A BRIEF

INTRODUCTION
TO THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF DOCTRINE
According to the Mind of
St. Thomas Aquinas

Fr. Thomas Gilby, O.P.

Scholastic Answers Press

CONTENTS

Title Page
Foreword
Introduction 1
The General Problem 3
Implicit and Virtual 6
Evolution of Dogmas 9
Heresy 18
Logic of Development 23
Progress from One to Another 29
"Essential Property" in Theological Discourse 36
"Cause" in Theological Discourse 41
Beyond Logic 48
ENDNOTES 52
FOREWORD
In the period of Second Scholasticism (16-18th
century), there was a debate concerning the
development of doctrine that many have never
heard of. On the one side, there wasFrancisco Suárez
and the other were the famedDiscalced Carmelites
of Salamanca (the Salmanticenses). The debate was
over whether theological conclusions could be
defined as dogmas.

Before this, theologians were unanimous in

affirming that theological conclusions could be
defined as dogmas (the only debate was between the
Scotists and the Thomists overwhenthe transition
from theological conclusion to dogma happened).

In order to combat the dangerous theory of Suarez

on this matter (the theory of continuing revelation),
the Salmanticenses decided to decided to do what
only one theologian in the history of Catholic
thought had done before (Luis de Molina) and
denied that theological conclusions had ever been
defined in the history of the Church.

In the 20th century, this debate came to

V
the forefront again. This time, within the rightly condemned his position. Yet, they did not
Dominican Order. On the one hand, we have perceive where the problem truly lay Rather than
Fr. Francisco Marín-Sola, on the other, Fr. distinguishing between notional and conceptual
Réginald-Marie Schultes. The latter followed the differences as their forebearers had done, they
"conservative" line of theSalmanticenses,the former simply denied that theological conclusions could be
went back to the teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas defined.
and the 16th century Thomists to resolve the issue.
Those in English speaking Catholicism are
It was in this debate that the heart of the issue was completely unaware of these debates streching back
reached, i.e., what does it mean for a conclusion centuries (some even believe that St. John Henry
to be virtually contained in its premises. Fr. Marín- Newman was the first to invent the development
Sola rightly discerned that Suárez had "poisoned of doctrine). It was my joy to find, within an
the well" on the issue by wrongly distinguishing appendix of the Gilby Summa, what amounts to a
between formal (which he wrongly defined as that compendium of Fr. Marín-Sola's teaching on this
which is objectively identical) and virtual (which issue, with due recourse to the text of St. Thomas (as
he wrongly defined as that which is objectively one can certainly gather from the footnotes).
distinct).
Thus, this work becomes the perfect antidote to
Fr. Marín-Sola pointed out that for St. Thomas, St. those English speaking Catholics who have only
Bonaventure, and the rest of the scholastic tradition hard of the Development of Doctrine in terms of
up to this point, the distinction was not over Newman, but never in terms of Aquinas.
objective identity, but over whether it is merely
notionally distinct (as the difference between man
-Christian B. Wagner
and rational animal, which would be formal) and
that which is objectively identical, yet, conceptually Feast of St. Thomas Aquinas, 2023
distinct (as the difference between rational animal
and risible which would be virtual).

Thus, when the Salmanticenses approached this

issue on Suarez's terms, they clearly saw the danger
in affirming a definition of a doctrine that is
objectively distinct from that which is revealed and

VI VII
INTRODUCTION
Revelation is not oracular. It is the giving of God's
Word in Christ to the body of Christ and there
received in faith. [1] Propositions do not descend
on us from heaven ready made, but are formed
from the Church's thinking about this gift, and
thinking aloud. This utterance or articulation is
more a draft of work in progress than a final and
completed document, for faith itself, though rooted
in immutable truth, is not crowning knowledge,
and its elaboration in teaching, namely theology, is
still more bound up with discourses progressively
manifesting fresh truths or fresh aspects of the
truth to the mind. So the individual Christian and
the Christian community grow in understanding;
indeed they must if, like other living organisms,
they are to survive by adaptation to a changing
environment of history, ideas, and social pressures.

Nevertheless the governing rule, insisted on by

Scripture and Tradition, is that the common
revelation of what we should believe and do in order
to be saved was completed by Christ, and suffers
no addition until the glory to come that shall be

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FR. THOMAS GILBY

revealed in us. [2] Hold this firm, says St Thomas

when commenting on the text, one Lord, one faith,
one baptism, [3] that the faith of the ancients
and the modems is identical, otherwise the Church
would not be one. [4]

THE GENERAL
PROBLEM
Little effort of historical imagination is required
to admit how puzzled an early Christian would
have been had he been presented with a preview
of the Council of Nicea, and how St Peter himself
might have suspended belief had the infallibility
formula of the first Vatican Council been put to
him abstractly; St Thomas [a] observed no [explicit]
mention of a defined Trinitarian doctrine [i.e., the
notions] in Holy Scripture. [5] Nevertheless assent
to dogmas previously not binding has been made a
condition of remaining in the visible unity of the
Church-how then do we escape the curse on those
who preach what is besides the gospel we have
received and additional to the words of prophecy?
[6]

The difficulty, which differs in degree but not in kind

for Christians who inherit nineteen centuries of
doctrinal development and those who stop with the
first four General Councils or even earlier, is perhaps
only to be avoided by a group that performed the

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FR. THOMAS GILBY A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTR...

impossible anachronism of reproducing the exact these, which are matters of more immediate
color and tone of the convictions, hopes, fears, interest to the social psychologist and historian of
sentiments, and devotions of the Apostolic Age and religion than to the theologian, vary with periods
of insulating itself against the influences of any and regions; the preoccupations they give rise to
other culture. The Gospel is for all time and works are reflected in different mental tempers, styles
like a ferment in the mass, and the difficulty has of worship, literatures of devotion, and modes of
to be faced, particularly by those who would think administration. Some of them can loom very large,
of the Church, not as the enzyme, but as the and periodically the Church has to reduce them
end product. Somehow the canon of St. Vincent of to their proper proportions; the theologian can
Lerins, we hold what has been believed everywhere, view them with respect mingled with a certain
always, and by everybody, has to be combined with detachment since, unlike the historical moralist, he
[his statement that is included in the first Vatican has no preference for one period over another. He
Council], that there is an increase, though always in the looks for the living Gospel as confidently in Trent as
same meaning and the same judgment. [7] in the Didache, and most contemporaneously in the
current teaching of the Church.
The purpose of this [work] is to consider the
terms in which scholastic theology couches this The plain facts of history show that Christian
development. We shall, therefore, keep to the doctrine has developed under the influences of
metier of treating the process as a progression philosophies, cultures, and civilizations. For the
of propositions. In revelation we encounter the explanation much will depend on how far these
presence of God in a mystery deeper than the are regarded as strange to living with God
statements about him which also confront us, and and consequently lying outside God's plan for
which involve words. [8] Similarly, the Church's our salvation. Obviously a theology, such as St
life grows by ever-renewed contact with the living Thomas's, which literally would restore all things in
Christ, not directly by increasingly detailed and Christ will approach the problem differently from a
systematic thinking about him. All the same, theology less genial about the presence of nature in
thinking is involved together with its verbal the kingdom of grace.
expression in teaching, and this is properly subject
to logic.

Clearly there are accretions in what may be called

the cultural surround to revelation in the Church;

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to signify what is involved though not necessarily

stated, then it is well shown that Christian
truth keeps its identity throughout its progressive
manifestations, and if virtual presence be taken to
signify what is really in the principle though not yet

IMPLICIT AND elicited, then it is well shown that fresh conclusions

can be produced in our minds.

VIRTUAL For that is where the development takes place; it

is a growth of manifestation and of explanation,
explicatio, not of the substance of revelation or of
Despite their general agreement, a difference of the deposit of faith. To theologians who are content
emphasis can be discerned when the scholastic to describe the growth as an unfolding of what has
theologians come to describe the [Link] been accepted, and who look to the content rather
some it is a passage which renders explicit what than to the articulation of faith, the reply to the
previously was only implicitly stated; to others it question, “Would St Peter himself have believed in
is a passage which renders actual what previously the infallibility of pronouncements ex cathedra?”
was only virtually present. The terms need not be would be, yes. To others, more preoccupied with
pressed too exclusively, for on occasion St Thomas the logic, and therefore the propositional forms,
treats implicit and virtual content as equivalent. of development, the question, whether he would
[9] All the same an effect which is implied is have subscribed to the terms of the Vatican decree,
not quite the same as an effect which a cause is becomes rather unreal. This is a case of the a
capable of producing; so that virtual, when applied priori happily helping the empirical spirit; not that
to inference, suggests that a stronger effort of the great scholastics, who cast the problem in this
reasoning is required to bring it out; this may go to second mode, are conspicuous for their sense of
account for the preference of the hardier logicians history, but that they are saved from anachronism
among the theologians, who choose to speak of a by their sense of proportion about how the human
developed religious truth being virtually, not merely mind works and their exact appreciation of what
implicitly, contained in the principles of faith. The logical advance entails. An account of their teaching
two terms, however, stand for shades of difference provides a useful chart for reference, besides
in a single process, for if implicit presence be taken extending St Thomas's conception of theology as

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FR. THOMAS GILBY

science.

EVOLUTION
OF DOGMAS
Theories of evolution were less engrossing in the
Middle Ages than they are now; despite the increase
of doctrine and law, the Church of the time was
most set on maintaining its apostolic foundations
against enthusiasts who preached the coming of the
Kingdom of the Spirit. St Thomas does little more
than lay down the main principles of doctrinal
evolution. Like other scholastic masters he treated
the explicatio fidei or explicatio articulorum fidei
at two places, namely when considering first, the
identity of faith under the Old and New Testaments,
and second, the Church's power to determine the
rule of faith binding under pain of heresy and
separation from its body.

The initial inquiry is directed to the continuity of

faith between Israel and the Christian Church, but
the answers take account of the development of
dogma since the time of our Lord: St Thomas seems
to have had no great sense of distance in time,
but speaks familiarly of Aristotle and St Augustine

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as though they were contemporaries, and refers to is no enlargement during the course of centuries,
William of Auxerre and Philip the Chancellor, both but whatever those coming after have believed was
of whom died when he was a boy, as antiqui. contained, though implicitly, in the faith of the
The longest treatment is found in his Commentary Patriarchs who came before them. Yet as regards its
on the Sentences, the most compressed in the explication, the number of articles has grown, for
Disputations, and the most careful in the Summa. some things are explicitly known now which were
[13] not so known by earlier generations. So the Lord
spoke to Moses, I am the God of Abraham, the God of
Behind his treatment lies the distinction between
Isaac, the God of Jacob, but by my name Adonai was I
the substance and the statement of faith. The first
not known to them. And St Paul speaks of the mystery
lies in the object itself outside us, extra animam,
of Christ, which in other ages was not made known
and this is the incomplex and unchanging reality
unto the sons of men, as it is now revealed unto his holy
of God; so faith is one, as is any power, habit,
apostles and prophets by the Spirit.”
or activity bent on one object. [15] The second
is the object as accepted and shared by the It will be noticed that St Thomas has almost
human subject, in acceptatione nostra, participatum imperceptibly brought forward the enduring unity
in cognoscente, and in this partaking faith is of faith from the underlying object to the first
multiplied, plurificatur, in diverse pronouncements affirmation of the believer; the substance of faith
or propositions, enuntiabilia. has become the substance of the articles of faith.
The fundamental affirmation of faith stands to
The basic truth of faith is God's being and
later affirmations as the first principle of thought,
providence for human salvation he that cometh
namely the principle of contradiction, stands to
to God must believe that he is, and that he is
later philosophical statements. [20] The comparison
a rewarder of them that diligently seek him. [16]
may be extended, for as the sole inspection of the
The divine being, divinum esse, includes all that
principle of contradiction provides no conclusion
is believed to exist eternally in God, and divine
for metaphysics, still less for the other sciences, so
providence includes all temporal affairs he arranges
assent to the basic truth of faith needs to be joined to
for his glory in our happiness. These two cover
another assent, whether to an acknowledged deed of
all the subsequent articles of faith, “in the same
God or a solemn decision of Christ's Church or (as we
way that faith in our Redeemer implicitly holds
shall see presently) a minor premise of indubitable
faith in the Incarnation and the passion and other
reason, if it is to issue into assent to more
mysteries of Christ.” [17] He goes on, “here there

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determinately Christian truths. So that when the than the second way, since the process looks
term “implicit” is used in the formula to explain the like immediate inference and remains within the
identity between primitive faith and its subsequent complex of the truths of faith.
developments it offers little heuristic help to show
In the second way, however, the start is from an
how the first grows into the second.
article or articles of faith, not taken narrowly and
Indeed the term is applied of the New Testament precisely in themselves (if that be possible), but as
in relation to the Old Testament. The Father is invested or associated with a truth that goes with
Yahweh, and the divine mysteries revealed in Christ them, concomitans articulum, namely a truth that
in themselves were implicit in God's dealings with also has meaning outside the Christian context.
man from the beginning. Yet to the human mind Thus the essential attributes of human nature are
they were only adumbrated, and scarcely implicit. discussed by philosophical psychology, apart from
[21] Revelation itself grew with new truths until their being taken into the theological discourse
in the fullness of time it was completed, so far as which, starting from the principle of faith that
was needed for God's economy of man's salvation, God became man, proceeds to conclusions about
in Christ. So that now all the truths of faith are Christ, for instance that he enjoyed human freewill.
implicitly present for us in the Apostolic teaching, Along this way faith can be extended continuously,
from which it is not lawful to subtract and to which quotidie, and has been by the learned studies of
it is not lawful to add. [22] Doctors of the Church, per studium sanctorum magis
et magis explicata. [24]
All the same advance is still possible, and St
Thomas then points to the two ways that lie open, This process of exposition leads to theological
corresponding to the two passages already noted, conclusions by mediate inference in which a term
the first from implicit to explicit, the second from can be made to look as though it were derived
virtual to actual. The first is present when an article from profane, not sacred, sources; for instance, an
of faith is included in another, in alio, or is an essential attribute of human nature according to
integral part of the common ground of faith and so philosophical psychology. This, however, is to make
is included in uno communi; thus the resurrection of an abstraction that is not to the point, for the
the dead is held in the resurrection of Christ, and the meaning of the term is not added to the truth
mysteries of Christ's life, death, and resurrection are revealed from outside, but goes with it, concomitans.
held in the whole mystery of the Atonement. This For revelation does not give us a separated form
way of proceeding offers less theoretic difficulty divested of all save a purely supernatural meaning;

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if such a naked supernatural concept could exist it Christ's body. The articulations of thinking faith in
would still have to include a reference to its matter, the individual are true less because he can trace
[27] in this case its rational meaning to the receiving all their logical connections than because they are
subject, which is the natural mind and not some resonant of the thoughts ever growing in the mind
newly created and specially supernatural faculty. of the Church.
Let us not pursue these unreal speculations about
St Thomas refers to an opinion ventilated in the
a supernatural quality without a natural substance,
schools which, attempting to show the identity of
or an assent without a thought or a thought without
faith between Israel and the Church, held that a
an image and a word, but repeat instead, that by
truth could be lifted out of the time-series, since it is,
revelation the Word of God is embodied in us.
as it were, accidental to faith in the Messiah whether
A supernatural meaning is not like a core, round
he is still to come or has come. [32] On the contrary,
which natural meanings and images can cluster,
faith is an assent that may have to pin itself to an
but like the soul, whole and entire in every part
historical event; “suffered under Pontius Pilate, the
of the body it animates. [29] Indeed it is gracious,
third day rose again from the dead.” The historic
and therefore also natural. A philosophical term
Christ is a fixed point for faith in the Incarnation,
loses nothing, but admits a fresh meaning in the
and this is future to those who came before him,
light of revelation when taken into the discourse
past to those who come after. [33]
of theology; and, as we shall see, such notions
as “essential property” and “cause” become richer For divine revelation is not received as a pure form
mines of thought. without matter or genealogy, as if men were spirits
out of place and time or spirits imprisoned in bodies
Note further that articles of faith can be assertions
and now given a message of escape. As for their
of historical fact, and that accordingly they are
essential wholeness they require matter, and for
developed not merely by a logic based on the
their integrity members, and for their personality
inspection of meanings but also by the continued
individual accidents, so revelation comes to them
showing of God's might and mercy in Christ
compact of fact and human experience. “Hence
through his Church. They are not just truths, but
it should be declared that in an article of faith
saving truths; they are not evident in the light of
which is the object of faith as judged, objectum
reason, but accepted in the darkness of faith; assent
fidei complexum, there is something material,
to them is a binding condition, not for intellectual
for instance Christ's passion, something formal,
consistency, but for our living in the unity of
namely God's reality, and something accidental,

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namely that it took place at a certain time.” [34] from listening, not from seeing, from taking what
is offered, not from proving it. [39] If the theology
Consequently, whatever the nature of doctrinal
which develops from this assent be called an
development the process, unlike that of idealist
imperfect kind of science then let it pass, with the
metaphysics or pure mathematics, will not be
reflection that the same may be said of literature and
confined to working from abstract essences to
the deepest kinds of knowledge.
their necessary implications. When “perfect man” is
taken as a starting point in Christological argument
this is not the ideal man of moral philosophy, but
a historic man full of grace and truth, of whose
fullness we have all received, [35] who came to us
from no inner necessity of things, but to redeem us,
the propitiation for the sins of the whole world, [36]
by the will of God whose free acts cannot be deduced
from any principle, whose mighty power raised him
from the dead and hath put all things under his feet
and gave him to be the head over all things. [37]
None of these things are evident in themselves, nor
can they be taken back to anything we see; they are
accepted by faith because of God's word declared to
us and not because they are recommended by our
sense of the reasonable.

On two counts, then, Christian theology breaks out

of the limits imposed on an abstract science: first,
because its data are what divine omnipotence and
mercy have done beyond the ordinary course of
justice and benevolence, and second, because they
have been done in historic time. [38] Neither acts
of generosity nor historic events can be resolved by
the human mind into a binding principle; neither,
therefore, can be demonstrated. So faith comes

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it is Jesus who is the author and finisher of faith,

[42] and the influence of the Church here is that
of bringing our minds to bear, causa applicans, on
the riches of revelation. Hence there is no vicious
circle of believing the Church because of Revelation

HERESY and believing Revelation because of the Church.

Nevertheless the role of the Church is decisive in
shaping the course of theological discourse and
This quality of assent to a truth because it is declared determining what propositions are to be held or
to us, not because we discover it, descends into our rejected.
attitude towards the authoritative witness of the
This guardianship attends the growing articulation
Church, which has the office, not only of conserving
of the principal truths of faith, and is given such
what is given in revelation, but also of explaining
power that, as St Thomas notes, many things are
it, so far as is possible and fitting, in terms of
now judged to be heretical which previously were
the current ideas and sympathies of the faithful,
not. [43] Heresy is that species of infidelity which
by determining what statements are authentically
would lop off branches rather than strike at the
in the tradition and what devotions are salutary,
root of Christian faith. It assents to Christ as an
in other words, by regulating the rule of faith and
end, but fails with the means he has instituted,
worship.
for its choices are erected by private judgment
against the living tradition: heretics are those who
Before considering the scope of this office it should profess faith in Christ but would destroy the
be noted that we believe God because of God and dogmas, or some of them. [44] Heresy consists in
nothing less, that the inner cause, or formal motive opposing in the name of Christianity the rule of
as it is called, of faith is his Word and his revelation, faith authoritatively proposed by the contemporary
and that the testimony of the Church is not the Church. It is a nonconformity to the doctrinal
reason why we believe but the ordinary medium in order, an irregularity within the Christian scene, an
which we discover what determinate truths have ambivalence with respect to the total integrity of
been revealed. For faith stands on the power of God, faith, accepting one part but disbelieving another.
[40] and is in the gospel which is the power of For truths belong to faith in two ways, says
God unto salvation unto everybody who believes; [41] St Thomas, directly and principally, for instance

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the Trinity and the Incarnation, or indirectly and them, but which are not solemnly defined, may be
secondarily, for instance the reliability of Holy condemned as erroneous. The descending gamut
Scripture, in which the articles of faith are involved. of censures is: openly (notorie) heretical, proximate
Both classes of truth are covered by the virtue of to heresy (hæresi proxima), smacking of heresy
faith, and both can be attacked by a contrary vice. (hæresim sapiens), suspiciously like heresy (suspecta
[45] de hæresi); plainly erroneous, close to error,
smacking of error, suspiciously like error. (Being
Nevertheless only under special conditions does
close to heresy or error is deviating from the
the denial of a secondary truth amount to heresy,
common teaching, communis sententia; smacking of
and St Thomas proceeds very cautiously when
heresy or error is providing a handle, ansa, for fears
deciding what these circumstances are. Formal
on that score; suspicion marks a tendency without
heresy, after all, is a gravely culpable disbelief, more
proceeding to the unfair judgment condemned in
than doubt or wavering or unbelief or a modestly
[Link]-II.Q60.A3) Then propositions may be censured
expressed misjudgment; a person may be tottering
as rash (temeraria) when doctrinal statements are
into heresy and not be there. It is an opinion
made without solid support, badly put (male
maintained fanatically and stubbornly, vehementer
sonans) when the sense but not the words are
et pertinaciter, above all it is a social act, a separation
acceptable, sophistical (captiosa) when exception
from communion in the Church's teaching. [46] No
cannot be taken to the words but the sense is
authority in the world apart from the Church can
deceiving. Propositions may also be condemned as
decide what secondary propositions are so bound
blasphemous, schismatic, scandalous, or offensive.
up with the central truths of revelation that their
Blasphemy is against the profession of faith, but as
denial would be against the due profession of
derogating from God's goodness and some times as
the Christian faith. Respect will be expected and
a detesting of what is believed offends more against
obedience may be enjoined with regard to other
the lovingness than the formal teaching of faith (cf.
propositions that are put forward in the exercise of
[Link]-II.Q13.A3). Schism, which is numbered among
the Church's office to safeguard Christian faith and
the vices directly opposed to charity, attacks the
morals, but only when it is so stated are they binding
unity of the Church (cf. [Link]-II.Q39.A2-3). To give
de fide.
scandal is not to shock but to be a stumbling block
Propositions against the articles of faith are to others to give occasion for their spiritual harm
censured as heretical, propositions against the ([Link]-II.Q43.A3). Offensiveness may range from
theological conclusions which can be drawn from sacrilege ([Link]-II.Q99) to bickering ([Link]-II.Q116).

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Private sins against faith are a more flexible matter.

There is always the duty of being in sympathy
with the whole body, though sentire cum Ecclesia
is not the same as following the dominant party-
line. Moreover, what may be called the detailed
coverage of faith will vary from person to person LOGIC OF
according to differences of intelligence, learning,
and professional office. Some will perceive more
implications and greater subtleties in the gospel
DEVELOPMENT
which is preached to all; they must follow the
light of the Spirit along lonelier tracks and perhaps To turn now to the logic of the development of
suffer special occupational temptations; if they are doctrine. Observe as a preliminary, first, that this
teachers a greater elaboration of faith may be section touches only the framework of the subject,
required of them. [48] and second, that the framework is that of the
Aristotelian syllogism.

First, logic is a thinking about thoughts, and not

for their real significance but for their coherence
together. It is concerned with the correct use
of terms, propositions, and arguments among
themselves, not with their relevance to real
life which is the concern of other disciplines.
Consequently when scholastic theologians seem
preoccupied merely with the formal pattern of
doctrinal development it should not be thought
that they are substituting it for the living growth
observed by biblical and historical studies, though
some of them, like many specialists, may give the
impression of being addicted to the apparatus.

Secondly, the logic adopted as convenient for their

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purpose is the Aristotelian logic which works with been given us, so that the product, the theological
the identities or non-identities predicated between conclusion, is a hybrid of grace and nature, and
terms, for they are engaged in showing that the evolution of doctrine is transformist and
theological conclusions, notably those that become heterogeneous? Or are these elements essentially
articles of faith, are somehow contained in the contained in a single subject and a single situation,
premises of revelation. The medievals constructed namely men together in the plan of God's saving
another logic beyond Aristotle's as in the last mercy, so that the product runs true to type,
hundred years men have constructed another logic namely nature uplifted by grace, and the evolution
beyond theirs; yet the scholastics found the old is homogeneous? The school of St Thomas adopts
classical logic sufficient for their purpose. It is the second of these alternatives; in agreement grace
not obsolete, and offers a useful plan when the and nature, like spirit and body, can combine in one.
development of doctrine is treated as a series of Neither at best represent pre-established harmonies
inferences from a group of propositions held by that never really meet nor at worst antagonistic
faith. forces that fight it out on the battlefield of man.

The logical structure of the body of truths proposed Four parts may be distinguished in the complex
for our salvation is a matter not only of interest body of truths proposed to us by the Church,
but also of devotion, as appears from the writings namely a. the gift revealed in Scripture, to reject
of the classical scholastics, and not least those who which is infidelity; b. the dogmas or articles of faith
might be termed high and dry. Cajetan is an eminent defined by the Church, to reject which is heresy;
example; the virtuosity of his logic expresses the c. theological conclusions or necessary inferences
confidence that faith can enter the whole life of from the truths of faith, the denial of which may
reasoning as charity can enter the whole life of be censured as erroneous; d. dogmatic facts, or that
loving. We have already remarked the same quality historical setting to theological statements which
in St Thomas who does not, as it were, put on a has to be accepted if these are to have any force,
church face when he turns from profane to sacred for instance that Jansenism really was found in the
topics. It was the same confidence; all things are Augustinus, that Pius IX was a lawful pope, and that
yours, and you are Christ's, and Christ is God's. [49] the First Vatican Council was ecumenical.

So the holy teaching, as we have seen, is composed A fifth class, sometimes added, is here neglected
of human elements. The question is, are they alien since as regards the development of dogma its
elements to divine revelation, additions to what has condition resembles that of (c); it includes truths,

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especially moral truths, accepted by the Church but literary interpretation. [62]
not defined as parts of revelation. [b]
Our present inquiry is directed on the logic of
Now this is not a classification of separate elements development from b to c, that is from an article
each in its own compartment, but of different of faith to a theological conclusion, in order that
phases in or abstracts from the single process of light may be thrown on the historical development
growing in the knowledge and love of God. The whereby c becomes b by the defining power of
truths are not so fixed in their categories that the Church. This sharpening of a truth of faith
they cannot communicate and transfer; there is no by philosophy appears in the General Councils,
restriction of divine faith to a and b, leaving c beginning with Nicea which declared that the Son
and d to be covered by what is called ecclesiastical was one substance, not like substance, with the
faith. The situation is more open, for divine faith Father, going on to Ephesus, which declared that
in a takes the others in its stride. Indeed, as we Mary was God-bearer, not merely Christ-bearer, and
have seen, divine revelation is not to be isolated in the third Council of Constantinople, which declared
some mysterious and spiritual communication but that there are two wills in Christ, and so continuing
to be extended into the physical and social life of until our time. The Church has always thought what
God's people. From the Word (a) made flesh (b) flow St. Athanasius said about Nicea, that the word of
meanings (c) in time (d), and the progression from a the Lord set forth by the Council is an eternal word
to d is continuous. enduring forever, although as in the examples given,
of the first, third, and sixth ecumenical councils,
So St Thomas speaks of a thing open to sacra doctrina
the definitions against Arianism, Nestorianism, and
because it is revelabile, that is because it can enter the
Monothelitism involved philosophical concepts. [63]
field of revelation; he does not apply the narrower
It is clear that a conclusion arrived at by thinking
test of its being expressly revealed, revelatum. [53]
about the faith must be very close to the faith
Reference to every article of the first question of the
itself if it can be made a condition of communion
Summa on sacra doctrina shows how wide is this
with the Church. How close will appear when the
field, for the supernatural mystery of God covers
development is read according to the categories of
also the natural truths of religion, [54] historical
scholastic logic. [64]
facts accessory to revelation, [55] human acts, [56]
philosophical truths, [57] the critique of them, [58] Let two statements be taken to represent the
the historic Christ, [59] the rules of logic, [60] the contrast between a primitive confession of faith
proper use of metaphor, [61] and the principles of and a reflection on it in technical terms; first the

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FR. THOMAS GILBY

words of St Thomas Didymus, My Lord and my God,

[66] and next the words of St Thomas Aquinas,
the honor of worship is properly due to a subsistent
hypostasis, and on this account our worship of Christ's
humanity and flesh because of the thing there is the
worship due to the Incarnate Word and therefore is
latria. [66] How different the ring and simplicity of PROGRESS
the one from the scholasticism of the other, how
different the concepts and terms, how different FROM ONE TO
the temper, yet both convey the same underlying
truth of judgment. Recall that truth in the human
mind is not constituted by the apprehension of an
ANOTHER
impression or a likeness or species, but by an act of
judgment bearing on the existing world, that this In the intricacies of the logic there is no general
is that or this is not that. [67] That being the case, agreement, yet the following outline will not be
we have to listen less to the ring of the words disputed in the main. Distinction, the opposite of
than to the real meanings they make together, and identity, signifies a plurality of terms; one is not
look less to the literary figure than to the deeper another. It may be objective or subjective. Objective
theological form: otherwise we may discern little or real distinction, distinctio realis, expresses a
continuity between Sinai and Galilee, the Jerusalem non-identity the mind discovers in things, either
of Solomon and of the apostles meeting together, between distinct things or complete substances, e.g.
the Ephesus of St. Paul and of the Council, between Peter and Paul, or between distinct principles in
Chalcedon and Vienne, Florence and Trent. The one thing, e.g. Peter's body and soul. Subjective or
better to understand the simultaneous sameness mental distinction, distinctio rationis, expresses a
and difference in the elaboration of revelation non-identity the mind reads into things. It is of two
through the development of dogma let us turn to the kinds, conceptual or virtual distinction, distinctio
scholastic treatment of distinction before applying rationis ratiocinatae, when the concepts are not
it to the concepts, judgments, and reasonings of a identical, e.g. spiritual being and immortal being,
living and growing sacra doctrina. [68] and purely nominal or logical distinction, distinctio
rationis ratiocinantis, when at a further remove from
reality only the words used are not identical, e.g.

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equilateral and equiangular triangle. when the seeming conclusion is presupposed in

the premises as an essential part in the whole
For brevity and with some warrant in scholastic
or a particular in an unconditional universal or a
usage let us take these four types of distinction
correlative in its opposite number. In the syllogism
as referring to objects that are respectively
of science, including the science of theology, the
diverse, different, distinctive, and merely nominally
passage through the middle term is one of thought,
distinct. Terms and propositions are diverse when
not merely of language [c].
they signify distinct individual things, [69] different
when they signify distinct realities which however Yet at the other extreme we must also eliminate
do not exist in themselves but only together, [70] the first type of progression [d], namely when the
distinctive when they signify distinct meanings truth of the conclusion adds a diverse element to
which however are later admitted to come to the the premise. And for two reasons, firstly because
same thing, [71] and merely nominally distinct such progression is proper to the natural and
when they signify an identical meaning modified practical sciences, not to the properly philosophical
only by a circumstance of grammar or language. [72] and theological sciences. The argument ranges
outside the meaning of the principle of meaning
Next let us apply these four types of distinction
and associates it with a judgment of fact verified
first to the discourse of reasoning using a process
by observation or experiment; consequently the
of elimination, and next to the development of
conclusion, though connected with the principle,
doctrine. A conclusion arrived at may be diverse
is not implicitly or virtually contained there;
from its principle, or add a real difference to it, or
its certainty is conditional on the truth of the
introduce a distinctive note, or find a new formula
second judgment of fact. [73] Secondly, because
but not a new idea.
the development of Christian doctrine requires
This last we can eliminate at once, since reasoning no outside element to be introduced, and indeed
properly so-called is a movement of ideas, not permits no addition to be made to what is contained
merely of words, leading to a conclusion that is in revelation. To add, remarks St Thomas, may be
new knowledge not merely a restatement of old either adding something contrary or diverse-and
knowledge. Theological development marks more this is erroneous or presumptuous-explaining what
than an advance in terminology behind which the is implicitly contained-and this is praiseworthy. [74]
concepts remain fixed. Furthermore, the process
Next, the second type of progression can also be
does more than elucidate concepts, such as happens
eliminated, and for much the same reason. For here

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the principle is like a genus which by the addition of Christian doctrine will be recognized. For theology
a specific diference forms a species, and though the promises no discovery of fresh territory on this
species “human being” is in a sense contained in the side of the grave, but rather the consolidation
genus “animal being,” it is only by transformist or and exploitation of what is already accepted
heterogeneous evolution (whatever the proximate from revelation. The reasoning, unlike that of the
causes) that animal becomes human. Similarly natural sciences, does not really advance beyond
in other cases as well where the resultant or its first understanding, but seeks to enlarge that
consequent is really different from its principle. [75] understanding; the closeness of the two functions of
Revelation and the first principles of faith, however, understanding and reasoning should be particularly
produce conclusions from within themselves; all evident in theology.
that is developed is included from the beginning in
The discourse of reason always begins from an
the revelabile, [76] and there is no accretion.
understanding and ends at an understanding; because
We are left therefore with the third type of we reason by proceeding from certain understood
progression, namely when principle and term are principles, and the discourse of reason is perfected
virtually distinct, or what we have called distinctive. when we come to understand what hitherto we ignored.
The conclusion is implicitly or virtually contained Hence the act of reasoning proceeds from something
in the principle yet requires to be elicited by a previously understood. Now a gift of grace does not
conceptual advance. This is the process of scientia in proceed from the light of nature, but is added thereto
its strictest Aristotelian science; it is not performed as perfecting it. Wherefore this addition is not called
by the mere inspection of concepts in the major reason but understanding, since the additional light
premise, but requires the further judgment that one is in comparison with what we know supernaturally,
of the concepts there expressed (the middle term) what the natural light is in regard to those things which
is to be identified or not with a third concept, and we know from the first. [78]
this because of their very meaning and not because
Recall also that while the articles of faith serve as the
they are observed to be always or nearly always
first principles of theological science, [79] they are in
associated in fact. From these two judgments a third
themselves as propositions no more ultimate than
follows, namely the conclusion.
are the first principles of reason; both are responses
Appreciate that the conclusion is at once implicit of the human mind to the reality it conceives and
in the premises and distinctive in itself, and then bears, the former to the truth of God himself, veritas
the appropriateness of this style of reasoning to prima, the latter to the truth of being, ens ut verum.

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What is revealed is God, not a set of propositions.

Systematic theology makes even less claim to cage
divine truth than systematic philosophy to capture
the essences of material things. Nevertheless we
have to speak the truth in our manner, and as faith
is articulated in articles which are like principles
so these principles in their turn are developed into
conclusions.

As God, since he knows himself, knows in a way that is

his own, that is, by simple intuition, not by discursive
thought, so we, from those truths that we possess
in adhering to First Truth, come to a knowledge of
other truths, according to our own mode of cognition,
namely, by proceeding from principles to conclusions.
Wherefore, those truths that we hold in the first place by
faith are for us, as it were, first principles in this science,
and the other truths to which we attain are quasi-
conclusions. [80]

So much for the closeness of conclusions to

principles; now for their distinctness. It will be
well to notice how the third type of argumentative
progression works under different conditions
when Christian dogma is developed and when
the mathematical and metaphysical sciences infer
conclusions from their premises. What is common
is that a deduction of property from essence or
of effect from cause may be represented; what
is different is that essence and cause or their
equivalents are not the same for philosophy and for
theology.

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A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTR...

fullest expansion of which it is capable, and a whole

at full power in the case of man will include every
perfection to which human nature can be taken by
grace, thus thus to be sinless and beyond suffering
and death. Accordingly we can draw a distinction

"ESSENTIAL between pure essence, or the universal nature of a

thing, integral essence, or the thing in its connatural
condition, and perfect essence, or the thing with
PROPERTY" IN every power realized. The first is implicit in the
second and can be inferred from it; the second is
THEOLOGICAL implicit in the third, and can be inferred from it.

Let us continue with the example we have chosen

DISCOURSE of the essence 'man'. Philosophical theory can
infer with certainty some conclusions from human
nature as such, that is from the pure essence, but
Essence here means no more than what the subject
its touch is much less certain when dealing with
is defined to be. [81] That subject is the whole
the integral essence or human nature as adapted
matter of the inquiry. [82] A whole, totum, implies
to environment, for then it has to move from
parts at least conceptually distinct, [83] and for our
its own realm of necessary reasons and can cut
present purposes may be divided into an essential
an absurd figure if it dogmatizes about facts and
whole, totum essentiale, an integral whole, totum
fails to consult the whole range of historical and
integrale, and a whole combination of powers, totum
anthropological sciences. But neither philosophical
potestativum. [84] An essential whole contains the
theory nor these other sciences can reach to the
specific attributes or essential properties of a thing,
perfect essence of man, as revealed in Jesus Christ,
thus from “rational animal” as an essential whole
full of grace and truth, of whose fullness we have all
may be inferred freewill, imagination, and a sense
received, [85] the head of all principality and power,
of humor-all at least as aptitudes. An integral whole
[86] and to the mystery of the will of God, that he might
contains also the normal requirements for the
gather together in one all things in Christ, which are
essential whole to be realized, thus “rational animal”
both in heaven and on earth, even in him. [87]
will require a pair of hands and two feet. A whole
as a combination of powers can be pushed to the This is the man and no other who is the subject for

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the argument of theology; such is the essence which mighty saving deeds in history, and the mystery of
is at once a principle for a richer investigation than his calling us through suffering to the sharing of his
is possible to philosophy and a datum which cannot own happiness. Though St Thomas again and again
be resolved into the rational evidence. seeks to display, sometimes subtly and profoundly,
sometimes superficially and plainly, how right and
Since grace builds on nature we can move from
proper the whole operation is in all its details, he
the supernatural truth revealed to faith to the
never for a moment thinks that these arguments
natural truth it implies; for instance, what is due
ex convenientiis bring out a strict necessity in the
to human nature as such and to human nature in a
providential plan. The only necessity known to
connatural state can be inferred and even enlarged
theology lies in the logic of drawing necessary
on from the man who shall change our vile body,
conclusions from what is freely given.
that it may be fashioned like unto his glorious body,
according to the working whereby he is able to subdue His guiding theological principle is stated at the
all things unto himself. [88] The discourse can move beginning of his treatise on the Incarnation; those
from what is explicitly and actually revealed in the things which come to pass by the sole will of God
living Scriptures and stated in the articles of faith to above all that is due to creatures cannot become known
truths implicitly and virtually present. Moreover the to us except inasmuch as they are delivered in Holy
movement is descensive, per viam judicii, according Scripture, through which the divine will is declared to
to the wisdom of resolving the lower in the higher, us. [92] To this free act of God man's free act of
not ascensive, per via inventionis, according to the faith is the response, and it is from this, ruled by no
science of discovering causes from effects. [89] necessity of internal evidence such as appears in the
understanding of first principles and the science of
Next, the datum which is the basis of reasoning
conclusions, [93] that Christian theology develops.
is different in philosophy and in theology. In
Despite procedural resemblances between them,
philosophy it is a necessary truth manifested in
notable in some scholastic writings, theology and
experience, a reflection, as the scholastics say, of
philosophy are different in kind, not only because
the divine intellect rather than of a divine decree,
theology is supernatural by its object, but because
whereas for theology it is a manifold made by God's
this object is a gift that could never have been
free power and mercy, according to his good pleasure
anticipated from looking at what we are by nature.
which he hath purposed in himself in the dispensation
of the fulness of time. [90] What is first given is On this account its discourse is richer than that
less the moral to be drawn than the story of his of metaphysical philosophy which, starting from

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FR. THOMAS GILBY

abstract meanings, must confine its argumentation

by inclusion to what they imply, and can touch
on physical attributes only by the connexive
argumentation proper to the natural sciences, that
is by working from the fact that two objects are
constantly or repeatedly observed to be associated
together. [94] Theology, on the other hand, does not "CAUSE" IN
start from a pure meaning but from the revelation
of God in his deeds; its evidence is not the level light THEOLOGICAL
of the intelligibility of being in the third degree of
abstraction but the subtler and more particular and
pervasive perceptions of the Spirit; and its scientific
DISCOURSE
argumentation by inclusion or implication will not
be restricted to timeless and spaceless meanings The same combined likeness and unlikeness
about man but can make explicit and actual between philosophical and theological reasonings
whatever is implicitly and virtually contained in which we have just noticed in the passage from
the history of humanity, created, fallen, redeemed, “essence” to attribute also appears when the passage
and restored in Christ. It works not with ideal is looked at in terms of causality. As already noticed,
humanity but with the perfect man, with the at the heart of scientia lies the conviction that effects
perfection of species, mode, and order, that is of depend on their proper causes, not only for their
specific completeness, integrity, and right bearing to being, but also for their being understood.
purpose. [95] The revelation is not of merely natural “Cause” is an analogical concept with no one fixed
humanity adapted to some fictional environment, degree and kind of meaning, and is divided, with
but is centered on a man who was held back from his regard to physical things, into the four categories of
transfiguration only by his choosing to bear our ills efficient cause, agens, the producer of the effect, the
for love of us. [96] material cause, causa materialis, the subject of the
effect, the formal cause, causa formalis, the shaping
idea within the effect, and the final cause, finis, the
purpose of the effect. [98] This rough division will
be refined and treated with more detail during the

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course of the Summa in considering, for instance, not doing it, or it may by an operating cause yet not
the causality of participation whereby perfections in fact producing its effect, like the fire when the
discovered in this world can be attributed to God, three holy children were cast into the furnace. [101]
the creative activity of God, the motions of divine In this case the nexus between cause and effect is
grace, the operation of multiple causes within this not that of the internal relationship of the two terms
world-order, and the teleology of human activity. taken alone, but is wrought also of many external
For the present it will serve our purpose if we stay factors the presence of which can be certified only
with the general meaning which applies to efficient, by observation of fact.
formal, and final causes, and take it as a real and
This is the work of the natural sciences, which have
positive principle on which “another” depends for
their own methods of determining the meaning and
its being and for its being understood. The situation
incidence of natural laws. Metaphysical philosophy
is one of dependence, of this being because of that,
must confine its argumentation from cause to
not merely of observed sequences, of this following
effect to cases where the effect is conceptually
that.
distinct from the cause, but in reality identical,
This “another” may be diverse from the first, as when from immutable being it infers eternal
or really distinct from the first, or conceptually being, and from spiritual being it infers immortal
distinct (distinctive) though really identical. Let being. Notice, in passing, that this limitation does
us confine our attention to an effect that is a not apply to argumentation from effect to cause,
diverse thing from the cause and an effect that when, on effect being posited as a real object and
exhibits a distinctive meaning contrasting with one requiring explanation, it is recognized to lack
the cause. Corresponding to these the scholastics sufficient reason within itself for its existence, and
draw the distinction between a 'physical' cause and this therefore is looked for outside in a diverse thing.
a 'metaphysical' cause. Now a metaphysical cause
Now the "cause" posited for Christian theology is not
contains the effect, not just the ability of producing
a unified system of necessary reasons discovered
it; in reality the two are identified, so that if the first
in experience and implying metaphysical causation
is posited the 'other' necessarily follows. [100] The
in the abstract, but a much richer and concrete
nexus between them is internal. Posit the existence
complex. We should leave such terminology and go
of a physical cause, however, and the effect can ot
to the Bible instead-it is the presence of God with his
be deduced as happening or as going to happen; the
people, the revelation of the Son in whom the Father
cause may be a free agent, able to do something yet
was well pleased and the dwelling of the Spirit in

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our hearts. The limbs of Christ's body stretch over remain and the natures they manifest are not
the whole world: accept this, and then, to return to obliterated. The ideas are not shadowed by the
the logic of argumentation, so much more can be appearance, as for the Platonists; the logos is not
inferred by the method of inclusion and implication remote from sensibility, as for the Stoics; the touch
than were the mystery of the Lord isolated in the of divinity is not rare, like the good fortune of
manner of a supreme metaphysical cause. Eudemian Ethics. The Word is made flesh and has
come into history, and now meaning and deed are
You might think that nothing could be more
conjoined, sacramentum is translated into res, [105]
comprehensive than the causa universalis of St
creatures are real as both things and signs, [106 and
Thomas's philosophical theology, and that the
as real they are held in God in whose Image they
personal God there inferred, who is no absentee
are both expressed and created. [107] The feelings
from the universe he creates and directs in every
that stir are taken into the charity which is the
detail, is more divine than the God who may be
root, mother, and mover of all fair love, [108] the
discovered in Plato and Aristotle. Even so, for all the
sevenfold Gift of the Spirit is not a stroke of genius
wonder and worship evoked, he is not yet the God
but a permanent condition, [109] for the Son and
who so loved the world as to give his only begotten
the Spirit are sent to God's people and have taken
Son, [102] and whose particular providence extends
up their abode, [110] and the kingdom of heaven
to things for which philosophy has little regard. Are
is already with us though we have yet to rejoice in
not five sparrows sold for two farthings, and not one of
its glory. This is the reality, compact of time and
them is forgotten before God? [103]
eternity, bearing still the wounds received on earth
Philosophical theology enters into the substance and transfigured in heaven, this is the causa for the
of the Summa; its arguments, however, are the knowledge of the blessed from which sacra doctrina
ground-bass to the movement of sacra doctrina, not derives. So then, to beat back again to the logic
the whole. Otherwise the Summa would be like of inclusion and implication, you will apprehend
other works of human wisdom, a statement of the how much wider is the area of maneuver and how
conflict between essence and existence, a protest much deeper the grounds of inference for theology
of men confined within themselves, perhaps a plea than for philosophy. The reasoning can be no less
for reason and dignity. An undercurrent from the strict, the development no less homogeneous, yet
tragic sense of life in the poets and philosophers the process has so much more to go on; the being on
runs through the Summa, but their experience has whom all is centered is not just a necessary reason
moved into a new dimension. The same phenomena but God who has descended into hell and conquered

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the last enemy, and now possesses every shade, that is a revealed truth, as also is its annulment
every twist, every particularity of every creature. by the life, death, and resurrection of Christ. [119]
Examples could easily be multiplied to show that the
At the beginning of this science there is God as God,
Summa is moving, and with assurance, in a world of
not merely first being; at the ending there is the
causes and effects beyond the reach of metaphysical
vision of himself, not the felicity of contemplating
and natural philosophy.
the reasons for things; and in between there are
the works of redemption, opera reparationis, freely The arguments of Christian theology are conducted
given and freely to be accepted, less meanings to according to the principle of virtual inclusion so
be expected than things that have been done and long as they remain within the revelabile, and
are being done for us. [112] Faith takes the whole, conversely they remain within the revelabile so long
deed and meaning, and its teaching is that of both as they do not go off into purely private speculation
a prophecy-religion and a wisdom-religion. Further, or introduce elements from outside the deposit of
re-enacting the mysteries is part of its teaching, faith. Such para-theological studies will earn the
for liturgy and the dogmas go together: St Thomas respect to which they are entitled; they may even be
speaks of explicit faith in the mysteries of Christ, officially recommended as profitable for devotion,
especially with respect to the things the Church all the same they do not belong to our common
universally solemnizes and officially publishes. salvation through the faith once delivered through the
[113] saints, [120] or to the development of truths of the
Christian revelation.
There are phases in its causal arguments when
theology treats of metaphysical causality; thus,
eternity is inferred from immutability, [113] and
immortality from spirituality. [114] Yet much more
than perpetuity and deathlessness are included, for
eternity and immortality as considered by theology
are taken into the life of the blessed Trinity, [115]
and related to the resurrection of Christ. [116]
Similarly the problem of evil is lifted from the level
of mainly rational treatment [117] to the mystery
of sin. [118] Original sin is not an anthropological
postulate to explain our flawed nature but a penalty

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divine trinity in unity, [122] and the ἀντίδοσις,

or communicatio idiomatum, the exchange of divine
and human attributes in the person of Christ. [123]

All the faithful, simple and learned, agree in

the same thing, and rough speech agrees with a
BEYOND LOGIC finer grained technique once this is authoritatively
approved as the touchstone of orthodoxy. All are
baptized in one Spirit into one body, [124] all have
It can be objected that such a logical consideration
one mind in Christ, [125] but there are diversities
as the principle of virtual inclusion is irrelevant and
of graces, though the same spirit, to one indeed by
perhaps even irreverent when applied to the living
the spirit the word of wisdom, and to another the
mind of the body of Christ. Is it not to treat Christ as
word of knowledge according to the same spirit. [126]
the middle term of a third-figure syllogism? Christ is
And for the theologian it is especially the word of
man, Christ is God, therefore God is man.
knowledge, scientia, which, St Thomas notes, enters
Recall however that argumentations of this kind into secondary causes and public teaching. [127]
have a venerable history. Nobody pretends that a
Ultimate Christian truth is beyond our expression.
systematized theology is conterminous with sacra
We speak the wisdom of God in a mystery, which is
doctrina, yet there have been times when the Church
hidden, which God ordained before the world, unto our
in order to maintain the identity of its teaching has
glory, which none of the princes of this world knew, for
engaged itself with the logic of predication and the
if they had known it they would never have crucified
terms of highly speculative philosophy; and, it may
the Lord of glory. [128] Nevertheless it is without
be added, the simple people have sometimes scented
apology and because of no regrettable necessity
the right formula more correctly than many of the
that the Church takes this mystery into the realm
experts.
of human meanings; for we should present to God
Two classical instances of orthodoxy striving for a reasonable service, [129] and bring into captivity
correct logical formulation are the περιχώρησις, of every understanding unto the obedience of Christ. [130]
St John Damascene, or circumincessio or reciprocal God's people ask questions, and they are answered in
inexistence and compenetration of the three the medium of their question, sometimes to rule out
Persons of the blessed Trinity, which governs heresy, sometimes to bring out the teaching of faith
usage of the personal and essential names for the into our light. [131]

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which may move ahead of pure scholarship and

That the processes of systematic theology are
speculation. They have received the Spirit to know
not merely analyses of meaning has already been
the things of God though they may not speak the
indicated; they start from a cleaving to God by faith,
learned words of human wisdom. [138] Lex orandi
and the force of that existential affirmation persists
est lex credendi, and liturgy is a source of doctrine,
throughout the discourse. Moreover, in some
whereas logic is no more than ritual, a rule of
particular cases they may start from the established
procedure. And if the science of the theologian rises
practices with which they are faced. The reasons
to wisdom, this will not be merely the intellectual
they develop may even strike some as retrospective,
virtue of taking a comprehensive view but the Gift
in the sense that the fact is first accepted, and
of the Spirit which knows because it is in love. [139]
then rationalized; thus a theologian may argue from
It is doubtful whether in history the advance of any
the Church's custom of infant baptism to infer
science can be represented merely as a growth of
the presence of Original Sin, [133] and from the
ideas, for scientists themselves have their loyalties
Church's law to infer that children should not be
and their own poetry; it is certain that instructed
baptized against the will of their parents, [134] from
devotion is the spring of every advance in real
the Church's liturgy to show that bread and wine
theology. Yet the advance is by reasoning, if only,
no longer remain after the eucharistic consecration,
as Richard of St Victor said when defending himself
[135] and from the Church's practice to infer
against those who criticized his application of logic
the Pope's prerogative of editing the creed. [136]
to the mysteries, like Balaam's ass who first saw the
Similarly the question of the ordination of women
angel in the path and was beaten for her part in
is ruled by prescription rather than by speculative
declaring the mysteries. [140]
reason. St. Thomas lays down the guiding principle;
the Church's custom has the greatest authority, and in
all matters we should match it, for the doctrine itself
of the Catholic Doctors derives its authority from the
Church, and therefore we should take our stand there
rather than with Augustine or Jerome or any other
doctor whatever. [137]

Nor are the dialectical processes themselves merely

exercises in disinterested curiosity. For the Church
consults the piety and devotion of the faithful

50 51
A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTR...

[27]: ST.I.Q75.A4
[29]: ST.I.Q76.A8
[32]: QDeVer.Q14.A12
[33]: QDeVer.Q14.A12.Rep3
[34]: [Link].D24.Q1.A1.qa2.ad5

ENDNOTES [35]: John 1:16

[36]: 1 John 2:2
[37]: Ephesians 1:19-22
[2]: Romans 8:18 [38]: ST.I.Q14.A15.Rep3
[3]: Ephesians 4:5 [39]: [Link].D24.Q1.A2.qa2.ad2
[4]: QDeVer.Q14.A12, [Link].Q64.A2, [40]: 1 Corinthians 2:5; [Link]-II.Q1.A1
[Link].D17.Q3.A1.Q5 [41]: Romans 1:16
[a]: Editors Note: Fr. Gilby originally includes “who [42]: Hebrews 12:2
himself had not arrived at the Church's teaching on [43]: ST.I.Q32.A4
the Immaculate Conception.” [44]: [Link]-II.Q11.A1
[5]: ST.I.Q32.A2.Rep1 [45]: [Link]-II.Q11.A2
[6]: Galatians 1:18, Apocalypse 22:18 [46]: [Link].D13.Q2.A1; [Link]-II.Q11.A2.Rep3
[7]: Dei Filius, ch. 4; Commonitorium, 23, 3 [48]: [Link].D25.Q2.A1.qa3; [Link]-II.Q1.A9.Rep1
[13]: [Link].D25.Q2.A2, Whether the faith progresses [49]: 1 Corinthians 3:22
over the succession of time; QDeVer.Q14.A12, Is there [b]: Editors note, an example of this would be St.
one faith for moderns and ancients; [Link]-II.Q1.A7, Paul VI’s Humanae Vitae which judges on the matter
Whether the articles of faith have increased in course of of contraception or St. Paul II’s Evangelium Vitae
time? which judges on abortion, although they are matters
[14]: [Link]-II.Q1.A1-2 of natural law. Another famous example surrounds
[15]: ST.I.Q1.A3, 7 condemnations of laxism and rigorism by the
[16]: Hebrews 11:6 Church, cf., Harty, John. "Probabilism." The Catholic
[17]: [Link]-II.Q1.A7 Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton
[20]: Ibid. Company, 1911.
[21]: ST.I-II.Q107.1-3 [53]: ST.I.Q1.A3
[22]: [Link].D25.Q2.A2.qa1.ad5 [54]: ST.I.Q1.A1
[24]: ibid. [55]: ST.I.Q1.A2.Rep2

52 53
FR. THOMAS GILBY A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTR...

[56]: ST.I.Q1.A4 who altered the meaning of the term virtual as to go

[57]: ST.I.Q1.A5.Rep2 beyond the ordinary meaning to include truths that
[58]: ST.I.Q1.A6 are really distinct from the revealed data.
[59]: ST.I.Q1.A7 [73]: DeTrin.C2.Q6.A1
[60]: ST.I.Q1.A8 [74]: Sent.I.Q1.9: “I respond that there are two
[61]: ST.I.Q1.A9 ways to add to it: by adding something contrary
[62]: ST.I.Q1.A10 to or diverse from it--and this is an error and
[63]: ST.I.Q27.A1 for Nicea; [Link].Q35.A4 for presumptuous--or by adding something that is
Ephesus; [Link].Q18.A1 for Constantinople II implicitly contained in it, by expounding it--and
[66]: [Link].Q25.A2 this is praiseworthy.”
[67]: ST.I.Q16.A2 [75]: ST.I.Q3.A5; ST.I.Q31.A2.Rep2
[69]: ST.I.Q3.A8.Rep3; ST.I.Q30.A3; Metaph.Bk5.L12 [76]: ST.I.Q1. A.3, 7
[70]: ST.I.Q75.A2.Rep1; Metaph.Bk8.L2 [78]: [Link]-II.Q8.A1.Rep2
[71]: Thus the plurality of perfections in God's [79]: [Link]-II.Q1.A7
simple being, ST.I.Q13.A4, and the coincidence of [80]: DeTrin.Q2.A2.13
his justice and mercy, ST.I.Q21.A4 [81]: ST.I.Q3.A3; ST.I.Q29.A2.Rep3; Metaph.Bk7.L5
[72]: Thus the subject and predicate in a tautology, or [82]: DeCael
the circumstance of translation. Cf., ST.I.Q33.A1, for [83]: ST.I.Q8.A2.Rep3
the Father as cause in Greek and principle in Latin [84]: ST.I.Q76.A8; ST.I.Q77.A1.Rep1; [Link]-II.Q48.A1;
[c]: Editors note, It is easy to misunderstand what is [Link]-II.Q80.A1
being said here by Fr. Gilby. He is not saying that [85]: John 1:14-16
the explication of terms (what Fr. Sola calls the first [86]: Colossians 2:10
degree of doctrinal development) in order to clarify [87]: Ephesians 1:10
our terminology is not included in the evolution of [88]: Philippians 3:21
dogma (to go from “Christ is a man” to “Christ is a [89]: ST.I.Q79.A8-9
rational animal” is not nothing). Rather, he is saying [90]: Ephesians 1:9
that, contrary to the belief of some (famously, Fr. [92]: [Link].Q1.A3
Schultes and Fr. Garrigou-Lagrange following the [93]: [Link]-II.Q1.A4-5
Salmanticenses), this is not all that the evolution of [95]: ST.I.Q5.A5
dogma is. [96]: [Link].Q15.A4; [Link].Q45.A2
[d]: Editors note, this is said against Lugo and Suarez [98]: SCG3.C10; ST.I.Q105.A5;

54 55
FR. THOMAS GILBY A BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTR...

[100]: Metaph.Bk5.L1 [131]: [Link].D23.Q1.A2.Rep3

[101]: Daniel 3 [133]: SCG4.C50
[102]: John 3:16 [134]: [Link]-II.Q10.A12
[103]: Luke 12:6 [135]: [Link].Q75.A2
[105]: [Link].Q60.A2; [Link].Q65.A3; [Link].Q73.A3; [136]: [Link]-II.Q1.A10
[Link].Q79.A1 [137]: [Link]-II.Q10.A12
[106]: ST.I.Q45.A3, 4, 7; ST.I.Q79.A1 [138]: 1 Corinthians 2:12-13
[107]: ST.I.Q15.A3; ST.I.Q34.A3; ST.I.Q35.A2; [139]: ST.I.Q1.A5.Rep3; ST.I-II.Q57.A2; [Link]-
ST.I.Q44.A3 II.Q45.A1.Rep2
[108]: [Link]-II.Q23.A8 [140]: De Trinitate III
[109]: ST.I-II.Q68.A1-3
[110]: ST.I.Q43.A3, 5
[111]: ST.I.Q1.A1.Rep2
[112]: [Link]-II.Q2.A7
[113]: ST.I.Q10.A2
[114]: ST.I.Q75.A9
[115]: ST.I.Q10.A3
[116]: [Link].Q56.A1
[117]: ST.I.Q48-9
[118]: ST.I-II.Q79
[119]: ST.I-II.Q81-83; [Link].Q48-49; [Link].Q50.A6
[120]: Jude 3
[122]: ST.I.Q39
[123]: [Link].Q16
[124]: 1 Corinthians 12:13
[125]: 1 Corinthians 2:6
[126]: 1 Corinthians 12:4-8
[127]: [Link]-II.Q9.A2; [Link]-II.Q177.A2
[128]: 1 Corinthians 2:7-8
[129]: Romans 12:1
[130]: 2 Corinthians 10:5

56 57
Proof