Chapter 12
Improving the Liveability of Cities:
The Role of Solar Energy in Urban
and Peri-urban Areas
D. K. Sharma and G. Purohit
Abstract Solar energy utilisation is the most important energy resource for
bridging the gap between demand and supply of various energy needs in urban and
peri-urban areas. The energy consumption is basically in terms of electricity for
many appliances and equipment in homes, thermal energy for heating and cooling
in homes and passive solar architecture for energy efficient buildings. On the other
hand, the conventional energy consumption also induces the ecological imbalance
such as the generation of greenhouse gases. Therefore solar energy may be con-
sidered an environmentally friendly alternative energy source for sustainable
development. In this chapter, different active and passive solar energy harnessing
techniques have been discussed, analysed and recommended leading to zero
energy buildings (ZEBs) in urban and peri-urban areas. Here the study of solar
energy applications for all types of energy needs in a residential building for
advanced, ecological and smart liveability is presented. In this Chapter, we suggest
some effective ways to harvest solar energy in urban and peri-urban areas using
active and passive solar techniques.
Keywords Active solar PV Thermal BiPV Solar cooker Passive solar
Heating Cooling Sustainability
12.1 Introduction
Solar energy harvesting is one of the most important ways of sustainable living in
energy independent buildings which are usually called ZEBs. In urban and peri-
urban areas, solar energy can make life more facilitating and luxurious by meeting
D. K. Sharma (&) G. Purohit
School of Engineering, Sir Padampat Singhania University,
313601 Bhatewar, Udaipur, India
e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
B. Maheshwari et al. (eds.), The Security of Water, Food, Energy 151
and Liveability of Cities, Water Science and Technology Library 71,
DOI: 10.1007/978-94-017-8878-6_12,
Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2014
152 D. K. Sharma and G. Purohit
almost all energy needs. The biggest features of solar energy usage are that it is
firstly abundantly available and free of cost and secondly it is an eco-friendly
operation which is a major step towards preventing global warming and climate
change. There are two solar methods by which liveability can be improved, i.e.,
active solar and passive solar (Kroposki et al. 2009; Tinglong et al. 2011; Jakhar
et al. 2009; Jin and Zhou 2010; Guiping and Guangcai 2011).
The main types of active solar are SPV (Low et al. 2010; Szymanski et al. 2011)
and solar thermal (Stewart and Stewart 1991; Song et al. 2010; Kim et al. 1996;
Jardan et al. 2007). In passive solar, the architecture of the house or building is
designed for meeting the requirements for space heating in winter and space
cooling in summer (Sang Hoon Lim 1997; Jin and Zhou 2010; Twidell and
Johnstone 1993; Hong and Zhou 2010; Lim 1997; Stewart and Stewart 1991;
Jakhar and Mathur 2009; Guiping and Guangcai 2011; Lim 1997). Solar photo-
voltaic systems in the form of Building Integrated Photovoltaic (BiPV) can fulfil
the electricity needs inside and outside the house (Xiao and Sun 2011; Guan et al.
2010; Tinglong et al. 2011).
Solar thermal systems can meet the thermal energy requirements, i.e. heating
and cooling, in homes. Passive solar is simply efficient utilisation of the sun’s
energy to design and construct energy efficient buildings which are also called
green buildings (Muneer et al. 2005, Kroposki et al. 2009; Xu 2011; Jiang and
Rahimi-Eichi 2011). By adopting the solar energy utilisation techniques, the
economic viability can be enhanced and it would be able to reduce the dependency
on fossil fuels (Solanky et al. 1997; Guan et al. 2010).
12.2 Active Solar
Active solar primarily comprises solar photovoltaic (SPV) systems and solar
thermal systems. Firstly the SPV systems generate the master energy i.e. elec-
tricity. Today, almost all home appliances can be run on electricity and that is why
it is the master energy. The electricity produced by solar PV may be used in solar
lamps, solar fans, solar powered pumps, solar powered calculators, solar note-
books, solar radios, solar street lights, solar cell phone chargers and solar traffic
lights. SPV may also be used as BiPV (Xiao and Sun 2011; Guan et al. 2010). In
BiPV, the building is constructed in such a way that some parts of a building, like
the roof and windows, are replaced by solar PV modules for generating electricity
(Guan et al. 2010) at no extra cost of fixtures and space.
It can be said that solar PV can provide a sufficient supply of energy per
household. Another main application of active solar is thermal application in
homes (Song et al. 2010). Thermal application of active solar chiefly includes solar
water heating systems, solar cooking, solar powered refrigerators and solar pow-
ered air-conditioning systems (Kim et al. 1996). In land transport systems, active
solar plays a pivotal role by using solar vehicles (Yoshimi et al. 2012). In air
transport systems active solar is being used in electric aircraft, solar panels on
12 Improving the Liveability of Cities 153
Fig. 12.1 Typical Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) system
aircraft and other solar powered air transport systems like Mauro solar riser and
solar challenger. A solar boat can also be utilised as a water transport system.
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) is being used to construct a large solar power
plant. Active solar can also be classified and described as follows.
12.2.1 Solar Photovoltaic (SPV) Systems and CSP
Solar PV is a technology by which energy from the sun can be directly converted
into electrical energy or electricity (Szymanski et al. 2011). The electricity pro-
duced by SPV can provide an adequate power supply for many applications like
lighting, fans and water pumping. Solar PV systems (direct coupled and battery
coupled) especially standalone systems (Jardan et al. 2007) can meet the
requirements of electrical energy consumption in residential buildings and it can
act as a small level power generating system. Solar PV is proved to be an eco-
nomic solution for electrification in urban, rural and peri-urban areas (Khan and
Hague 2012). Rural and peri-urban areas can be successfully electrified using solar
PV due to the lesser connectivity to the power grid in these areas (Sanneh and Hu
2009). A typical Standalone Solar Photovoltaic system, with various components
similar to an inverter for ac loads and batteries for storage of power, has been
represented in Fig. 12.1.
154 D. K. Sharma and G. Purohit
Fig. 12.2 Concentrated solar power: solar thermal to electricity
Alternatively, by using a CSP system, a big scale power plant can be operated.
In concentrated solar power system (Moreno 2011), the heat energy from the sun is
used to heat the liquid (usually oil) flowing in the glass tube which are placed
inside a field of tracking mirrors in the shape of a parabolic trough collector and
consequently the liquid heats to a typical temperature of more than 750 F.
The heated liquid is then circulated through the pipes to a heat exchanger to
reheat the heated water using natural gas to create a high pressure stream. Con-
sequently, the stream is used to run the stream turbine which is connected to the
generators to generate electricity at a larger scale as in thermal power plants.
A CSP system can be viewed as in Fig. 12.2.
There are more than 300 days annually which India gets with a bright sunshine
for its significant utilization. The daily average solar energy incident over India
varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2 with approximately 1800–2200 sunshine hours per year
depending upon location which is far more than the current total energy con-
sumption (Solanki et al. 2012). This is equal to over a 5,000 trillion kWh/year,
which is far more than the total yearly energy consumption of the country. In the
solar energy sector in India, some large projects have been proposed and a
35,000 km2 area of the Thar Desert has been set aside for solar power projects,
sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 GW. SPV systems have found applications in
households, agriculture, telecommunications, defense and railways among others.
In the last two decades, the cost of PV has gone down by more than 10 times,
increasing accessibility for dispersed rural applications.
In July 2009, India unveiled a US$19 billion plan to produce 20 GW of solar
power by 2020 (Kaja and Barki 2011). Under the plan, the use of solar-powered
equipment and applications would be made compulsory in all government build-
ings, as well as hospitals and hotels. On 18 November 2009, it was identified that
India was ready to launch its Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM)
12 Improving the Liveability of Cities 155
Fig. 12.3 Typical solar thermal contribution in a residential building
under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), with plans to
generate 1,000 MW of power by 2013 (Solanki et al. 2012).
The Australian government has awarded the University of New South Wales
AU$ 5.2 million to train next-generation solar energy engineers from Asia-Pacific
nations, specifically India (Solanki et al. 2012) and China, as part of the Asia-
Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP). Land is a scarce
resource in India and per capita land availability is low. Dedication of land area for
exclusive installation of solar arrays might have to compete with other necessities
that require land. The amount of land required for utility-scale solar power plants
is currently approximately 1 km2 for every 20–60 MW generated.
12.2.2 Solar Thermal Systems
Solar thermal systems are basically used to meet the heating and cooling
requirements in buildings. Water heating using a solar thermal system is one of the
most usual applications. Solar cookers are also used to cook and reheat the food.
Due to developments in solar thermal technology, solar thermal based refrigerators
and air-conditioners are also in use. A typical solar thermal contribution has been
shown in Fig. 12.3.
Solar water heaters are also called solar domestic hot water systems and can be
a cost effective method to generate hot water for homes. They can be used in any
climate and the fuel used is sunshine which is absolutely free. Solar water heating
systems include storage tanks and solar collectors. Residential solar thermal
installations fall into two groups: passive sometimes called ‘‘compact’’ and active
sometimes called ‘‘pumped’’ systems. Both typically include an auxiliary energy
source electric heating element or connection to a gas or fuel oil central heating
system) that is activated when the water in the tank falls below a minimum
temperature setting such as 55 C. Hence, hot water is always available. The
combination of solar water heating and using the back-up heat from a wood stove
chimney to heat water can enable a hot water system to work all year round in
cooler climates, without the supplementary heating requirement of a solar water
heating system being met with fossil fuels or electricity.
156 D. K. Sharma and G. Purohit
The type, complexity, and size of a solar water heating system are mostly
determined by:
• The temperature and amount of the water required from the system.
• Changes in ambient temperature and solar radiation between summer and
winter.
• The changes in ambient temperature during the day-night cycle.
• The possibility of the potable water or collector fluid overheating.
• The possibility of the potable water or collector fluid freezing.
The minimum requirements of the system are typically determined by the
amount or temperature of hot water required during winter when a system’s output
and incoming water temperature are typically at their lowest. The maximum output
of the system is determined by the need to prevent the water in the system from
becoming too hot.
Solar cookers are used to cook or heat food and solar cooking is the simplest,
safest and most convenient way to cook food without consuming fuels or heating
the kitchen and many people choose to cook with solar for these reasons. Solar
water pasteurization is a life-saving skill for hundreds of millions of people around
the world who cook over fires fuelled by wood or dung and who walk for miles to
collect wood or spend much of their meagre incomes on fuel and for the millions
of people who lack access to safe drinking water and become sick or die each year
from preventable waterborne illnesses. The World Health Organization reports that
in 23 countries, 10 % of deaths are due to just two environmental risk factors:
unsafe water, including poor sanitation and hygiene; and indoor air pollution due
to solid fuel use for cooking. There are mainly three types of solar cookers i.e. Box
type, parabolic type and Panel type.
In urban areas, the active solar techniques viz. solar PV for power sustained
supply, solar thermal for water heating and solar cookers for cooking may be
useful for minimum possible energy consumption in homes. By using these
techniques power grids will be prevented from overloading and also our envi-
ronment would be pollution free and greener.
12.3 Passive Solar
Passive solar especially concentrates on the environment-friendly and energy effi-
cient buildings which are usually known as Green Buildings. In passive solar, the
buildings are designed in such a way that solar energy can be utilised for most of the
heating needs in the building. Passive solar design is an aspect of building design in
which the solar cycle is exploited in winter to provide free passive building heating.
In essence, the heat of the sun is ‘captured’ in winter to provide building heat—
known as designing for solar gain. The passive in passive solar means that there is no
active device or machinery required to extract the benefits of solar heating which is
being achieved by designing and constructing buildings in a specific manner.
12 Improving the Liveability of Cities 157
Fig. 12.4 Elements of passive solar design, shown in a direct gain application
Daylight also provides natural light for a building’s interior as an open plan
design can allow light to reach through a building. Using natural daylight rather
than switching on artificial lights can help reduce energy demands and also provide
a better quality of light. It has been indicated that such natural daylight conditions
also provide improved productivity at work and better health.
12.3.1 Working Principle of Passive Solar Design
There are five separate principals as in Fig. 12.4 that when combined provide a
complete passive solar building design as follows:-
(a) Aperture Collector is a large glass window area through which sunlight enters
the building. Typically, the apertures should face within 30 degrees of true
South or North (if in the Southern hemisphere) and should not be shaded by
buildings or trees from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. each day during the heating season.
(b) Absorber is a hard, darkened surface of the storage element. This surface;
which could be that of a masonry wall, floor, or partition phase change
material, or that of a water container; sits in the direct path of sunlight.
Sunlight hits the surface and is absorbed as heat.
(c) Thermal mass is materials that retain or store the heat produced by sunlight.
The difference between the absorber and the thermal mass, although often the
same wall or floor is that the absorber is an exposed surface whereas thermal
mass is the material below or behind that surface.
158 D. K. Sharma and G. Purohit
(d) Distribution is the method by which solar heat circulates from the collection
and storage points to different areas of the house. A strictly passive design will
use the three natural heat transfer modes conduction, convection, and radiation
exclusively. In some applications fans, ducts and blowers may help with the
distribution of heat throughout the house.
(e) Control whereby roof overhangs can be used to shade the aperture area during
summer months. Other elements that control under and/or overheating include:
electronic sensing devices, such as a differential thermostat that signals a fan to
turn on; operable vents and dampers that allow or restrict heat flow; low-
emissivity blinds; and awnings.
12.3.2 Passive Solar Heating
Two primary elements of passive solar heating are: (a) South facing glass or
window, and (b) Thermal mass to absorb, store, retain and distribute heat. There
are three techniques to design passive solar systems—direct gain, indirect gain
and isolated gain. The goal of all passive solar heating systems is to capture the
sun’s heat within the building’s elements and release that heat during periods when
the sun is not shining. At the same time that the building’s elements are absorbing
heat for later use, solar heat is to be available for keeping the space comfortable
but not overheated.
In the Direct Gain system, the actual living space is a solar collector, heat
absorber and distribution system. South facing glass admits solar energy into the
house where it strikes directly and indirectly thermal mass materials in the house
such as masonry floors and walls. The direct gain system will utilize 60–75 % of
the sun’s energy striking the windows.
Thermal mass in the interior absorbs the sunlight and radiates heat at night. In a
direct gain system, the thermal mass floors and walls are functional parts of the
house. It is also possible to use water containers inside the house to store heat.
However, it is more difficult to integrate water storage containers into the design of
a house. The thermal mass will temper the intensity of the heat during the day by
absorbing the heat. At night, the thermal mass radiates heat into the living space.
In an Indirect Gain system, thermal mass is located between the sun and the
living space. The thermal mass absorbs the sunlight that strikes it and transfers it to
the living space by conduction. The indirect gain system will utilise 30–45 % of
the sun’s energy striking the glass adjoining the thermal mass.
There are two types of indirect gain systems: (a) Thermal storage wall systems
and (b) Roof pond systems. The thermal mass is located immediately behind south
facing glass in this system. Operable vents at the top and bottom of a thermal
storage wall permit heat to convect from between the wall and the glass into the
living space. When the vents are closed at night radiant heat from the wall heats
the living space.
12 Improving the Liveability of Cities 159
An isolated gain system has its integral parts separate from the main living area
of a house. Examples are a sunroom and a convective loop through an air collector
to a storage system in the house. The ability to isolate the system from the primary
living areas is the point of distinction for this type of system. The isolated gain
system will utilise 15–30 % of the sunlight striking the glazing toward heating the
adjoining living areas. Solar energy is also retained in the sunroom.
12.3.3 Passive Solar Cooling
Passive Solar Cooling can be used to allow natural breezes into the buildings.
These breezes can help cool down buildings and provide fresh air. For large
buildings the stack effect can be used, due to the fact that hot air rises, where a
solar chimney can help draw air out from a building.
A primary strategy for cooling buildings without mechanical assistance, passive
cooling in hot humid climates is to employ natural ventilation. The Fan and
Landscape sections also address ventilation strategies. The increased glazing on
the south side needed for passive heating makes it possible to achieve helpful solar
gain and ventilation with the following strategies:
• Place operable windows on the south exposure;
• Casement windows offer the best airflow. Awning or hopper windows should be
fully opened or air will be directed to the ceiling. Awning windows offer the best
rain protection and perform better than double hung windows; and
• Where a room can have windows on one side only, use two widely spaced
windows instead of one window.
A thermal chimney employs convective currents to draw air out of a building.
By creating a warm or hot zone with an exterior exhaust outlet, air can be drawn
into the house ventilating the structure. Sunrooms can be designed to perform this
function. The excessive heat generated in a south facing sunroom during the
summer can be vented at the top. With the connecting lower vents to the living
space open along with windows on the north side, air is drawn through the living
space to be exhausted through the sunroom upper vents. The upper vents from the
sunroom to the living space and any side operable windows must be closed and the
thermal mass wall in the sunroom must be shaded. Thermal mass indirect gain
walls can be made to function similarly except that the mass wall should be
insulated on the inside when performing this function.
Thermal chimneys can be constructed in a narrow configuration like a chimney
with an easily heated black metal absorber on the inside behind a glazed front that
can reach high temperatures and be insulated from the house. The chimney must
terminate above the roof level. A rotating metal scoop at the top which opens
opposite the wind will allow heated air to exhaust without being overcome by the
prevailing wind. Thermal chimney effects can be integrated into the house with
open stairwells and atria. This approach can also be an aesthetic plus to the home.
160 D. K. Sharma and G. Purohit
12.4 Other Ventilation Strategies
In peri-urban areas passive solar may prove easier to install and implement as in
these areas the buildings are new and under construction. Therefore it is possible to
include the passive architectural design in newly constructed buildings flats or
apartments for maximum benefits of passive solar techniques such as partially
earth bermed buildings and cross ventilation, terrace micro gardening and glazing
for better cooling. Proper inclination of the buildings is also important to maintain
the inside temperature suitable for the season i.e. summer and winter as discussed
above. By using passive solar along with active solar techniques in peri-urban
areas, the cost of cooling machines like fans and air conditioners can be reduced
leading to cost effective and better liveability. It would also prove to be a step
towards a sustainable and eco-friendly society.
The following strategies may also improve energy efficiency of buildings:
• Design the outlet openings slightly larger than the inlet openings.
• Place the inlets at low to medium heights to provide airflow at occupant levels in
the room.
• Inlets close to a wall result in air ‘‘washing’’ along the wall. Be certain to have
centrally located inlets for air movement in the centre areas of the room.
• Screening a porch will not reduce air speeds as much as screening the windows.
• Night ventilation of a home should be done at a ventilation rate of 30 air changes
per hour or greater. Mechanical ventilation will usually be required to achieve
this.
• High mass houses can be cooled with night ventilation provided that fabric
furnishings are minimized.
• Keep high mass houses closed during the day and opened at night.
12.5 Concluding Remarks
In this chapter, mainly active solar techniques are examined for urban areas and
passive solar techniques for peri-urban areas. It is expected that by using the active
and passive solar techniques, our society may prove to be more eco-friendly and
leading towards a greener and sustainable future. It is evident that solar energy can
play an important role in improving liveability in residential buildings in urban and
peri-urban areas and reduce carbon emissions. The technical aspects of various
solar energy techniques are discussed here and subsequently recommended for
practical usage. Solar PV can be utilised for power generation for all electricity
requirements in houses and buildings. By using solar cookers, most of the cooking
needs can be fulfilled. Solar water heaters can be employed for heating water and
by employing passive solar techniques for heating buildings and houses in winter,
better liveability will result without the running consumption costs. In general,
12 Improving the Liveability of Cities 161
proper architectural planning of residential buildings for Passive Solar and
equipping other solar energy systems for Active Solar are two requirements to
practise sustainable living. In urban areas, besides solar PV and solar water
heating, other passive solar techniques like glazing and roof top gardening can be
employed for cooling in summer. In peri-urban areas, buildings can be designed
and constructed in such a manner to ensure the maximum possible advantages
from solar PV for electricity generation, water heating and passive architecture for
cooling and heating in summer and winter respectively.
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