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GE Study Material- Understanding IR

Political science (University of Delhi)

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GE:UNDERSTANDING INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

UNIT 1- MAKING SENSE OF THE WORLD
1.1 What is International Relations?

1.2 Understanding Space: How do we sense our planet

1.3 Ways of knowing and being: - Peoples, Histories and Civilisations

1.1 What is International Relations?

International Relations (IR) serves as the compass guiding our understanding of
the complex interactions between states, international organizations, and a
diverse array of actors on the global stage. This comprehensive exploration
defines IR, traces its historical evolution, scrutinizes major schools of thought,
and examines the pivotal actors and factors shaping the dynamics of
international politics. Along this journey, we integrate insights from David
Blaney's reading, "Where, When and What is IR?"

### **Defining International Relations: Unveiling the Global Chessboard**

International Relations, often abbreviated as IR, can be defined as the study of

the interactions and relationships between states, as well as various non-state
actors, in the global system. It seeks to analyse and explain the behaviour of
these actors on the International stage, focusing on issues such as diplomacy,
conflict, cooperation, and the impact of international structures and norms.

### **Historical Backdrop: From Empires to Nation-States to Global

Players**

The field of International Relations (IR) traces its roots to the Treaty of
Westphalia in 1648, which introduced the concept of state sovereignty.
Modern IR, however, took shape in the 20th century, influenced by key events.
After World War I, the League of Nations was founded, marking the first
attempt at global cooperation. Post-World War II, the United Nations (UN)
emerged, emphasizing diplomacy, human rights, and global security.

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The Cold War, a significant period of rivalry between the U.S. and the Soviet
Union, had a profound impact on IR theories, notably realism. Decolonization
shifted the international landscape, with newly independent states from Africa
and Asia demanding a more equitable global system.

Theoretical frameworks, including realism, liberalism, and constructivism,

evolved to analyse international relations. Today, IR faces a multitude of global
challenges, such as climate change, terrorism, and economic interdependence,
which continue to shape the field. In summary, IR has evolved from its
historical roots into a dynamic field that seeks to understand and address the
complex interactions and challenges of international politics in an ever-
changing global landscape.

### **Major Schools of Thought: **

Realism is a dominant school of thought in International Relations that sees

the international arena as inherently competitive and conflict-driven. Realists
focus on state actors and their pursuit of power and self-interest, often
emphasizing military capabilities, the balance of power, and national security.
Prominent figures in realism include Hans Morgenthau and Kenneth Waltz.

Liberalism is another influential theory in IR that emphasizes cooperation and

international institutions as key drivers of global politics. Liberals argue that
democracy, free trade, and interdependence can reduce conflict and promote
peace. They consider non-state actors, international organizations, and
diplomacy as crucial elements of international relations. Notable scholars in
liberalism include Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye.

### **Major Actors in International Politics: Players on the Global Stage**

**States:** States are pivotal in International Relations, embodying

sovereignty and wielding power to shape global dynamics. The realist
perspective emphasizes their pursuit of self-interest and competition for
power on the international stage.

**International Organizations:** Entities like the UN and WTO play a crucial

role in fostering global cooperation. They provide platforms for negotiation,
address transnational challenges, and embody the liberal ideal of collaborative
international governance.

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**Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs):** NGOs, exemplified by

Amnesty International, wield influence beyond borders, advocating for human
rights and environmental issues. They play a key role in shaping international
norms and challenging traditional state-centric perspectives.

**Transnational Corporations:** Companies like Apple and ExxonMobil

operate globally, impacting state policies and economies. Susan Strange's
concept underscores their significant role in shaping international economic
relations and influencing geopolitical dynamics.

**Supranational Entities:** Regional bodies like the European Union exhibit

unique characteristics, integrating states while preserving some individual
sovereignty. Neofunctionalists explore their development in regional politics,
reflecting a complex interplay between supranational and national interests.

### **Factors Shaping International Politics: The Forces at Play**

1. **Power: The Pivotal Force in Global Dynamics**

Power is the bedrock of IR, influencing interactions between states and actors.
It manifests in various forms, including military capabilities, economic strength,
and diplomatic influence. Realist scholars argue that states' pursuit of power is
a driving force, creating a competitive chessboard where nations strive to
secure their interests. Power dynamics shape alliances, conflicts, and the
overall structure of the international system.

2. **Ideology: The Blueprint of Foreign Policies**

Ideologies, such as communism, democracy, or nationalism, play a crucial role

in shaping states' foreign policies. They act as blueprints guiding a country's
approach to international relations. The clash and alignment of ideologies
influence alliances and conflicts, shaping the narratives of cooperation or
competition.

3. **Economics: The Engine of Global Connectivity**

Economic factors are instrumental in international relations, driving

cooperation and competition among states. Trade, globalization, and economic
interdependence create a web of connections, shaping diplomatic relations
and geopolitical strategies. Liberal theorists emphasize the benefits of

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economic cooperation, arguing that shared economic interests contribute to

peace and stability in the international arena.

4. **Culture and Identity: The Threads Weaving Global Narratives**

Cultural factors, including religion and historical memory, contribute to

shaping international politics. They can foster cooperation or fuel conflicts,
influencing states' behaviour and diplomatic relations. Samuel Huntington's
"clash of civilizations" theory explores how cultural differences can lead to
tensions and conflicts on the global stage.

5. **Global Issues and Challenges: The Unifying Front**

Transnational issues like climate change, terrorism, and pandemics transcend

borders, demanding collective action. These global challenges require
cooperation among states and international actors to find solutions. Issues
such as climate change, for instance, have become integral to the international
agenda, shaping diplomatic discourse and strategies.

### **Conclusion: Navigating the Future of International Relations**

In conclusion, International Relations is a dynamic field that demands a

comprehensive understanding of the actors and factors shaping global affairs.
David Blaney's reading challenges traditional assumptions, fostering a more
inclusive perspective within IR scholarship. Major actors, including states and
various non-state entities, operate within a framework of diverse factors such
as power, ideology, economics, culture, and global challenges. As we navigate
the complex currents of an interconnected world, the transition from empires
to nation-states, the influence of democracy, and economic resurgence
become integral components of our evolving understanding of International
Relations.

1.2 Understanding Space: How do we sense our planet

In delving into the topic of "Understanding Space," we embark on a profound
journey that extends beyond the conventional confines of physical dimensions.
This exploration invites us to unravel the multifaceted layers that constitute

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our existence, encouraging a nuanced comprehension of our relationship with

the planet. The essence lies not only in grasping the geographical expanse but
in deciphering the intricate interplay between humanity, nature, and the
broader cosmos. To navigate this complex terrain, we'll navigate through key
dimensions:

### **Rethinking Our Relationship with Nature: Beyond Assumptions **

Simon Dalby's perspective challenges us to reassess our connection with the

natural world. "What happens if we don’t take nature for granted" prompts
reflection on the consequences of overlooking the intricate interdependencies
between human activities and the environment. Dalby encourages us to move
beyond a simplistic view of nature as a passive backdrop and recognize its
dynamic role in shaping our existence.

### **The Climate of History: Intersecting Narratives in a Planetary Age **

Dipesh Chakrabarty's exploration of "The Climate of History in a Planetary Age"

introduces the notion of history intersecting with planetary realities. Here, the
concept transcends traditional boundaries, urging us to consider historical
narratives in the context of global environmental challenges. The climate
becomes a central actor in our historical journey, influencing and being
influenced by the unfolding human story.

### **National Identities and Planetary Perspectives: A Symbiotic

Relationship**

The intersection of national identities and planetary perspectives forms a

crucial nexus in our understanding of space. Chakrabarty's insights prompt an
exploration of how our perceptions of self on a national level influence our
responses to global challenges. National identities, deeply rooted in historical
narratives, become integral in shaping our collective approach to
environmental issues.

### **Pluriversal Politics: Navigating Diverse Pathways **

Arturo Escobar's concept of pluriversal politics opens doors to diverse

pathways of understanding space. By challenging deterministic views of reality,
Escobar invites us to consider alternative frameworks and narratives. The

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pluriverse becomes a space where multiple possibilities coexist, encouraging

us to embrace diverse knowledge systems and perspectives beyond the
constraints of conventional paradigms.

### **Towards a Post-Development Dictionary: Alternative Narratives **

The collaborative work of Ashish Kothari, Ariel Salleh, Arturo Escobar, Federico
Demaria, and Albert Acosta introduces a post-development dictionary. This
collective effort serves as a guide to exploring alternative narratives and
frameworks. It emphasizes the importance of finding pluriversal paths,
acknowledging the limitations of conventional development paradigms and
fostering inclusive, diverse, and sustainable approaches.

### **Navigating the Pluriverse: Embracing Complexity **

In conclusion, our journey to understand space evolves into a dynamic

exploration of interconnected dimensions. Simon Dalby's caution against
taking nature for granted sets the tone for acknowledging the intricate
relationship we share with our environment. Dipesh Chakrabarty's narrative of
a planetary age challenges us to reconsider our national identities in the
context of global challenges. Arturo Escobar's pluriversal perspective and the
collaborative efforts towards a post-development dictionary guide us in
navigating the complexities of our existence. The essence lies in embracing the
richness, diversity, and dynamism inherent in our collective understanding of
space.

1.3 Ways of knowing and being: - Peoples, Histories and

Civilisations
In the intricate landscape of International Relations (IR), the exploration of
ways of knowing and being serves as a crucial lens through which we decipher
the multifaceted dimensions of global politics. Let’s embark on this journey,
drawing insights from various scholars, to unravel the complexities within
three pivotal dimensions: Peoples, Histories, and Civilizations.

**Peoples in International Relations: A Call to Rethink Perspectives and

Agency**

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The exploration of peoples in International Relations (IR) is a profound call to

reassess how we perceive the world and the agency attributed to diverse
actors. Veronique Pin-Fat challenges the dominance of Western-centric views,
urging us to embrace a more inclusive perspective. Tamara A. Trownsell builds
on this by advocating for a relational approach that recognizes the
interconnectedness of various actors, both state and non-state, in shaping
global events. Let's delve deeper into this paradigm shift, using examples to
elucidate the transformative impact.

### **Rethinking Perspectives: Beyond Western-Centrism**

Veronique Pin-Fat's call to rethink perspectives is a departure from the

traditional dominance of Western-centric viewpoints in IR. For example, in
examining the concept of development, Western-centric perspectives often
dictated the discourse, defining what progress and success meant. Pin-Fat
prompts us to consider diverse cultural, social, and economic perspectives that
challenge the universal applicability of Western models. Recognizing the
agency of non-Western nations in shaping their developmental paths is crucial
for a more equitable and inclusive global order.

### **Embracing Diverse Voices: Amplifying Marginalized Narratives**

The encouragement to embrace diverse perspectives extends to amplifying

voices often sidelined in traditional IR discussions. For instance, indigenous
communities, despite being directly impacted by global events, have
historically had limited representation in international forums. Pin-Fat's
proposition invites us to acknowledge the agency of these communities and
include their knowledge systems in shaping policies related to issues like
environmental conservation and sustainable development.

### **Relational Approach: Interconnected Actors in Global Dynamics**

Tamara A. Trownsell's call for a relational approach emphasizes understanding

how different actors, both states and non-state entities, are interconnected in
shaping global events. In the context of environmental issues, consider the
relationship between states and transnational environmental organizations. A
relational approach recognizes that states alone cannot address global
challenges like climate change. Collaboration with non-state actors becomes

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essential, emphasizing the interconnectedness of various entities in achieving

meaningful outcomes.

### **Networks of Influence: Beyond State-Centric Power Dynamics**

The relational approach challenges the conventional state-centric power

dynamics by acknowledging the influence of non-state entities. In the realm of
human rights, global NGOs play a pivotal role in holding states accountable for
their actions. Trownsell's advocacy for a relational approach prompts us to
recognize the power dynamics within these networks. NGOs can influence
state policies, demonstrating the transformative agency that non-state actors
wield on the global stage.

### **Implications for Diplomacy: Inclusive and Collaborative Practices**

Rethinking agency and adopting a relational perspective have profound

implications for diplomatic practices. In trade negotiations, for instance,
recognizing the agency of smaller economies and non-state actors can lead to
more inclusive agreements. This shift from a strictly state-centric approach to a
more relational one encourages collaborative practices that consider the
diverse interests and perspectives of all involved parties.

### **Conclusion: A Paradigm Shift Towards Inclusivity**

In conclusion, the call to rethink perspectives and agency in peoples' role in IR

is a paradigm shift towards inclusivity. Pin-Fat's challenge to Western-centric
views and Trownsell's call for a relational approach open doors to a more
diverse and equitable understanding of global dynamics. Embracing this shift
not only recognizes the agency of traditionally marginalized actors but also
fosters collaborative efforts in addressing global challenges. It is an invitation
to view international relations as a complex web of interconnected actors,
each contributing to the shaping of our shared global narrative.

**Histories in International Relations: A Tapestry of Narratives and

Temporalities**

The exploration of histories in International Relations (IR) is akin to navigating

through a rich tapestry of narratives and temporalities. It involves unraveling
diverse stories that shape the intricate web of global interactions. Let's delve

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deeper into this concept, drawing insights from Trownsell, Tickner, Querejazu,
Reddekop, Shani, Shimizu, Behera, and Arian, and enrich our understanding
with examples.

### **Diverse Narratives: Recognizing Multifaceted Perspectives**

Histories in IR are not singular, linear narratives. Instead, they are a mosaic of
diverse perspectives that reflect the experiences and interpretations of various
actors on the global stage. For instance, consider the narrative surrounding the
Cold War. From the Western perspective, it might be framed as a struggle for
freedom against communism, while from the Eastern perspective, it could be
seen as a fight against imperialist aggression. Acknowledging these diverse
narratives is crucial in understanding how different nations perceive and
position themselves in the world.

### **Temporal Complexity: Beyond Chronological Sequences**

Temporalities in IR extend beyond a simple chronological sequence of events.

The temporal dimension involves understanding the interconnectedness of
historical events and their lasting impacts. Take the example of colonial
histories. The colonization of certain regions continues to shape economic,
social, and political dynamics in the present. Acknowledging this temporal
complexity is vital in comprehending contemporary issues rooted in historical
injustices.

### **The Interplay of Stories: Shaping International Interactions**

Histories, as highlighted by these scholars, are not isolated accounts but an

interplay of stories. For instance, consider the narratives surrounding
decolonization. The stories of newly independent nations forging their paths
post-colonialism are intertwined with the narratives of former colonial powers
adjusting to a changing global order. This interplay influences diplomatic
relations, economic ties, and cultural exchanges, emphasizing the dynamic
nature of historical narratives in shaping international interactions.

### **Acknowledging and Respecting Perspectives: A Necessity in IR**

The scholars emphasize the importance of acknowledging and respecting these

different historical perspectives. In the context of diplomatic relations,

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recognizing the historical grievances and triumphs of nations becomes crucial.

Ignoring or dismissing these narratives can lead to misunderstandings,
conflicts, or missed opportunities for cooperation. For instance, acknowledging
the historical context of territorial disputes allows for more nuanced
diplomatic negotiations.

### **A Shift from Eurocentrism: Embracing Global Narratives**

The call to recognize and respect diverse historical perspectives also entails a
shift from Eurocentrism. Eurocentric narratives often dominated early
accounts of world history, sidelining the experiences and contributions of non-
Western civilizations. By embracing global narratives, IR moves towards a more
inclusive and equitable understanding, acknowledging the agency and
significance of all actors on the world stage.

In essence, understanding histories in IR involves embracing the richness of

diverse narratives and acknowledging the temporal complexity that shapes
global dynamics. It's about recognizing that each nation, community, and
civilization contributes a unique thread to the tapestry of world history. By
navigating through these narratives with sensitivity and respect, IR
practitioners gain a more profound insight into the complexities and nuances
of international interactions.

**Civilizations in International Relations: Embracing Diversity and

Interconnected Worldviews**

Giorgio Shani's introduction of the concept of inter-cosmological relations

challenges us to recognize and respect the diverse worldviews that different
civilizations contribute to the global stage. This intricate term underscores the
importance of understanding that each civilization has its unique way of
perceiving and engaging with the world. Embracing this diversity becomes a
crucial aspect of fostering meaningful interactions and cooperation in
international relations. Let's delve deeper into this concept, elucidating its
nuances with examples.

### **Inter-Cosmological Relations: Grasping Diverse Worldviews**

The term "inter-cosmological relations" requires an exploration of how

different civilizations conceptualize the cosmos, both metaphorically and

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literally. It's an invitation to move beyond a Eurocentric understanding of the

world and recognize that diverse civilizations bring their unique cosmologies,
belief systems, and ways of organizing societies to the global arena.

### **Respecting Cultural Diversity: A Pillar of Global Cooperation**

One example that illustrates the significance of inter-cosmological relations is

the approach to diplomacy. Western-centric diplomatic practices may prioritize
formal treaties and legal frameworks, often sidelining the importance of
cultural nuances. Shani's concept prompts us to recognize that civilizations
with different cosmologies may prioritize informal networks, cultural
exchanges, and shared values in their diplomatic endeavors. Respect for these
diverse approaches becomes essential for fostering meaningful global
cooperation.

### **Understanding Conflict Resolution: Cultural Sensitivity in Practice**

In the realm of conflict resolution, inter-cosmological relations highlight the

importance of cultural sensitivity. For instance, traditional Western models of
mediation may focus on legal frameworks and rights-based approaches.
Shani's concept suggests that civilizations with alternative cosmologies may
prioritize community-based reconciliation, acknowledging the
interconnectedness of individuals within a broader societal context. Embracing
these diverse approaches becomes crucial for successful conflict resolution.

### **Trade and Economic Relations: Harmonizing Different Approaches**

Economic interactions between civilizations provide another lens through

which inter-cosmological relations can be understood. Western economic
models may prioritize individual profit and market competition. Shani's
concept encourages us to recognize that other civilizations may prioritize
collective well-being, sustainable practices, or alternative economic structures
rooted in their cosmological beliefs. Harmonizing these different approaches
becomes essential for fostering a global economic system that respects diverse
worldviews.

### **The Role of International Organizations: Integrating Cultural

Perspectives**

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International organizations often play a pivotal role in shaping global norms

and policies. Shani's concept challenges these organizations to integrate
cultural perspectives into their frameworks. For instance, environmental
policies that consider indigenous cosmologies may be more effective in
addressing ecological challenges. This integration acknowledges the
interconnectedness of human societies and the environment, reflecting a more
holistic understanding rooted in diverse worldviews.

### **Cultural Diplomacy: Building Bridges Across Civilizations**

Cultural diplomacy takes center stage in the context of inter-cosmological

relations. Instead of imposing a singular cultural narrative, Shani's concept
encourages nations to engage in cultural exchanges that respect and celebrate
diversity. This approach fosters mutual understanding, reduces cultural
misunderstandings, and builds bridges across civilizations.

### **Conclusion: Navigating a Complex and Interconnected World**

In conclusion, embracing inter-cosmological relations in international relations

is about navigating the complexities of a diverse and interconnected world.
Giorgio Shani's concept urges us to move beyond a one-size-fits-all approach
and appreciate the richness that different civilizations bring to the global stage.
Whether in diplomacy, conflict resolution, trade, or cultural exchange,
recognizing and respecting diverse worldviews become imperative for
fostering a harmonious and cooperative international community. It's an
acknowledgment that our global tapestry is woven from threads of various
colors, each contributing to the vibrant and intricate mosaic of human
civilization.

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UNIT 2- STATES, NATIONS AND MARKETS

2.1 State and Diffusion of authority/power

2.2 Nations and Nationalism

2.3 States and Markets

### 2.1 State and Diffusion of Authority/Power

#### Introduction:

The evolving nature of the State in International Relations requires an in-depth

exploration of the diffusion of authority and power. Shibashish Chatterjee,
David Held, and Susan Strange contribute unique perspectives to this
discourse.

The nature of the state in international relations has evolved significantly over
time. Historically, the Westphalian system established in the 17th century
emphasized the sovereignty of states, concentrating authority and power
within defined borders. However, with globalization and technological
advancements, the diffusion of authority and power has become evident.

In the contemporary context of international relations (IR), states now contend

with a complex web of interdependence. Global challenges such as climate
change, terrorism, and pandemics necessitate collaborative efforts, leading to
the sharing of authority through international organizations and treaties. The
rise of non-state actors, such as multinational corporations and NGOs, further
contributes to the diffusion of power beyond traditional state boundaries.

Additionally, the information age has empowered individuals and subnational

entities, challenging the exclusive authority of states. Social media and
communication technologies enable grassroots movements to shape
narratives and influence global affairs, altering power dynamics in the
international system.

In summary, the evolution of the state in IR reflects a shift from a rigid,

Westphalian model to a more interconnected and interdependent system,

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where authority and power are diffused among states, international

organizations, non-state actors, and even individuals.

**Shibashish Chatterjee:**

Chatterjee's 'Reconsidering the State in International Relations' challenges

conventional views, advocating for a nuanced understanding of the State in the
contemporary global landscape. He prompts a re-evaluation of the State's role
beyond traditional borders.

**David Held:**

In 'The Territorial State and Global Politics,' Held explores the

interconnectedness between the territorial State and global dynamics. He
emphasizes the challenges posed by globalization, impacting the State's role in
maintaining traditional structures.

**Susan Strange:**

'State of the State' by Strange delves into the changing dynamics of the State in
the world economy. She explores how power diffuses beyond conventional
boundaries, influencing global governance structures.

#### Examples:

1. **Globalization Impact:**

- The rise of global issues, such as climate change and pandemics, challenges
the conventional role of the State, necessitating international cooperation.

2. **Transnational Actors:**

- Non-state actors, including multinational corporations and international

organizations, now exert substantial influence over state affairs, altering power
dynamics.

3. **Shift in Power Dynamics:**

- The diffusion of power requires a re-evaluation of state sovereignty, as both

state and non-state actors play pivotal roles in addressing global challenges.

#### Key Points:

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- The State's role is no longer confined to national borders.

- Power diffusion necessitates a re-evaluation of state sovereignty.

- Global challenges require collaborative state and non-state responses for

effective governance.

### 2.2 Nations and Nationalism

#### Introduction:

This section explores the profound impact of nations and nationalism on

international relations. Contributions from Andrew Heywood, Michael J.
Shapiro, Elena Barabantseva, and Sanjay Chaturvedi provide a comprehensive
understanding.

Nations and nationalism play a profound role in shaping international relations

(IR), influencing both the behaviour of states and the dynamics of the global
system.

1. *State Identity and Behaviour:* Nationalism, rooted in a sense of shared

identity and culture, often drives a state's foreign policy. Nationalistic
sentiments can lead to assertive or defensive actions, impacting diplomatic
relations, territorial claims, and even the willingness to engage in conflicts.

2. *Conflict and Cooperation:* Nationalism has historically been a catalyst for

both conflict and cooperation. On one hand, it can fuel tensions and conflicts
as states pursue national interests and defend perceived threats to their
identity. On the other hand, shared national identities can also foster alliances
and cooperative efforts among states with similar values and goals.

3. *Formation of States and Borders:* Nationalism has played a key role in the
formation of states and the delineation of borders. The desire for self-
determination and the establishment of a nation-state has led to the
redrawing of maps and, at times, to secessionist movements seeking
independence.

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4. *International Organizations:* Nations come together in international

organizations, where their interactions are influenced by national interests and
identity. These organizations serve as platforms for diplomatic negotiations,
economic cooperation, and the development of international norms and rules.

5. *Globalization and National Identity:* The process of globalization has

brought both challenges and opportunities for nations. While it promotes
interconnectedness, it can also trigger concerns about the erosion of national
identity and sovereignty. States grapple with balancing the benefits of global
cooperation with the preservation of their unique cultural and political
characteristics.

6. *National Security:* Nationalism often underpins a state's approach to

national security. The perception of external threats can shape defense
policies, military strategies, and alliances. Nationalist rhetoric can be used to
mobilize support for security measures and build a sense of unity in the face of
perceived dangers.

In conclusion, nations and nationalism significantly shape the landscape of

international relations by influencing state behavior, fostering cooperation or
conflict, and contributing to the formation of global norms and institutions.
Understanding the role of nations and nationalism is essential for
comprehending the motivations and actions of states in the complex arena of
international relations.

**Andrew Heywood:**

'Nations and Nationalism' by Heywood delves into the foundations of nations

and their role in shaping global politics. He explores the intricate relationship
between national identity and international affairs.

**Michael J. Shapiro:**

In 'Does the nation-state work?,' Shapiro critically questions the effectiveness

of the nation-state in addressing contemporary challenges. He challenges the
conventional wisdom surrounding state-centric governance.

**Elena Barabantseva:**

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Barabantseva's 'How do people come to identify with nations?' focuses on the

psychological and social aspects of national identity. It examines how
individuals connect with the broader concept of the nation.

**Sanjay Chaturvedi:**

Chaturvedi's 'Indian Geo-politics' provides a contextual understanding of how

the colonial legacy influences the nation-state in India, shaping its identity and
international interactions.

#### Examples:

1. **Brexit and National Identity:**

- The Brexit phenomenon reflects the resurgence of nationalism, impacting

the dynamics of international organizations like the European Union.

2. **Nationalism in Asia:**

- The rise of nationalist sentiments in Asian countries significantly influences

regional geopolitics and international relations.

3. **Colonial Legacy:**

- Post-colonial nations grapple with the legacy of colonialism, shaping their

national identity and global engagement.

#### Key Points:

- Nations and nationalism contribute to identity formation.

- The resurgence of nationalism influences state behavior in international

affairs.

- Colonial history shapes the narratives of post-colonial nations, impacting their

global interactions.

### 2.3 States and Markets

#### Introduction:

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This section explores the intricate connection between states and markets in
the contemporary global order. Insights from Lavanya Rajamani, David Held,
Matthew Watson, and additional readings contribute to understanding this
dynamic interplay.

**Interconnection between States and Markets in International Relations**

The interconnection between states and markets is a fundamental aspect of

international relations, shaping the dynamics of global politics, economics, and
society. This intricate relationship involves a complex interplay of political,
economic, and social forces, influencing the behavior of both states and
market actors. Understanding this interconnection is crucial for
comprehending contemporary global affairs.

**1. Economic Globalization:**

One of the primary manifestations of the interconnection between states and

markets is economic globalization. The unprecedented flow of goods, services,
and capital across borders has transformed the world into an interconnected
economic system. States actively participate in global markets, facilitating
trade, investment, and economic cooperation. The liberalization of markets,
often guided by state policies, has accelerated economic interdependence.

**2. States as Economic Actors:**

States have evolved into significant economic actors, wielding influence over
markets through regulatory frameworks, fiscal policies, and trade agreements.
Governments formulate economic policies to enhance competitiveness, attract
foreign investments, and ensure the stability of their national economies.
Conversely, market forces influence state policies, compelling adaptations to
global economic trends and demands.

**3. International Economic Order:**

The interconnection extends to the establishment of an international

economic order. Institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World
Trade Organization (WTO), and World Bank exemplify the collaboration
between states to create a framework for global economic governance. These

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institutions influence market dynamics and contribute to shaping the rules of

the international economic system.

**4. Capitalism and Socialism:**

Ideological choices made by states further underline the interconnection. The

prevalence of capitalism or socialism as dominant economic ideologies
significantly impacts the functioning of markets. States adopting capitalist
approaches emphasize free-market mechanisms, while socialist-oriented
states may intervene more extensively in economic activities.

**5. Globalization After the Cold War:**

The end of the Cold War marked a crucial turning point in the interconnection
between states and markets. With the victory of capitalism over socialism, a
wave of globalization ensued. States embraced market-oriented reforms,
leading to the integration of national economies into the global market. This
transformation influenced not only economic structures but also the
geopolitical landscape.

**6. Institutionalization and Unified Global Market:**

The institutionalization of global economic mechanisms has strengthened the

interconnection. States collaborate to create a unified global market with
standardized regulations. Treaties and agreements facilitate cross-border
transactions, contributing to a seamless integration of markets on a global
scale. The merit-based system guides interactions within this interconnected
economic framework.

**7. Challenges and Impacts:**

While the interconnection brings about numerous benefits such as increased

economic opportunities and technological advancements, it also poses
challenges. States often find themselves in a delicate position between the
demands of the market and societal expectations. Market cultures can lead to
chronic capitalism, influencing states in social, cultural, economic, health, and
psychological dimensions.

**8. Reviewing State Sovereignty:**

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The interconnection between states and markets prompts a reconsideration of

state sovereignty. States, once considered sovereign entities, now navigate a
complex web of global market forces. The rule of the market, while promoting
economic growth, also poses a challenge to the autonomy and sovereignty of
states.

In conclusion, the interconnection between states and markets is a defining

feature of contemporary international relations. This intricate relationship
shapes economic policies, geopolitical strategies, and the overall trajectory of
global affairs. Recognizing the interdependence between states and markets is
essential for addressing the challenges and opportunities presented by an
increasingly interconnected world.

**Lavanya Rajamani:**

Rajamani's work on the 'Principle of Common But Differentiated

Responsibilities' examines the legal aspects of states' roles in the international
climate change regime. She discusses how global issues necessitate
collaborative efforts from states.

**David Held:**

'Corporate Power and Global Production Networks' by Held scrutinizes the

influence of corporate power on global economic structures. It outlines the
entwined nature of states and markets in shaping international economic
systems.

**Matthew Watson:**

Watson's insights in 'Understanding the State within Modern Society' and

'Understanding the Market within Modern Society' provide a theoretical
framework for analyzing the state-market relationship. He explores the
evolving roles of states and markets in contemporary society.

#### Examples:

1. **Climate Change Agreements:**

- The involvement of states in international climate change agreements

reflects shared responsibilities, emphasizing collaborative global governance.

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2. **Global Production Networks:**

- Corporate influence in global production networks highlights the

interconnected nature of states and markets, influencing state policies and
international economic structures.

3. **The World is Flat:**

- Thomas L. Friedman's 'The World is Flat' illustrates the impact of

globalization on state-market interactions, shaping a new paradigm of
interconnected economies.

#### Key Points:

- States navigate a complex landscape influenced by economic globalization.

- Corporate power shapes global production and influences state policies.

- The role of states is evolving in response to changing market dynamics,

necessitating adaptive governance structures.

### General Conclusion:

The intricate interconnection of states and markets, coupled with evolving

notions of national identity and the diffusion of state authority, reflects the
complex nature of international relations. The traditional roles of states are
being redefined, necessitating a nuanced understanding of the intricate
dynamics at play in the global arena. This comprehensive overview integrates
diverse perspectives from the provided readings, offering a broad
understanding of the relationships among states, nations, and markets in the
context of international relations.

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UNIT 3- INEQUALITIES
3.1 Politico-military inequalities: big states, small states

3.2 Economic inequalities: rich states, poor states

3.3 Climate Change: Global commons and differentiated responsibilities

READINGS: Mohammad Ayoob, ‘Inequality and Theorizing in International Relations: The Case for
Subaltern Realism,’ International Studies review, 4:3, 2002, pp. 27-48.

International Inequalities: A Multifaceted Examination

The concept of international inequalities within the field of International

Relations (IR) encompasses a broad spectrum of disparities that exist on a
global scale. These inequalities manifest in various dimensions, including
economic, political, and social arenas. A nuanced understanding of this
complex phenomenon requires a departure from traditional realist
perspectives, as argued by Mohammad Ayoob in his seminal work, "Inequality
and Theorizing in International Relations: The Case for Subaltern Realism."

*Traditional realist theories within IR have historically centered on major states

and their power dynamics, often sidelining the experiences of marginalized or
subaltern actors.* In this context, "Subaltern Realism" emerges as a theoretical
framework proposed by Ayoob to address the limitations of conventional
perspectives. The term "subaltern" refers to those in a subordinate or
marginalized position, and Ayoob contends that these actors are often
excluded from the narrative, leading to an incomplete comprehension of
global politics.

**Dimensions of Inequality:

*1. Economic Disparities:*

At the core of international inequalities are economic disparities between

developed and developing nations. Ayoob argues that a myopic focus on major
states fails to capture the economic struggles faced by less powerful actors on

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the global stage. The uneven distribution of resources, often rooted in

historical processes like colonialism, contributes significantly to enduring
economic imbalances.

*2. Power Structures:*

Traditional IR theories tend to reinforce unequal power structures,

concentrating on the actions of powerful states. Ayoob's Subaltern Realism
challenges this by emphasizing the importance of considering non-state actors,
such as subaltern states and transnational movements, in the analysis. Failure
to do so perpetuates a distorted representation of global power dynamics.

*3. Marginalization in Decision-Making:*

Another dimension of international inequality lies in the marginalization of

certain states in global decision-making processes. Ayoob contends that the
exclusion of subaltern actors from these forums further entrenches systemic
disparities. Subaltern Realism advocates for a more inclusive approach that
recognizes the agency of these actors in shaping global governance.

**The Subaltern Realism Framework:**

*1. Non-State Actors:*

Ayoob's Subaltern Realism introduces the crucial concept of non-state actors.

By acknowledging the agency of subaltern states, ethnic groups, and
transnational movements, this framework seeks to provide a more
comprehensive understanding of global politics. These actors, often
marginalized in traditional perspectives, play vital roles in shaping international
relations.

*2. Historical Context:*

Ayoob underscores the importance of historical context in unraveling the

intricacies of international inequalities. The legacy of colonialism and historical
processes has left lasting imprints on global power structures. A Subaltern
Realism approach demands an examination of historical injustices to
comprehend the roots of contemporary disparities.

**Policy Implications:**

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*1. Inclusive Policies:*

Subaltern Realism advocates for policies that consider the perspectives and
interests of subaltern groups. Crafting inclusive policies that address the
concerns of marginalized actors becomes imperative for dismantling existing
power imbalances and fostering a more equitable global order.

In essence, international inequalities represent a multifaceted challenge that

extends beyond the traditional purview of major states. Ayoob's Subaltern
Realism offers a transformative lens through which to view global politics,
calling for a more inclusive analysis that incorporates the experiences of
subaltern actors. This nuanced understanding is crucial for formulating
effective policies that strive towards a more equitable international system,
where the diverse voices and concerns of all actors are acknowledged and
addressed.

3.1 Politico-military inequalities: big states, small states

READINGS : Joao Pontes Nogueira, “Inequality,” in Arlene B, Tickner and Karen Smith (eds.),
International Relations from the Global South: World of Difference, New York: Routledge, 2020, pp.
240- 255. Paul Cammack, “Why are Some People Better off than Others,” in Jenny Edkins and Maja
Zehfuss (eds.), Global Politics: A New Introduction, New York: Routledge, 2008, pp. 405-428.

*Understanding Historical Context and Vulnerabilities:*

The historical backdrop forms the foundation for comprehending politico-

military inequalities. Nogueira's exploration of inequality underscores how
historical vulnerabilities shape contemporary international relations. Some
nations, bearing the scars of past conflicts, find themselves more vulnerable,
with enduring impacts on their political and military capabilities. For instance,
consider the case of countries in the Global South that have experienced
colonial exploitation and wars, such as those in Africa. The legacies of
colonization and protracted conflicts have left these nations in a position of
relative weakness in the global political arena.

*Evolving Dynamics: From War to Peace:*

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The transition from historical states of war to periods of peace introduces a

transformative dynamic with far-reaching consequences. Cammack's analysis
on why some nations are better off comes to the forefront in understanding
the socio-economic implications of such transitions. Post-war Japan serves as a
compelling example. Following World War II, Japan underwent a remarkable
shift from a war-torn state to an economic powerhouse. This transition not
only altered its military posture but also catapulted it into a position of
influence in global economic affairs.

*Post-War Treaties, Alliances, and Nuclear Deterrence:*

The aftermath of major global conflicts, notably the post-World War II and
Cold War era, witnessed the establishment of treaties and alliances that
significantly shaped politico-military dynamics. Nogueira's examination of
inequality provides insights into how these geopolitical arrangements
contribute to shaping power differentials. The North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) is a pertinent example. Formed in the aftermath of World
War II, NATO's alliance of major Western powers significantly influenced the
global power structure during the Cold War.

Moreover, the readings underscore the role of nuclear weapons as a

deterrence mechanism, introducing the concept of mutually assured
destruction (MAD) into the global power play. The Cold War standoff between
the United States and the Soviet Union exemplifies the application of nuclear
deterrence. The possession of nuclear capabilities by these major powers acted
as a deterrent, preventing direct military confrontation due to the catastrophic
consequences anticipated through MAD.

*Defense Forces and International Relations:*

Both readings emphasize the integral role of defense forces within a state,
shaping international relations and contributing to global power inequalities.
Nogueira's analysis may provide insights into how the militarization of states
contributes to international inequalities. A pertinent example is the United
States' unparalleled military strength. With an extensive defense budget and a
formidable military apparatus, the U.S. wields substantial influence in shaping
global political and economic agendas.

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Cammack's exploration of global politics may illuminate how states with robust
defense capabilities navigate the global hierarchy and exert influence on the
international stage. China's ascendance in recent decades exemplifies this
phenomenon. Through significant investments in its military capabilities, China
has bolstered its position as a major global player, challenging traditional
power dynamics and contributing to the evolving landscape of politico-military
inequalities.

*United Nations Peacekeeping and Global Security:*

The readings prompt an examination of UN peacekeeping forces as part of the

discussion on politico-military inequalities. Nogueira's insights into global
inequalities could be extended to consider how the deployment of UN forces
impacts the geopolitical landscape, particularly in regions marked by historical
conflicts. An illustrative case is the United Nations peacekeeping mission in
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Following the Bosnian War, UN peacekeepers were
deployed to maintain stability and facilitate the transition to peace. This
example showcases how international intervention through peacekeeping
efforts seeks to address politico-military imbalances in post-conflict regions.

*Political Objectives, Ideological Purposes, and Economic Interests:*

The multifaceted uses of defense forces in the post-war period, as outlined in

the readings, encompass political objectives, ideological purposes, and the
safeguarding of economic interests. Cammack's exploration into why some
nations are better off could be interlinked with these aspects, providing
nuanced insights into how military capabilities align with broader national
objectives.

Consider the case of the United States' military interventions in the Middle
East. Beyond geopolitical considerations, these interventions were driven by
political objectives related to regional stability, ideological purposes such as
the promotion of democracy, and the safeguarding of economic interests tied
to the region's energy resources. This complex interplay of factors illustrates
how defense forces serve as instruments not only of national security but also
of broader geopolitical, ideological, and economic objectives.

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In conclusion, the intersection of politico-military inequalities, historical

legacies, and contemporary geopolitical dynamics forms a complex tapestry
within international relations. Nogueira's insights into inequality and
Cammack's exploration of global politics offer a comprehensive understanding
that encapsulates the historical impact of wars, the transformative shift from
conflict to peace, the role of treaties and alliances, the specter of nuclear
deterrence, and the intricate relationship between defense forces and the
broader objectives of states. As the global community grapples with these
complexities, a deeper comprehension of politico-military inequalities
becomes essential for forging a more equitable and secure international order.

3.2 Economic inequalities: rich states, poor states

READINGS: Amartya Sen, “Capabilities and Resources,” in The Idea of Justice, New York: Penguin
Books, 2009, pp. 253-268. Amartya Sen, “Measures of Inequality,” in On Economic Inequality, New
York: Clarendon Press Oxford, 1997, pp. 24-46.

Economic inequalities between states constitute a defining aspect of the

contemporary international landscape, intricately woven into the fabric of
historical legacies, geopolitical dynamics, and economic systems. Drawing
insights from Amartya Sen's pivotal works—“Capabilities and Resources” in
*The Idea of Justice* and “Measures of Inequality” in *On Economic
Inequality*—this exploration seeks to unravel the complex tapestry of
economic disparities across the globe.

**Root Causes and Widespread Consequences:**

Economic inequalities among states find their roots in historical, political, and
economic intricacies. Sen's exploration of capabilities and resources provides a
lens to discern how differential access to essential resources shapes the
trajectories of state development. These inequalities have widespread
consequences, perpetuating cycles of disadvantage for poorer states,
hindering poverty alleviation, education, and healthcare, and amplifying social
inequalities both within and between nations.

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**Two Distinct Narratives: Global Power Dynamics and the Global South's
Agenda:**

At the heart of economic inequalities lie two narratives that shape the global
economic order. The first narrative revolves around global power dynamics,
where major players engage in a perpetual economic competition, often
wielding influence over international economic institutions. Developed
nations, guided by self-interest, contribute to the maintenance of an unequal
global economic structure that reinforces their prosperity.

Contrastingly, the agenda of the Global South represents a counter-narrative.

Sen's exploration of measures of inequality sheds light on the struggles of
developing nations to break free from economic disparity. The Global South
seeks reforms in international economic institutions, fair trade practices, and
resource redistribution to address historical injustices and pave the way for
more equitable global economic structures.

**Globalization: A Double-Edged Sword:**

Globalization, a defining feature of the modern era, plays a pivotal role in

shaping economic inequalities. The interconnectedness of economies
facilitates the flow of goods, capital, and information. However, the benefits of
globalization are unevenly distributed. Sen's insights into measures of
inequality can be applied to understand how globalization, while offering
opportunities for economic growth, simultaneously exacerbates existing
economic disparities.

Developed nations, leveraging technological prowess and economic might, are

better positioned to capitalize on globalization's opportunities. In contrast,
developing nations may struggle to navigate the complexities of the global
market, contributing to widening economic gaps. The intricate relationship
between globalization and economic inequalities underscores the need for a
more inclusive and equitable global economic framework.

**Capitalist Systems: Driving Growth, Fostering Inequality:**

The capitalist system, a dominant force in global economic affairs, both

catalyzes growth and fosters inequality. Sen's examination of capabilities and
resources can be extended to analyze how the capitalist system, driven by

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profit motives, contributes to economic disparities. Inherent within capitalism

are mechanisms that concentrate wealth among the already affluent,
perpetuating a cycle of advantage.

Furthermore, the environmental exploitation integral to capitalist pursuits

entrenches economic inequalities. Sen's exploration of measures of inequality
offers a lens to scrutinize how environmental degradation disproportionately
affects the economic well-being of poorer states. The costs of industrialization
and economic growth are often borne by developing nations, contributing to a
cycle of poverty and environmental degradation.

**Navigating the Complex Landscape: Actors, Factors, and Real-world

Examples:**

To illustrate these points, consider the case of Sub-Saharan African nations.

Historically subjected to colonization and resource extraction, these countries
face enduring economic challenges. Developed nations, pursuing their
interests in the superpower game, exploit Africa's resources for economic gain,
perpetuating a cycle of economic dependence.

Conversely, the agenda of the Global South is manifest in movements and

alliances advocating for fair trade practices and debt relief. Organizations like
the G77 and the Non-Aligned Movement exemplify collective efforts by
developing nations to reshape the global economic order.

Globalization's impact is exemplified in the economic rise of Asian countries,

particularly China. While China has leveraged globalization to become an
economic powerhouse, questions of labor exploitation and trade imbalances
persist, reflecting the complexities of economic integration.

The capitalist system's role in perpetuating economic disparities is evident in

the income inequality within developed nations like the United States. Despite
overall economic growth, wealth concentration among the affluent
exacerbates social and economic divides.

**In Conclusion:**

In conclusion, economic inequalities between rich and poor states are a

multifaceted phenomenon deeply embedded in historical legacies, geopolitical

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power dynamics, and economic systems. Amartya Sen's insights into

capabilities and resources, measures of inequality, and broader issues of
justice provide a comprehensive framework to understand the causes and
consequences of these disparities. The narratives of the superpower game and
the agenda of the Global South shape the global economic landscape, while
globalization, the capitalist system, and environmental exploitation contribute
to the intricate web of economic inequalities. Examining real-world examples
demonstrates how these dynamics manifest in the global arena. As the world
grapples with the imperative of creating a more equitable economic order,
Sen's work serves as a guiding beacon for understanding and addressing the
multifaceted dimensions of economic inequalities.

3.3 Climate Change: Global commons and differentiated

responsibilities
READINGS: A. Damodaran, ‘Encircling the Seamless- India, Climate Change, and the Global
Commons,’ Oxford University Press, 2010, India. Chapters 1 and 2. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Chapter 7 on
‘Anthropocene Time,” in The Climate of History in a Planetary Age,’ University of Chicago Press
London, 2021, pp. 155-181.

Climate change stands at the forefront of the most critical questions facing
humanity today—an inquiry into our very survival. The discourse surrounding
climate change encompasses a complex web of natural and anthropogenic
causes, entangled with economic structures, political maneuvering, and the
shared responsibility of nations in the global commons. In this exploration,
drawing insights from A. Damodaran's 'Encircling the Seamless' and Dipesh
Chakrabarty's 'The Climate of History in a Planetary Age,' we will delve into the
various stages of climate change awareness, the blame game between
developed and developing countries, and the challenging dynamics of crafting
an action plan amidst differing capacities and responsibilities.

**Understanding the Question of Survival:**

At its core, the issue of climate change presents the most crucial question of
our time: Can humanity collectively navigate the challenges posed by
environmental degradation and climate crisis to ensure its own survival? This

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question transcends national boundaries, socioeconomic disparities, and

political ideologies, demanding a unified global response.

**Causes of Climate Change: Natural and Anthropogenic:**

Climate change is a consequence of both natural processes and human

activities. Natural causes, such as volcanic eruptions and variations in solar
radiation, have been shaping the Earth's climate for millions of years. However,
in the Anthropocene era, human activities have become dominant
contributors, with capitalism emerging as a key driver. Unbridled
industrialization, deforestation, and the burning of fossil fuels have
significantly altered the composition of the Earth's atmosphere.

**Different Stages of Climate Change Awareness:**

The evolution of global consciousness on climate change can be delineated

through distinct stages:

1. **Denial to Environmental Issues:**

Initially, there was a pervasive denial of environmental issues, especially

regarding human-induced climate change. This phase witnessed a lack of
consensus and the dismissal of scientific warnings.

2. **Realization:**

The second stage marked a collective realization of the severity of climate

change. Scientific evidence became irrefutable, and global awareness began to
emerge, prompting a shift in public discourse and political agendas.

3. **Responsibility and Blame Game:**

As awareness grew, the question of responsibility surfaced. This stage

witnessed a blame game between developed and developing countries
regarding historical emissions, per capita contributions, and the equitable
distribution of the burdens of mitigation and adaptation.

4. **Delay:**

Despite increasing awareness, there was a significant delay in translating

knowledge into meaningful action. Economic interests, political inertia, and

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conflicting national priorities contributed to the procrastination in addressing

climate change.

5. **Action Plan:**

The current stage revolves around formulating and implementing

comprehensive action plans to mitigate the impacts of climate change. The
urgency is palpable, and nations are grappling with devising strategies that
balance environmental sustainability with economic growth.

6. **Who Pays for It:**

A central question in the current discourse is determining who bears the

financial burden of climate action. Not all countries possess the economic
capacity to invest in renewable and revolutionary technologies required for
sustainable development.

**Challenges Faced by Developing Countries:**

Developing countries find themselves caught in a complex web of challenges:

1. **Inability to Afford Renewable Technology:**

The adoption of renewable technologies, while essential for mitigating

climate change, poses a financial burden that many developing nations cannot
afford.

2. **Irreversibility of Growth:**

Developing countries often find themselves in a catch-22 situation. The

imperative to address climate change clashes with the need for economic
growth to uplift populations from poverty. Reversing established growth
trajectories becomes a formidable challenge.

**Disasters Driven by Faulty Economic Policies:**

Climate change-induced disasters are not merely acts of nature but often
rooted in faulty economic policies driven by a profit motive. Unsustainable
exploitation of natural resources, deforestation, and pollution are direct
consequences of prioritizing short-term economic gains over long-term
environmental stability.

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**Analyzing Climate Change from All Angles:**

To comprehend the intricacies of climate change, one must adopt a

multidimensional perspective:

1. **Social Dimensions:**

Climate change exacerbates existing social inequalities. Vulnerable

communities, often least responsible for greenhouse gas emissions, bear the
brunt of environmental degradation. Displacement, loss of livelihoods, and
unequal access to resources amplify social disparities.

2. **Political Considerations:**

The political landscape is shaped by the difficult choices states must make
between pro-poor policies, pro-environment initiatives, and pro-growth
strategies. The pressure on states, both from within and outside, creates a
challenging dynamic.

3. **Economic Impacts:**

Rapid urbanization and industrialization, driven by economic aspirations,

contribute to the pressure on the ecosystem. The unbridled pursuit of
economic growth, without adequate environmental safeguards, intensifies the
challenges posed by climate change.

4. **Cultural Values:**

The erosion of social and cultural values is an often-overlooked consequence

of climate change. Traditional ways of life, deeply connected to the
environment, face extinction as ecosystems degrade.

**Global Pressure and UN SDGs:**

The global community, recognizing the urgency of addressing climate change,

has outlined Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) under the United Nations.
These goals provide a roadmap for nations to balance economic development
with environmental sustainability, fostering a collective commitment to a more
equitable and sustainable future.

**Market Influence on Thinking:**

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The pervasive influence of the market extends beyond economic

considerations to shape the way we perceive and approach climate change.
The market, through advertising, media, and public discourse, controls
narratives, influencing public opinion and policy decisions.

**Present Examples of Climate Change Impacts:**

In the contemporary landscape, climate change impacts are starkly evident:

1. **Extreme Weather Events:**

The increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as

hurricanes, wildfires, and floods, underscore the immediate and tangible
consequences of climate change.

2. **Rising Sea Levels:**

Coastal areas face the imminent threat of rising sea levels, displacing
populations and causing irreparable damage to ecosystems.

3. **Loss of Biodiversity:**

The rapid loss of biodiversity, driven by habitat destruction and climate

change, poses long-term risks to ecosystems and human well-being.

**Conclusion:**

Climate change, as a challenge to the global commons, demands a nuanced

understanding that transcends national boundaries and ideological divides.
The differentiated responsibilities of nations, as elucidated by Damodaran and
Chakrabarty, reflect the complex interplay of historical legacies, economic
structures, and political considerations. As the world grapples with crafting
effective and equitable strategies to address climate change, the urgency of
the matter necessitates a collective reevaluation of societal values, economic
priorities, and political choices. The path forward involves navigating a delicate
balance between development, environmental sustainability, and social
justice—a task that requires collaborative efforts, shared responsibilities, and a
fundamental shift in the way we perceive and respond to the global climate
crisis.

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UNIT 4- SITES OF CONFLICT AND FORMS OF VIOLENCE

4.1 Changing Landscape/ Nature of Conflict

4.2 Forms of Violence

The exploration of sites of conflict and forms of violence within the realm of
international relations offers a nuanced understanding of the complex
dynamics shaping the global order. This comprehensive analysis will delve into
the changing nature of conflict, the various manifestations of violence, and
their implications on the international stage. Drawing insights from key
readings, including Arlene B. Tickner's "War and Conflict," Michael Dillon's
"What Makes the World Dangerous," Mary Kaldor's "In Defense of New Wars,"
Joanna Bourke's "Why Does Politics Turn into Violence?" and Anuradha M.
Chenoy's "Militarization, Conflict, and Women in South Asia," alongside
additional readings by Roland Bleiker and David Held, we aim to provide a
thorough exploration within the framework of international relations.

**I. Modern States: Post-World War Dynamics and National

Sovereignty**
A. **Post-World War Efforts: Ensuring Border Security and Sovereignty**

The aftermath of World Wars I and II witnessed a transformation in the

structure and priorities of modern states. Arlene B. Tickner's work, "War and
Conflict," provides valuable insights into the post-war efforts of states,
emphasizing the imperative of ensuring border security and asserting national
sovereignty. As nations sought to rebuild and recover, the focus shifted
towards safeguarding territorial integrity and national autonomy.

*Example: The formation of the European Union (EU) stands as a notable

example of states transcending traditional boundaries in pursuit of collective
security and economic stability.*

B. **Prioritizing National Sovereignty: Balancing Global Cooperation and

Autonomy**

Despite the increasing interdependence in the post-war era, states faced the
challenge of balancing global cooperation with the preservation of national

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sovereignty. The tension between participating in international frameworks

and safeguarding autonomy became a defining feature of modern statecraft.

*Example: The United Nations (UN) serves as a platform for global

cooperation, where states collaborate on various issues while respecting the
sovereignty of individual nations.*

C. **Nation-Building and Economic Development: Catalysts for Stability**

The nation-building process and economic development emerged as crucial

components for ensuring stability within states. Efforts were directed towards
internal consolidation, with an emphasis on fostering economic growth and
social cohesion as mechanisms to prevent internal conflict.

*Example: The Marshall Plan, designed to rebuild war-torn Europe, not only
facilitated economic recovery but also contributed to the stability of
participating nations.*

D. **Implosion: Local and Regional Issues Impacting International

Relations**

Contrary to the notion of state stability, the phenomenon of implosion gained

prominence as local or regional issues began to impact international relations.
Ethnic conflicts, disputes over rights, and cultural and regional issues started
exerting significant influence on the global stage, challenging the conventional
understanding of state sovereignty.

*Example: The Balkan conflicts in the 1990s demonstrated how local issues,
such as ethnic tensions, could escalate into international crises.*

**II. Cold War Dynamics: Battle of Nerves and Ideological

Struggles**
A. **Battle of Nerves: Psychological and Ideological Dimensions**

The Cold War era marked a paradigm shift in the nature of conflict,
characterized by a battle of nerves between major global powers. Michael
Dillon's exploration in "What Makes the World Dangerous" sheds light on the

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psychological and ideological struggles that defined this period. The

superpowers engaged in a protracted struggle for ideological dominance, with
global consequences.

*Example: The Cuban Missile Crisis exemplifies the intensity of the

psychological and ideological battles during the Cold War, as the world
teetered on the brink of nuclear conflict.*

B. **Global Democratic Framework: Human Rights and Fundamental

Freedoms**

In response to the ideological struggles of the Cold War, a global democratic

framework emerged. Mary Kaldor's work, "In Defense of New Wars,"
emphasizes the importance of human rights and fundamental freedoms as
central tenets of this framework. International efforts were directed towards
establishing norms that transcended ideological divides.

*Example: The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in

1948, reflects the global commitment to fundamental human rights
irrespective of ideological differences.*

C. **Shift from Conventional Sites of Conflict: Battlefield to Everywhere

Else**

The Cold War era witnessed a significant shift from conventional sites of
conflict, such as battlefields, to a more pervasive influence of ideological
struggles. Conflicts extended beyond physical borders to encompass various
facets of society, influencing political, economic, and cultural spheres.

*Example: The ideological competition between the U.S. and the Soviet Union
extended to space exploration, with the Space Race serving as a non-
traditional site of Cold War competition.*

**III. Contemporary Challenges: Beyond Conventional Fronts**

A. **Fight Over Resources: Anticipating the Next World War Over Water**

Contemporary challenges extend beyond traditional notions of conflict, with

resource scarcity emerging as a potential catalyst for future conflicts. The

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anticipation of the next world war over water raises questions about the
geopolitical implications of resource competition.

*Example: The dispute over the Nile River's waters between Egypt, Sudan, and
Ethiopia exemplifies how resource scarcity can lead to regional tensions.*

B. **Cyber Warfare: War in Virtual Space**

The evolution of conflict has embraced new frontiers, with cyber warfare
emerging as a potent tool in international relations. Roland Bleiker's work on
moving beyond conflict and the virtual realm of war poses unique challenges,
especially with the advent of technologies like deepfakes, raising questions
about the authenticity of information.

*Example: The Stuxnet cyber-attack on Iran's nuclear facilities exemplifies the

potential impact of cyber warfare on geopolitical dynamics.*

C. **Conflicts in Outer Space: Challenges Beyond Earth's Atmosphere**

The expansion of conflicts into outer space represents a new frontier in

international relations. Nations vie for dominance beyond Earth's atmosphere,
raising questions about the militarization of space and the potential for cosmic
confrontations.

*Example: The establishment of the United States Space Force illustrates the
growing recognition of outer space as a strategic domain for geopolitical
competition.*

D. **Different Levels of Conflict: Beyond Individual and State**

Contemporary conflicts manifest at various levels, extending beyond individual

actors and state entities. Issues like man vs. nature, man vs. outer space, and
man vs. the cyber world illustrate the multifaceted dimensions of conflict in
the 21st century.

*Example: Climate change, a manifestation of man vs. nature conflict, is a

global challenge requiring collective international efforts to address.*

**IV. Conclusion: Navigating the Complexities of Conflict and

Violence**

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In conclusion, the study of sites of conflict and forms of violence in

international relations spans a dynamic historical trajectory. From post-World
War efforts to ensure national sovereignty to the ideological struggles of the
Cold War and the contemporary challenges of cyber warfare and conflicts in
outer space, the landscape of international relations continues to evolve.
Understanding the multifaceted nature of conflicts, both conventional and
emerging, is paramount for navigating the complexities of the global order. As
the world grapples with resource scarcity, cyber threats, and challenges
beyond Earth's atmosphere, the need for nuanced diplomatic strategies and
international cooperation becomes increasingly evident. The dynamics of
conflict and violence serve as a crucial vantage point from which to analyze the
past, comprehend the present, and anticipate the challenges of the future in
the intricate web of international relations.

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UNIT 5- KNOWING OUR VIRTUAL AND CREATIVE WORLD:

THE VISUAL TURN IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
5.1 Internet

5.2 Museums

5.3 Cinemas

5.1 Internet

The global landscape has witnessed a transformative shift with the advent of
the internet, playing a pivotal role in reshaping various aspects of our lives and,
significantly, the realm of international relations (IR). As M.I. Franklin explores
in "How does the way we use the Internet make a difference?" and Jr. Harry M.
Cleaver delves into "The Zapatista Effect: The Internet and the Rise of an
Alternative Political Fabric," the internet's impact on IR is profound and multi-
faceted.

**Globalization and Technological Intervention:**

The rise of the internet has been synonymous with the process of
globalization, introducing path-breaking changes that have penetrated and
intervened in various facets of human existence. The technological revolution
brought about by the internet has not only connected people on a global scale
but has also altered the dynamics of international interactions.

**Internet's Multidimensional Impact:**

At the grassroots level, the internet has ushered in a multidimensional impact

encompassing social, political, and cultural dimensions. The ability of the
internet to interconnect people, states, and simultaneous global processes has
created a paradigm shift in the understanding of how the world operates.

**Technology as a Global Force:**

The internet has become a powerful force that transcends borders, influencing
global affairs in unprecedented ways. For instance, the 2001 demolition of the
Twin Towers in New York showcased how technology, particularly the internet,

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played a pivotal role in both the orchestration of the event and the subsequent
response by the global community.

**Economic Transformation:**

The internet has fundamentally changed the nature and character of economic
activities. From modern agricultural practices to knowledge dissemination, job
searches, and the functioning of common service centers providing internet
access, it has become an integral part of economic life globally.

**Internet's Role in Climate Change Mitigation:**

In the context of IR, the internet has emerged as a crucial tool for climate
change mitigation. From weather forecasting to disaster preparedness,
scientists, researchers, and technocrats rely on internet-driven data and
communication to address global environmental challenges.

**Challenges and Concerns:**

However, the transformative power of the internet also brings challenges,

particularly with the advent of artificial intelligence (AI) and deepfake
technologies. These pose threats ranging from job displacement to the
potential for malicious use, raising concerns about the impact of these
technologies on human civilization.

**Changing Nature of Politics:**

Politically, the internet has altered the nature and character of politics, giving
rise to global social movements that operate as parallel forces against state
policies. It has facilitated the dissemination of information, enabling collective
action on a global scale.

**Shifting Focus in IR:**

This evolution in communication technologies has shifted the focus in IR from

traditional international politics to a broader understanding of global politics.
Human security concerns are becoming indistinguishable from global security
concerns, emphasizing the interconnectedness of issues such as environmental
challenges, terrorism, and nuclear weapons.

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In conclusion, the internet's pervasive influence has not only transformed our
daily lives but has also redefined the contours of international relations. From
economic activities to political movements, the internet has emerged as a
force shaping the global landscape, bringing both opportunities and challenges
that demand thoughtful consideration within the realm of international
relations.

5.2 Museums

The intersection of international relations (IR) and the visual turn, particularly
in the context of museums, offers a unique lens through which we can
understand the intricate connections between history, politics, and the shaping
of national narratives. Christine Sylvester, in "Can International Relations and
Art/Museums Come Together," delves into this confluence, suggesting that
museums play a pivotal role in influencing perceptions and constructing
political discourses.

**Museums as Political Narratives:**

Museums, by their very nature, serve as repositories of history, offering

insights into the cultural and political tapestry of a nation. They become
powerful tools in shaping the imagination of a nation, particularly when
influenced by political agendas. For instance, in India, the rise of Hindutva-
based cultural revival has been associated with the idea of creating museums,
such as one in Ayodhya, to present a curated narrative of the country's past,
validating political and cultural ideologies.

**Shaping International Perceptions:**

The content and curation of museums extend beyond their national audience;
they actively contribute to shaping international perceptions. A well-curated
museum sends a deliberate message on an international level, influencing how
the world views a particular country. Museums thus become soft power tools,
fostering cultural diplomacy and shaping a positive image on the global stage.

**Museums as Instruments of Hyper-Nationalism:**

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However, this intersection of museums and politics is not without challenges.

Hyper-nationalism, often associated with far-right radical resurgence, can
manifest in the way museums are curated. An inward-looking policy, as
reflected in the museum's narrative, may contribute to a distorted and
exclusionary representation of history, emphasizing only specific aspects that
align with a particular political discourse.

**Impact on Academia and Research:**

Museums, despite their challenges, remain indispensable for academicians and

researchers. They provide a tangible connection to history, offering verifiable
facts and artifacts that contribute to a deeper understanding of civilizations.
The narratives within museums, when critically examined, offer valuable
insights into the socio-political context of a given period, enriching academic
discourse.

**Visual International Politics:**

Lene Hansen, Rebecca Adler-Nissen, and Katrine Emelie Andersen, in 'The

visual international politics of the European refugee crisis: Tragedy,
humanitarianism, borders,' highlight the contemporary relevance of visual
narratives, specifically in the context of the European refugee crisis. Visual
representations, including those within museums, become integral in framing
discussions on tragedy, humanitarianism, and borders, impacting how these
issues are perceived globally.

**Conclusion:**

In conclusion, the visual turn in international relations, as explored through the

lens of museums, underscores the profound impact of curated narratives on
national and international levels. Museums, while providing a rich resource for
academia and research, also become instruments for political messaging and
cultural diplomacy. Acknowledging the potential for both constructive and
problematic narratives within museums is crucial for fostering a nuanced
understanding of the complex relationship between art, museums, and
international relations.

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5.3 Cinemas

Cinemas play a profound role in shaping our understanding of the world,

influencing perceptions, and contributing to the realm of international
relations (IR). Cynthia Weber's exploration of the nexus between culture,
ideology, and myth function in IR theory emphasizes the importance of visual
mediums, including cinema, in constructing narratives.

**Cinema as a Reflection of Reality:**

Azmat Rasul and Mudassir Mukhtar, in their work on the 'Bollywoodization of

foreign policy,' highlight how cinema becomes a mirror reflecting the actual
reality of a country. For instance, the Pakistani state portrayed in films may
differ significantly from its geopolitical image. Cinemas and serials offer an
alternative lens through which audiences perceive their nation, often
challenging or subverting established narratives.

**Soft Power and National Perception:**

Cinemas, as discussed by Roland Bleiker in 'Visual Global Politics,' function as

soft power instruments. The ability of a country's cinema to resonate with
global audiences contributes to the creation of a mass perception, influencing
how a nation is viewed on the international stage. Bollywood, for example, has
played a crucial role in shaping the global perception of India, contributing to
its soft power diplomacy.

**Impact on International Relations:**

Cynthia Weber's case study on 'Modernization and Development theory' in the

context of the film 'East is East' provides insights into how cinema can engage
with IR theories. The clash of civilizations, as depicted in movies, can influence
public opinion and contribute to the framing of foreign policies. Cinemas,
through their storytelling, become part of the larger discourse on international
relations.

**Literary Works in Visual Form:**

Mirzoeff's exploration of 'Global Visual Cultures' broadens the understanding

of cinemas as literary works in visual form. They encapsulate narratives,
cultural nuances, and societal expressions, offering a unique lens through

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which viewers engage with complex issues. Cinemas become a form of visual
storytelling that transcends borders, providing a shared cultural experience
that can bridge gaps in understanding.

**Challenges and Opportunities:**

While cinema holds the potential to foster cross-cultural understanding, it also

poses challenges. Stereotypes perpetuated in movies can reinforce biases and
misconceptions, impacting diplomatic relations. The Bollywoodization of
foreign policy, as discussed by Rasul and Mukhtar, underscores the need for
critical engagement with cinematic narratives to avoid oversimplified
perspectives.

**Conclusion:**

In conclusion, the visual turn in international relations, as seen through the

lens of cinemas, demonstrates the multifaceted role of this visual medium.
Cinemas not only portray the actual realities of nations but also serve as
potent tools for soft power, influencing national and international perceptions.
Engaging with cinematic narratives becomes crucial for a nuanced
understanding of global issues, offering both challenges and opportunities in
the realm of international relations.

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