germany would
one day want revenge if the Treaty was too harsh.

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Figure: Treaty of Versailles: one of the most serious acts

of political unwisdom

5- 1919 Other Problems – Political extremism in Weimar

Republic
Because the Weimar Republic was unpopular from the start, lots of groups tried to overthrow it
very early in its life. These were political extremists, groups such as Spartacist and Nazi’s who
had extreme views and wanted Germany to become a dictatorship again.
A- Communists Extreme left:
They believe that everyone should have equal pay and that no one should individually own
anything – everything should be shared. They believe that all factories should be owned by the
workers, who should share the profits equally.

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B- Fascists Extreme Right :

They believe in “survival of the fittest” – the best people, often the rich, deserve what they have
because they are naturally better. Weak people should not be helped because the country needs
only strong people.

6- 1923 – The Year of Crisis 1923

It was another key year in German history. A great deal happened that plunged Germany into
crisis and had a great effect on events further down the line.
A- Crisis 1 – The French Invade the Ruhr
Why? – In January 1923 Germany couldn’t keep up its Reparations payments to France,
and “defaulted” (didn’t pay)
What? – France decided to teach Germany a lesson by invading its most important
industrial area, the Ruhr. The Ruhr contained over 80% of Germany’s steel production.
The French thought they could take over this valuable steel production to make up for
Reparations Germany had missed.
Effects - • The Weimar Government was outraged. The Workers in the Ruhr refused to
work for the French and went on strike. • This damaged the economy more, as they then
had no money to spend. • The Weimar Government tried to help them by printing more
money for them to live on.
B- Crisis 2– Hyperinflation
Why? – The Weimar Government printed money to help the Ruhr workers carry on their
strike. This meant that with more money around, the value of everyone’s money went
down. When money starts losing its value, we call it Inflation
What?– The Government kept printing money, causing hyperinflation. People’s money
became more and more worthless. In February 1923 you needed 7000 marks to buy one
dollar. By November 1923 you needed 130,000 million marks to buy one dollar. Billion
mark notes started to be printed, and people stopped using money as it was all worthless.
Effects-

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The Rise of Hitler and the Nazis

1-The Profile of Hitler
He was born in Austria in 1889 and his father was a civil servant .Hitler wanted to be an
artist. However, he was rejected by Vienna art school. He lived as a tramp for several
years and then joined the German army in 1914. He was awarded Iron Cross for bravery.

2-The Nazi Party

It was founded in 1919 as the German Workers Party (DAP) and based in Munich. The
founder was Anton Drexler (right). At initials, it was very small party – only around 50
members in 1920. Its policies included making Bavaria (south Germany) into a separate
country.

3-The Munich Putsch 1923 : A violent Coup

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November 1923 was the height of the hyperinflation crisis in Germany. Hitler believed
that the Weimar Government was crumbling and that people would support a party like
his taking over. Hitler also believed he had the support of local council in Bavaria would
help in taking over the Bavaria. However, it was a failed coup d'état by Nazi Party.

4-The successes of the Munich Putsch: Lime lighting the

Hitler’s Politics
The Putsch itself was a disaster, but events at Hitler’s trial turned disaster into a real
victory. The judges in Germany tended to be very right wing and sympathetic to people
like the Nazi’s – they allowed him to turn a trial for treason into a political rally to the
Nation.

A. The Judge liked him during Hitler’s trial for treason. He gave Hitler time to answer
questions however he liked and make very long speeches against the Government.
During the trial, Hitler was able to win over the courtroom with his great speeches, his
ideas and his passion for change in Germany.
B. Reporters from across Germany were there. This meant that everything Hitler said was
written down in newspapers and read by Germans everywhere. This was huge publicity
for the Nazis.
C. Hitler became seen as a leader of the Right wing. From being a nobody, he became “that
guy who tried to
take over
Munich”. Lots of
right wing
supporters saw
him and the Nazis
as their natural
leader.
D. Hitler got a biased
sentence. The
Judge
sympathized with

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Hitler’s ideas and, despite finding him guilty of treason, sentenced him to only 5 years.
E. His prison was very cushy .Lands burg castle was more of a hotel than a prison. Hitler
could have as many visitors as he wanted, had as dedicated servant and could walk
around whenever he wanted. He ran the Nazi’s from prison.
F. Hitler had the time to write Mein Kampf. Landsburg gave him time to write his book,
“My Struggle” where he set out all his ideas for the Nazi party and Germany’s future.
The book is very boring, but everything Hitler later did is in it.

5- 1924-1929 – The Nazi’s changed tactics

Hitler got out of prison late in 1924, and realised that violent methods would no longer
work. This was because Stresemann’s economic policies were starting to make Germany
more stable – people didn’t want violent parties like the Nazi’s anymore. Hitler was
clever – he realised that the only way to have a Government no one could argue with
would be to get into power in a legal way – by winning elections. He started to change
the party so they could do well in the Reichstag.
A- Swastika: Hitler designed the Swastika flag in the early 1920’s.
B- Reorganising the Party: The party wanted to spread across Germany. Local party
members, called Gauleiters, were created to run and advertise the party in each area.
Hitler created the 25 point plan to get the party into power. He targeted the biggest
class group in Germany, and the people that worked in all the factories. The working
class usually supported the Communists – Hitler needed to change that. So, he targeted
this group for propaganda.There was a drive for new members, and membership
increased every year. Membership was over 150,000 by 1929.
C- Middle class and farmers liked their message about creating a strong Germany. Nazi’s
struggled with working class, so focused on this group. Big business became the main
contributor to Nazi party fund.Nazi members were sent on public speaking courses to
learn how to make great speeches. Goebbles was put in charge of propaganda, and lots
of posters and films were used to advertise the party.
D- Mein Kampf :A book that was written by Hitler in prison, published 1925. It was
partly the story of his life, but mostly Hitler’s ideas for what Germany would be if he
was in power. Mein Kampf became a best seller because of Hitler’s new fame.

6- The Wall Street Crash and The Weimar Republic

Everything changed for the Nazi Party on October 24th 1929, When the American
Stock Market on Wall Street in New York crashed. America became bankrupt, and
quickly called all its loans back in. Germany suddenly had to pay back both the
Dawes Plan and Young Plan loans – and was bankrupt over night.

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Figure: Effects of the Great Depression on Weimer Republic

7- Hitler : Becoming the Chancellor

A- Outside events that helped Hitler become Chancellor in January 1933
• The Great Depression: The American stock market crashed in 1929 .America called
in all the loans it had given to Germany. This made Germany bankrupt again – called
“The Depression”. People became unemployed and poor, so started supporting
extreme parties like the Nazis.
• Weak Opposition: The Depression made the Weimar Government very weak. They
didn’t have enough money to help everyone. Different parties in the Government
couldn’t agree. They made the Nazi’s look like they would be better at leading the
country.
• Fear of Communism: The Wall Street Crash meant that Communists got more votes
too. Communists wanted everyone to have equal pay and no one to own anything.
Rich people were frightened of Communists and supported Hitler more because he
was against them.

B- Hitler’s own actions that helped him become Chancellor in 1933

• Hitler’s Leadership: Hitler was a strong leader He was able to make
people believe that only he could solve the problems in Germany He was
one of the best public speakers ever. His speeches convinced people to
vote for him.
• Nazi’s Organization: The Nazi’s were really good at raising funds from
rich people .Nazi members worked hard to advertise the party all over

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Germany .The SA (Hitler’s storm troopers) did lots of marches that looked
impressive to people.
• Nazi’s Promises: The Nazi’s promised to solve the depression crisis that
was affecting people . They promised to end the Treaty of Versailles.
They promised to build up the army and make Germany great again.
▪ Propaganda: Nazis used the latest technology like loudspeakers,
slideshows and films to get their message across. They used mass rallies
of people to spread their ideas. They used lots of advertising with simple
messages that people wanted to hear.On January 30th 1933 – Hitler was
invited by Hindenburg to become Chancellor of Germany. Hitler was
finally in power!

8-Hitler: As a Chancellor of Weimer Republic

A- The Reichstag Fire
Hitler was lucky – less than a month after he became Chancellor, the Reichstag was burned down
in an arson attack. Inside it, police found a young Dutchman called Marinus Van Der Lubbe. Most
importantly, Van der Lubbe had once been a communist. Van Der Lubbe confessed and was
executed, but Hitler immediately claimed that he had been part of a huge Communist conspiracy
to destroy the German Government. Hitler went to Hindenburg and asked to use Article 48 to deal
with the “emergency”. Police were given emergency powers to search houses, confiscate
property and imprison without trial. Hitler also brought in censorship, so he could decide what the
papers could and could not print. The Communist party was made illegal and the SA went on a
spree of violence, beating up Communists.

B- The Enabling
Act: A Key to Become
A Dictator
Hitler had been allowed
to use Article 48 for the
first time. But to
become a Dictator, he
needed to be able to use
it without having to get
Hindenburg’s (the

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Keiser) permission. Hitler used the street violence (his own SA men attacking Communists‼) as
an excuse for the Enabling Act, which basically gave most of Hindenburg’s power to Hitler. Later,
in 1934, after thedeath of Hindenburg, he became the Fuhrer.

9- Nazism in Germany: Life In Nazi Germany

A- A strong Germany
He built a strong Government – no opposition Every aspect of life controlled. He destroyed
Treaty of Versailles and re-built the army Prepare to invade Eastern Europe. And he remove
“burdens on society” under racial propaganda.

i-A Racial Germany

Eugenics programmes were started to selectively breed Germans. Under the idea of labenseraum
he wanted to create a pure “Aryan” race – blonde hair, blue eyes, strong Remove “undesirable”
races from Germany, particularly remove Jews from Germany, then Europe.

ii-Supported : Elderly – reminds them of old Germany Army – creates strong military
Middle class – creates stable Germany
iii-Opposed: The Young – dislike having lives controlled and political opponents and
Communists.

B-The Nazi’s control the German People

The Nazi’s used a variety of methods to keep control of ordinary Germans. He used two
methods: Fear and Propaganda. Historian’s call this the “carrot and stick” approach –
Propaganda being the “carrot” for people to chase, giving them reasons to want to follow the
party, and the “stick” being fear – using the stick to force people to do as they were told.

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i- For Fear:
• The SS: They were Hitler's personal bodyguard and later became enforcers of
Hitler's racial policies. "Deaths head" SS men organised the holocaust of Jews and
the Concentration camps. Waffen SS men were elite soldiers in WWII. Their job
was to follow the army and deal with prisoners and "undesirables”
• The Gestapo: It was a Nazi Secret Police force . These were agents wore no
particular uniform - they were designed to blend in. They used informers and
spies throughout Germany. They had the power to bug telephones, open letters
and put people in prison without trial.
• Concentration Camps: these were created straight after Hitler got into power to
contain political prisoners and opponents . Camps in Germany were basically for
slave labour. There were rumours of shootings, beatings and deaths reached most
Germans.
ii- For Support:
• Propaganda – The Nazi’s didn’t just use “stick” methods – they also used
Propaganda as a means of making people want to be part of the Nazi Nation.
The Nazi propaganda minister was Josef Goebbels, Hitler’s second in
command. He was obsessed with using films, radio and simple, effective
images to spread the Nazi message and brainwash people into following them.
Here are some of the main methods used.
C-Minorities under Nazi’s Germany
A number of minority groups were persecuted by the Nazis for 4 main reasons. Jews, Gypsies,
Homosexuals, prostitutes, criminals, drug addicts and the mentally or physically disabled were
persecuted for these reasons
• Social Darwinism “Our race is naturally better and stronger than yours. It the
natural order of things for us to crush your race” target to Jews, Gypsies,
Homosexuals and Disabled.
• Economic Jealousy “You must be removed from your good jobs to give
Germans a chance! Your wealth should also go to “proper” Germans”. Mainly
with Jews
• Racial Purity We are the superior race. You must not be allowed to mix with
us because it will dilute our blood and make us weak particularly Jews
,Gypsies , Disabled, and Habitual Criminals
• Economic deficiency “You are lazy and don’t work hard enough or fit with
our ideas. You will stop Germany from becoming great unless we get rid of
you” said to criminals , drug addicts , prostitutes and disabled
•
10-The Treaty of Versailles 1933-1939 (TOV) and the
Germany under Adolf Hitler
• Money – Reparations Clause:

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Hitler had a simple solution to the huge problem of reparations – he simply stopped
paying them. By 1935 the Nazis stopped paying, and the allies did nothing as they were
in guilt in political unwisdom.
• Militarizing Germany
Hitler started rearming straight away, but started doing it in public in 1935. The new air
force, the Luftwaffe, was used to help Spanish Fascists in 1936
• Land - Rhineland
The Rhineland (next to France) was not supposed to have any German military in it. The
Nazi army marched into it in 1935, and again, the French and British did nothing to stop
them
• Land – Saar
The Saar coalfields had been given to France for 15 years. In 1935, 98% of people living
there voted to return to Germany. Nazi’s celebrated having so many rich raw materials
back
• Land - Austria
Anschluss (union) with Austria was forbidden in the TOV. But this Union was vital to
Hitler, who was Austrian himself. The Nazi’s marched into Vienna in 1936 and were
welcomed as heroes.
• Nazi Soviet Pact
Frustrated the Britain would not sign an alliance or peace Treaty with him, Hitler turned
the Stalin and Soviet Russia, who he intended to invade later on.
• Land – Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia Hitler invaded an area of Czechoslovakia that he
claimed had a lot of Germans. The allies let him and signed an agreement, but months
later he invaded the rest of the country that he had no claim to.

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11- The policy of appeasement

Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy and Britain’s infamous policy of appeasement are some of
the causes of World War Two.
A-Britain’s Policy of appeasement
Neville Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, was keen to avoid war. He believed this
could be achieved through the use of negotiation, agreements and diplomacy. His policy was
to appease Hitler, which usually meant giving in to Hitler’s territorial demands.
B-Examples of appeasement
This included Britain not ‘getting tough’ on Germany when it rearmed and invaded the
Rhineland, and its invasion of Czechoslovakia.
The most famous example of appeasement is Chamberlain signing the Munich agreement
which resulted in Germany taking the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Chamberlain hoped
this would be the end of Hitler’s demands, although other politicians such as Churchill
warned otherwise.
C-Popularity of the policy of appeasement
He was invited by the King and Queen to Buckingham Palace.
Appeasement was initially popular because:
• people wished to avoid conflict - memories of the Great War and its suffering were still
present
• Britain in the 1930s was struggling with the impact of the Depression, and so the country
could not afford another war and heavy rearmament
• many felt that the Treaty of Versailles had been too strict, and that Germany had a right
to try and regain lost lands and to rebuild its weakened forces
D-War breaks out – September 1939
Due to the Nazi-Soviet Pact, Hitler knew that the Soviet Union would not stand in his way
over Poland. German forces crossed into Poland on 1 September 1939.
Britain had earlier given assurances to Poland and so sent an ultimatum that stated that
Germany had to withdraw from Poland. Britain received no reply and so on 3 September
1939 Chamberlain declared that Britain was at war with Germany.

Munich Agreement: An Extension of Appeasement

Policy
1-Introduction

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September 29–30, 1938: Germany, Italy, Great Britain, and France sign the Munich agreement,
by which Czechoslovakia must surrender its border regions and defenses (the so-called Sudeten
region) to Nazi Germany. German troops occupy these regions between October 1 and 10, 1938.
Hitler had threatened to unleash a European war unless the Sudetenland, a border area of
Czechoslovakia containing an ethnic German majority, was surrendered to Germany. The leaders
of Britain, France, and Italy agreed to the German annexation of the Sudetenland in exchange for
a pledge of peace from Hitler. Czechoslovakia, which was not a party to the Munich
negotiations, agreed under significant pressure from Britain and France

2-The Sudetenland crisis of 1938

The Sudetenland crisis of 1938 was a significant event that played a pivotal role in the lead-up to
World War II. It was centered around the demand for the Sudetenland, a region in
Czechoslovakia with a significant ethnic German population, to be annexed by Nazi Germany.
The crisis was fueled by a combination of historical, ethnic, geopolitical, and economic factors.
Here are the main causes of the Sudetenland crisis:
1. Ethnic Tensions: The Sudetenland was home to a large population of ethnic Germans,
who felt a strong cultural and historical connection to Germany. After the breakup of the
Austro-Hungarian Empire and the creation of Czechoslovakia in 1918, many Germans
found themselves living in a country dominated by Czechs and other ethnic groups. This
led to a sense of alienation and discontent among the Sudeten Germans, who sought
closer ties with Germany.
2. Exploitation of Nationalism: Adolf Hitler's Nazi regime in Germany capitalized on the
grievances of the Sudeten Germans as a pretext to advance its expansionist goals. Hitler
and the Nazi propaganda machinery exploited the nationalist sentiments of the Sudeten

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Germans, portraying them as victims of Czech oppression and advocating for their
"return" to the German fold.
3. Territorial Claims: Hitler's expansionist ambitions sought to bring all ethnic Germans
into the borders of the Third Reich. The Sudetenland, with its large German population,
presented an opportunity for Germany to annex territory and potentially gain strategic
advantages.
4. Munich Agreement: The appeasement policy pursued by Britain and France,
particularly the Munich Agreement of September 1938, contributed to the crisis. In an
attempt to avoid war and maintain peace in Europe, Britain and France agreed to
Germany's demand for the annexation of the Sudetenland, without involving
Czechoslovakia in the negotiations. This decision undermined Czechoslovakia's
sovereignty and emboldened Hitler's expansionist plans.
5. Economic Interests: The Sudetenland was economically important to both
Czechoslovakia and Germany. It was rich in natural resources, and its industries played a
crucial role in both economies. Germany sought to exploit these resources and industries,
while Czechoslovakia wanted to retain control over its valuable assets.
6. Military Preparedness: In the face of escalating tensions, both Czechoslovakia and
Germany were actively mobilizing their military forces. Germany's armed forces were far
superior to those of Czechoslovakia, and Hitler threatened military action if his demands
were not met.
7. International Diplomacy: The international community's response to the Sudetenland
crisis was crucial. Britain and France were hesitant to confront Germany, and their policy
of appeasement emboldened Hitler. On the other hand, Czechoslovakia had alliances with
France and the Soviet Union, but they were not willing to intervene militarily to support
Czechoslovakia.

3- Course of Events
A. On 30 September 1938, Germany, Britain, France and Italy reached a settlement that
permitted German annexation of the Sudetenland in western Czechoslovakia. The area
contained about three million people of German origin and in May 1938 it became known
that Hitler and his generals planned to occupy the country.
B. The Czechoslovak government hoped that Britain and France would come to its
assistance in the event of an invasion, but British Prime Minister Chamberlain was intent
on averting war. Between 15 and 30 September he made three trips to Germany to see
Hitler. The final one in Munich resulted in large swathes of Czechoslovakia coming
under Nazi rule. Britain and France would not support any Czech resistance.
C. Returning from Munich, Chamberlain told an excited crowd at Heston Airport, ‘It is
peace for our time’, and waved the agreement he had signed with Hitler. This was the

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climax of the appeasement policy. Six months later, Hitler reneged on his promises and
ordered his armies to march into Prague. Within a year, Britain and France were at war
with Germany.

Part IX- d
The Sudetenland Crisis (1938) And The distraction of
Czechoslovakia (1939)

The Czech Crisis

A- Background of Czechoslovakia crisis:
There was a time during the period of the Second World War
when Czechoslovakia ceased to exist as a nation. Abandoned by its allies, and left
to fend for itself against the onslaught of Nazi Germany, Czechoslovakia was
systematically dismembered over the course of late 1938 when it was forced to
cede territory to Hitler, and then subsequently occupied by the German military in
March of 1939. The process of dismantling the nation was completed at that time
by splitting off Slovakia into a nominally “sovereign” puppet state, and then Hitler
consolidated what was left over into the Reich Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia.
Czechoslovakia did not re-emerge as an independent nation again until the close of
the war in Europe in May of 1945.

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B- Hitler’s Invasion in Czechoslovakia

All throughout the 1930s, Adolf Hitler had had his covetous eye on the lands, people, and
industry of young Czechoslovakia, a country which had only been founded just a few scant
years before, when the Austrian Empire had fallen into ruins at the end of First World War.
During the 1920s, Czechoslovakia had then become one of the most industrially advanced and
politically progressive states in all of Europe. Hitler wanted that heavy industrial power for the
German Reich, and so his expansionist plans had had Czechoslovakia as their first target of
takeover since at least 1937, when he had first ordered his generals to draw up plans for a
possible future military invasion.

• Czechoslovakia was an ethnically diverse nation which, in addition to the majority Czech
and Slovak populations, also contained within its borders large amounts of German (3
millions), Polish, and Hungarian citizens, among others. Along Czechoslovakia’s
northern frontier was a predominantly German-speaking region known as the
Sudetenland.
• Hitler secretly collaborated with Karl Henlein, leader of the Sudeten German Party or
SDP, and by 1935 the party was being covertly funded by the German Foreign Office.
• The SDP did everything in its power to instigate German nationalistic sentiment among
the German-speaking peoples of Czechoslovakia, and started a massive propaganda
campaign which aimed to show that the German minority was being repressed by the
predominantly Czech government.
• Feigning outrage over the supposed mistreatment of German peoples inside the borders
of his southern neighbor, in September 1938 Hitler demanded that Czechoslovakia cede
the Sudetenland to Germany or be prepared to face war.

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• At that time, Czechoslovakia had standing mutual protection alliances with both France
and the Soviet Union. However, the agreement with the USSR required that it come to
Czechoslovakia’s defense only in the case that France did so also.
• The French government, in spite of its treaty agreements, had no desire to be drawn into a
war with Germany, and neither did Great Britain which would have been obligated to aid
France if war broke out on the continent.
• British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, anxious to avoid war with Germany at any
cost, visited Hitler at Obersalzberg on 21 September, and assured him that his aims in
Czechoslovakia could be achieved peacefully.
• On September 29, 1938, Hitler agreed to receive Chamberlain, French Premier Eduoard
Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini in Munich, and the resultant Munich
Agreement awarded large chunks of Czech territory to the Third Reich
• With the loss of the Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia also lost the backbone of its northern
defenses, the series of mountain fortifications and bunkers that had been built along the
German border during the 1920s and ’30s.
• Taking advantage of the greatly weakened state of the Czechoslovak government, Slovak
Populist leader JozefTiso was secretly encouraged by Hitler to agitate for Slovak
independence..
• Czech military was commanded to step down and allow them to enter. That evening
Hitler made his triumphant entry into Prague where he proclaimed his bloodless victory
at Prague Castle, and Czechoslovakia ceased to exist for the next 6 years.

Part IX e-Arm Race

Arms Races: The Origins of the Second World War, 1929-
1941
Arms race, a pattern of competitive acquisition of military capability between two or more
countries. The advent of military aircraft in the First World War opened up the first arms race in
the air as each side tried to outdo the other in terms of technology and operational innovation. In
the inter-war years the aerial arms race continued as the technical threshold was pushed back and
air doctrine defined more clearly.

1 -Britain Preparing for War against Germany

Before the outbreak of war, the Britain Government had put plans into place in recognition of the
dangers that lay ahead. The Government:
• started a program to build new warships

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• spent money informing people about rationing, blackouts and gasmasks

• organized a Ministry of Supply to ensure overseas supplies continued
• met with trade unions to ensure they agreed on wartime working regulations and wages
However, in 1939, Britain was not adequately prepared to fight a major conflict, and it would
take time to match the sheer size and effectiveness of the German forces.
• The Royal Navy was the organization best prepared for war.
• The Royal Air Force (RAF) were well-trained with good aircraft (the Hurricane and the
Spitfire were the best fighter planes in the world), but the RAF’s bombers were not as
modern.
• The army was regarded by some as too small and lacking sufficient equipment.
By appeasing Hitler in September 1938, the country gained another 12 months to prepare for
war. Following the declaration in September 1939, the next six months were known as the
'phoney war' as no military action took place, giving Britain more time to prepare.

2-Weaponization in Nazi’s Weimer Republic

Hitler's Nazi engineers made technological developments which were innovative and far ahead
of their time, manufacturing weapons such as sonic cannons, x-ray guns and land cruisers.
The Fritz X, one of Hitler’s most secret bombs, is widely considered to be the grandfather of
today's smart bomb.
The glide bomb was radio guided and carried over 700lbs of explosives. It was capable of hitting
strongly protected targets such as battleships and heavy cruisers.
It could penetrate 28in of armour and could be deployed from 20,000ft, meaning it could be out
of reach for antiaircraft equipment at the time.
First flown in 1944, the Horten Ho 229 was the world's premiere stealth aircraft, equipped with
twin turbojet engines, two cannons, and R4M rockets.
The Nazis allocated half a million Reich Marks to manufacturing the plane which has inspired
modern stealth aircrafts such as the Northrop Gruman B-2 bomber.
According to Historian Joseph Maiolo, in Cry Havoc: How the Arms Race Drove the World
to War, 1931-1941, The Goliath tracked mine, known as "Doodlebugs" or beetle tanks to the
Allies, was controlled with a joystick and powered by electric motors or gas burners.
The miniature tanks could carry between 133 and 220lbs of high explosives and were used to
navigate minefields and attack heavy vehicles and fortifications. This Nazi innovation paved the
way for today's radio-controlled weapons.

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The Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet, a rocket-powered jet with speeds of up to 700mph, was the
fastest jet in the War by a difference of over 250mph.
The plane's immense speed was so far ahead of its competitors, in fact, that it was fast enough to
avoid Allied gunners but it was too fast to hit Allied aircraft.

Thus, these arm race had a pivotal role to turning the Continental war into the Second World
war.

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Part IX f: Russia: Marxism Revolution and its

working under Stalin

Introduction:
Communism is a political ideology and type of government in which the state owns the major
resources in a society, including property, means of production, education, agriculture and
transportation. Basically, communism proposes a society in which everyone shares the benefits
of labor equally, and eliminates the class system through redistribution of on income.

The Force of Change “Communism’’ and its Impact on Europe

The Father of Communism, Karl Marx, a German philosopher and economist, proposed this new
ideology in his Communist Manifesto, which he wrote with Friedrich Engels in 1848. The
manifesto emphasized the importance of class struggle in every historical society, and the
dangerous instability capitalism created. The ideas and goals of communism appealed strongly to
the revolutionaries even after the 1848 revolutions collapsed. For the next several decades, fed-
up lower class workers and peasants held tight to the legacy of the 1848 revolutionaries and
communist ideology waiting for the right moment to capitalize.

Birth of Marxism in Russia

Communism was adopted in Russia after the Russian Revolution, a series of revolutions that
lasted throughout 1917. For centuries leading up to World War I, Russia was ruled by an
absolute monarchy under which the lower classes had long suffered in poverty. This tension was
exacerbated by the nationwide famine and loss of human lives as a result of World War I. The
first revolution, February Revolution began when the Russian army was sent in to control a
protest led by factory workers who had recently lost their jobs. However, the army did not follow
the Czar’s orders and many soldiers defected and protested in solidarity with the workers. The
military quickly lost control of the situation, and the Czar was forced to abdicate. The Imperial
Parliament formed a provisional government, but Vladimir Lenin’s Bolshevik party overthrew it
in October 1917. After October Revolution, Bolshevik leaders appointed themselves to many
high offices and started implementing communist practices based on Marx’s ideology.

The Civil Unrest in Russia: Stalin Coming in Power

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• The Czar was dethroned, Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia after being exiled for anti-
Czar plots. Other revolutionaries including Leon Trotsky also returned to Russia to seize
the opportunity.
• The two established the Bolshevik party, a communist party that was staunchly opposed
to the War, which continued to wreak havoc on the unstable nation.
• The Bolshevik’s anti-war platform was popular among the Russian people, and Lenin
used this momentum to overthrow the provisional government, take control of the
country and pull Russia out of the war. Lenin also promised “Bread, Land and Peace” to
the large populations affected by the famine, further increasing the party’s popularity
• The Bolsheviks gained only 25 percent of votes in the 1917 elections, Lenin overturned
the results and used military force to prevent democratic assembly. He established
several state-centered government programs and policies
• His plan for national economic recovery, the GOLERO Plan was the first of this type and
was designed to stimulate the economy by bringing electricity to the whole of Russia.
Lenin established a national free healthcare system and free public education. He also
established the Cheka, a secret police force to defend the success of the Russian
Revolution and censor and control anti-Bolshevik newspapers and activists.
• Following two failed assassination attempts, Lenin, following a suggestion from a
military leader named Joseph Stalin, authorized the start of the Red Terror, an
execution order of former government officials under the Czar and Provisional
Government, as well as the royal family.
• Following the end of the civil war in 1921, Lenin established the New Economic Policy,
which allowed for private businesses and a market economy, despite its direct
contradiction with Marxist ideology. He also annexed Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan
to provide geographic and political protection from the Party’s political and ideological
enemies.
• He died in January 1924 of a heart attack. After his death, several members of the
Communist Party’s executive committee, the Politburo, vied for control of the
government.

THE RISE OF JOSEPH STALIN

A- Profile of Stalin:
Joseph Stalin, born in Georgian, was a key military leader throughout the Red Terror and the
Civil War. Stalin actually proposed the idea of fighting the Communist Party’s enemies through
systematic mass terror and killings to Lenin. As General Secretary under Lenin, he also oversaw

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brutal military actions throughout the civil war and led the 1921 invasion of Georgia to
overthrow an unfriendly social-democratic government.

B- Political Control of Stalin:

He officially ruled the country from 1924-1953. After holding the position in government, he
started shuffling in bureaucratic structure. Stalin isolated his major opponents in the Communist
Party, eventually throwing them out, and became the unchallenged leader of the Soviet Union.
Taking hard-liner policies, he removed people from their positions who were against his
ideology. He created fear in his political rivals under reign of Terror.

C- Industrialization under Stalin:

Stalin revamped the Soviet Union’s economic policy, replacing Lenin’s New Economy Policy
with a highly centralized command economy controlled by the state, which rapidly industrialized
the country. However, the quick transition from agriculture to industry disrupted food supply and
caused a massive famine lasting from 1932 to 1933. Simultaneously, people deemed to be
political enemies began being imprisoned in labor camps or deported to remote areas of Russia.
In 1934, actions against political enemies, including members of the Communist Party who
disagreed with Stalin’s policies, intensified with the start of the Great Purge. About one million
people were executed from 1934 to 1940 under Stalin’s orders.

D- The Great Terror of 1937:

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It also known as the Great Purge, was a brutal political campaign led by Soviet dictator Joseph
Stalin to eliminate dissenting members of the Communist Party and anyone else he considered a
threat. Although estimates vary, most experts believe at least 750,000 people were executed
during the Great Terror, which started around 1936 and ended in 1938. More than a million
survivors were sent to forced labor camps, known as Gulags. This ruthless and bloody operation
caused rampant terror throughout the Soviet Union and impacted the country for many years.
A- Gulag Labor Camps

There’s no doubt the brutal tactics of Stalin paralyzed the country and promoted a climate of
widespread terror. Some victims claimed they would rather have been killed than sent to endure
the torturous conditions at the infamous Gulag labor camps. Many who were sent to the Gulag
camps were ultimately executed. Although most historians estimate that at least 750,000 people
were killed during the Great Purge, there’s debate over whether this number should be much
higher. Some experts believe the true death figure is at least twice as high. Because many people
simply vanished, and killings were often covered up, an exact death toll is impossible to
determine. To further complicate the matter, prisoners in the labor camps commonly died of
exhaustion, disease or starvation.

Stalin in the World War two

In 1939, Stalin signed a Non-Aggression Pact with Nazi Germany’s Adolf Hitler. However,
when Hitler broke the pact and invaded in 1941, the Soviet Union joined the western Allies in
their battle against the Nazis. With the United States other allied European countries leading the
charge on the Western Front and Stalin pushing back from the East, the Nazis were defeated with
the Soviet Red Army’s capture of Berlin in May, and the western armies’ D-Day invasion in
June 1944.

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Part IX g- Great Depression and its effects on Europe

The Great Depression and its impacts on the

European Continent
1- Introduction
The Great Depression was one of the most severe economic downturns in world history, lasting
from the late 1920s to the early 1940s. It had a profound impact on economies, societies, and
politics worldwide. The root causes of the Great Depression were complex and interconnected,
involving various economic and financial factors.

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2- Causes of the Great Depression

A. Stock Market Crash of 1929: The Great Depression is often associated with the stock
market crash of 1929, also known as "Black Tuesday." On October 29, 1929, the U.S.
stock market experienced a sudden and catastrophic collapse, leading to a significant loss
of wealth for investors. This event triggered a chain reaction of economic consequences,
causing widespread panic and investor uncertainty.
B. Banking Crisis: The stock market crash led to a wave of bank failures as many financial
institutions had invested heavily in stocks or lent money to investors. The collapse of
numerous banks further weakened the economy and eroded public confidence in the
financial system.
C. Overproduction and Overexpansion: During the 1920s, there was a surge in industrial
production and expansion, driven by new technologies and increased consumer demand.
However, this rapid growth outpaced actual demand, resulting in excess inventories and
declining prices for goods.
D. Decline in International Trade: The Great Depression was not confined to the United
States; it had a global impact. The contraction of the U.S. economy affected international
trade, as other countries faced reduced demand for their exports. Protective tariffs and
trade barriers were also enacted, exacerbating the decline in global trade.
E. Credit Crisis: The easy availability of credit and excessive borrowing during the 1920s
contributed to unsustainable debt levels for businesses and consumers. When the
economy contracted, borrowers struggled to repay their loans, leading to a credit crisis.
F. Agricultural Crisis: The agricultural sector faced significant challenges during the
1920s, with falling crop prices, overproduction, and farm debt. Many farmers were
unable to make ends meet, and rural areas were hit particularly hard by the economic
downturn.

3- Impacts of the Great Depression on Europe:

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The Great Depression's effects were felt worldwide, and Europe was no exception. The impacts
on Europe were profound and far-reaching, and they varied from country to country. Some of the
major consequences included:
A. Economic Collapse: Europe's economies experienced a sharp contraction, resulting
in soaring unemployment, business failures, and a decline in industrial production.
The collapse of international trade worsened the economic crisis, leading to severe
poverty and destitution for many.
B. Political Instability: The economic hardships created fertile ground for the rise of
extremist and totalitarian ideologies across Europe. In countries such as Germany and
Italy, the Great Depression contributed to the emergence of fascist regimes led by
Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, respectively.
C. Bank Failures: European banks were not immune to the economic turmoil, and many
faced insolvency, leading to a loss of savings and investment capital. Bank failures
deepened the financial crisis and contributed to public disillusionment with financial
institutions.
D. Rise of Protectionism: As the global economic downturn intensified, many European
countries resorted to protectionist measures, imposing tariffs and trade restrictions to
shield domestic industries from foreign competition. This protectionism exacerbated
the decline in international trade and led to heightened economic tensions between
nations.
E. Social Unrest: The Great Depression led to social unrest and widespread protests as
people demanded government action to address unemployment and poverty. Labor
strikes and demonstrations became more common, further destabilizing already
fragile political situations.
F. Preceding World War II: The economic and political upheaval caused by the Great
Depression played a significant role in the lead-up to World War II. The rise of

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totalitarian regimes, territorial ambitions, and nationalist fervor contributed to the

outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.

World War II
World War II was a global conflict that lasted from 1939 to 1945, involving many of the world's
nations, including major powers such as the Allied forces; led primarily by the United States, the
Soviet Union, United Kingdom and France. On the other hand, Axis powers; led by Germany,
Italy, and Japan.
In 1939, Germany invaded Poland, triggering the start of World War II. The war spread quickly
across Europe as Germany conquered and occupied numerous countries, such as France, the
Netherlands, Belgium, and Norway. The Axis powers gained considerable territory and control in
Europe and North Africa. However, the turning point of the war came in 1941 when Germany

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invaded the Soviet Union and faced strong resistance. Simultaneously, Japan attacked the United
States at Pearl Harbor, leading to America's entry into the conflict. The tide gradually turned
against the Axis powers, and the Allies began making significant gains.

Causes of World War II:

1. Treaty of Versailles:
The harsh terms imposed on Germany after World War I, including massive reparations
payments and territorial losses, led to resentment and economic hardships within the
country.
• Territorial Losses: Germany was forced to cede territories to the victorious Allied
Powers. Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, and areas of West Prussia, Posen,
and Upper Silesia were transferred to the new countries of Poland and
Czechoslovakia.
• Disarmament: The treaty imposed strict limitations on the German military. The
German army was reduced to a maximum of 100,000 troops, and conscription was
banned. The country was also prohibited from possessing tanks, military aircraft,
and heavy artillery.
• War Guilt Clause: Article 231 of the treaty, often referred to as the "war guilt clause,"
placed sole responsibility for the war on Germany and its allies. This clause became
a significant point of contention and humiliation for the German people.
• Reparations: Germany was required to pay massive reparations to the Allied
Powers as compensation for the damage caused during the war. The exact amount
was not specified initially but was later set at 132 billion gold marks, a sum that
proved onerous for the struggling German economy.
• League of Nations: The treaty established the League of Nations, an international
organization aimed at promoting cooperation and resolving conflicts peacefully.
Germany was initially excluded from the League but was eventually admitted in
1926.

Impact of the Treaty of Versailles:

• Economic Hardships: The heavy reparations burden and territorial losses plunged
Germany into economic chaos. Hyperinflation and economic instability during the
1920s and early 1930s fueled social discontent and contributed to the rise of
extremist political movements.
• Political Unrest: The treaty's war guilt clause and territorial losses were deeply
resented by many Germans, leading to a sense of humiliation and embitterment.
This sentiment fueled nationalist and revisionist movements, contributing to the
eventual rise of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party.

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• Weakened Democracy: The Weimar Republic, established after the abdication of

Kaiser Wilhelm II, faced severe challenges in governing a country burdened by
economic troubles and political divisions. The political instability weakened
democratic institutions and paved the way for extremist parties to gain support.
• Rise of Hitler and Nazism: Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party exploited the grievances
arising from the Treaty of Versailles to gain popularity. Their nationalist and
expansionist ideologies promised to overturn the treaty's perceived injustices and
restore Germany's former glory.
• Prelude to World War II: The Treaty of Versailles' harsh terms and the resentment
it fostered in Germany contributed to the underlying causes of World War II. The
aggressive foreign policies pursued by Nazi Germany in the 1930s aimed to
overturn the treaty's restrictions and expand German territory.

In summary, the Treaty of Versailles was a pivotal document in European history, marking
the end of World War I and shaping the political and economic landscape of post-war
Europe. Its impact on Germany, in particular, had far-reaching consequences, setting the
stage for future conflicts and geopolitical tensions. It is often cited as a cautionary
example of the potential pitfalls of imposing punitive measures on defeated nations
without considering the broader geo-political implications.

2. Expansionist Policies:
Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany and his aggressive expansionist policies, which
sought to unite all German-speaking peoples and acquire more territory, triggered
tensions in Europe.
3. Appeasement:
The policy of appeasement pursued by Britain and France, attempting to avoid war by
making concessions to Germany's territorial demands, only emboldened Hitler's
ambitions.

4. Economic Turmoil:
The worldwide Great Depression of the 1930s exacerbated existing economic problems
in Europe and provided a fertile ground for extremist ideologies.
The Great Depression was a severe worldwide economic depression that occurred
before World War II. It started in the late 1920s and lasted until the late 1930s. The Great
Depression is considered the most prolonged and severe economic downturn in
modern history.

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The causes of the Great Depression were complex and multifaceted, but some key
factors include:

1. Stock Market Crash of 1929: The Great Depression is often associated with the Wall
Street Crash of 1929, when stock prices plummeted, wiping out vast amounts of wealth
and triggering a financial panic.
2. Banking Crisis: As a result of the stock market crash, many banks and financial
institutions collapsed or faced severe financial difficulties. This led to widespread bank
failures and a loss of confidence in the banking system.
3. Reduction in Consumer Spending: The crash in stock prices and the overall economic
uncertainty led consumers to cut back on spending, which further exacerbated the
economic downturn.
4. Decline in Industrial Production: The reduction in consumer spending and the
banking crisis led to a significant decline in industrial production, resulting in
widespread unemployment and business closures.
5. Global Economic Contraction: The Great Depression had a global impact, affecting
economies worldwide. International trade declined sharply as countries imposed
protectionist measures to safeguard their economies, leading to a downward spiral of
economic activity globally.
6. Government Policies: In some cases, government policies and responses to the
economic crisis were not effective, and some measures unintentionally worsened the
economic situation.

The Great Depression had devastating effects on people's lives, leading to mass
unemployment, homelessness, poverty, and a significant decline in living standards. It
also had long-lasting effects on economies, politics, and society, shaping the events that
followed, including the rise of extremist ideologies and the outbreak of World War II.
World War II itself is often seen as a turning point that helped lift many countries out of
the Great Depression. The war effort required massive production of goods and services,
which led to increased employment and economic growth. Additionally, the massive
government spending during the war stimulated economies and lifted many nations out
of the worst economic conditions of the Great Depression.

5. Nationalism and Totalitarianism:

Nationalistic fervor and the rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe, such as Nazi Germany
and Fascist Italy, further contributed to the tensions and instability.

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POST WAR EUROPE

Effects on Europe:
1. Devastation and Loss of Life:
World War II caused immense destruction across Europe, with major cities in ruins,
infrastructure destroyed, and millions of people dead or displaced.

2. Redrawn Borders:
The war led to significant changes in Europe's political map, with several countries
experiencing territorial alterations and the emergence of new nations.

3. Emergence of Superpowers:
The war left the United States and the Soviet Union as the world's superpowers,
influencing global politics for decades to come.

4. Cold War:
The ideological differences between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union after the war
led to the Cold War, a prolonged period of political and military tension between the two
blocs.

5. Formation of the European Union:

In response to the devastation of the war, European leaders sought ways to prevent future
conflicts, leading to the gradual development of the European Union.

6. Decline of Colonial Empires:

The war accelerated the decline of European colonial empires, as colonial subjects sought
independence and decolonization movements gained momentum.

7. Holocaust and Nuremberg Trials:

The revelation of the Holocaust, where millions of Jews and others were systematically
murdered by the Nazis, led to the establishment of international war crime tribunals, most
notably the Nuremberg Trials.

8. Cold War Divisions:

Europe became divided between the Eastern Bloc, dominated by the Soviet Union and its
satellite states, and the Western Bloc, led by the United States and its NATO allies.

Post-World War II Settlements:

I. Introduction: The end of World War II in 1945 marked a turning point in European
history. The continent lay devastated after years of conflict, and the post-war era brought

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challenges, opportunities, and profound changes that shaped the course of European
history.

II. Reconstruction and Recovery

A. War-Torn Europe:

• The war had left much of Europe in ruins, with devastated cities, infrastructure, and
economies.
• The loss of millions of lives and the displacement of populations added to the scale of
human suffering.

B. The Marshall Plan

• The United States initiated the Marshall Plan in 1948, providing substantial economic aid
to European countries to aid in their reconstruction efforts.
• The plan aimed to stabilize European economies and prevent the spread of communism.

C. Economic Cooperation and Integration

• European countries sought to foster economic cooperation and remove trade barriers
through the establishment of organizations like the European Coal and Steel Community
(ECSC) in 1951.
• These early efforts laid the groundwork for further European integration in the following
decades.

III. Division and the Cold War

A. The Iron Curtain

• Winston Churchill's 1946 "Iron Curtain" speech highlighted the ideological and physical
division between Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc, led by the Soviet Union.

B. The Formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact

• In response to the growing threat of Soviet expansionism, Western European countries,

along with the United States and Canada, formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization
(NATO) in 1949.
• The Eastern Bloc countries created the Warsaw Pact in 1955, solidifying the division
between East and West.

C. Berlin Blockade and Airlift

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• The Soviet blockade of West Berlin in 1948 aimed to cut off Western access to the city. In
response, the Western Allies organized a massive airlift to supply West Berlin, thwarting
the blockade.

IV. European Integration and Cooperation

A. The European Economic Community (EEC)

• The Treaty of Rome, signed in 1957, established the EEC, aiming to create a common
market and foster economic integration among its six founding members: France, West
Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.

B. Expansion of the EEC

• The EEC gradually expanded its membership over the years, welcoming new member
states and growing into the European Union (EU) in 1993.

C. Schengen Agreement

• In 1985, several EU countries signed the Schengen Agreement, which eliminated border
controls between member states, facilitating the free movement of people within the
Schengen Area.

V. The Fall of the Berlin Wall and the End of the Cold War

A. Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe

• Mass protests and movements for political reform in Eastern Europe culminated in the fall
of communist regimes in countries like Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia.

B. Fall of the Berlin Wall

• On November 9, 1989, the Berlin Wall, the iconic symbol of the Cold War's division, was
opened, allowing free movement between East and West Berlin.

C. End of the Cold War

• The disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1991 marked the end of the Cold War, leading
to profound changes in the political landscape of Europe.

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VI. Post-Cold War Challenges and Opportunities

A. Yugoslav Wars

• The breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s led to a series of ethnic conflicts and wars, causing
significant human suffering and drawing international attention and intervention.

B. Enlargement of the EU

• The EU continued to expand, welcoming former Eastern Bloc countries and other
European states as members, promoting stability and economic cooperation.

C. European Integration and Eurozone

• The EU further deepened its integration, culminating in the adoption of a common

currency, the Euro, by several member states.

VII. Conclusion: Post-World War II Europe experienced significant transformation, from

reconstruction and economic integration to the division of the Cold War and the
subsequent reuniting of East and West. The process of European integration and
cooperation remains an ongoing endeavor, shaping the continent's political, economic,
and social dynamics into the 21st century.

Reconstruction, Division, and Integration

These settlements refer to the series of agreements, treaties, and arrangements made
after the end of World War II to address the consequences of the war, reshape national
borders, determine reparations, and establish a new international order. These
settlements aimed to rebuild Europe, promote stability, and prevent future conflicts.
Below are some of the key post-World War II settlements and agreements:

1. Yalta Conference (February 1945):

The Yalta Conference brought together the leaders of the three major Allied Powers - Franklin
D. Roosevelt (United States), Winston Churchill (United Kingdom), and Joseph Stalin (Soviet
Union). The conference took place in Yalta, Crimea, and addressed the division of Germany and
the establishment of the United Nations.

Key Outcomes:

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• Division of Germany: The conference outlined the division of Germany into four
occupation zones, each controlled by the United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom,
and France.
• Reparations: It was agreed that Germany would pay reparations to the Allied Powers in
the form of industrial and raw material resources, as well as machinery and scientific
equipment.

2. Potsdam Conference (July-August 1945):

The Potsdam Conference was a follow-up meeting to the Yalta Conference, held after
Germany's surrender. The leaders of the United States, the Soviet Union, and the United
Kingdom - Harry S. Truman, Joseph Stalin, and Clement Attlee (replacing Churchill) - attended
the conference in Potsdam, near Berlin.

Key Outcomes:

• Implementation of the Yalta Decisions: The Potsdam Conference solidified the division
of Germany and Berlin into occupation zones.

• Denazification and Demilitarization: The conference outlined plans for the

denazification and demilitarization of Germany, removing Nazi influence and disbanding
its military capabilities.

• Borders and Population Transfers: The conference confirmed the new borders of
Poland and the transfer of German populations from territories in Poland and
Czechoslovakia to Germany.

3. Paris Peace Treaties (1947):

The Paris Peace Treaties, signed in 1947, were a series of individual peace treaties between the
Allied Powers and the Axis Powers' former members. These treaties formally ended the state
of war with Italy, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, and Finland.

Key Outcomes:

• Territorial Adjustments: The treaties established new borders, incorporating territorial

changes to favor the victors and compensate the affected countries.
• War Reparations: The defeated countries were required to pay reparations to the Allied
Powers.

4. Formation of the United Nations (UN) (1945):

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The United Nations, established on October 24, 1945, succeeded the League of Nations and
aimed to promote international cooperation, maintain peace and security, and prevent future
conflicts. Aims:

• Peacekeeping: The UN would act as a forum for international dialogue, mediation, and
negotiation to prevent armed conflicts.

• Human Rights: The UN would work to protect and promote human rights globally.

• Economic and Social Development: The UN would facilitate international cooperation

to improve living standards and promote economic and social progress.

These post-World War II settlements played a crucial role in reshaping the geopolitical
landscape of Europe and the world. The division of Germany and the formation of the
Eastern Bloc and NATO set the stage for the Cold War's ideological and geopolitical
struggles. Additionally, the reconstruction efforts, such as the Marshall Plan, helped to
rebuild war-torn Europe and foster economic cooperation and integration, laying the
foundation for the European Union's later formation.

Marshall Plan
Introduction:

The Marshall plan officially known as the European Recovery Program (ERP) was a
significant American initiative to aid the economic recovery of Western European
countries after World War II. It was named after U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall,
who proposed the plan in a speech at Harvard University on June 5, 1947. The Marshall
Plan aimed to provide substantial financial assistance to war-torn European nations and
foster economic cooperation and stability, ultimately countering the threat of
communism and promoting the revival of Europe.

Key Aspects of the Marshall Plan were:

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Aid provided by USA to European countries from 1948-51

1. Background: In the aftermath of World War II, Western Europe faced widespread
devastation and economic turmoil. Many countries struggled with destroyed
infrastructure, food shortages, high inflation rates, and soaring unemployment. The fear
of communism spreading in the war-ravaged continent was a major concern for the
United States and its Western allies.

2. On June 5, 1947: U.S. Secretary of State George C. Marshall outlined the need for a
comprehensive economic aid program to help Europe recover from the war's backlash.
He emphasized that the plan was open to all European nations, including the Soviet Union
and Eastern European countries, though the latter chose not to participate.

3. A Multibillion-Dollar Aid Package: The Marshall Plan aimed to provide substantial

financial assistance to participating European countries. The original proposal sought $17
billion in aid (equivalent to approximately $195 billion in 2021) over four years. The U.S.
Congress ultimately approved $13 billion (around $150 billion in 2021) in aid for the plan.

4. Conditions for Aid: The European countries that wanted to benefit from the Marshall
Plan had to present a comprehensive plan for their economic recovery. These plans were
designed to be cooperative, encouraging countries to work together in areas such as
trade and currency policies.

5. Economic Revival: The Marshall Plan funds were used to finance projects that would
stimulate economic growth and rebuild essential infrastructure, such as transportation

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networks, factories, and housing. The plan also facilitated the purchase of American goods
and products, which boosted U.S. exports and further fueled the recovery.

6. Cooperation and Integration: The Marshall Plan encouraged European countries to

cooperate economically, laying the groundwork for future European integration efforts.
The successful implementation of the plan contributed to the formation of the European
Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) in 1951, which was a precursor to the European Union
(EU).

7. Impact on Cold War Dynamics: The Marshall Plan was not only an economic initiative
but also had significant political implications. By aiding Western European countries, the
United States aimed to counter the spread of communism, particularly in countries
vulnerable to Soviet influence.

Conclusion: The Marshall Plan played a crucial role in the reconstruction and economic
recovery of Western Europe after World War II. It bolstered transatlantic ties and
contributed to the continent's stability and prosperity. Moreover, the plan laid the
groundwork for future efforts toward European integration and cooperation.

The Marshall Plan's success is often cited as a testament to the benefits of international
cooperation and humanitarian aid in promoting peace and stability in post-conflict
regions
United Nations
The formation of the United Nations (UN) after World War II was a crucial step towards
establishing an international organization dedicated to promoting peace, security, and
cooperation among nations. The idea of creating a successor to the failed League of
Nations gained traction during the war, and the UN Charter was drafted at the United
Nations Conference on International Organization, held in San Francisco from April 25 to
June 26, 1945. The UN officially came into existence on October 24, 1945, following the
ratification of the UN Charter by the majority of its founding member states.

Key Steps in the Formation of the United Nations:

1. Dumbarton Oaks Conference (August-October 1944): Representatives from the

United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and China met at Dumbarton Oaks
in Washington, D.C., to draft the framework for the proposed international organization.
These four nations were instrumental in shaping the structure of the future United
Nations.

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2. Yalta Conference (February 1945): Three Big Three leaders—Franklin D. Roosevelt,

Winston Churchill, and Joseph Stalin — discussed plans for the United Nations and its role
in maintaining peace and security after the war.

3. United Nations Conference on International Organization (San Francisco

Conference) (April-June 1945): Representatives from 50 Allied and neutral countries
gathered in San Francisco to finalize and sign the UN Charter. The conference involved
extensive negotiations and discussions on the Charter's provisions, including the structure
of the UN, its organs, and its principles.

4. Ratification of the UN Charter: Once the UN Charter was agreed upon at the San
Francisco Conference, it was signed by the representatives of the founding member states
on June 26, 1945. The Charter then underwent a ratification process in each member
state's respective government or legislature.

5. UN Establishment and First General Assembly (October 1945): The UN officially came
into existence on October 24, 1945, when the majority of the founding member states
had ratified the Charter. The first meeting of the UN General Assembly was held in London
in January 1946, where the UN's priorities, organizational matters, and leadership
positions were addressed.

6. The Trusteeship Council: was one of the principal organs of the United Nations
established under the UN Charter. Its primary function was to oversee and administer the
international trusteeship system, which aimed to promote the welfare and advancement
of the inhabitants of trust territories until they were ready for self-government or
independence. The Trusteeship Council operated from 1945 until 1994, after which it
suspended its operations due to the successful conclusion of its mission. Still it officially
remains a principal organ of the UN, but its role is now largely ceremonial, focusing on
procedural matters related to the termination of existing trusteeship agreements or the
consideration of any new issues related to the trusteeship system, should they arise.

Key Principles and Aims of the United Nations:

• Peace and Security: The UN was established to prevent future conflicts and promote
international peace and security through diplomatic means, peaceful settlements of
disputes, and collective security.
• International Cooperation: The UN aimed to foster collaboration among nations in
addressing global challenges such as poverty, hunger, disease, and environmental issues.

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• Human Rights: The UN Charter emphasized the importance of promoting and protecting
human rights and fundamental freedoms for all individuals, regardless of race, gender,
religion, or nationality.
• Self-Determination: The UN supported the principle of self-determination for all peoples
and facilitated the decolonization process, helping former colonies gain independence.

GERMAN QUESTION
The "German Question" after World War II refers to the complex and sensitive issue of
how Germany should be governed and integrated into the international community
following its defeat in World War II. It encompassed questions about Germany's territorial
boundaries, political structure, and the possibility of its reunification or division. The
German Question played a significant role in shaping the post-war order in Europe and
the early years of the Cold War. Let's examine this issue scholastically:

1. Background: After World War II, Germany was in ruins, both physically and politically.
The country had been divided into occupation zones by the victorious Allied Powers—the
United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and France. The former Nazi regime
had been dismantled, and the Nazi leadership faced war crimes trials.

2. Division of Germany: One of the first steps in addressing the German Question was the
division of Germany into four zones of occupation. Berlin, as the capital, was also divided
into four sectors, each controlled by one of the Allied Powers. The division was primarily
a temporary measure to ensure stability during the post-war period and facilitate the
process of denazification and reconstruction.

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3. Emergence of the Cold War: As the post-war era progressed, tensions escalated
between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union, leading to the onset of the Cold War.
The division of Germany became a focal point of the ideological struggle between East
and West. The Western Allies sought to promote democracy and capitalist economic
principles in their zones, while the Soviet Union established a communist government in
its zone.
4. Berlin Blockade and Airlift: The division of Berlin became a significant flashpoint during
the early Cold War. In 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, attempting to cut
off access to the Western sectors of the city. In response, the Western Allies organized the
Berlin Airlift, a massive effort to supply West Berlin with food and necessities via air
transport. The Berlin Airlift lasted until 1949, when the blockade was lifted.
5. Formation of East and West Germany: In 1949, the division of Germany became more
formalized with the establishment of two separate states—West Germany (officially
known as the Federal Republic of Germany) and East Germany (officially known as the
German Democratic Republic). West Germany aligned itself with the Western Allies, while
East Germany became a communist state under Soviet influence.
6. Berlin Wall and Iron Curtain: In 1961, the East German government, with Soviet support,
constructed the Berlin Wall, physically dividing East and West Berlin and serving as a
symbol of the broader Iron Curtain separating Eastern and Western Europe.

7. Persistence of German Question: Throughout the Cold War, many Germans hoping for
eventual reunification. The situation began to change in the late 1980s as the Cold War
came to an end. Peaceful protests and political changes in East Germany led to the fall of
the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989. This momentous event paved the way for the
eventual reunification of Germany.

8. German Reunification (1990): On October 3, 1990, the reunification of Germany was

officially realized with the incorporation of East Germany into the Federal Republic of
Germany. This historic event marked the end of the German Question and the beginning
of a new chapter in German history.

In conclusion, the German Question after World War II was a complex and multifaceted
issue that profoundly impacted Germany's fate and the broader dynamics of the early
Cold War. The division and subsequent reunification of Germany serve as a testament to
the importance of diplomacy, reconciliation, and the pursuit of peaceful solutions to
address post-war challenges.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization

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The formation of NATO in the post-World War II scenario was a pivotal development in
international relations and security. It was a response to the changing geopolitical
landscape and the perceived threat of Soviet expansionism in Europe following the end
of World War II. The establishment of NATO aimed to provide a collective security
arrangement for Western European countries and North America, promoting stability and
deterring potential aggression from the Soviet Union.

Key Factors Leading to the Formation of NATO:

1. The Emergence of the Cold War: After World War II, the ideological and geopolitical
tensions between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union escalated into the Cold War.
The division of Europe into Eastern and Western blocs, with the Iron Curtain separating
them, created a sense of insecurity in Western Europe.

2. The Berlin Blockade and Airlift (1948-1949): The Berlin Blockade by the Soviet Union
highlighted the vulnerability of Western Europe and the need for a collective security
response. The successful Berlin Airlift, organized by the Western Allies to supply West
Berlin, demonstrated the effectiveness of cooperative efforts in facing common threats.

3. Fear of Soviet Expansion: The Western European countries were concerned about Soviet
expansionism and the possibility of the Soviet Union attempting to exert control over
Western Europe. They saw the need for a strong defensive alliance to deter aggression.

4. U.S. Leadership and Commitment: The United States played a crucial role in the
formation of NATO. American leaders, recognizing the importance of a stable Europe for
global security, were instrumental in rallying support for a collective security organization
in the region.

Formation and Structure of NATO:

On April 4, 1949, the North Atlantic Treaty was signed in Washington, D.C., by 12 founding
member countries: Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the
Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. The treaty
came into effect on August 24, 1949. That aimed:

1. Collective Defense: Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty established the principle of
collective defense. It stated that an armed attack against one or more NATO members
would be considered an attack against all, and each member pledged to assist the
attacked member(s) with military means if necessary.

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2. Integrated Military Command: NATO established a unified military command structure

to coordinate and integrate the armed forces of member countries. This structure
facilitated joint military planning and exercises.

3. The Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR): The SACEUR, appointed by NATO,
was responsible for the overall command of NATO's military forces in Europe.

4. Expansion of NATO: Over the years, NATO expanded its membership to include many
Central and Eastern European countries that were formerly part of the Warsaw Pact and
the Soviet Union. This expansion took place after the end of the Cold War, further
contributing to the organization's transformation and enlargement.

Conclusion:

The formation of NATO represented a significant step in post-World War II international

relations. It provided a collective security framework that contributed to the stability and
peace in Western Europe during the Cold War era. NATO's continued relevance and
expansion in the decades following its formation demonstrate its enduring role as a key
player in international security affairs

DECOLONIZATION

Introduction:
Decolonization after World War II refers to the process through which many colonies and
territories under European colonial rule gained independence and sovereignty. The post-
war period saw a significant shift in global attitudes towards colonialism, with a growing
push for self-determination and independence among colonized peoples. The
decolonization process was a complex and multi-faceted historical phenomenon that
unfolded over several decades, ultimately reshaping the geopolitical landscape and
contributing to the emergence of new nation-states. Here's an explanation of
decolonization after World War II:

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Colonized regions at the end of WW II

1. Background: World War II had a profound impact on the global order, weakening
colonial powers and altering the balance of power. The war exposed the contradictions of
colonialism, as the colonial subjects fought alongside the Allied forces against the Axis
powers. The sacrifices made by colonized peoples during the war led to heightened
demands for political and social reforms, recognition of their rights, and eventual
independence.

2. International Pressure and Changing Attitudes: The wartime alliance of various nations
fostered the notion of global cooperation and the promotion of universal values such as
self-determination and human rights. The Atlantic Charter of 1941, jointly issued by the
United States and the United Kingdom, expressed the principles of self-government and
non-aggression, inspiring movements for independence in colonized territories.

3. Rise of Nationalist Movements: During and after World War II, nationalist movements
gained momentum in various colonies. Intellectuals, leaders, and activists in these
territories increasingly called for the end of colonial rule and the establishment of
independent nation-states. The war had exposed the vulnerabilities of colonial powers,
and the colonized peoples sought to capitalize on this newfound weakness.

4. UN Declaration on Decolonization: The United Nations, founded in 1945, affirmed the

principle of self-determination and the right of all peoples to choose their own political
status. The UN became a platform through which the demands of decolonization were
voiced, and it provided a framework for discussing the future of colonial territories.

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5. Transition to Independence: Decolonization occurred through various means,

depending on the colonial power, the colony's specific circumstances, and the strategies
of the nationalist movements. Some territories gained independence through peaceful
negotiations and diplomatic processes, while others engaged in armed struggles and
revolutions.
6. Process of Decolonization: The process of decolonization took place over several
decades, beginning in the late 1940s and continuing through the 1950s, 1960s, and
beyond. Many African and Asian countries, such as India (1947), Ghana (1957), Algeria
(1962), Kenya (1963), and many others, gained independence during this period.

7. Challenges of Decolonization: The process of decolonization was not without

challenges. It often involved complex negotiations between colonial powers and
nationalist movements. In some cases, decolonization led to internal conflicts and
struggles for power within the newly independent states.

8. Legacies of Decolonization: Decolonization had far-reaching consequences. It reshaped

the world map, created new nation-states, and altered global power dynamics. It also left
lasting legacies, including issues of identity, political instability, and economic challenges
in the newly independent countries.

Conclusion:
Decolonization after World War II marked a significant turning point in world history. The
end of colonialism was a testament to the resilience and determination of the colonized
peoples in their pursuit of independence and self-determination. Decolonization brought
profound changes to the international order and laid the groundwork for the emergence
of a new era of nation-states in Africa, Asia, and other regions formerly under European
colonial rule.

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TOPIC: COLD WAR EUROPE (1955-1991)

TOPIC: COLD WAR EUROPE (1955 – 1991)

1: EFFECTS OF COLD WAR:

A - Russian Domination Over the Eastern Europe:

The post-cold war world was dominated by two super-powers, the Soviet Union
and the United States. The relations between these two powers deteriorated so
rapidly after the war that a new era of war without bloodshed was started; a cold
war, which showed no sign of diminishing at least until the death of Stalin in 1953.
At the end of the war, Russians dominated the whole eastern Europe with its troops
in Poland, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia and in the eastern parts of
Germany and Austria. Except Austria, military force was used in all these areas to
install communism and communists dominated governments to control internal as
well as external policies of the states. For example, in Poland many non-
Communists parties along with the people's party, which represented the interests
of peasants, were either broken up or absorbed into the National Front of the Polish
Workers Party; communists, and the Polish Socialist Party. When the polish
communists were seemed to be deviating from the instructions given by the
Moscow, about 75,000 communists and socialists were removed from their parties.
The first secretary of the communist party, Gomulka, was forced to resign in 1948
because of his sympathetic behavior with Tito in Yugoslavia. He was arrested and
later imprisoned in 1951. Also, in the same year the polish government abolished
the papal administration of dioceses in the western territories which had been
gained from Germany and in 1953 all clerical appointments came under the control
of state. The similar oppression happened in Hungary too. The Hungarian
Smallolders; peasant, party was suppressed, and its leader was imprisoned and
there was conflict between the state and the church.

B - Barbarism by Russian Troops on Czechoslovakia:

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The Czech Republic was the most industrialized state of eastern Europe and the
one with the most successful experience of democratic government before the
war. Because of its active role in resisting nazis, the communist party gained wide
support amongst the workers and intellectuals and after the war joined coalition
government of liberal and left-wing parties under the Stalinist Klements Gottwald.
The communists soon acquired key posts in the armed forces. In February of 1948,
tensions between the communists and non-communists led to the breakdown of
coalition and a new government was formed by the communists and social
democrats alone with the purge of anti-communists in government posts and in
elections of May,1948. After the election President Benes was replaced by
Gottwald. The son of the founder of Czechoslovakia; who was the last non-
communist member of the cabinet and the foreign minister of Czechoslovakia, was
found dead in doubtful circumstances. Only those leaders who proved to be loyal
to Moscow were left in power, and amongst those who were executed was Rudolf
Slansky, the secretary of the Czech communist party. As in Poland and Hungary,
there was also a conflict between the church and the state, and the redoubtable
Cardinal Beran was expelled in 1951.

C- Tussle Between the Tito and Stalin Communism in Yugoslavia:

The native communist party under Tito had won control of Yugoslavia. In 1948,
disagreements between Tito and Stalin came into the eyes of public. Russians
accused Tito of; betraying his fellow Slavs by giving up Yugoslavian claim to Austrian
Carinthia and mistreating of Russians in Yugoslavia. Tito was announced as a traitor
and American associate, and Yugoslavia was removed from the International
Communists Movement. However, the Yugoslavs proved that they were loyal to
their leader and soon the Stalinist policies were abandoned in Yugoslavia. Another
impressive feature of Yugoslav communism was the absence of autocratic
centralization on the Russian model. The workers and peasants enjoyed a genuine
form of local self-governance and the managing committee for each enterprise was
elected by a council. This independent National Communism of Tito won the
support of other communist states and led the Stalin to purge his local communist

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leaders from Hungary, Poland, Rumania, Bulgaria, and Czechoslovakia between

1948 – 1952.

D- Outbreak of the Greek Civil War among Monarchists and Communists:

The Greek Civil War took place from 1946 to 1949. It was the conflict which erupted
shortly after the end of World War II, consisted of a communist-dominated uprising
against the established government of the Kingdom of Greece. In March 1946, the
right-wing monarchist party was successful at the general elections and began to
take repressive action against the Communists. The Communists reacted by
organizing guerrilla forces in Macedonia, where they could be supplied from
neighboring Communist states, especially Yugoslavia. Tito had cut off the supply
lines from the north and the monarchists had enjoyed support from the British, and
after 1947 from the Americans. They also benefited from the economic aid that
came into the country under the Marshall Plan. After the death of Stalin in 1953,
the circumstances in Eastern Europe destabilized because the Stalinist government
was in power, with the exception in Greece and Yugoslavia. Many Western
politicians believed that the extension of Communist control had been a ruthless
and aggressive policy because of the use of propaganda, political manipulation, and
military force. On the contrary, Russians believed that it was the defensive policy
which would secure the standing of Soviet Union in the future from being attacked
either by the revived Germany or by the western allies.

E - Issues and Problems Surrounding Germany:

Germany was the most difficult area for political and economic reconstruction. The
country was divided into four zones and the old capital, Berlin, was divided into
four sectors. Germany was suffering not only from the devastation of the war but
was also being flooded with hundreds of thousands of refugees from Eastern
Europe. The Russians wanted to crumble and carry away the industrial equipment
from the Ruhr but, were refused by the British who controlled the area. In May

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1946, the Americans also refused to grant Russians further reparations from the
American Zone. Within Eastern Germany the Russians nationalized and
redistributed all assets of over 250 acres. In 1947, the Americans and British united
their zones for economic activities. In 1948, all three Western powers decided to
establish a unilateral government in Western Germany, by the London agreement
and two major political parties emerged; the Christian Democrats under Konrad
Adenauer, and the Social Democrats led by Kurt Schumacher. At the meantime,
Russians were establishing a central government in Eastern Germany; already by
1948, the hopes for a unified Germany were diminishing.

F - The Berlin Blockade from 1948 1949:

Relations between the major powers were deteriorating day by day throughout
1948. In February, the Soviet Commander, Sokolovsky, claimed that the whole of
Berlin was part of the Soviet Union. The allied authorities in the West arranged a
Program for the revaluation of the currency to help economic reconstruction and
to defeat the "black market". The Russians claimed that the unilateral revaluation
by the Western powers would hinder economic relations between Eastern and
Western part of Germany by disastrously suppressing the values of the east
Germany. Therefore, Russians forbade the circulation of the new currency in their
zone and throughout Berlin, thus reiterating their claim to control the whole city,
at least for economic purposes. In June, they closed the land corridors into the
Western sectors of Berlin to drive them from Berlin. This land blockade lasted
almost a year, and the Western sectors were supplied for the whole time by airlift.
At times during the crisis, the powers were on the edge of war, but at last an
agreement was signed in May 1949, which led to the reopening of the land routes.

G - The Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan:

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In his famous speech at Fulton Ohio in 1946, Winston Churchill warned that an "Iron
Curtain" was descending through Europe, dividing the West from the area
dominated by the Soviet Union. Not all Western states people agreed with Churchill
statement at that time, but the division between East and West became
increasingly clear with the passage of time. In the same year Truman accepted that
it should be United States policy to contain Communism by all means. The
American Secretary of State, George Marshall, proposed a plan to make a major
contribution in the economic recovery of Europe, in addition to this, the European
states would themselves cooperate in the administration of this program. Molotov,
the Soviet Foreign Minister, initially joined the Western European leaders, but later
rejected Marshall Aid because of his claim that the Marshall plan ensured the
American interference in the internal affairs of other states. Molotov not only
refused the Marshall Aid for Russia but also forced the other Eastern European
states to do the same.

H - Formation of The North Atlantic Treaty Organization:

In 1948, by the treaty of Brussels a defensive alliance was formed between Britain,
France, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The treaty was clearly aimed
against the revived Germany and the military presence of the Soviet Union in
Europe. As a result, The North Atlantic Treaty Organization - NATO was created in
March 1949 by USA, the members of the Brussels Pact, Canada, Denmark, Norway,
Iceland, Italy, and Portugal. Later Greece and Turkey became its members in 1952.
It had a permanent headquarters in Paris and the Supreme Head- quarters Allied
Powers in Europe (SHAPE) at Versailles initially commanded by General
Eisenhower. NATO was seen both as a necessary defensive organization to counter
Communism and as a successful step towards European peace and cooperation. On
the flip side, Soviet Union recognizes it as a dominative and aggressive American
pact, whose creation was a breach of the United Nations Charter especially after
the renaming of Brussels pact as The Western Union and its expansion by adding
Italy and the Federal German Republic into it. The Russians bitterly criticized it
because by NATO, German military strengthened in less than ten years after the
war. However, NATO on its own was incompetent for the Russian forces and

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satellites. The real reason of the alliance was that they had the back of the United
States and her atomic weapons. Soon this elate ended in September 1949, when
the Russians exploded their first atomic bomb, thus breaking the American
monopoly of this petrifying weaponry.

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2: WARSAW PACT 1955:

A - Introduction:

Warsaw Pact is also referred to as Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation, and

Mutual Assistance Treaty. It was established on May 14, 1955. The Warsaw Pact
was a collective defense treaty established by the Soviet Union and seven other
Soviet satellite states in Central and Eastern Europe.

B - Members of the Warsaw Pact:

The member countries of the Warsaw pact were Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Albania,
Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania. Albania withdrew
from this pact in 1968, and East Germany did so in 1990. The treaty provided for a
unified military command and for the maintenance of Soviet military units on the
other participating states' territories.

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C - Reason for the Creation of Warsaw Pact:

The immediate occasion for the birth of Warsaw Pact was the Paris agreement
between the Western powers admitting West Germany to the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization. The strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by
the desire of the Soviet Union to prevent Central and Eastern Europe being used as
a base for its enemies and to counter NATO. However, the Warsaw Pact was the
first step towards a more systematic plan to strengthen the Soviet hold over its
satellites, a program undertaken by the Soviet leaders Nikita Khrushchev and
Nikolay Bulganin after their assumption of power early in 1955. The treaty also
served as a lever to enhance the bargaining position of the Soviet Union in
international diplomacy

D - Aims of the Warsaw Pact:

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The members of the Warsaw Pact pledged to defend each other if one or more of
them came under attack. This treaty emphasized non-interference in the internal
affairs of its members states and supposedly organized itself around collective
decision-making.The Warsaw Pact, particularly its provision for the garrisoning of
Soviet troops in satellite territory, became a target of nationalist hostility in Poland
and Hungary during the uprisings in those two countries in 1956. The Soviet Union
invoked the treaty when it decided to move Warsaw Pact troops into
Czechoslovakia in August 1968 to bring the Czechoslovak regime back into the fold
after it had begun lifting restraints on freedom of expression and had sought closer
relations with the West. Only Albania and Romania refused to join in the
Czechoslovak repression.

E - Event Leading Towards the End of Warsaw Pact:

After the democratic revolutions of 1989 in eastern Europe, the Warsaw Pact
became moribund and was formally declared “nonexistent” on July 1, 1991, at a
final summit meeting of Warsaw Pact leaders in Prague, Czechoslovakia. Deployed
Soviet troops were gradually withdrawn from the former satellites, now politically
independent countries. The decades-long confrontation between eastern and
western Europe was formally rejected by members of the Warsaw Pact, all of
which, with the exception of the Soviet successor state of Russia, subsequently
joined NATO.

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3: THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY:

A – Treaty of Rome: Background for the Creation of European Economic

Community:

After the year 1953, the idea of economic cooperation became popular in Western
Europe. The Coal and Steel Community had laid the foundations of the European
Economic Community. In 1955 representatives of the six members of the ECSC-
European Coal and Steel Community, appointed a special committee under the
chairmanship of M. Spaak of Belgium. In April 1956, this committee proposed that
within twelve years the member states should abolish all mutual customs barriers
and suggested that the member states should co-operate in the peaceful
development of atomic power in an organization that was to become known as
Euratom. On March 24, 1957, the Treaty of Rome was signed by the Federal
German Republic, Italy, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg. In
1958, the European Economic Community and Euratom Commission came into
being because of the treaty of Rome.

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B – Advantages Provided by the European Economic Community:

Trade among the member states increased by 29 percent from 1960-1961. Trade
barriers were lowered, and the three cooperative bodies ECSC, EEC, and Euratom
merged in 1967. In the same year prices were fixed for agricultural products,
notably for wheat. A special agricultural fund was established to help support the
price level of agricultural goods.

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C - Loopholes of the European Economic Community:

Over the years the EEC certainly proved its success in economic development.
However, there were difficulties, in agreeing on a common agricultural policy, and
there were some hazards that the areas farthest from the center of the Community,
such as Brittany and southern Italy, would be put at an economic disadvantage. But
these problems were overshadowed by the massive increase in productivity and

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the rise in the standards of living within the group. Most of the member countries
of the EEC continued to grow and prosper during this period, despite a world-wide
trade recession during the oil crises of 1973 and 1978. Britain failed to do so, due
to internal policies and industrial problems.

D - Period of Economic Growth and Prosperity for the Member States of EEC:

Greece entered in EEC in January of 1981. Her acceptance into the EEC resulted
because of its overthrowing of the dictatorial regime and establishment of
democratic form of government. Portugal and Spain both having democracies also
applied for membership. But the EEC failed to live up to the hopes of its member
countries due to their national differences. France. for example, continues to "go it
alone" in defense sector. Similarly, Britain, a major oil-producing country, insisted
that it is her oil not the property of the community. Frequent arguments were seen
to occur over the Common Agricultural Policy – CAP. This policy aimed to make
Europe self-sufficient in food production. Farmers were guaranteed an annually
fixed price for their products by the Ministers of Agriculture of the member states.
The political influence of farmers in France, Germany and Holland was very
considerable and their Ministers sought to get high price as possible for their
farmers. This led to the creation of vast surpluses of meat, milk, butter, wine, and
fruits because the price system benefited and encouraged the farmers to produce
increasingly. Food importing countries like Britain resented this system, since they
must make the largest payments into the fund needed to give farmers the promised
prices. People also resented the vast amounts of these expensive foods sold at low
prices, to Russia and other Eastern bloc states.

E - Financial Changes in Britain:

The year 1980 marked an important change in the finances of the Common Market
when Margaret Thatcher, the British Prime Minister, at last won a long and hard
battle to gain improved financial arrangements for Britain. Her claim for a drastic

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reduction of Britain's contribution was based on the argument that Britain received
in return far less than other states per head of population. In 1979, the EEC paid
Britain 18 pounds per head, whereas other states received 45 pounds per head.
This discrepancy was accounted for by the large expenditure of the Community on
European farming, which was far less efficient than Britain's. In May 1980, Britain's
contribution was cut from 1,000 million pounds to 337 million pounds and for 1981
to 445 million pounds

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4: NUCLEAR NON-PROLIFERATION AGREEMENT:

A - Historical Background Leading Towards the Formation of Test Ban Treaty:

The development of nuclear weapons posed a stern threat to humanity. Scientists

know that the repetition of nuclear tests are not only hazardous for human
existence but also for the environment. To check this menace the United Nations
and individual governments had been involved in a long series of negotiations. To
solve this issue, underground methods for testing nuclear weapons were
introduced as they were less dangerous than atmospheric methods. The way was
then clear for the signing by Russia, the United States and the United Kingdom of a
treaty to ban all tests in the atmosphere. The treaty was endorsed by most other
countries in the world and in 1968 the great powers also signed an agreement to
try to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons to non-nuclear powers.

B - Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968:

The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty was an agreement signed in 1968 by the

major nuclear and non-nuclear powers that pledged their cooperation in hindering
the spread of nuclear technology. However, neither France nor Communist China
agreed to the Test Ban Treaty and both countries pressed ahead with their own
programs for nuclear weapons, which involved testing in the atmosphere. The Test
Ban Treaty was partial since it did not affect underground tests. On the other hand,
it was a most important step towards checking the proliferation of weapons which
endangered the existence of humankind. It was also a sign that the Russian and
American leaders were ready to co- operate on at least some world issues.
However, it did not lead to any general agreement on world armaments and the

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two superpowers were still deeply divided. There was evidence of this both in the
Middle and the Far East. while Europe itself seemed to be threatened with a revival
of Cold War at its most intense during 1968.

C - Aims and Objectives of the Test Ban Treaty:

The NPT is a multilateral treaty aimed at limiting the spread of nuclear weapons
including three elements:

1: Non-Proliferation

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2: Disarmament
3: Peaceful use of Nuclear Energy.

These elements constitute a Grand Bargaining arena for the five nuclear and other
non-nuclear weapon states.

1 - States without nuclear weapons will not acquire them.

2 - States with nuclear weapons will pursue disarmament.

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3 - All states can access nuclear technology for peaceful purposes, under
safeguards.

D - Ratifiers of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty:

This treaty was signed by the United Kingdom, the United States, the Soviet Union,
and 59 other states, under which the three major signatories, which possessed
nuclear weapons, agreed not to assist other states in obtaining or producing them.
The treaty became effective in March 1970 and was to remain so for a 25-year
period. Additional countries later ratified the treaty, as of 2007 only three
countries; India, Israel, and Pakistan have refused to sign the treaty, and one
country, North Korea has signed and then withdrawn from the treaty. The treaty
was extended indefinitely and without conditions in 1995 by a consensus vote of
174 countries at the United Nations headquarters in New York City.

E - Challenges to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty:

The treaty continues to play a key role in sustaining the international norm against
proliferation, but it has been challenged by several events, including:

1 - North Korea’s withdrawal from the treaty in 2003 as it sought to acquire nuclear
weapons.
2 - Evidence of the progress Iraq made in the 1980’s on its nuclear program despite
being a signatory to the treaty.

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3 - Allegations about uranium enrichment facilities in Iran, yet another signatory to

the treaty.
4 – Declaration of India and Pakistan as a nuclear power in 1998 without any serious
international penalty — and indeed by India establishing its own special
arrangements as part of a bilateral deal with the United States in 2008.

5: CHARLES DE GAULE AND FRANCE:

A - Charles De Gaule: The President of France:

He was a French army officer and statesman who led Free France against Nazi
Germany in World War II and chaired the Provisional Government of the French
Republic from 1944 to 1946 in order to restore democracy in France. He rewrote
the Constitution of France and founded the Fifth Republic after approval by
referendum. He was elected President of France later that year, a position to which
he was reelected in 1965 and held until his resignation in 1969.

B - Ending of French Empire Leading to the Beginning of the Charle’s Reign:

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The constitution of 1946 provided for the representation of the colonies in the
National Assembly and in the High Council, but this scheme had never really
worked, and De Gaulle was determined that the country should not be plagued by
any further colonial wars. In 1958, he offered the states in French Africa the choice
of immediate independence or association with France in the French Community.
By 1960, the old idea of the Community was destroyed.

C - De Gaulle's Contribution in French Foreign Policy:

He wanted to free France from the policies of the United States and her allies and
to take France and her European associates into an independent position. For this
reason, he adverse Britain's membership of the Common Market and withdrew
France from NATO. He built good relations not only with Russia and Eastern Europe
but also with Communist China. He successfully developed French nuclear weapons
and French military aircraft. He also refused to sign the Limited Test Ban Treaty of
1963.

D - De Gaulle's Contribution in French Internal Policy:

De Gaulle despised the old politicians and their methods. By revaluing the capital,
Frace currency became increasingly healthy, and the country was released from the
crippling burden of the Algerian War. By 1963 France was accumulating substantial
gold reserves and the balance payments problem was solved and Industrial
production increased. Wages and prices were controlled by the government to
prevent inflation. Subsidies were withdrawn to increase efficiency. However,
certain workers resented wage fixing and the government's policy of control over
the information services came in for a good deal of criticism. Anti gullist riot started
after the demonstration students in Paris were treated unfairly by the government.
Factories were taken over and a general strike started due to wage issues. Elections
were called and he offered a new plan for greater public participation in jobs and
sanctioned large wage increases. In the elections he scored yet another

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overwhelming victory and his enemies were divided and demoralized. However, in
November, he imposed drastic economies on the government and the people. This
in its turn once more created unrest in France. In 1969, he announced that he had
every intention of serving out his term as President into the 1970s. However, the
economic difficulties of France increased, and devaluation was an inevitable fact.
In national referendum, the President failed to secure the national majority and
finally resigned.

6: SPREAD OF COMMUNISTS REGIMES IN EUROPE:

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A - Introduction:

The Cold War had a profound impact on post-World War II Europe. The period was
dominated by the global power struggle between the US and the USSR and their
competing ideologies of capitalism and communism, splitting Europe.

B - Origin of Communism in Europe:

The origins of communism in Europe started with the emergence of communism

and socialism as an ideology and political movement in the 19th century.

i - Marxist Theory: Class Structure of Capitalist Society

The most important thinker associated with communism was Karl Marx, a German
economist and political philosopher who proposed a revolutionary theory based on
what he considered the contradictions of industrial capitalism. Much of his writing
occurred during the mid-1800s, when workers movements were emerging in much
of Europe, including the creation of communes in many cities during the
Revolutions of 1848. Marx and Friedrich developed a theory that industrial
capitalism creates a class conflict between the bourgeoisie, the capitalist class who
own factories, land, and wealth, and the proletariat, or the working class. He
believed that the owners exploit the growth and social standing of the workers by
paying them small wages. While the capitalists enjoy luxuries of life by making
much more money by selling finished goods. Therefore, he proposed that they
would eventually rise and take control of the factories, what he called the means
of production, for themselves. “Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic
revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a
world to win. Working men of all countries, unite!"

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B - The Spread of Communism in Europe:

Many political parties around Europe proposed reforms in favor of workers,

although often in a less radical form than Marx. In many countries these Social
Democratic parties achieved considerable support in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries. While communist and socialist parties gained some support in Western
Europe before and after the Second World War, the spread of communism in
Europe was limited to the countries of Eastern Europe occupied by the Soviet Union
after the end of World War II.

Spread of Communism in Eastern Europe

Country Year Methods Used

Albania 1945 Communist rebels led
resistance to Nazi
occupation in World War
II and took control of the
country afterwards.
Yugoslavia 1945 Communists led
resistance to Nazi
occupation and took
control after the war.
Yugoslavia later broke
with the USSR and
engaged in friendly
relations with the West
but maintained a
communist government.
Bulgaria 1946 Communists won a
majority in elections held
in 1946 and moved to ban
other parties, abolish the

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monarchy, and
consolidate one party
rule.
East Germany 1945-1949 The USSR installed a
nondemocratic,
communist led
government in its zone of
occupation of Germany.
After the declaration of
the Federal Republic of
Germany, or West
Germany in the US,
French, and British
occupied areas of
Germany, the Soviet zone
followed suit with the
declaration of the
German Democratic
Republic, or East
Germany, in October
1949.
Romania 1945 A coalition government
was created after the
war. The communists
were the largest party
but did not have a
majority. They gradually
banned other parties and
established one party
control.
Poland 1947 Stalin, leader of the USSR,
had leading non-
communist politicians
murdered in 1945. In
1947, communists won
elections while
intimidating other

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remaining opposition
politicians.
Czechoslovakia 1948 Communists had a large
representation in a post
war coalition government
but not a majority. In
February 1948, the
communist led military
seized power in a coup
and set up a one-party
communist government.
Hungary 1949 Non-communists had
won a majority in
elections in 1945. The
communists, supported
by the USSR, worked to
achieve power, becoming
the largest party in
elections in 1947 but
without a majority. They
pushed out non-
communists and in
elections held in 1949,
only communist
candidates were allowed
on the ballot.

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C - Communism in Western Europe:

Especially in France and Italy, communist parties received large numbers of votes
in elections following the war. Communist parties also held significant numbers of
seats in legislatures in Belgium and the Netherlands. In Greece, communist rebels
threatened to take over the government.

i - Stopping Communism in Western Europe: Truman Doctrine and the Marshall

Plan
In response to the spread of communism in Eastern Europe and fears of the further
spread of communism in Europe, the US attempted to stop the spread of

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communism in Western Europe. In 1947, US President Harry Truman called for the
US Congress to approve military aid to Greece and Turkey to help prevent
communist takeovers there. The Marshall Plan, named after the US general who
proposed it, was a massive economic aid package to Europe to help rebuild after
World War II. The plan was partly based on the idea that economic crisis and
instability would lead to more support for communism in Western Europe.
Therefore, a key goal of this plan was not just to rebuild Europe but also to stop
communism in Western Europe.

ii - Gorbachev and the Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe:

In the late 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev instituted a number of reforms
in the Soviet Union. Notably, his policy of Glasnot, or opening in Russian, allowed
more freedom of expression and freedom of the press. He signaled clearly to the
other communist governments in the Warsaw Pact that the USSR would not
intervene militarily to prevent protest and revolution as they had in Hungary and
Czechoslovakia earlier.

Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe

Country Year Events

Hungary 1989 On October 23, 1989,
Hungary adopted a new

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constitution that allowed

for multiparty
democracy.
East Germany 1989 In November 1989, the
East German government
opened the border.
Protestors destroying the
Berlin Wall were
televised around the
world. Negotiations
began for the
reunification for
Germany, which was
completed in 1990.
Czechoslovakia 1989 Protests in October were
initially repressed but
continued. A
noncommunist
government came to
power in December,
followed by the election
of dissident playwright
Vaclav Havel as
president.
Bulgaria 1989-1990 Protests began. A
communist reformist
prime minister came to
power and announced
free elections for 1990.
Reformist communists
won a majority but led a
democratic coalition
government with center
and right-wing parties.
Romania 1989 Communist leader
Nicolae Ceausescu
refused to allow protests,

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with police and the army

firing on protestors.
Widespread resistance
emerged, and Ceausescu
fled before being
captured and executed.
Reformist communists
won a majority in later
elections but led a
coalition government
with center and right-
wing parties.
Albania 1989-1998 The communist leader
began reforms in 1989.
Free elections were held
in 1991. Communists
retained a majority, but
resistance continued, and
the 1992 elections led to
their loss of power and
instability. A new
constitution in 1998
allowed for democracy.
Yugoslavia 1990-2000 After communist leader
Tito's death in 1980,
ethnic and national
division between the
different republics that
made up the union of
Yugoslavia had emerged.
In multi-party elections in
1990s, communists only
won in Serbia and
Montenegro. Slovenia,
Croatia, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, and
Macedonia, all declared

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independence in 1991
and 1992, leading to
conflict. The communist
leader of Serbia and
Montenegro Slobodan
Milosevic was removed
from power in 2000, and
Montenegro became
independent. The region
of Kosovo also declared
independence.

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In just a matter of months, all the countries that had adopted communism in
Eastern Europe had fallen. The Soviet Republics in Europe, Ukraine, Belarus,
Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia all declared themselves independent by 1991.The fall
of communism in Eastern Europe marked the end of the Cold War and led to
attempts to integrate these countries into a larger European system. Many have
faced continued challenges to establish strong democratic institutions and stable
economies after the fall of communism in Eastern Europe.

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XIII. Europe (1991-2012)

• The Gorbachev and Disintegration of USSR

• The reunification of Germany
• The Balkan crisis of 1990s
• The European Union
• Role of Europe in War against terrorism
• Global Economic Crisis and Europe

Gorbachev and the Disintegration of the Soviet Union

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a loose confederation of 15 republics led by
Russia. From 1922 to 1991, when it was fragmented into smaller groups, the USSR was a
powerful bloc with enormous sway over world affairs.

The disintegration of the Soviet Union occurred during 1988–1991. It was followed by internal
political, economic, and ethnic disintegration within the USSR, which led to the end of the
Soviet Union’s existence as a sovereign state.

General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev sought to end the Era of Stagnation by reforming the
Soviet political and economic systems. Gorbachev was forced to retire as President and as a
member of what remained of the parliament to publicly recognise the Union’s disintegration.

The History of the Soviet Union

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The USSR was created after the 1917 Russian Revolution. It formed a communist super-state
with its far-flung provinces in 1922. Vladimir Lenin was the first leader of the Soviet Union. The
Soviet Union was designed from the start to seem like a society that practised ‘real democracy’.

However, as time passed, it revealed itself to be authoritarian. Only one party was permitted to
exist—the Communist Party—and it required total loyalty from every Russian citizen. After
coming to power in 1924, Stalin instituted a totalitarian rule in its fullest form. The state directly
influenced Russian society, including political and social life and economic, administrative, and
industrial activities. Anyone who disagreed with Stalin was either sent to a labour camp (Gulag)
or killed on the spot following a show trial.

Mikhail Gorbachev and the Glasnost Era

When Mikhail Gorbachev became the Soviet Union’s premier in 1985, he inherited a stagnant
economy and a political apparatus that made changes difficult.

Gorbachev implemented two programs to convert the Soviet Union into a productive state to
moderate the situation.

I. The first was ‘glasnost’, or political openness. He abolished the prohibition on

publications that had been put in place because they contradicted communist beliefs.
He granted new liberties to all people of the Soviet Republics.
II. The second set of programs was dubbed ‘perestroika’, which referred to economic
transformation. It abandoned the previous command economy doctrine by permitting
private property ownership and company establishment while promoting foreign
investment in Soviet firms.
These changes, however, were both inadequate and arrived too late because the economy was
shattered beyond repair. Rationing, food shortages, and long lines for critical items seemed to
be the sole outcomes of Gorbachev’s new policies, adding to public dissatisfaction with his
leadership. The disintegration of the USSR began from here.

Causes of the Disintegration of the Soviet Union

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Following World War II, Germany was split into the communist Soviet Union and capitalist
Western regimes. The fall of the Berlin wall triggered a chain of events that ultimately became
the cause of the disintegration of the USSR.

1. Weakness in the Economy

This was one of the primary causes of the disintegration of the Soviet Union. The main source
of unhappiness among the people in the USSR was the economy’s weakness. There was a
severe scarcity of consumer goods. The following were the causes of economic weakness.

2. Massive military expenditure

Upkeep of satellite states in Eastern Europe
The economically-weak Central Asian Republics that remained in the USSR
Political Stubbornness

For over 70 years, the communist party rule (one-party control) became dictatorial. Corruption,
nepotism, and a lack of openness were all prevalent. Gorbachev’s decision to allow multi-party
elections and establish a president for the Soviet Union started a lengthy process of

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democratisation that finally destabilised Communist authority and led to the Soviet Union’s
demise.

3. The Emergence of Nationalism

The rise of nationalism in nations such as Russia, the Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania),
Ukraine, Georgia, and others was the most significant and direct cause of the USSR’s breakup.
National pride was high in the wealthier sections of the USSR but not in the Central Asian
republics.

Impacts of the disintegration

1. Emergence of Independent States

The Soviet Union's collapse led to the formation of 15 independent countries, including Russia,
Ukraine, Belarus, and others. These newly independent states faced numerous challenges in
establishing their political systems, economies, and national identities.

2. Economic Changes
The transition from a centrally planned economy to market-based systems was challenging for
many former Soviet states. Some experienced economic turmoil, hyperinflation, and
unemployment as they adapted to new economic structures.

3. Geopolitical Realignment
The end of the USSR shifted the global balance of power, with Russia emerging as its successor
in terms of landmass, population, and military strength. It also changed the dynamics of
international relations and geopolitical alliances.

4. End of the Cold War

The dissolution of the USSR effectively marked the end of the Cold War, which had defined
much of the 20th century's global politics. The competition between the USA and the USSR
ceased, leading to changes in international diplomacy and military strategies.

5. Ethnic Tensions

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Many former Soviet republics experienced ethnic tensions and conflicts, particularly in regions
where different ethnic groups claimed historical rights to territory. Conflicts like the Nagorno-
Karabakh conflict, Transnistria conflict, and others emerged during this period.

6. Nuclear Arsenal
The breakup of the USSR left several newly independent states with nuclear weapons. To
prevent proliferation, efforts were made to secure and dismantle nuclear arsenals. However,
some challenges remained, leading to concerns about nuclear proliferation.

7. Impact on Russian Minority

After the USSR's dissolution, there were significant populations of ethnic Russians living in
several newly independent states. Ensuring their rights and integration while respecting the
sovereignty of those countries became an ongoing challenge.

8. Economic Inequalities
The transition from socialism to capitalism led to significant wealth disparities, with some
oligarchs amassing vast fortunes while others struggled with poverty and unemployment.

9. Social and Cultural Shifts

The end of the USSR brought about changes in societal norms, cultural expressions, and
individual identities as countries embraced their own national cultures and traditions.

10. Global Implications

The collapse of the USSR had broader effects on the global economy, politics, and security. It
paved the way for the expansion of the European Union, NATO, and other international
organisations. It also led to changes in global trade patterns and alliances.

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REUNIFICATION OF GERMANY

The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, marked the beginning of the end of the Cold
War and, eventually, the Soviet Union. Soviet-occupied East Germany, officially known as the
German Democratic Republic, was reunited with West Germany on October 3, 1990.

The winds of change were blowing across Europe. The communist bloc was roiled by reform
movements in the 1980s. In Poland, the ruling communist party voted to legalize the banned

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Solidarity trade union, which won seats in parliament in elections in the summer of 1989. In
Hungary, there were mass demonstrations for democracy.
Discontent was also brewing in East Germany and the first signs of German unity began to
appear. Köhler said that at protests, “from shouting ‘We are the people,’ the protesters began
to claim ‘We are one people.’” And, he recalled, East German demonstrators took up another
slogan: “If the Deutsche Mark comes we will stay; if it doesn’t come we will go to it!”

Reasons for the reunification of Germany

1. The Fall of the Berlin Wall (1989)
The Berlin Wall, a physical and ideological barrier that divided East and West Germany, fell on
November 9, 1989. This event marked a turning point in the reunification process as it
symbolised the end of the Cold War and the beginning of a new era of German unity.

2. Public Protests and Demands for Change

In the late 1980s, public protests in East Germany, driven by dissatisfaction with the oppressive
communist regime, grew stronger. People demanded political and economic reforms, which
further fueled the momentum towards reunification.

3. Economic Challenges in East Germany

The East German economy was struggling, leading to a significant disparity in living standards
between East and West Germany. The economic gap highlighted the need for reunification to
foster economic development and improve the overall well-being of the East German
population.

4. Diplomatic Efforts and International Pressure

Various international actors, including the United States and other Western countries,
supported the idea of German reunification. Diplomatic efforts helped alleviate concerns from
neighbouring countries about a reunified Germany and paved the way for a peaceful
reunification process.

5. Two Plus Four Treaty (1990)

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The Two Plus Four Treaty, signed on September 12, 1990, by the two Germanys and the four
occupying powers (United States, Soviet Union, United Kingdom, and France), formalised the
reunification process. The treaty recognized Germany's sovereignty and resolved security
concerns through disarmament and territorial guarantees.

6. Domestic Political Will:

Both East and West German leaders demonstrated a strong political will to reunify the country.
Helmut Kohl, the West German Chancellor, and Hans Modrow, the East German Prime Minister,
played crucial roles in facilitating the reunification process.

7. National Identity and Cultural Ties

Throughout the division, a sense of shared history, language, and culture persisted among
Germans. Reunification was seen as a way to restore the nation's identity and preserve its
cultural heritage.

8. Desire for Peace and Stability

Reunification was viewed as an opportunity to establish a stable and peaceful Germany. By
bringing together the two Germanys, the risk of potential conflicts and tensions between the
two sides could be diminished.

9. European Integration
Reunification was seen as a step towards a stronger and more united Europe. A reunified
Germany could contribute significantly to European integration efforts and promote peace and
cooperation on the continent.

10. Public Support for Reunification

Polls showed that a significant majority of Germans on both sides supported reunification. The
widespread public support helped sustain the momentum for reunification and legitimised the
process.

"We are one people!"

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- Slogan frequently chanted during demonstrations in East Germany leading up

to reunification.

These reasons, along with a unique set of historical circumstances and strong leadership,
ultimately led to the peaceful reunification of Germany on October 3, 1990.

"The fall of the Berlin Wall was possible because of the courage of the people of
the GDR."
- Mikhail Gorbachev, Former President of the Soviet Union.

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BALKAN CRISIS

The Balkan crisis of the 1990s, also known as the Yugoslav Wars, was a series of ethnic conflicts
and wars that took place in the Balkans, a region in Southeastern Europe. The breakup of
Yugoslavia and the subsequent conflicts resulted in widespread violence, ethnic cleansing, and
the displacement of millions of people. Here are some key aspects and events of the Balkan
crisis in the 1990s.

Breakup of Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia was a federal socialist state composed of six republics: Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. In the late 1980s and early 1990s,
growing nationalist sentiments and political tensions among the republics led to demands for
greater autonomy and eventually resulted in the dissolution of Yugoslavia.

Declaration of Independence
In 1991, Croatia and Slovenia declared their independence from Yugoslavia, which triggered
armed conflicts with the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) and Serb-dominated areas in Croatia and
Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Bosnian War (1992-1995)

Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence in 1992, and a brutal war ensued between
Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Croats, and Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims). The war saw atrocities such as
ethnic cleansing, massacres, and sieges of cities like Sarajevo and Srebrenica.

Ethnic Cleansing and War Crimes

During the conflicts, all sides engaged in ethnic cleansing, forcibly displacing and killing civilians
based on their ethnicity. The Srebrenica massacre in 1995, where Bosnian Serb forces killed
thousands of Bosniak men and boys, was declared a genocide by international courts.

Kosovo War (1998-1999)

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The conflict in Kosovo, a province of Serbia with a majority Albanian population, escalated in
the late 1990s. Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) guerrillas fought for independence from Serbia,
and Yugoslav and Serbian forces responded with brutal crackdowns on the civilian population.

NATO Intervention
In response to the escalating violence and reports of atrocities in Kosovo, NATO launched an air
campaign against Yugoslavia in 1999. The campaign aimed to stop the violence and force the
withdrawal of Yugoslav forces from Kosovo. The conflict ended with the adoption of UN
Security Council Resolution 1244, which placed Kosovo under the administration of the United
Nations.

Dayton Agreement (1995)

The war in Bosnia and Herzegovina ended with the Dayton Agreement in 1995. This agreement
established the framework for a complex power-sharing system and divided the country into
two entities: the Bosniak-Croat Federation and the Serb-dominated Republika Srpska.

Aftermath and Reconciliation

The conflicts left deep scars on the region, and reconciliation efforts have been ongoing since
the end of the wars. The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) was
established to prosecute war criminals, holding many responsible for their actions.

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EUROPEAN UNION

The EU was created by the Maastricht Treaty, which entered into force on November 1, 1993.
The treaty was designed to enhance European political and economic integration by creating a
single currency, Euro, a unified foreign and security policy, and common citizenship rights and
by advancing cooperation in the areas of immigration, asylum, and judicial affairs.

The Maastricht Treaty

It is officially known as the Treaty on European Union (TEU), is a significant treaty that was
signed on December 7, 1991, in the city of Maastricht in the Netherlands. It entered into force
on November 1, 1993, and marked a crucial milestone in the history of European integration.
The treaty laid the groundwork for the formation of the European Union (EU) as we know it
today.

The purposes of European Union (EU)

1. Peace and Stability
The primary purpose of the EU was initially to prevent further conflicts among European
nations after the devastating experiences of two world wars. By fostering close economic and
political cooperation, the EU aims to maintain peace and stability within its borders.

2. Economic Integration
The EU seeks to create a single market and customs union among its member states, enabling
the free movement of goods, services, capital, and labor. This economic integration promotes
trade, boosts economic growth, and enhances competitiveness on a global scale.

3. Protection of Fundamental Rights

The EU is committed to upholding and protecting fundamental rights and freedoms for all its
citizens, as enshrined in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.

4. Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)

The EU aims to promote a coordinated approach to foreign policy and security matters,
enabling member states to speak with a unified voice on the global stage.

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5. Economic and Monetary Union (EMU)

The EU established the Economic and Monetary Union with the goal of ensuring economic
stability, convergence, and prosperity among the member states that adopted the euro as their
common currency.

6. Environmental Protection and Sustainability

The EU is committed to addressing environmental challenges and promoting sustainable
development through various policies and initiatives.

7. Regional Development and Cohesion

The EU works to reduce regional disparities and promote balanced economic development
across its member states, supporting regions with lower income and weaker infrastructure.

8. Consumer Protection and Standards

The EU aims to protect consumers' rights and safety and establishes common product
standards to ensure high-quality goods and services for its citizens.

9. Migration and Border Management

The EU seeks to address migration challenges while respecting human rights and promoting
cooperation on border management and asylum policies.

10. Research and Innovation

The EU supports research and innovation initiatives to drive technological advancements and
economic growth across member states.

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The European Union's Role in the Fight Against Terrorism

The Threat of Terrorism: A Shared Concern

Terrorism poses a significant threat to global peace and security, affecting communities
worldwide. In response to this menace, the European Union (EU) has emerged as a pivotal
player in the comprehensive fight against terrorism. With a commitment to collective action,
the EU employs a multifaceted approach that encompasses prevention, protection, and
response. Through a collaborative strategy, the EU seeks to safeguard its citizens, foster
cooperation among member states, and counter the evolving challenges posed by terrorist
organisations.

II. Enacting Strong Legal Frameworks

Criminalising Terrorist Acts
At the core of the EU's counter-terrorism efforts lies the establishment of robust legal
frameworks. The EU adopts legislation to criminalise terrorist acts, ensuring that perpetrators
of heinous acts face unified and stringent justice across member states. By harmonising laws,
the EU dismantles safe havens for terrorists, curbing the proliferation of violence.

Countering Terrorist Financing

Financially strangling terrorist organisations is a pivotal aspect of the EU's counter-terrorism
strategy. Through legislative measures, the EU disrupts terrorist financing networks, freezing
assets, and cutting off access to funding sources. This hinders the operational capabilities of
terrorists and weakens their ability to carry out destructive acts.
Combating Recruitment and Training of Terrorists

The EU endeavours to eradicate the root causes of terrorism by criminalising the recruitment
and training of terrorists. By addressing the mechanisms that enable radicalization and
indoctrination, the EU seeks to diminish the appeal of extremist ideologies and prevent the
proliferation of violence.

III. Intelligence and Information Sharing

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Facilitating Cooperation among Member States

The EU recognizes the significance of intelligence and information sharing in thwarting terrorist
plots. Through cooperation among law enforcement agencies, judicial authorities, and
intelligence services, the EU enhances situational awareness and the timely exchange of critical
data on potential threats.

Strengthening Situational Awareness

In fostering an atmosphere of trust and collaboration, the EU improves situational awareness
across its member states. Heightened information sharing enables the rapid identification of
emerging threats and empowers proactive measures to prevent terrorist activities.

Timely Interventions and Thwarting Plots

The EU's coordinated approach enables swift interventions in response to emerging threats. By
leveraging shared intelligence, the EU foils terrorist plots, mitigating potential harm to citizens
and infrastructure.

IV. Enhancing Border Security and Control

Preventing Infiltration of Terrorists
Securing borders is paramount to the EU's counter-terrorism efforts. By implementing robust
border security measures, the EU thwarts the infiltration of terrorists and prevents their
unlawful movement across member states.

Curbing Illicit Flow of Weapons and Funds

The EU focuses on disrupting the illicit flow of weapons and funds that sustain terrorist
activities. By monitoring and regulating cross-border movements, the EU impedes the transfer
of resources that could finance acts of violence.

V. Disrupting Terrorist Financing

Severing Funding Sources for Terrorist Organizations

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Strangling terrorist financing networks is a primary objective of the EU's counter-terrorism

strategy. By adopting targeted financial measures, the EU freezes assets and disrupts funding
channels, crippling terrorist organizations.

Crippling Operational Capabilities

Disrupting the financial supply chain of terrorists hampers their operational capabilities. The
EU's financial measures inhibit their ability to plan and execute attacks, safeguarding vulnerable
communities.

Undermining Ability to Carry Out Acts of Violence

By curtailing the availability of funds, the EU reduces terrorists' capacity to execute large-scale
acts of violence. This deters the proliferation of violence and safeguards potential targets.

VI. Preventing Radicalization

Countering Extremist Ideologies and Propaganda
The EU places significant emphasis on countering extremist ideologies and propaganda that fuel
radicalization. By promoting alternative narratives and fostering critical thinking, the EU aims to
dismantle the appeal of extremist ideologies.

Fostering Social Inclusion and Intercultural Dialogue

Through initiatives promoting social inclusion and intercultural dialogue, the EU seeks to build
cohesive and resilient communities. Inclusive societies are more resistant to extremist
influences and less susceptible to radicalization.

Empowering Communities to Resist Violent Extremism

Empowerment and engagement of communities play a pivotal role in the EU's counter-
terrorism strategy. By equipping communities to identify and counter radicalization within their
midst, the EU bolsters resilience and strengthens societal defences against terrorism.

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VII. Emphasising International Cooperation

Global Nature of Terrorism
The EU acknowledges that terrorism transcends borders and requires a global response.
Emphasizing international cooperation, the EU collaborates with other countries and
international organizations to combat terrorism in a unified and cohesive manner.

Collaborating with Other Countries and Organizations

By forging partnerships with external stakeholders, the EU leverages shared intelligence and
resources to address terrorism's global reach. International collaboration facilitates the
disruption of transnational terrorist networks and curtails their operational capabilities.

Addressing Transnational Terrorist Networks

Terrorist organizations often operate beyond national boundaries, necessitating a coordinated
approach. The EU's engagement in addressing transnational terrorist networks strengthens
international efforts in combating terrorism.

VIII. Crisis Management and Response

Leveraging Crisis Management Capabilities
In times of crises and emergencies, the EU leverages its crisis management capabilities to
respond swiftly to terrorist incidents. Preparedness and coordination enable efficient crisis
response measures.

Coordinating Efforts among Member States

Coordinated responses among member states are essential to manage terrorist incidents
effectively. The EU facilitates seamless collaboration, ensuring that resources and assistance are
promptly deployed to mitigate the impact of terrorist acts.

Mitigating Impact of Terrorist Acts

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The EU's cohesive crisis management strategy aims to minimize the impact of terrorist incidents
on civilians, infrastructure, and societal well-being. By deploying resources and support, the EU
aids in the swift recovery of affected communities.

IX. Supporting Counter-Terrorism Initiatives

Building Resilience and Fostering Community Engagement
The EU supports a myriad of counter-terrorism initiatives that focus on building resilient
communities. By fostering community engagement and empowerment, these initiatives
promote active resistance against extremist influences.

Empowering Youth and Promoting Education

Investing in youth empowerment and education is integral to the EU's counter-terrorism
efforts. Through educational programs that emphasize tolerance, inclusion, and critical
thinking, the EU nurtures the future generation's resilience against extremist ideologies.

Countering Radicalization in Online and Religious Contexts

Recognizing the significance of online platforms and religious institutions in radicalization, the
EU implements targeted initiatives. These efforts aim to counter extremist narratives online
and promote a message of tolerance and coexistence within religious contexts.

X. Enhancing Cybersecurity
Recognizing the Threat of Cyberterrorism
The EU is vigilant to the growing threat of cyberterrorism. Acknowledging the interconnected
nature of cyber threats, the EU implements measures to enhance cybersecurity and protect
critical infrastructure from cyber-attacks that could enable and exacerbate terrorist activities.

Protecting Critical Infrastructure from Cyber-Attacks

By fortifying its cybersecurity defenses, the EU safeguards critical infrastructure from potential
cyber-attacks that terrorists may exploit to inflict widespread disruption.

A Comprehensive and United Approach

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The European Union's role in the fight against terrorism is characterized by a comprehensive
and united approach. Through the enactment of robust legal frameworks, intelligence and
information sharing, enhanced border security, and targeted financial measures, the EU
demonstrates its commitment to eradicating terrorism.
Safeguarding Citizens and Promoting Peace

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GLOBAL ECONOMIC CRISIS AND EUROPE

Ukraine-Russia War implications

European electricity and natural gas prices are now close to ten times their historical average in
the decade leading up to 2020. This year’s massive uptick is almost entirely due to Russia’s war
in Ukraine, though it was exacerbated by extreme heat and drought this summer. Until 2021,
Europe (including the United Kingdom) depended on Russian imports for about 40% of its
natural gas as well as a sizable share of its oil and coal needs. Months before its invasion of
Ukraine, Russia began manipulating energy markets and driving up prices for natural gas,
according to the International Energy Agency.

Recession and Unemployment

The global economic downturn triggered a widespread recession across Europe. Many
countries experienced declining GDP growth, which resulted in higher unemployment rates.
Businesses faced challenges in maintaining operations, leading to layoffs and job losses in
various sectors. With unemployment painfully high in several countries and economic growth
patchy, governments within the eurozone are in precarious financial positions. Youth
unemployment is a particular concern, creating social problems and a fertile breeding ground
for resentment towards the political mainstream and scepticism about the Euro.

Trade Disruptions
With the crisis affecting economies worldwide, international trade faced disruptions. Europe,
being heavily reliant on exports and imports, saw a decline in trade volumes. Supply chains
were disrupted, affecting industries that heavily depended on global markets.

Financial Sector Instability

The crisis also exposed vulnerabilities in the European financial sector. Banks and financial
institutions faced risks due to increased bad loans, declining asset values, and liquidity
challenges. Several countries had to take measures to stabilize their banking systems and
prevent financial collapse.

Government Debt and Austerity Measures

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In the aftermath of the crisis, many European countries experienced a surge in government
debt as they sought to implement stimulus packages and social welfare programs to support
their citizens and businesses. This led to concerns about debt sustainability and necessitated
the adoption of austerity measures in some countries to reduce budget deficits.

Tourism and Hospitality Industry Decline

Europe, known for its vibrant tourism industry, faced a severe decline in tourist arrivals. Travel
restrictions, lockdowns, and health concerns significantly impacted the hospitality sector,
causing financial distress for businesses and job losses for workers dependent on tourism.

Challenges in Vaccine Distribution

As the pandemic continued to impact the global economy, the distribution and availability of
vaccines became crucial for economic recovery. Europe faced challenges in securing and
distributing vaccines, which hindered efforts to control the pandemic's economic fallout.

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