People use contractions in both speaking and writing.

They're so common that movies and books often

try to make characters seem old-fashioned or strange by having them never use contractions. This is a
little silly because English speakers have been using contractions for centuries—although not always the
same ones we use today.

‫لوگ بولنے اور لکھنے دونوں میں سکڑاؤ کا استعمال کرتے ہیں۔ وہ اتنے عام ہیں کہ فلمیں اور کتابیں اکثر کرداروں کو پرانے‬
‫زمانے کی یا عجیب و غریب بنانے کی کوشش کرتی ہیں۔ یہ تھوڑا سا احمقانہ ہے کیونکہ انگریزی بولنے والے صدیوں سے‬
‫ اگرچہ ہمیشہ وہی نہیں جو ہم آج استعمال کرتے ہیں۔‬- ‫سکڑاؤ کا استعمال کر رہے ہیں‬
Writing contractions

All contractions include a punctuation mark that looks like this:

This is an apostrophe. Knowing where to put the apostrophe can seem tricky, but there's a pretty simple
rule that works with every contraction. Remember how we said contractions are made of two words
that have been shortened? The apostrophe replaces any letters that are in the original words, but
that aren't in the contraction.

‫ لیکن ایک بہت ہی آسان اصول ہے‬، ‫ یہ جاننا کہ پوسٹروف کو کہاں رکھنا ہے مشکل لگ سکتا ہے‬.‫یہ ایک پوسٹروف ہے‬
‫جو ہر سکڑنے کے ساتھ کام کرتا ہے۔ یاد رکھیں کہ ہم نے کس طرح کہا تھا کہ سکڑاؤ دو الفاظ سے بنائے جاتے ہیں جنہیں‬
‫ لیکن وہ سکڑنے میں نہیں ہوتا ہے۔‬، ‫مختصر کیا گیا ہے؟ پوسٹروف کسی بھی حروف کی جگہ لیتا ہے جو اصل الفاظ میں ہوتا ہے‬

For instance, the contraction couldn't means could not. As you can see, the o in not isn't in the
word couldn't. The apostrophe goes in its place, right between the n and t.

.‫ او ان لفظ میں نہیں ہے‬،‫ جیسا کہ آپ دیکھ سکتے ہیں‬.‫ سکڑنے کا مطلب یہ نہیں ہو سکتا تھا‬،‫مثال کے طور پر‬
‫ بالکل این اور ٹی کے درمیان۔‬، ‫اپوسٹروفی اپنی جگہ پر جاتا ہے‬
Let's look at another example. You'll means you will. This contraction is missing two letters from the
word will: w and i. The apostrophe goes where these missing letters belong: between the u and the
first l.

‫ یہ سکڑاؤ لفظ وصیت سے دو حروف سے محروم‬.‫آئیے ایک اور مثال دیکھتے ہیں۔ آپ کا مطلب ہے کہ آپ کریں گے‬
‫ آپ اور پہلے ایل کے درمیان۔‬:‫ ڈبلیو اور آئی۔ پوسٹروف وہاں جاتا ہے جہاں سے یہ گمشدہ حروف تعلق رکھتے ہیں‬:‫ہے‬

In some parts of the United States, you can address a group of people by using a special contraction
for you + all. It's written below—without the apostrophe. Click the spot where the apostrophe should
be. ‫ سب کے لئے ایک خاص سکڑاؤ کا استعمال‬+ ‫ آپ آپ‬، ‫ریاستہائے متحدہ امریکہ کے کچھ حصوں میں‬
‫ اس جگہ پر کلک کریں‬.‫ پوسٹروف کے بغیر‬- ‫کرکے لوگوں کے ایک گروپ سے خطاب کرسکتے ہیں۔ یہ ذیل میں لکھا گیا ہے‬
‫جہاں پوسٹروف ہونا چاہئے۔‬
Common contractions

In English, there are a fairly small number of contractions, and they're all made out of common words.
Here are some of the contractions you'll see the most:

‫ یہاں کچھ سکڑاؤ ہیں جو‬.‫ اور وہ سب عام الفاظ سے بنے ہیں‬،‫ سکڑنے کی کافی کم تعداد ہے‬،‫انگریزی میں‬
‫آپ سب سے زیادہ دیکھیں گے‬:
You might have noticed that the word won't is a little different from the other contractions. It
means will not, even though the word will isn't there. This is because won't is based on a much older
form of the word will. Even though the word changed, the contraction stayed the same!

‫آپ نے محسوس کیا ہوگا کہ یہ لفظ دوسرے سکڑاؤ سے تھوڑا سا مختلف نہیں ہوگا۔ اس کا مطلب‬
‫ اس کی وجہ یہ ہے کہ وصیت لفظ کی بہت پرانی شکل پر مبنی نہیں ہے۔ اگرچہ‬.‫ اگرچہ وصیت کا لفظ موجود نہیں ہے‬،‫ہے نہیں‬
‫ لیکن سکڑاؤ وہی رہا‬، ‫!لفظ بدل گیا‬
Writing with contractions
If anyone tells you that you should never use contractions in writing, they're wrong. It's perfectly OK to
use contractions in most writing, including newspapers, fiction, and instructions. In fact, using
contractions can make your writing simpler and easier to read.

‫اگر کوئی آپ سے کہتا ہے کہ آپ کو کبھی بھی تحریری طور پر سکڑنے کا استعمال نہیں کرنا چاہئے تو‬
، ‫ فکشن اور ہدایات سمیت زیادہ تر تحریروں میں سکڑاؤ کا استعمال کرنا بالکل ٹھیک ہے۔ درحقیقت‬،‫ وہ غلط ہیں۔ اخبارات‬،
‫سکڑاؤ کا استعمال آپ کی تحریر کو آسان اور پڑھنے میں آسان بنا سکتا ہے۔‬

However, if you're writing an academic paper or anything else that's formal, you may want to avoid
contractions. If you're writing for school, it might be a good idea to ask your teacher if contractions are
ok.

‫ آپ سکڑنے سے بچنا چاہتے ہیں۔ اگر‬، ‫ اگر آپ ایک تعلیمی مقالہ یا کوئی اور چیز لکھ رہے ہیں جو رسمی ہے تو‬، ‫تاہم‬
‫ اپنے استاد سے پوچھنا ایک اچھا خیال ہوسکتا ہے کہ آیا سکڑاؤ ٹھیک ہے یا نہیں۔‬، ‫آپ اسکول کے لئے لکھ رہے ہیں تو‬

Lesson 2: Possessives

What is a possessive word?

A possessive word is a word that shows who or what something belongs to. For example, in the
phrase Sarah's dog, Sarah's is a possessive word because it tells us the dog belongs to Sarah. In the
phrase monkey's office, monkey's is a possessive word. It tells us the office belongs to the monkey.

Let's look at another example. Let's say Gerard owns this house. It's Gerard's house.
Gerard's is a possessive word. The apostrophe and the S at the end of Gerard's tells people the house
belongs to Gerard.

You probably know that instead of saying Gerard's house you could say his house. Words
like his, her, our, their, and your tell you who something belongs to, but they don't get an apostrophe.
They don't even get an apostrophe if they end in S, like his, hers, ours, yours, or theirs.

Possessive words about more than one owner

Let's go back to the monkey's office. You know the apostrophe and the S mean the office belongs to the
monkey. But what if more than one monkey owns the office? Just add an apostrophe to the end of the
possessive word, like this: the monkeys' office. This tells people the office belongs to more than one
monkey.

Here's another example. If you want to write about the teacher who belongs to a group of students, you
would write the students' teacher. The apostrophe by itself at the end of the word tells people the
teacher belongs to more than one student.

Notice that the apostrophe doesn't change places based on how many things the owners have. It only
changes based on how many owners there are. For example, look at the difference between girls'
boyfriends and girl's boyfriends.
Plural words that don't end in S

Plural words (words that talk about more than one thing) in English usually end with an S, but some
words are exceptions to this rule, like children and mice. When a plural word that doesn't end in S is
also a possessive word, just add an apostrophe and an S at the end. For example, if toys belong to a
group of children, you would write the children's toys.

If you wanted to write about the holes that belong to a few mice, you'd write the mice's holes.

Click the spot where the apostrophe should be.

Lesson 3: Sentences

What is a sentence?

A sentence is a group of words you say or write down. Sentences always start with a capital letter and
usually end with a period. This doesn't mean that everything that starts with a capital letter and ends
with a period is a sentence, though. For instance, look at this phrase: Guzzle Brian dog late.

Not only does it not make sense, but it's also not a real sentence. This is because all sentences need two
parts: a subject and a predicate.

The subject is the main person or thing the sentence is about. The predicate tells you what the subject
is doing. It can also be a description of the subject. The subject and the predicate together create a
complete thought.

For example, take a look at this sentence: Ned wrote me a letter. The subject here is Ned. The predicate
is wrote me a letter because that's what Ned is doing. This is a simple sentence, but others can be more
complicated.

For instance, some sentences can have more than one action in the predicate, like this one.

Some sentences can have more than one subject, like this one.
Here's a sentence where the predicate describes the subject.

Click the dot over the predicate in the sentence.

Now take a look at this sentence:

What's the subject of this sentence? The subject is whoever the speaker is talking to. This kind of subject
is called the invisible you. This means if you give an order or a command, the subject is always you, but
you don't need to say that out loud. The person you're talking to probably knows you mean him or her.

If a sentence ends in an exclamation point, like our last example, someone is saying it with a lot of
emphasis, or feeling. For instance, if you write I hate Mondays!, it shows you really hate them.

Questions

Questions are sentences too. Some questions are like sentences that have been flipped around, like this:

Question: Is Fred there?

Regular sentence: Fred is there.

Some questions also add special question words at the beginning, like this:

Where is Fred?

If you're having trouble finding the predicate in a question, you can always flip it around to make it into
a regular sentence, like we did in the first two examples. You can also just take out the subject.
Whatever is left will be the predicate, even if it isn't all in the same place in the sentence.

Unlike other sentences, questions don't end in periods or exclamation points. They always end in
question marks.

Lesson 4: Sentence Fragments

What is a fragment?

A fragment is an incomplete sentence. To be complete, a sentence needs three things:

 A subject

 A predicate

 A complete thought

If a phrase is missing one of those things, it's a fragment. To learn more about the parts of a sentence,
review our lesson on Sentences.

A sentence needs a subject

The subject of a sentence is who or what the sentence is mainly about. A group of words without a
subject is a fragment. For example, take a look at this phrase:

We know someone or something went to the movies. But we don't know who or what went. So this
phrase is a fragment.

Orders and commands (like Go clean your room! or Stand up straight!) might look like fragments, since
they don't have subjects you can see. But the subject of these sentences is actually the word you. You
can learn why in our lesson on Sentences.

A sentence needs a predicate

The predicate of a sentence shows what's going on. If a phrase doesn't have a predicate, it's a fragment.
Let's take a look at an example:

We know that Fred is the person this sentence is about, but we have no idea what he's doing. So this
isn't a complete sentence.

Our examples might make it seem like all fragments are short, but that's not true. Here's an example of
a long fragment: The girl with big hair who lives around the corner and is allergic to shellfish, peanuts,
and almost any kind of ravioli. Can you tell why that isn't a sentence?

A sentence needs to complete an idea

Let's look at this example: While he was using the stapler. Is this a sentence? It has a subject and a
predicate, but it's still not a complete thought. We don't know what happened while he was using the
stapler.
You can recognize this kind of fragment by paying attention to the first word in the phrase. Sometimes
this word makes you think there will be more to the sentence, like the word while in our example. That
tells you that you're looking at a fragment.

Here's another example of a fragment where there's some information missing: Because I was running
late to work and didn't have time to drink my usual three cups of coffee. We know something
happened because this person was running late and didn't drink his or her coffee. But we don't
know what happened.

Is it OK to use fragments?

We often use fragments when we speak, especially when we answer questions:

It's fine to use fragments when you talk because everyone knows what you mean. But what about when
you write? Fragments are OK in some types of writing. Fiction writers and poets sometimes use them to
make their writing sound more like people talking. Even nonfiction writers use fragments to make
certain ideas stand out in their writing.

For example, here's a passage from an article on NPR's website. Click the yellow dots to find out why the
highlighted parts are fragments.
Fragments are correct in some situations. Even professional writers use them. But fragments are usually
considered incorrect in school papers, tests, and formal work e-mails or letters. In these situations, make
sure to use complete sentences.

Nonfiction writers use fragments a lot, and that includes people who write for this website. This lesson
contains nine fragments, not counting the examples. See how many you can find!

Lesson 5: Run-on Sentences

What is a run-on sentence?

When you speak, you pause between sentences to let people know where each sentence ends. In
writing, periods are like this pause. The pause can also be a question mark or an exclamation point.
When two sentences are next to each other without any punctuation marks between them, you have
a run-on sentence.

Run-on sentences are a problem because they make it difficult to tell where one sentence ends and the
next one begins. As you can see in the picture below, writing without periods is like speaking very fast
without stopping. Both are difficult to understand! That's why it's so important to fix run-ons in your
writing.

How can you recognize a run-on sentence?

If you don't signal when your sentence ends

In the example above, the horse's speech actually has four complete sentences in it. But they don't have
periods between them, which makes this example a run-on. To fix this, you need to find the end of each
sentence and mark it with a period, question mark, or exclamation point.
You can do this by reading the run-on sentence out loud to yourself. Put periods in places where you
stumble or pause while you're reading. Then look at each period and ask yourself: Is this sentence really
over? Did it start in the right place? Check to make sure all of your sentences make sense and that there
aren't any words left out. Then you'll know you've fixed the run-on sentence.

If you correct the horse's run-on sentence, you'll end up with something like this:

If two complete sentences are joined by a comma

Commas in writing are like taking a quick breath in the middle of a thought or a sentence. They don't
signal the end of a sentence. If two complete sentences are separated by a comma instead of a period,
it's a run-on sentence. Let's look at an example:

In this example, My clothes dryer isn't working is one complete sentence, and my clothes smell like
mildew is another. This makes this example a run-on sentence. You can fix run-ons like this by replacing
the comma with a period. Make sure to capitalize the letter after the period, as we've done here:

Here's another example of this kind of run-on sentence:

You can correct this example by adding a period: Fruit in that store is usually rotten. You really
shouldn't shop there. Don't confuse this kind of run-on sentence with correct sentences like this:

In this example, you should check it for mold is a complete sentence. But before you buy fruit from
that store is a fragment. It's not complete. (Want to know why? Review our lesson on Fragments.) It's
OK to connect a fragment to a complete sentence with a comma, so this example is not a run-on
sentence.
When sentences are just too long

Sometimes sentences have the right punctuation, but they're just too long to be easy to read. These
sentences are also run-on sentences. Here's an example:

You can fix run-ons like this by splitting them up into complete sentences, just like we did with the other
run-ons in this lesson. You can also take out details that don't help people understand the writer's main
point. In our example, information about the other cashier singing is important. Without these details,
we won't understand why the writer is grouchy. But we don't really need to know about the characters
in the cartoon.

You can also take out words and facts that repeat something the writer has already said. For example,
we probably don't need to know that this person is crazy, angry, and grouchy. We'd understand if the
writer just used the word grouchy.

To correct sentences that are too long, you'll usually want to do all three of these things. Here's how we
fixed the long sentence in our example. Click the dots to see how we decided what to take out.

Here's what our example looks like after we've edited it:
There are actually many different ways we could have corrected this sentence. As long as you end up
with sentences that follow grammar rules, are easier to read, and stick to the main idea of the original
sentence, your version is correct.

Is it OK to use run-on sentences?

It is almost never a good idea to use run-on sentences in writing. Writers and poets sometimes use them
to repeat something important or to imitate the way people talk. But run-on sentences are usually
incorrect. They make it too difficult to understand your writing.

Here's a run-on sentence that contains three complete sentences. Click the dots where you think the
periods should go.
Lesson 6: I, Me, and Other Pronouns

What is a pronoun?

A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun in a sentence. You may already know that a noun is a person,
place, thing, or idea. A pronoun is a word you can substitute for one of these things. For example, in this
sentence, the pronoun she replaces Miranda.

However, you can't just use the pronoun she every time you're talking about Miranda. Take a look at
this example:

That might sound wrong to you—it is. In the first sentence, Miranda is the one doing the
action (bragging). This means she's the subject of the sentence. And she is a pronoun that can replace
subjects.

In the second sentence, though, Sam is doing an action to Miranda (stealing). This makes her
the object of the sentence. The word she can't replace the object of a sentence. That's why it sounds
wrong in this example.

Most of the time, you'll know if a pronoun sounds right or wrong. For example, you can probably tell
that this sentence is correct:

If you aren't sure which pronoun is right, here's a chart that tells you which pronouns can replace
subjects and which can replace objects. In our last example, her is the right pronoun to
replace Miranda because she's female and the object of the sentence.
Notice that you and it can replace subjects or objects, so sentences like You should buy it and It looks
nice on you are both correct.

It's important to use the right type of pronoun when you speak or write. For example, you wouldn't
say Him needs to buy broccoli, or Sam wrote a letter to she. If you do, people might be confused about
who is doing what in your sentence.

Picking your pronouns

It's not always so easy to tell which pronoun to use. For example, people are often not sure if they
should say Sam and me stole money or Sam and I stole money.

Here's a way to make sure you're using the right pronoun in these situations. If you have a pronoun and
a noun together, try reading the sentence with just the pronoun.
If the sentence sounds funny, you'll know you need to change the pronoun.

What about a sentence like this?

This sentence has two pronouns, so we'll need to check both of them. First, we'll try the sentence with
just the pronoun him. Sierra made fun of him sounds right, so the pronoun him is correct. Now we'll
check to see if I is correct.
Sierra made fun of I sounds wrong, so we have to replace I with me. Now we know that this sentence is
correct:

One of the sentences in this picture has a correct pronoun, and one has an incorrect pronoun. Use the
trick you just learned to decide which pronoun is correct. Then click the dots above the pronouns to see
if you're right!

Lesson 7: Semicolons

What is a semicolon?

A semicolon is a punctuation mark that looks like a combination of a period and a comma, like the one
here (shown in red):
They are mostly used in poems, speeches, and academic writing. You probably won't see or use
semicolons very often. But knowing how to use semicolons will help you to understand them if you do
see them. It will also give you the option of using them in your own writing.

There are two ways you can use a semicolon:

 You can use it to separate two complete sentences.

 You can use it to separate items in a list.

Semicolon between two sentences

You know that we usually use periods between two complete sentences. A semicolon is a little different.
It tells the reader that you're at the end of a thought, but that there's another part to it. So a semicolon
means that two sentences are connected. Let's take a look at this example:

The writer used the semicolon to tell us that these two sentences are connected. He or she was
insulted because someone said his or her accent was awful. Of course, we probably could have figured
that out even if the writer had used a period. The semicolon just makes it extra clear.

Let's look at another example:

This writer wants to make sure readers notice that these thoughts are connected. The car won't
run because this guy decided to fix it on his own.

You probably know that when we end a sentence with a period, the letter after the period gets
capitalized. But when you end a sentence with a semicolon, the next letter should be lowercased. Only
capitalize the letter after a semicolon if it is part of a name or title or the pronoun I.

Semicolons between items in a list

You can also put semicolons between items on a list. You're probably thinking that's what commas are
for, and that's usually true. But what about this example?
This sentence has a list in it, but it's a little difficult to read. Can you tell how many people are listed in
the sentence? It could be these people:

Now it may seem obvious to you that the people you just saw are the people in the list. But the same
sentence could also be describing this group:
It's difficult to tell because we're not sure which commas are separating people in the list and which are
describing people. This means we don't know if Jerry, the guy with the beard, means Jerry, who has a
beard, or Jerry and the guy with the beard.

You can avoid confusing people like this by using semicolons between items on a list when the items
have commas inside them, like this:

Now we know where each item on the list begins and ends. So the list only has three people in it: Jerry,
Serenity, and Alex.

Remember not to put a semicolon after the last item in the list. A semi-colon in a list should only
come between items.

Two of the commas in the sentence below should be semicolons. Use what you just learned to decide
which commas to change, and click the dots to see if you're right!
Lesson 8: Quotation Marks

What are quotation marks?

Quotation marks are a type of punctuation you use to show that you're quoting what someone else
said. Whenever you use quotation marks, you're showing exactly what someone said or wrote. For
example, take this sentence:

We used quotation marks to repeat what Harry said. In other words, we quoted Harry. Because we used
his exact words, it was a direct quote. Here's another direct quote:

The sentence I've got a feeling we're not in Kansas anymore has quotation marks before and after it
because it's a direct quote from Dorothy.
You can also use quotation marks to show that you don't agree with or believe something. For instance,
I could write: She says her room is "clean." The quotation marks mean she says her room is clean, but
that I don't really believe it. Quotation marks like this are called scare quotes.

Where does the comma go?

In our last example, you can see that there's a comma between the words anymore and said. The
comma is there to separate the quote from the tag—the phrase that tells us who's being quoted. In that
example, said Dorothy is the tag. Because the quote is before the tag in this case, we put the comma
before the tag too. Let's take a look at another example:

Remember how we said the comma belongs between the quote and the tag? This tag has a direct quote
on both sides, so it has commas on both sides too. What about this sentence?

As you probably guessed, because the quote comes before the tag in the sentence the comma does too.
But what about a sentence like this?

This sentence has a tag in the middle of it. But the first part of the quote has a question mark at the end,
so we can't put a comma there. When a quotation ends with a question mark or exclamation mark, you
don't need a comma before the tag—just put a period after the tag, like we did in this example.

Where does other punctuation go?

Sometimes people have trouble knowing where to put punctuation marks if they're next to quotation
marks. For instance, can you tell which of these sentences is correct?

If you chose the blue sentence, you're right. But if you weren't sure, here's a simple rule to help you
figure it out. A punctuation mark next to a quotation mark usually stays next to the word right before it.
If that word is inside the quotation marks, the punctuation mark should be inside too, like in this
example:

In this sentence, the word movies is part of the quote. Because the word is inside the quotation marks,
the question mark is too. But if the word before the punctuation mark isn't part of the quote, it will
be outside the quotation marks. Then the punctuation mark should be outside too, like the comma in
this example:
Here, said is outside of the quotation marks because it's not part of the quote so the comma is outside
the quotation marks too. The exclamation point is inside the quotation marks because up is part of the
quote.

The only exception to this rule is when someone says something about a quote. For instance, if my
friend has been insulted, I might write, Did she really say, "You're an idiot"? The question mark outside
of the quotation marks shows that the question is part of what I'm saying, not part of the quote.

Use the rule you just learned to figure out where to put the comma in this sentence. Then click the dots
to see if you're right!

Common quotation mark mistakes

There are two kinds of quotation mark mistakes that people all the time:

 Quotation marks with indirect quotes

 Quotation marks for emphasis

Quotation marks with indirect quotes

One common mistake is using quotation marks when the writer gives you the basic idea of what
someone else said, but not in that person's exact words. We call this using an indirect quote. Indirect
quotes don't get quotation marks, as you can see in our examples here:
 Direct quote: "What are you looking at?" Julie demanded.

 Indirect quote: Julie wanted to know what I was looking at.

Both sentences at the bottom of the picture tell the reader what Julie said, but only one of them uses
her exact words. You can see that the indirect quote doesn't use Julie's words, so no quotation marks
are needed. Let's take a look at another example:

This is an indirect quote from Josh, so we didn't put quotation marks in the sentence. Notice the
word that before what Josh said. Anytime you see that right before what someone said or wrote, it
means the writer is using an indirect quote.

Quotation marks for emphasis

Using quotation marks to emphasize certain words or phrases is another common mistake. Remember,
you can use scare quotes to show that you don't believe something. For instance, if you don't like your
mother's cooking, you could say:

But if you use quotes to emphasize something, people will think you're using scare quotes. For example,
take a look at this sentence:
The writer might be using quotation marks to make the word murdered stand out. This is incorrect—but
it's also confusing. Readers will probably think that the policeman thinks the man wasn't murdered.

Using quotation marks to make words stand out is such a common mistake that there are entire blogs
about it! Take a look at this blog to see some funny examples.

Lesson 9: Adjectives and Adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives and adverbs are both words that describe something. If anyone has ever asked you to
describe something in detail, you probably used some adverbs and adjectives along the way. But it can
be easy to mix them up and forget which is which, so it's important to know how each one is used.

What is an adjective?

An adjective is a word that describes a noun. In other words, it tells us more about a particular person,
place, or thing.
Adjectives also make it easy to understand which thing you're talking about. In the example above, the
word pink describes a particular cupcake. So pink is an adjective. If one cupcake was larger than the
others, we could have said it was the big cupcake.

What is an adverb?

An adverb is a word that describes a verb. Just like adjectives, adverbs are used to add detail to a
sentence. More specifically, adverbs tell us how, when, or where something happened.
In the example above, the word deeply describes how he was staring, so deeply is an adverb. In this
sentence, it means he was staring in a deep way. If his staring had been weird, we could have said he
was staring weirdly.

Using adjectives and adverbs

You know adjectives and adverbs are both words that describe something. But for many people, these
words are also easy to mix up. Thankfully, there are some simple rules that will help you know which is
which and when to use them.

Look at the context

If you're not sure whether to use an adverb or an adjective, try to figure out what you're describing.
Remember, adjectives are used to describe nouns, which means they can explain what kind of thing you
have, how many things you have, or which thing you're talking about.

Adverbs, on the other hand, are used to describe verbs, which means they can explain how something
happened, when something happened, or where something happened.

Look at the ending

You might have already noticed that many adverbs end with the letters ly. If you see a word that ends
in ly, there's a good chance it's an adverb, not an adjective. Can you use this rule to tell what's wrong
with this sentence?

Because it doesn't have an ly ending, you might have guessed that quick is an adjective. However, this
sentence is incorrect because an adjective can't be used to describe a verb (drove).

To make this sentence correct, we could change the adjective to an adverb: He drove quickly. Now the
sentence describes how he was driving.
Look at the placement

Here's an easy way to know where to put an adjective in a sentence. It will usually appear
just before the noun it's describing. By contrast, an adverb will usually appear right after the verb it's
describing.

Unfortunately, placement doesn't always tell you if something is an adverb or adjective. For example,
is sassy an adjective or adverb in the image below?
Even though it's right next to a verb (is), sassy is an adjective because it describes the magician. And
while adjectives are usually close to the words they describe, adverbs can move around more freely in a
sentence. For example, you might see an adverb at the beginning of a sentence.

Here, frankly is an adverb, but it doesn't describe any specific verb in the sentence. Instead, it means the
entire sentence will be spoken in a frank, or direct, way. If he was more optimistic, he might have
said, Hopefully, it will all work out.

Use the techniques you just learned and see if you can pick out the adjectives and adverbs below.
Adverb!

Even though this word comes before the verb it describes, it still tells us how they made their cakes.
The LY ending is another clue that this is an adverb.

Common adverbs and adjectives

A lot of adjectives and adverbs are actually based on the same word, which is one reason they’re
sometimes difficult to tell apart. Here's a list of the adjectives and adverbs you'll see the most:
You can also place an adverb between the word to and a verb. This is called a split infinitive. In the past,
this was considered a serious grammatical error, but it's commonly used and accepted today.

Grammar -

Capitalization

Back to Tutorial

Capitalization

Capital letters, also sometimes called uppercased letters, are the taller letters you see when you read.
But a letter isn't a capital letter just because it's tall! Every letter of the alphabet has a capital version
and a lowercased version. The two versions don't always look the same, as you can see here with the
letter A:
When you capitalize a letter, you're turning it from a lowercased letter into a capital letter. People also
talk about capitalizing words, which means to capitalize the first letter of the word. In this lesson, we'll
go over the rules that tell you when a word should be capitalized and when it should be lowercased. In
general, you should capitalize:

 The first letter of a sentence

 The letter I

 People and place names

 Dates and holidays

 Professional and family titles

 Groups and organizations

 Titles of books, songs, and other creative works

Let's go over these one at a time.

The first letter of a sentence

The first letter of a sentence is always capitalized, no matter what letter it is. For example, let's look at
this sentence:

The letter W in when is capitalized because W is the first letter in the sentence. If the sentence said He
never shows up for our dates, the letter H would be capitalized. The first letter of sentences that are
included in other sentences are also capitalized, like in this example:
Here, we've capitalized the M in my because it's the first letter of the entire sentence. We've also
capitalized the D in don't because it's the first letter of the sentence the woman's father says.

The letter I

An I by itself refers to a person, so it should be capitalized. For example:

Notice that only the I that appears by itself is capitalized—you don't need to capitalize every I in the
sentence.

The I should also be capitalized when I is in a contraction with other words. For instance, the I in I'm is
capitalized because I'm is a contraction of I am. I've is a contraction of I have, so I is capitalized there
too. What about a contraction like it's? Because the I in it's stands for it, it should be lowercased.

People and place names

The first letters of names are always capitalized. This is true for people's names like Joe and place names
like Georgia.
On this envelope, Dracula Smith's name, street, city, and state are all capitalized. Notice that the
words Big, Tooth, and Lane are all capitalized because they are all part of Dracula's street address.

Dates and holidays

Months, days, and holidays should all be capitalized. Let's take a look at this example:

In this sentence, Thanksgiving and Day are both capitalized because they are part of a holiday name.
(Thanksgiving is also the first word of the sentence). Thursday is the name of a day, and November is
the name of a month. If you're not sure whether to capitalize a holiday name, ask yourself if the name
would be printed on a calendar. Holiday names that would be printed on calendars should be
capitalized.

Unlike dates and holidays, the seasons of the year aren't usually capitalized. You should only capitalize a
season if it's part of a specific name, like the Fall semester or the Winter book sale.

Four out of five of the capital letters in this image are correct. Use what you just learned to decide which
ones are correct, then click the dots to see if you're right!
Professional and family titles

A title for a person can be based on someone's job like the word doctor or a family relationship like the
word aunt. The first letter of a title should be capitalized if the title is used as part of someone's name.
For example, doctor is capitalized if you call someone Doctor Green. If you call someone Aunt Joan, you
capitalize the word aunt.

How can you tell if a title is being used as part of a name? First, you can look at the word before the title.
When a title comes after the words my, your, his, her, our, their, a, an, or the, the title isn't being used
as a name so it shouldn't be capitalized. For example:
In this sentence, the word captain comes after the word the, so captain is not capitalized. Alternatively,
if captain was part of someone's name, like Captain Blake, it would be capitalized. Here's an example:

In this sentence, we capitalized judge because it appears with the name Rude. If the sentence said I
always watch the judge's show, the word judge wouldn't be capitalized.

What about these sentences?

Family titles are often used instead of names, like the word Mom in the image above. When you see a
family title by itself, you can use our earlier hint and look at the word before the title. In this image, the
word dad is not capitalized because the word before it is your. Here's another example:

In this sentence, the word mom comes after the word my, so mom shouldn't be capitalized.

Groups and organizations

When you're writing about an official group, only important words in the group's name should be
capitalized. This means we won't capitalize shorter words like and, the, or, in, of, or for. For example, in
the band name Dice and Tokens, we only capitalize the words dice and tokens.

The same rule applies to names of organizations like the National Organization for Women and
government departments like the Department of Education. In both of these names, important words
like education are capitalized. But we've skipped over the shorter words, like for and of.
Titles of books, songs, and other creative work

Just like in group names, we only capitalize important words in the titles of books, songs, and other
types of art. In the image below, only two words in the book title are
capitalized: crime and punishment. And isn't an important word, so it's lowercased.
The only exception to this rule is when the first word of the title isn't important. The first word of art or
book title is always capitalized, no matter what the word is. For example, in the movie The Wizard of Oz,
the word the is capitalized because it's the first word of the title.

The titles of creative works are usually also italicized, underlined, or put in quotes to show that they're
not just part of the sentence. Not everyone agrees on how to format a creative works title correctly, so
you should ask your boss or teacher what he or she prefers when you're writing formally.

What about all caps?

A lot of people write in all caps when they e-mail or post comments online. But honestly, it's pretty rude
—it's kind of like screaming instead of talking. So you can do it if you're just e-mailing a friend or posting
on Facebook (although we still think it's rude). But don't do it if you're writing for school or work!

You don't want your boss to think you're saying this:

When you really mean this:

Lesson 11: Negatives

What are negatives?

A negative is a word or phrase that shows you reject or disagree with something. We use negatives all
the time in regular conversation, so a lot of these words should be familiar to you.

Can't, don't, and won't are all common negatives (as well as isn't, doesn't, and not). Words
like never and nobody are negatives too—they just express disagreement in a different way.
Negative doesn't necessarily mean that something is bad or that you have a negative attitude. It just
means you're negating something—in other words, stating that the opposite is true. You could be
referring to anything: good or bad, pleasant or unpleasant. It might help to picture it this way:

Using negatives

Many negatives are simply the opposite of words we already know. When writing a negative, start with
a basic verb, then add the word not. You can write the words separately or as a contraction.

To use a negative in a sentence, place it in front of an idea—specifically another verb, noun, or adjective.
This is how you tell the reader exactly what you're referring to (and more importantly, what you're
trying to negate).
See how the words above work together to give the sentence meaning? Don't refers to lick,
and not refers to sanitary. Imagine what the sentence would look like without any negatives:

Lick the floor; it's sanitary.

Not only is that gross, but it also means the opposite of the original sentence. It still makes sense (sure,
you could lick the floor if you wanted to), but without don't and not, the message isn't the same.

More negatives

We use negatives like can't and won't because they're so familiar, but the truth is that there are many
ways to write a negative sentence. For instance, have you ever simply said no to reject or disprove
something?

Lots of words have opposites, like yes/no, and everyone/no one. Many opposites even include the
word no somewhere in the spelling, which makes them easy to remember.
Negative prefixes

Some negatives don't sound like negatives because they don't include the words no or not.
Take unhappy, asymmetrical, nonsense, and dislike. All of these words have a negative prefix that
changes the meaning from one thing to another. Negative prefixes include a-, dis-, il-, im-, in-, ir-, non-,
and un-.

Neither/nor

The words neither/nor can also be used to form a negative. (They're the opposite of either/or.) Use
them to negate or reject two or more things at once. In a sentence, they look like this:

Neither/nor and either/or can't be used interchangeably. For example, you wouldn't say I'm neither
happy or sad. That might sound correct, but it's not quite right. Neither and nor go together because
they're both negatives—you can't mix and match. It might help to remember that they both start with
the letter n.

Negative adverbs

Words like hardly, seldom, rarely, and never can be used to negate things in a different way.
Unlike don't and won't, they have different degrees of meaning. Take the example below. Notice how
the meaning of the sentence changes depending on the negative, from absolute to something more
open-ended.
Double negatives

A double negative occurs when you use more than one negative in a sentence. Funnily enough, this
changes the meaning of the sentence so it's no longer negative at all—it's affirmative instead.

Some double negatives are intentional, like in the example above. When the man answers I can't NOT
look at it, he means his friend's mole is impossible to avoid. In order words, yes: He is looking at the
mole. The double negative is being used for comedic effect.

Some double negatives are unintentional, however. This can be confusing and can even make the
sentence difficult to read. Chances are people will still understand what you're talking about, but they
might think something sounds a little off.

If you find yourself using a double negative, ask yourself: Is it intentional? Will the reader understand
what you're trying to say? If it changes the meaning of the sentence to something you don't want, you
can take one of the negatives out or change it to a positive. This should help you avoid any confusion.
Some people will tell you that double negatives are bad and that you should never use them. This isn't
necessarily true. In the right context (for example, stylized writing or conversation), they can be used to
convey subtlety, hesitation, or even a certain attitude.

What about ain't? It's used in many parts of the United States as a play on words, like aren't, isn't,
and am not. Because ain't is a slang term, it's best to avoid using it in formal writing (like an academic
paper or work email)—the reader might think you're not taking the subject seriously. In conversation
and casual writing, however, ain't is often OK.
As you just learned, there are many ways to form a negative. See if you can spot the negatives below,
and click the yellow dots to learn more.

Lesson 12: Abbreviations and Acronyms

Abbreviations and acronyms

Abbreviations and acronyms are shorter versions of existing words and phrases. They're designed to
save time and take up less space (whether you're typing or writing by hand), and can even make your
writing easier to read.

What is an abbreviation?

Abbreviations are all around us, from common titles like Dr. and Prof. to the abbreviations you see
on street signs. Specifically, abbreviations are shorter spellings of words and expressions we use every
day.

What is an acronym?

You might already know some acronyms, like NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
and ATM (automated teller machine). An acronym is a stand-in for a string of words, usually an
organization name, slogan, or something else equally wordy. Unlike abbreviations, they aren't shorter
spellings of words—they're made up of the words' initials.
Using abbreviations

Abbreviations are usually formed using the most recognizable letters from the word or expression. This
makes them easier to remember, and easy for others to read. It's almost like the letters are clues that
point to the original word or expression.

Some abbreviations look like acronyms (for example, mph and NY), but it's really just a coincidence.
Technically, these are initialisms, which is a type of abbreviation. Thankfully, you don't have to know
whether something is an abbreviation, initialism, or acronym to use it properly. You just have to know
what the term means, and how to spell it—everything else will usually fall into place.
Now that you know how abbreviations are formed, you may be wondering how they're pronounced.
Most of the time, they're pronounced the same as the original word—whether you're reading it aloud
or in your head.

For example, Prof. Snape would be pronounced Professor Snape (not Prof Snape). The
abbreviation etc. would be pronounced et cetera (not e-t-c). The important thing to remember is that
abbreviations aren't words in the true sense—they're more like shorthand.

There are some exceptions that are pronounced differently. For instance, AM, PM, i.e., and PhD are
pronounced exactly the way they're spelled. This happens when the abbreviation becomes more
popular than the original term—usually because the original is too long or outdated. For
example, AM stands for Ante Meridiem. (That's Latin for before noon. Who knew?)

Luckily, there aren't many exceptions like this, so you don't have to worry too much about making a
mistake. Most abbreviations are pronounced the same as the word they're based on, like hr, min,
and sec (that's hour, minute, and second).

Period vs. no period

This is one of the most common questions people have about abbreviations: Do you have to use
a period at the end when writing it out? There's no strict rule that says you do—it's kind of up to you.

Sometimes adding a period is expected and can make the abbreviation easier to read. Take the example
below. Pop. is the abbreviation for the word population—without a period, it might just look
like pop (as in pop goes the weasel).
On the other hand, some abbreviations never use a period; for example, state postal
abbreviations like NY, CA, and TX. The abbreviation for United States of America can be written with a
period between each letter, but it's much more common without. The same goes for measurement
abbreviations like ft, in, and cm.

Common abbreviations

There are abbreviations for so many different things, it would be impossible to list them all here. Here
are some of the most common abbreviations you'll see and use:
You may have noticed that the abbreviations for ounce (oz) and pound (lb) are a little different from the
rest. They're spelled using letters that aren't part of the original word. This is because the abbreviations
are based on older forms of each word—ounce comes from the Italian word onza, and pound from the
Roman word libra.

What about chat terms like LOL (laugh out loud), BRB (be right back), and plz (please)? Many blur the
line between abbreviations and acronyms, but they're abbreviations nonetheless. In other words, they
abbreviate something in a contemporary way, using initials, slang, and other shorthand. They make it
possible to communicate quickly, and that's what makes them a form of abbreviation.

Is it OK to use abbreviations?

Look closely at the heading above, and you may find your answer. Believe it or not, OK is an
abbreviation too, and we use it on the site all the time.

A good rule for abbreviations is to put the reader first. Ask yourself: Will the abbreviation make the
sentence easier to read, or will it confuse the reader (for example, if the abbreviation is too obscure)? If
an abbreviation still sounds like a good idea, next consider the context. Abbreviations are perfectly OK
in personal and casual writing—they're often OK in formal writing too. You might want to ask your boss
or your teacher if you're unsure.

Using acronyms

As you read earlier, acronyms are used in place of a phrase or string of words. They're almost always
made up of the words' initials and are spelled in all caps. They can represent all kinds of things, from
organizations to mnemonics to sandwiches.
Like abbreviations, there's a lot of overlap between acronyms and initialisms—but remember, this
doesn't really matter when it comes to using them. It might help to think of acronyms as something
catchier than abbreviations (after all, they represent longer phrases, so it helps if they're memorable).
They don't just shorten words; they stand for organizations, ideas, and other things you want people to
remember.

Acronyms are read differently from abbreviations. Take the word BLT. If you saw that on the menu at
your favorite restaurant, there's a good chance you'd just order a BLT, not a bacon, lettuce, and
tomato sandwich. You wouldn't pronounce it built or belt either; you would say B-L-T. This is what
makes acronyms unique—you can read them as they appear, even though they stand for something
else.

The pronunciation of acronyms can vary, however. While some are pronounced literally like the example
above, others can actually be pronounced as a word, like UNICEF, POTUS, and NASA.

Sometimes it's just a question of, "Can the acronym be pronounced as a word?" A lot of acronyms can't
because they don't have the right combination of vowels and consonants. However, there's no set
rule that governs this. Knowing how to pronounce acronyms depends a lot your awareness of the world
around you, but it's not the end of the world if you make a mistake.

When and how to use acronyms

Sometimes you may need to explain the acronym when using it in writing. Style guides suggest that you
write the acronym first, followed by the full name or phrase in parentheses. You can also write them in
the opposite order—whatever makes more sense. In short, if the acronym is more widely known, list it
first; if it's more obscure, you may want to start with the entire phrase.
A lot of contemporary acronyms might need to be explained for different reasons (this also applies to
the chat abbreviations that we discussed earlier). Not everyone will be familiar with slang
like NIMBY (not in my back yard) and TGIF (thank goodness it's Friday). As always, this type of slang can
be OK in certain contexts, but it might leave some readers feeling confused.

As you now know, abbreviations and acronyms can save time and space, and they can make your writing
easier to read. Below is a sample that contains the full form of several different words, phrases, and
expressions. Do you know which acronyms and abbreviations could be used as substitutes?
Lesson 12: Abbreviations and Acronyms

Abbreviations and acronyms

Abbreviations and acronyms are shorter versions of existing words and phrases. They're designed to
save time and take up less space (whether you're typing or writing by hand), and can even make your
writing easier to read.

What is an abbreviation?

Abbreviations are all around us, from common titles like Dr. and Prof. to the abbreviations you see
on street signs. Specifically, abbreviations are shorter spellings of words and expressions we use every
day.
What is an acronym?

You might already know some acronyms, like NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)
and ATM (automated teller machine). An acronym is a stand-in for a string of words, usually an
organization name, slogan, or something else equally wordy. Unlike abbreviations, they aren't shorter
spellings of words—they're made up of the words' initials.

Using abbreviations
Abbreviations are usually formed using the most recognizable letters from the word or expression. This
makes them easier to remember, and easy for others to read. It's almost like the letters are clues that
point to the original word or expression.

Some abbreviations look like acronyms (for example, mph and NY), but it's really just a coincidence.
Technically, these are initialisms, which is a type of abbreviation. Thankfully, you don't have to know
whether something is an abbreviation, initialism, or acronym to use it properly. You just have to know
what the term means, and how to spell it—everything else will usually fall into place.

Now that you know how abbreviations are formed, you may be wondering how they're pronounced.
Most of the time, they're pronounced the same as the original word—whether you're reading it aloud
or in your head.

For example, Prof. Snape would be pronounced Professor Snape (not Prof Snape). The
abbreviation etc. would be pronounced et cetera (not e-t-c). The important thing to remember is that
abbreviations aren't words in the true sense—they're more like shorthand.
There are some exceptions that are pronounced differently. For instance, AM, PM, i.e., and PhD are
pronounced exactly the way they're spelled. This happens when the abbreviation becomes more
popular than the original term—usually because the original is too long or outdated. For
example, AM stands for Ante Meridiem. (That's Latin for before noon. Who knew?)

Luckily, there aren't many exceptions like this, so you don't have to worry too much about making a
mistake. Most abbreviations are pronounced the same as the word they're based on, like hr, min,
and sec (that's hour, minute, and second).

Period vs. no period

This is one of the most common questions people have about abbreviations: Do you have to use
a period at the end when writing it out? There's no strict rule that says you do—it's kind of up to you.

Sometimes adding a period is expected and can make the abbreviation easier to read. Take the example
below. Pop. is the abbreviation for the word population—without a period, it might just look
like pop (as in pop goes the weasel).
On the other hand, some abbreviations never use a period; for example, state postal
abbreviations like NY, CA, and TX. The abbreviation for United States of America can be written with a
period between each letter, but it's much more common without. The same goes for measurement
abbreviations like ft, in, and cm.

Common abbreviations

There are abbreviations for so many different things, it would be impossible to list them all here. Here
are some of the most common abbreviations you'll see and use:
You may have noticed that the abbreviations for ounce (oz) and pound (lb) are a little different from the
rest. They're spelled using letters that aren't part of the original word. This is because the abbreviations
are based on older forms of each word—ounce comes from the Italian word onza, and pound from the
Roman word libra.

What about chat terms like LOL (laugh out loud), BRB (be right back), and plz (please)? Many blur the
line between abbreviations and acronyms, but they're abbreviations nonetheless. In other words, they
abbreviate something in a contemporary way, using initials, slang, and other shorthand. They make it
possible to communicate quickly, and that's what makes them a form of abbreviation.

Is it OK to use abbreviations?

Look closely at the heading above, and you may find your answer. Believe it or not, OK is an
abbreviation too, and we use it on the site all the time.

A good rule for abbreviations is to put the reader first. Ask yourself: Will the abbreviation make the
sentence easier to read, or will it confuse the reader (for example, if the abbreviation is too obscure)? If
an abbreviation still sounds like a good idea, next consider the context. Abbreviations are perfectly OK
in personal and casual writing—they're often OK in formal writing too. You might want to ask your boss
or your teacher if you're unsure.

Using acronyms

As you read earlier, acronyms are used in place of a phrase or string of words. They're almost always
made up of the words' initials and are spelled in all caps. They can represent all kinds of things, from
organizations to mnemonics to sandwiches.
Like abbreviations, there's a lot of overlap between acronyms and initialisms—but remember, this
doesn't really matter when it comes to using them. It might help to think of acronyms as something
catchier than abbreviations (after all, they represent longer phrases, so it helps if they're memorable).
They don't just shorten words; they stand for organizations, ideas, and other things you want people to
remember.

Acronyms are read differently from abbreviations. Take the word BLT. If you saw that on the menu at
your favorite restaurant, there's a good chance you'd just order a BLT, not a bacon, lettuce, and
tomato sandwich. You wouldn't pronounce it built or belt either; you would say B-L-T. This is what
makes acronyms unique—you can read them as they appear, even though they stand for something
else.

The pronunciation of acronyms can vary, however. While some are pronounced literally like the example
above, others can actually be pronounced as a word, like UNICEF, POTUS, and NASA.

Sometimes it's just a question of, "Can the acronym be pronounced as a word?" A lot of acronyms can't
because they don't have the right combination of vowels and consonants. However, there's no set
rule that governs this. Knowing how to pronounce acronyms depends a lot your awareness of the world
around you, but it's not the end of the world if you make a mistake.

When and how to use acronyms

Sometimes you may need to explain the acronym when using it in writing. Style guides suggest that you
write the acronym first, followed by the full name or phrase in parentheses. You can also write them in
the opposite order—whatever makes more sense. In short, if the acronym is more widely known, list it
first; if it's more obscure, you may want to start with the entire phrase.
A lot of contemporary acronyms might need to be explained for different reasons (this also applies to
the chat abbreviations that we discussed earlier). Not everyone will be familiar with slang
like NIMBY (not in my back yard) and TGIF (thank goodness it's Friday). As always, this type of slang can
be OK in certain contexts, but it might leave some readers feeling confused.

As you now know, abbreviations and acronyms can save time and space, and they can make your writing
easier to read. Below is a sample that contains the full form of several different words, phrases, and
expressions. Do you know which acronyms and abbreviations could be used as substitutes?
What is a comma?

A comma is a punctuation mark that can be used in many different ways. Mainly, it's used to separate
things—for instance, two thoughts in a sentence, multiple adjectives, or items in a list.

There are many rules that tell us how commas should be used, but don't let it scare you. With a little
practice, it'll start to feel like second nature. Some rules are set in stone. They work the same way every
time, so you don't have to think about them too much. Other rules are more complicated. In these
cases, you have to understand the meaning of the sentence to know when and where to use the
comma.

Using commas
The basic rules for using commas are pretty foolproof. In other words, they're easy to apply to your
writing because they always work the same way. You don't have to worry about any special exceptions
or wonder where the comma is supposed to go. Each rule tells you exactly what to do.

Joining two sentences

You already know how to join two sentences using conjunctions like and, or, but, and so. We do it all the
time in regular conversation, if not in writing.

As you can see, the comma goes between the two sentences, right before the conjunction. It tells you
where one thought ends and another begins. Placing the comma after the conjunction would be
incorrect because the conjunction is part of the second thought.

Listing items in a sentence

Commas can also be used to separate three or more items in a list. Just place a comma between each
item (and an appropriate punctuation mark at the end). The last item is usually joined by a conjunction
like and, or, or nor. Like the rule for joining sentences, the comma goes right before the conjunction.

Place names and dates

There are certain types of place names (for example, city/state and state/country) that are always
separated by a comma when you write them out. You can see this rule in action on any mailing
envelope.

Phoenix is a place inside Arizona—that's why there's a comma between the city and state. This rule
applies whenever you refer to a place in a similar way, whether it's MTV Studios, Times Square (which
isn't even a city, state, or country) or England, United Kingdom.

Dates work almost the same way. For instance, when you write the full date, it should look something
like this: January 1, 2014. It's almost as if the day and the month are inside the year—which is true, in a
way. We're talking about January 1 in the year 2014. That's why there's a comma between the date and
year.

Quotations

Quotations are usually made up of two things: a quote (what the person said) and a tag (the person who
said it). Commas play an important role too—they separate the quote from the tag, so we can tell
they're separate but connected.
So where does the comma go? It depends on the layout of the sentence. Here are three examples.

 Before the quote: Vanessa asked, "Is anyone else hungry?"

 After the quote (inside the quotation mark): "I could go for some pizza," said Elizabeth.

 Both ways (in the middle of a quote): "I want pizza," said Rick, "but not with anchovies!"

To learn more, take a look at our lesson on Quotation Marks.

There are two commas missing from the example below. Can you tell where they're supposed go? Click
the dots to see if you're right!
More commas

To use commas in more complicated sentences, you'll have to use your judgment. This means you'll
need to think about each sentence (and make sure you really understand what makes it work) before
you can apply the comma.

Don't let this scare you. As always, it's not the end of the world if you make a mistake. If you get stuck
on a rule, try looking closely at the example—sometimes it helps to see the rule in action. If you're not
a native English speaker, these rules can be especially difficult to grasp. You may want to ask someone
you know for help, such as a friend, coworker, or teacher.

Adjectives

Another time you use commas is when you have two or more adjectives in a sentence. Just place the
comma between them—this separates them and makes the sentence easier to read.

This rule is pretty universal, but it isn't always true. You should only use a comma if the adjectives
are interchangeable.

Interchangeable means you can list the adjectives in any order and it won't change the meaning of the
sentence. To find out if two adjectives are interchangeable, try reversing them—then see if the sentence
still makes sense.
Here's the same example with a different pair of adjectives: delicious and frozen. This time, the
adjectives aren't interchangeable. (If you reverse them, you can probably see why.) This means they
shouldn't be separated with a comma.

The truth is, frozen yogurt is more than just an adjective followed by a noun. It's type of thing, like
a miniature poodle, striped shirt, or even hot chocolate. All of these examples are made up of two
words, but they represent a single thing. If you separate them with a comma—or write them in a
different order—the words lose their meaning.

Introductory clauses

You might already know that an incomplete sentence is a fragment. When you begin a sentence with a
fragment, it's called an introductory clause. (To learn more, check out our lesson on Fragments.)

It's perfectly OK to begin a sentence this way, then follow it with a complete thought. You just have to
separate these thoughts with a comma. This makes the sentence easier to read, and it also tells the
reader where to pause if needed.

In the example above, the thing before the comma (while you were sleeping) is a fragment; the thing
after the comma (I gave you a new haircut) is a complete sentence. The comma is necessary only if the
clause introduces the sentence. If the phrases were written in the opposite order, you wouldn't use a
comma.

What about expressions like luckily, however, and as you can see? It's more common to see these at
the beginning of a sentence, but they can appear the end as well. Unlike introductory clauses, they don't
necessarily add anything new to the sentence. Regardless, they should always be separated by a
comma. For example: I gave you a new haircut, as you can see.

Nonessential clauses

You should also use commas to separate nonessential clauses that appear in the middle of a sentence. A
nonessential clause is something that adds meaning but that isn't completely necessary. In other words,
if you took it out the sentence would still mean basically the same thing.
To find out if a clause is nonessential, try removing it from the sentence, then see how it sounds. The
sentence above would still make sense if we removed the detail about the ascot. It would be: Steve is
very tidy.

If the clause was essential, we wouldn't be able to remove it. Try this sentence instead: Men who wear
ascots are very tidy. If we take out the detail about the ascot, we're left something slightly
different: Men are very tidy. This is far too general to be true—after all, some men are really sloppy.
This is how you know the clause is essential to the sentence's meaning.

Other cases

As you gain more experience with commas, you'll run into cases when your judgment matters more than
ever. These cases are more difficult to define, but they build on the rules we just discussed.

For instance, some sentences end with a type of fragment called a free modifier. This is just a fancy
word for something that clarifies or relates to another part of the sentence. When you use a free
modifier like this, always separate it with a comma.

Other sentences end with a distinct pause, followed by something more ambiguous. That final beat
could be the name of the person you're talking to, a statement of confirmation, or a single word.
Whatever it is, that beat also should be separated by a comma.
Below are two sentences that include a series of commas—one is correct, and the other is not. Use what
you just learned to decide which one is correct, then click the dots to see if you're right!

Common comma mistakes

Joining two sentences without a conjunction

People often make the mistake of using a comma to join two sentences without a conjunction. For
example:
Notice how the first version of the sentence is missing something? It needs a conjunction
like and or but to join the two halves properly. You could also use a semi-colon to correct it instead: She
was a small-town-girl; he was a city boy. Or you could rewrite the sentence as two sentences, with a
period in between.

Joining a compound subject or predicate

Remember how you're supposed to use a comma to separate three or more items in a list? Be careful
not to go overboard and start separating two items that belong together (in other words, a compound
subject or predicate).

It might help to think of the compound as a single idea or thought. In the example above, the gym
teacher and the principal are both part of Aunt Ruth's dating history—and they're the only things listed.
You wouldn't break them up unless and the principal was rewritten as a complete sentence. For
example: Aunt Ruth used to date the gym teacher, but she dumped him for the principal.

When a fragment follows a sentence

It's easy to confuse a fragment at the end of a sentence with an introductory clause—they do look
similar. We already touched on this rule when we went over introductory clauses, but it can't hurt to
review it once more.

A fragment only works as an introductory clause if it's at the beginning of a sentence. If it's at the end,
you don't need a comma. In this example, the sentence would need a comma only if it was written in the
reverse order: While my husband went camping, I went to Vegas.

Forcing a pause
Using a comma to force the reader to pause is a common mistake. Just remember: Commas are meant
to make things easier to read, not necessarily influence the way they're read.

If you want the reader to pause, you'll have to get creative with your formatting. For instance, you could
use an ellipses (a very common way of indicating a pause), like in the example above. Or you could write
the word you want to emphasize in all caps or italics. This way, the reader can really feel the weight of
it: And THAT is how you deep-fry a turkey.

What is a comma?

A comma is a punctuation mark that can be used in many different ways. Mainly, it's used to separate
things—for instance, two thoughts in a sentence, multiple adjectives, or items in a list.

There are many rules that tell us how commas should be used, but don't let it scare you. With a little
practice, it'll start to feel like second nature. Some rules are set in stone. They work the same way every
time, so you don't have to think about them too much. Other rules are more complicated. In these
cases, you have to understand the meaning of the sentence to know when and where to use the
comma.

Using commas

The basic rules for using commas are pretty foolproof. In other words, they're easy to apply to your
writing because they always work the same way. You don't have to worry about any special exceptions
or wonder where the comma is supposed to go. Each rule tells you exactly what to do.

Joining two sentences

You already know how to join two sentences using conjunctions like and, or, but, and so. We do it all the
time in regular conversation, if not in writing.
As you can see, the comma goes between the two sentences, right before the conjunction. It tells you
where one thought ends and another begins. Placing the comma after the conjunction would be
incorrect because the conjunction is part of the second thought.

Listing items in a sentence

Commas can also be used to separate three or more items in a list. Just place a comma between each
item (and an appropriate punctuation mark at the end). The last item is usually joined by a conjunction
like and, or, or nor. Like the rule for joining sentences, the comma goes right before the conjunction.

Place names and dates

There are certain types of place names (for example, city/state and state/country) that are always
separated by a comma when you write them out. You can see this rule in action on any mailing
envelope.
Phoenix is a place inside Arizona—that's why there's a comma between the city and state. This rule
applies whenever you refer to a place in a similar way, whether it's MTV Studios, Times Square (which
isn't even a city, state, or country) or England, United Kingdom.

Dates work almost the same way. For instance, when you write the full date, it should look something
like this: January 1, 2014. It's almost as if the day and the month are inside the year—which is true, in a
way. We're talking about January 1 in the year 2014. That's why there's a comma between the date and
year.

Quotations

Quotations are usually made up of two things: a quote (what the person said) and a tag (the person who
said it). Commas play an important role too—they separate the quote from the tag, so we can tell
they're separate but connected.
So where does the comma go? It depends on the layout of the sentence. Here are three examples.

 Before the quote: Vanessa asked, "Is anyone else hungry?"

 After the quote (inside the quotation mark): "I could go for some pizza," said Elizabeth.

 Both ways (in the middle of a quote): "I want pizza," said Rick, "but not with anchovies!"

To learn more, take a look at our lesson on Quotation Marks.

There are two commas missing from the example below. Can you tell where they're supposed go? Click
the dots to see if you're right!
More commas

To use commas in more complicated sentences, you'll have to use your judgment. This means you'll
need to think about each sentence (and make sure you really understand what makes it work) before
you can apply the comma.

Don't let this scare you. As always, it's not the end of the world if you make a mistake. If you get stuck
on a rule, try looking closely at the example—sometimes it helps to see the rule in action. If you're not
a native English speaker, these rules can be especially difficult to grasp. You may want to ask someone
you know for help, such as a friend, coworker, or teacher.

Adjectives

Another time you use commas is when you have two or more adjectives in a sentence. Just place the
comma between them—this separates them and makes the sentence easier to read.

This rule is pretty universal, but it isn't always true. You should only use a comma if the adjectives
are interchangeable.

Interchangeable means you can list the adjectives in any order and it won't change the meaning of the
sentence. To find out if two adjectives are interchangeable, try reversing them—then see if the sentence
still makes sense.
Here's the same example with a different pair of adjectives: delicious and frozen. This time, the
adjectives aren't interchangeable. (If you reverse them, you can probably see why.) This means they
shouldn't be separated with a comma.

The truth is, frozen yogurt is more than just an adjective followed by a noun. It's type of thing, like
a miniature poodle, striped shirt, or even hot chocolate. All of these examples are made up of two
words, but they represent a single thing. If you separate them with a comma—or write them in a
different order—the words lose their meaning.

Introductory clauses

You might already know that an incomplete sentence is a fragment. When you begin a sentence with a
fragment, it's called an introductory clause. (To learn more, check out our lesson on Fragments.)

It's perfectly OK to begin a sentence this way, then follow it with a complete thought. You just have to
separate these thoughts with a comma. This makes the sentence easier to read, and it also tells the
reader where to pause if needed.

In the example above, the thing before the comma (while you were sleeping) is a fragment; the thing
after the comma (I gave you a new haircut) is a complete sentence. The comma is necessary only if the
clause introduces the sentence. If the phrases were written in the opposite order, you wouldn't use a
comma.

What about expressions like luckily, however, and as you can see? It's more common to see these at
the beginning of a sentence, but they can appear the end as well. Unlike introductory clauses, they don't
necessarily add anything new to the sentence. Regardless, they should always be separated by a
comma. For example: I gave you a new haircut, as you can see.

Nonessential clauses

You should also use commas to separate nonessential clauses that appear in the middle of a sentence. A
nonessential clause is something that adds meaning but that isn't completely necessary. In other words,
if you took it out the sentence would still mean basically the same thing.
To find out if a clause is nonessential, try removing it from the sentence, then see how it sounds. The
sentence above would still make sense if we removed the detail about the ascot. It would be: Steve is
very tidy.

If the clause was essential, we wouldn't be able to remove it. Try this sentence instead: Men who wear
ascots are very tidy. If we take out the detail about the ascot, we're left something slightly
different: Men are very tidy. This is far too general to be true—after all, some men are really sloppy.
This is how you know the clause is essential to the sentence's meaning.

Other cases

As you gain more experience with commas, you'll run into cases when your judgment matters more than
ever. These cases are more difficult to define, but they build on the rules we just discussed.

For instance, some sentences end with a type of fragment called a free modifier. This is just a fancy
word for something that clarifies or relates to another part of the sentence. When you use a free
modifier like this, always separate it with a comma.

Other sentences end with a distinct pause, followed by something more ambiguous. That final beat
could be the name of the person you're talking to, a statement of confirmation, or a single word.
Whatever it is, that beat also should be separated by a comma.
Below are two sentences that include a series of commas—one is correct, and the other is not. Use what
you just learned to decide which one is correct, then click the dots to see if you're right!

Common comma mistakes

Joining two sentences without a conjunction

People often make the mistake of using a comma to join two sentences without a conjunction. For
example:
Notice how the first version of the sentence is missing something? It needs a conjunction
like and or but to join the two halves properly. You could also use a semi-colon to correct it instead: She
was a small-town-girl; he was a city boy. Or you could rewrite the sentence as two sentences, with a
period in between.

Joining a compound subject or predicate

Remember how you're supposed to use a comma to separate three or more items in a list? Be careful
not to go overboard and start separating two items that belong together (in other words, a compound
subject or predicate).

It might help to think of the compound as a single idea or thought. In the example above, the gym
teacher and the principal are both part of Aunt Ruth's dating history—and they're the only things listed.
You wouldn't break them up unless and the principal was rewritten as a complete sentence. For
example: Aunt Ruth used to date the gym teacher, but she dumped him for the principal.

When a fragment follows a sentence

It's easy to confuse a fragment at the end of a sentence with an introductory clause—they do look
similar. We already touched on this rule when we went over introductory clauses, but it can't hurt to
review it once more.

A fragment only works as an introductory clause if it's at the beginning of a sentence. If it's at the end,
you don't need a comma. In this example, the sentence would need a comma only if it was written in the
reverse order: While my husband went camping, I went to Vegas.

Forcing a pause
Using a comma to force the reader to pause is a common mistake. Just remember: Commas are meant
to make things easier to read, not necessarily influence the way they're read.

If you want the reader to pause, you'll have to get creative with your formatting. For instance, you could
use an ellipses (a very common way of indicating a pause), like in the example above. Or you could write
the word you want to emphasize in all caps or italics. This way, the reader can really feel the weight of
it: And THAT is how you deep-fry a turkey.

Lesson 15: There, Their, or They're?

There, their, or they're?

Private Ramirez is sent on a daring mission: to learn the difference between there, their, and they're...

In our last lesson, we talked about homophones—words that sound alike but are spelled differently.
Three of the most common homophones are there, their, and they’re.

When to use "there"

There often refers to a location.

 Example: Look over there!

Secondly, there can be used in a greeting if you don’t know someone’s name.

 Example: Hello there!

And finally, there can also mean at that point.

 Example: I will introduce myself, and then my colleague John will take it from there and
continue the presentation.

"Their" and "they're"

Their is possessive, meaning it’s a word that shows who or what something belongs to. It indicates
ownership.

 Example: That is their suitcase.

They’re is a contraction for they + are. A contraction is a word made by shortening and combining two
words.

 Example: They’re already in town.

Let's practice!

Question 1 of 5

Even though __________ a little grumpy, generally I enjoy visiting my great grandparents.

there

their

they're

It's or its?

The dangers of the wild won't stop this cowboy from explaining it's and its...

This is another tricky pair of homophones which pop up a lot!

What's the difference?

It’s is the contraction for it + is. A contraction is a word made by shortening and combining two words.

 Example: It’s getting very dark outside.

Its is possessive, meaning it indicates ownership. It’s a word that shows who or what something belongs
to.

 Example: The lion shook its mane.

Let's practice!

Question 1 of 5

Do you think ____ a problem that Dan cheated on his final exam?

it's

its

Lesson 17: Bear or Bare?

Bear or bare?

Confusing bear and bare can get you arrested in 47 states…

What are the differences between bear and bare? Each word has a few meanings…

Bear

Bear can refer to the furry mammal with claws.

 Example: A bear went running through our campsite last night.

Secondly, bear mean to produce, oftentimes in reference to trees.

 Example: The old pear tree continues to bear fruit.

Finally, bear mean having to deal with—usually something the person finds unpleasant.

 Example: I can’t bear the smell of vinegar!

Common phrases which use “bear”

“Bear with me” or “bear with us” means to wait until something is sorted out.

 Example: Bear with me while I try to figure out this technology issue.

“To bear arms” means to carry weapons.

 Example: Some campus police officers do not bear arms.

Please note that there are several other meanings/phrases that include bear (which are a little less
common these days). To go in more depth, check out the definitions listed here.

Bare

Bare usually means exposed or naked. Sometimes it’s combined with body parts. It can be used as an
adjective, to describe something...

 Example: If you run barefoot through the forest, you risk hurting yourself.

Bare It can also be used as a verb, to expose something.

 Example: The dog bared its teeth at the intruder.

Bare sometimes it means surprisingly little, plain, or empty.

 Example: She always does the bare minimum when it comes to her schoolwork.

Helpful Tip: Bear is more common than bare, so when in doubt, you might want to use the first one!

Let's practice!

Question 1 of 5

The man with the __________ chest was asked to put his shirt on in the store.

bare

bear

Compliment or complement?

Compliment and complement get confused on the dance floor…

Compliment and complement sound the same and have similar meanings. But once you remember
their definitions, it shouldn’t be too hard to tell them apart!

Compliment
A compliment can be a noun, or a thing. It means praise or a nice remark.

 Example: She gave me a compliment on my new outfit.

To compliment is a verb, or an action. It means to praise, or to make a nice remark.

 Example: The boss complimented the employee on his hard work.

If you turn it into an adjective, which describes something—complimentary—then it means expressing

praise, or free of charge.

 Example 1: The teacher was very complimentary when he gave me feedback on my project.

 Example 2: The food on the flight is complimentary, so eat as much as you want!

Complement

To complement is (almost always) a verb, or an action. It means to complete something, or make it

better in some way.

 Example 1: The two singers’ voices complemented one another. What a moving duet they sang!

 Example 2: The cheese complements the meat. They make a yummy combo!

It can also be used as an adjective, complementary, with the same meaning as the verb form. The
adjective is often used to describe foods or colors that go well together.

 Example: The complementary colors in the photoshoot looked beautiful.

Let's practice!

Question 1 of 5

The orange and cinnamon flavors really ___________ each other in this delicious dish!

complement

compliment

Lesson 19: Literally or Figuratively?

Literally or figuratively?

A friend finds out the hard way what happens when something literally explodes...

Even though literally and figuratively are two different words, they're often used interchangeably. Let’s
talk about what they actually mean, and then see how they’re used in everyday speech.

Literal language

Literally describes something that happens in real life.

 Example 1: I literally failed my science test; I didn’t get a passing score.

 Example 2: After collapsing, she literally had to be carried off the soccer field.
The word literally doesn’t always have to be included in the sentence for something to be literal. If
you’re unsure if the person is saying that the event happened in real life, you can ask a question like,
“You literally failed your science test?” or “She was literally carried off the field?” Because it’s possible
the person is speaking figuratively.

Figurative language

Figuratively refers to a metaphor. A metaphor is a direct comparison between two things. So if someone
is speaking figuratively, then they are using a comparison for emphasis.

 Example 1: Figuratively speaking, I was in a prison I couldn’t escape.

 Example 2: I’m so tired I could die.

In everyday speech, sometimes people use the word literally incorrectly, as a way to show what they’re
feeling. Even if they actually mean figuratively, they choose literally to get their point across.

 Example: I’m so hungry right now, I could literally eat a horse!

Directions: For the practice quiz below, make an educated guess if the person is speaking literally or
figuratively...

Let's practice!

Question 1 of 5

“My opponent on the soccer field was as big as an elephant!”

figuratively

literally

Who's or whose?

Detective McClane solves the biggest mystery of his career: the difference between who's and whose...

When do you use who's, and when do you use whose? Once you understand their definitions, it isn’t
too hard to tell them apart.

Who's

Who’s is a contraction made from combining the words who + is or who + has.

 Example 1: Who’s going to the party tonight? (Who’s could be replaced with Who is).

 Example 2: Jane, who’s got four dogs, became a veterinarian. (Who’s could be replaced
with who has).

Whose

Whose is possessive, meaning it shows who something belongs to.

 Example 1: Whose glove is this? I found it on the floor.

 Example 2: My friend–whose name is John–is now a professor.

Let's practice!

Question 1 of 5

________ been putting the recycling in the dumpster?

Whose

Who's

Me or I?

Things get weird when the Grammar Bandit tries to spread the gift of grammar…

If the pronouns me and I mean the same thing, how do you know which one to use in a sentence?
Follow this rule of thumb in order to tell the difference…

When to use "I"

I should be used when it’s the subject of a sentence. (The subject is the person or thing doing the action.
It’s also the focus of the sentence).

 Example 1: I went to the grocery store alone.

 Example 2: Roberta and I went to the grocery store.

When to use "me"

Me is always the object of the sentence. It receives the action directly/indirectly, or comes after a
preposition. (A preposition is a small word that reflects things like location or direction. Examples
include to, toward, around, with, and on).

 Example 1: Rowan threw me the ball.

 Example 2: Rowan threw the ball toward me.

Let's practice!

Question 1 of 5

Elvis invited ___ to the party, along with a few other friends.

me

Lose or loose?
A giraffe gets loose on the racetrack. Just another day at the
races…
Even though the two words are pronounced a little differently,
many people confuse lose and loose. (The s in lose is
pronounced like a z). Let's explore how they differ...

Forms of “lose”
To lose is a verb, or an action. It means not being able to find
something.
 Example: I don't want to lose my
expensive necklace on vacation.
Let’s talk about other forms of the word. If you’re describing a
person, for example, who lost a race, then they’re the loser.
 Example: My friend is a sore loser;
she doesn’t like coming in second
place.
If you’re speaking about something that happened in the past,
then lose becomes lost.
 Example 1: Oh no, I lost my keys!

 Example 2: I’m lost. Could you give

me directions?
While you usually lose an object, you can also “lose your way”–
as shown in the last example.
How “loose” differs
Loose is an adjective, so it's used to describe something. It
means not tight or firm, and it can be used literally or
figuratively.
 Example 1: The harness was so loose

that my dog slipped out of it. (literal)

 Example 2: He’s a bit of a loose

cannon; in other words, he’ll explode

and get angry at random
times! (figurative)
Loosely is an adverb (which describes an action). It can also be
literal or figurative. As a side note, lose cannot be an adverb,
with an -ly on the end.
 Example 1: The ribbons were loosely

tied together. (literal)

 Example 2: These two topics are

loosely related. (figurative)

Let's practice!

Question 1 of 5
The dress I tried on feels a bit too ________.
lose
loose
Submit

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