Workover Well Control Calculations

Basic workover well control calculations are shown in Fig. 2-1. These calculations and the surface
indicators used with them can be divided into three general groups:
• Wellbore and formation fluid pressures
• Wellbore fluid volumes and workover fluid volumes
• Wellbore forces (acting on BOPs, plugs, packers, etc.)

Well & Formation Well & Workover Pressure

Pressures Fluid Volumes Forces

Surface Calculations Surface Calculations Calculations

Indicators Indicators

• SITP • Hydrostatic • Tank volume • Tubing and • Cross

pressure casing sectional
• SICP Actual area
volumes
• Gradient • pump
• Friction and
output • Pressure
• Equivalent capacities
Pressure force
Indicator fluid weight
• Annulus • Differential
• Balanced volumes
force
fluid weight and
capacities
• Static BHP
Displacement
• Formation •
volumes
pressure
• MASP

Figure 2-1 Overview of workover well control calculations and indicators

Surface Indicators of Pressure
Surface indicators of pressure (i.e., tubing and casing pressure gauges) will allow you to infer what the
downhole pressures are and how they change with time. Youcan use these pressure readings for many well
control calculations. Monitoring these pressures can help you prevent burst casing, formation damage, lost
circulation, and other well control problems. It is important, therefore, that you report them accurately and
monitor them carefully. Two important pressure indicators are the shut-in tubing pressure (SITP) gauge and
the shut-in casing pressure (SICP) gauge.
The SITP gauge is connected to the bore of the tubing or work string (see Fig. 2-2).How you use the SITP
reading depends on the circulation path that will be used to control the well. If the circulation is forward
(down the tubing and up the annulus),you will generally control the well over the long term with the tubing
gauge. (In addition to the SITP reading, you will use the SICP reading to assist in initially establishing
circulation, which is called “bringing the well on choke.”) You will also use the SITP reading to estimate
pressure at the bottom of the hole and to calculate the fluid weight needed to balance the well.
The SICP gauge is connected to the annulus (see Fig. 2-2). How you use the SICP reading also depends
on the circulation path that will be used to control the well. Ifthe circulation path is reverse (down the
annulus and up the tubing), you will generally control the well over the long term with the annulus
gauge. (In this situation, you will use the SITP gauge reading to bring the well on choke.) During certain
specialized well control procedures, the SICP gauge reading is used to control bottomhole pressure when
fluid must be pumped into the top of the well orbled out of the well (see “Volumetric Method” on page
3-40).

Figure 2-2 SICP and SITP gauges

Friction Pressure
Energy is required to move fluid through the wellbore at a certain rate. In order to move, the fluid must
overcome the frictional forces between the particles of the fluid itself and between the fluid and the
surfaces it contacts (tubing wall, annulus walls, and string restrictions). The pump generates energy to
overcome this friction;this energy is commonly called friction pressure or “pump pressure.”

Friction Principles
1 The total friction pressure (or pump pressure) is sum of the individual frictionalresistances along the fluid
flow path. Resistance is found in:
• The surface lines from the pump to the rig floor
• The tubing or work string
• The annulus
• Internal string restrictions such as selective landing nipples and slidingsleeves (Fig. 6-3 and Fig.
6-14)
In a workover with typical completion geometry, 65–95% of the friction is generated in the tubing and the
remainder in the annulus. This is due to a higherfluid velocity inside the smaller tubing diameter compared
with that in the largerannulus.
2 The total friction (and hence the pump pressure) does not change with the circulation path. The total
friction is the same forwards or backwards (3+2 = 2+3). The pump pressure will be the same whether
forward circulating (downtubing, up annulus) or reverse circulating (down annulus, up tubing).
3 The frictional pressure applied to points downhole does change with the circulation path. When the fluid
leaves the pump, its energy is progressively used up. The energy (friction pressure) that has been used
cannot exert force onthe wellbore or formation; only the remaining energy can. Said another way, the
pressure exerted on any point in the wellbore is equal to the sum of the frictionalresistances downstream
(ahead) of that point. In reverse circulation, the friction pressure exerted on the formation perfs (just
outside the mouth of the tubing) equals the total downstream resistance (i.e., the tubing friction). This can
be a significant amount of pressure. In forward circulation, the tubing friction pressure is expended by the
time the fluid reaches the end of the tubing; it is not“felt” by the formation perfs. What is felt is the total
downstream friction at thatpoint, i.e., the annulus friction pressure, which is generally less.
Fig. 2-3 illustrates some examples of these principles.

Figure 2-3 Tubing/annulus friction pressure distribution

According to the first two principles, the indicated pump pressure is the same for both forward and
reverse circulation (a sum total of 1,000 psi). Notice, however, that the friction pressure exerted on the
formation is considerably different.The formation is exposed to 750 psi friction pressure in reverse
circulation, but only 200psi in forward circulation. The third principle explains this difference: when the
fluid leaves the pump, friction is lost along its path until it reaches the bottom of thehole. In forward
circulation, 50 psi pump line friction plus 750 psi tubing friction islost. This leaves 200 psi, which is the
downstream pressure exposed to the formation, as stated in the third principle above. In reverse
circulation, only 250 psiis lost by the time the fluid reaches bottom, leaving 750 psi downstream pressure
at the mouth of the tubing. The 750 psi is exposed to the formation (550 psi higher than forward
circulation).
The WSS needs to be aware of this invisible effect when choosing the circulation path. Although the
pressure differential cannot be seen on the pump gauge (it readsthe same in both cases), the effect is
“felt” downhole. If the formation perfs areexposed, whole fluid may be pumped away or the formation
fractured.
Note that the example in Fig. 2-3 is an open well that is being circulated. Shut-inwells in the circulating
condition are covered later in this lesson (see “Dynamic Pressure Analysis” on page 2-34). The friction
pressure principles still apply, butthey are easier to understand in the open well case, which is mathematically
simpler.
Depending on your geographic location, you will hear other terms used to describefriction pressure—“friction
drop,” “pressure drop,” “friction loss,” “dynamic pressure,” and “ECD.” ECD (equivalent circulating density)
is not a correct synonym for friction pressure, however. ECD is actually the sum of the fluid weightplus the
“equivalent” weight of the friction pressure.
The values used for the friction pressures in the previous example are illustrative values only, not actual
values. At the well site, you should use a computerized hydraulics program to determine friction pressures
for the well, based on the specific wellbore geometry and fluid properties that you have supplied. (Even
though these calculations can be done manually, it is a tedious process and prone tomath mistakes.)

Calculations Related to Well and Formation Pressure

This section presents calculations that the WSS uses to plan and execute workover operations. These
calculations provide values for the following:
• hydrostatic pressure and pressure gradient
• crude oil hydrostatic pressure
• equivalent fluid weight (FW)
• balanced fluid weight (FW)
• static well analysis

In the examples that follow, field units (English) will be used. (For metric unit conversion factors, see
“Conversion Factors” on page A-10 in the Appendix.)
Hydrostatic Pressure and Pressure Gradient
Hydrostatic pressure is the pressure exerted by a column of fluid due to its own weight. The amount of
pressure is dependent on the density (weight) of the fluid, expressed in pounds per gallon (ppg), and the
vertical height of the fluid column, based on true vertical depth (TVD). TVD is the depth of a well
measured from thesurface straight to the bottom of the well, as opposed to the length of the wellbore, or
measured depth (MD). All wells have both measurements. In a vertical well, TVD and MD will be the
same, but in a deviated wellbore the two measurements will not be equal (Fig. 2-4). To determine
hydrostatic pressure, always use TVD.

Figure 2-4 True vertical depth (TVD) and measured depth (MD)
The following equation is used to calculate hydrostatic pressure.The conversion factor 0.052 is used in the
equation to change the final answer to pressure, expressedas pounds per square inch (psi).

Hydrostatic Pressure (psi) = Fluid Weight (ppg)  (0.052)  TVD (ft)

Example 1:
Given: A 10,000 ft TVD well contains 10.0 ppg workover fluid.
Find: Hydrostatic pressure
Solution: Hydrostatic Pressure = 10,000  10  0.052* = 5,200 psi

Example 2:
Given: A deviated well of 8,000 ft TVD and 10,200 ft MD. The well
contains10.2 ppg of workover fluid.
Find: Hydrostatic pressure at bottom of well
Solution: Hydrostatic Pressure = 10.2  0.052*  8,000 = 4,243 psi
*conversion factor to yield psi

A pressure gradient (or simply gradient) is a measure of the pressure exerted by one foot of a vertical column of
fluid. The gradient is expressed in psi/ft. Therefore, if afluid had a gradient of 1 psi/ft, then a 10,000-foot
column of this fluid would exert 10,000 psi (10,000  1 psi/ft). If the fluid had a gradient of 0.5 psi/ft, then a
10,000- foot column would exert 5,000 psi (10,000  0.5), and so on.

Gradient is commonly reported in wellbore data and is the basis for many oilfieldcalculations. Formation
data, completion data, and workover fluid data are often reported as gradients as a matter of
convenience.The WSS must know how to manipulate the gradient to perform various calculations.
Pressure Gradient (psi/ft) = Fluid Weight (ppg)  0.052 Fluid
Weight (ppg) = Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)  0.052

Example 1:
Given: Workover fluid with a density of 9.6 ppg
Find: Pressure gradient of the fluid
Solution: Pressure Gradient = 9.6  0.052 = 0.499 psi/ft

Example 2:
Given: Workover fluid with a gradient of 0.530 psi/ft
Find: Fluid weight (density)
Solution: Fluid Weight = 0.530 ÷ 0.052 = 10.192 = 10.2 ppg

The fluid weight in Example 2 is rounded to 10.2 ppg. Rounding up to the nearest tenth is standard
practice because fluid densities can be measured only to this levelof accuracy on the rig.
In addition to using pressure gradient to find fluid weight, you can use it to help determine the
hydrostatic pressure of the well fluid. Hydrostatic pressure is calculated in different ways, depending
on the known data—such as the pressuregradient of the workover fluid and the TVD of the well.

Hydrostatic Pressure = Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)  TVD (ft)

Example:
Given: Workover fluid with a gradient of 0.520 psi/ft at 8,762 ft TVD
Find: Hydrostatic pressure of the fluid
Solution: Hydrostatic Pressure = 0.520  8,762 = 4,556.24 = 4,556 psi
Crude Oil Hydrostatic Pressure
Crude oil is often encountered during workover operations. Although crude exerts hydrostatic pressure like
any other fluid, its density is temperature sensitive, and a correction must be applied to the hydrostatic
calculation to take this factor into account. Furthermore, crude density is often measured and reported in
another unitsystem called API gravity or “API degrees.” An API gravity of 10 is equal to the density of
fresh water. As the API gravity number increases, the density decreases. For example, API gravity 12 (API
12°) is lighter oil than API 10 (API 10°). Oil density is measured with an API hydrometer that is calibrated
to 60°F. Rarely is thetemperature of the oil 60°F when it is measured. The following equations can be used
to make the necessary correction for temperature.

If observed temperature > 60°F:

(Observed Temp - 60)10

Observed Density (on hydrometer) – = APIcorrected

If observed temperature < 60°F:

(60 - Observed Temp)

Observed Density (on hydrometer) – = APIcorrected
10

After the density has been corrected for temperature, the hydrostatic pressure can becalculated using the
following formula:
141.5
Hydrostatic Pressure =  .433  TVD
(131.5 + APIcorrected )

Equivalent Fluid Weight (FW)

Pressures, expressed in psi units, are often converted to their fluid weight “equivalents” (expressed in
ppg units) for the convenience of simplifying comparisons between downhole pressures and the fluid
weight required to balancethose pressures. The pressures most commonly converted to an equivalent
fluid weight include gauge pressures, friction pressures, formation pressures, and test pressures.
Pressure gradients (expressed in units of psi/ft) can also be converted toequivalent fluid weights.

Equivalent Fluid Weight = Pressure (psi)  TVD (ft)  0.052Equivalent

Fluid Weight = Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)  0.052

Example 1:
Given: Shut-in tubing pressure (SITP) of 2,600 psi and a well depth of
9,854 ft TVD
Find: Equivalent fluid weight (FW)
Solution: Equivalent FW = 2,600 ÷ 9,854 ÷ 0.052 = 5.07 = 5.1 ppg

Example 2:
Given: Formation pressure gradient of 0.530 psi/ft
Find: Equivalent fluid weight of the formation
Solution: Equivalent FW = 0.530 ÷ 0.052 = 10.19 = 10.2 ppg
Balanced Fluid Weight (FW)
Balanced fluid weight is the fluid weight equivalent of the formation pressure for aparticular well. The
calculation for balanced fluid weight is the same as that for equivalent fluid weight: pressure (psi) ÷ TVD ÷
0.052.
Once you have determined the balanced fluid weight of the formation, you can compare it with the density
of the fluid in the wellbore. It may be necessary to weight up the fluid to that density to balance the
formation pressure, which is an important method of controlling formation fluids. (In the oilfield, the terms
kill fluidweight or simply “kill weight” are often used interchangeably to refer to the balanced fluid weight.
These terms are discussed in more detail in “Kill Fluid Weight” on page 2-14.)

Balanced Fluid Weight = Formation Pressure (psi)  TVD (ft)  0.052

Balanced Fluid Weight = Formation Gradient (psi/ft)  0.052

Example:
Given: Documented formation pressure of 9,800 psi for a well at
14,300 ft TVD
Find: Balanced fluid weight (FW)
Solution: Balanced FW = 9,800 ÷ 14,300 ÷ 0.052 = 13.179 ppg =
13.2 ppg

It is advisable to add a hydrostatic pressure safety margin to the balanced fluid weight. Sometimes called
overbalance, this safety margin provides extra pressure inthe wellbore to avoid underbalance caused by
choke manipulation, pipe movement,or fluid temperature changes as well as unknown pressures
encountered in formations. The amount of safety margin varies from well to well and area to area ina range
of up to 200 psi.
Balanced Fluid Weight (with safety margin)
= (Safety Margin (psi) + Formation Pressure (psi))  TVD (ft)  0.052

Example:
Given: Documented formation pressure of 9,800 psi for a well at
14,300 ft TVD
Find: Balanced fluid weight (FW) with a 200 psi safety margin
Solution: Balanced FW = (200 + 9,800) ÷ 14,300 ÷ 0.052 = 13.45 =
13.5 ppg
In these examples, the difference between the overbalanced fluid weight and the balanced fluid
weight is 0.3 ppg (13.5 - 13.2 = 0.3), which might be referred to inthe field as 3 “points” of
overbalance. A difference of, say, 2.0 ppg would be referred to as 2 “pounds” of overbalance.

Kill Fluid Weight

Kill fluid weight is the weight of a drilling fluid that allows that fluid to equal or exceed the pressure
exerted by the formation fluids. Although formation pressures taken from recent production test data
can be used to calculate kill fluid weight, thisdata may not always be accessible or accurate. You can,
however, apply other principles explained in this lesson to determine the kill fluid weight. For
example, you will most often have an SITP reading and some knowledge of the nature of thefluid
inside the tubing. Fig. 2-5 illustrates a set of sample conditions found in a workover well along with
the calculations for determining balanced and overbalanced kill fluid weights for this set of conditions.
Kill Fluid Weight (balanced)

= (SITP  TVDperfs  0.052)

+ Tubing Fluid Weight

Example 1:
Find: Kill fluid weight at top perfs
Solution: Kill FW = (1,900 ÷10,570 ÷ 0.052)
+ 6.7 = 10.16 ppg = 10.2 ppg*

Example 2:

Find: Kill fluid weight at mid perfs Solution:

Kill FW = (1,900 ÷ 10,670 ÷ 0.052)
+ 6.7 = 10.12 ppg = 10.2 ppg*

*Kill FW always rounded up to next 0.1 ppg

Kill Fluid Weight (Overbalanced)

= (SITP + Overbalance)  TVDperfs  0.052

+ Tubing Fluid Weight

Figure 2-5 Calculating kill fluid weight (balanced and overbalanced)

Theoretically, the kill fluid weight calculated for the top set of perforations (top perfs) should be higher than
that for the middle set (mid perfs). Comparing Examples 1 and 2 of the sample calculations above,
however, shows that the difference is insignificant. If the total length of perforations were greater than that in
the example, or if the perforation depth were much shallower, the difference could be significant. Using the
top perforation depth would be more conservative. Client policy, however, may dictate calculating at certain
points.
Static Bottomhole Pressure
Static bottomhole pressure (BHP) is the pressure at the bottom of the wellbore whenthe well is static
(not circulating). In Fig. 2-5, the static BHP is equal to the SITP plus the hydrostatic pressure of the oil
column inside the tubing. If there were several different fluids in the tubing, the static BHP would be
the total of their hydrostatic pressures plus the SITP. In a shut-in well in communication with the
perforations (that is, where there are no plugs or blocks and the pressure can be transmitted freely), the
static BHP is also equal to the formation pressure.

Static Bottomhole Pressure (BHP) = SITP +

Total Tubing Hydrostatic Pressure
Example:
Given: SITP = 1,900 psi, tubing fluid weight = 6.7 ppg, TVD = 10,670 ft
(see Fig. 2-5)
Find: Static bottomhole pressure at mid perfs
Solution: BHP = 1,900 + (6.7  0.052  10,670) = 5,617 psi

Calculating bottomhole pressure is important when killing wells. Later lessons willdescribe methods
for maintaining as well as manipulating bottomhole pressure.

Static Well Analysis

Fig. 2-6 shows a shut-in well in the static (noncirculating) condition. You can usethe information in
this figure and the principles explained thus far in this lesson tounderstand:
• The principle of additive pressures
• Why the casing pressure differs from the tubing pressure
• The U-tube effect
Figure 2-6 Sample conditions for static well analysis
Static Well Analysis

Example 1: Finding static BHP

Given: Conditions in Fig. 2-6
Find: Static BHP

Solution: BHP = SITP (160) + Total Tubing Hydrostatic Pressure

(10,600  0.052  9.2) = 5,231 psi

The BHP of 5,231 psi pushes up on the annulus. Thus, the SICP represents
the BHP pushing up minus the total hydrostatic pressure in the annulus
pushing down. To calculate SICP, add all the individual pressures in the
annulus and subtract the total from the BHP, as follows:

Example 2: Finding annulus hydrostatic pressure and proving SICP

Given: BHP from Example 1 (5,231 psi)
Find: Total annulus hydrostatic pressure and prove the SICP in Fig. 2-6
Solution: Total annulus hydrostatic pressure =
brine below gas (100  0.052  9.2) + gas (1,000  0.108) +

brine above gas (9,500  0.052  9.2) = 4,701 psi

SICP = BHP (5,231) - Total Annulus Hydrostatic Pressure (4,701) =
530 psi

Example 3: Finding tubing hydrostatic pressure and proving SITP

Given: BHP from Example 1 (5,231 psi)
Find: Total tubing hydrostatic pressure and prove the SITP in Fig. 2-6
(This calculation may seem redundant, but it gives practice in
calculating from the bottom to the top of the well.)
Solution: Total tubing hydrostatic pressure = TVD (10,600)  0.052 
tubing fluid weight (9.2) = 5,071 psi
SITP = BHP (5,231) - tubing hydrostatic (5,071) = 160 psi

These static well analysis calculations illustrate some very important principles. In
these examples the SICP is higher than the SITP because the column of fluids in the
annulus is lighter in weight than the fluid column in the tubing; thus, it pushes down
with less force against a constant BHP pushing up. The result is a higher gauge reading. If the annulus
fluid weight had been heavier than the tubing fluid weight,then the SITP would have been higher.
Understanding how the SICP and SITP reflect downhole conditions is essential forthe WSS. In a shut-in
well, the total pressure on the tubing side (including the gaugepressure) must balance the total pressure on
the casing side (including the gauge pressure). Stated another way, the SITP equals the bottomhole pressure
minus the total tubing hydrostatic pressure, and the SICP equals the bottomhole pressure minus the total
annulus hydrostatic pressure. This principle of balanced pressures isreferred to as the U-tube effect. The
WSS must understand this principle to diagnosedownhole conditions and control the well. (See the
workbook for practice problemsrelated to the U-tube effect.)
Since U-tube pressures are balanced and equal, you might wonder why all the formulas above use readings
from the tubing side for calculating values for kill fluidweight, BHP, and so on. The reason is that, in most
cases, you know with reasonable accuracy the nature of the liquid in the tubing and its associated density,
whereas the annulus may be filled with mixtures of contaminated liquids and gas ofunknown quantities and
densities and could lead you to err in determining kill fluidweight and BHP. Generally you should use the
tubing side to calculate both of thesemeasures.

Calculations Related to Well and Workover Fluid Volumes

This section presents calculations for fluid volumes that the WSS must take intoaccount during workover
operations. The calculations provide values for the following:
• tubing and casing capacities
• annular capacities
• displacement volume
• fluid tank volumes
• pump output
• hydrostatic pressure loss when pulling pipe
• dynamic pressure analysis
Tubing and Casing Capacities
Tubing capacity, in common oilfield usage, refers to the internal volume of a particular size of
tubing per unit length (bbl/ft). A more precise term would becapacity factor. Once you know the
capacity factor, you can calculate the totalinternal volume of the tubing or casing.

Internal Volume Calculations

Capacity Factor (bbl/ft) =

Inside Diameter (inches)2 ÷ 1029.4*

Internal Volume (bbls) = Capacity Factor(bbls/ft)

 Length (ft)

Example:

Given: 10,000 ft of tubing with 2-3/8" OD 

4.7 pounds per foot (ppf)
Find: Internal volume in bbls
Solution:

Capacity Factor = (1.995)2 ÷ 1029.4 =

0.00387 bbls/ft

Internal volume = 0.00387  10,000 =

38.7 bbls
Figure 2-7 Determining tubing or casing capacity factor and volumes

The formulas used to calculate the capacity factor and volume of a drilled hole are identical to those
above for a workover operation.These drilling calculations would be needed when deepening or
sidetracking the well during a workover.
Annular Capacities
An annulus is formed when one tubular occupies the space inside another, or a tubular is inside a drilled
hole. In common oilfield usage, the term annular capacitysometimes refers to the unit volume per foot of
annular length (bbl/ft); at other times it refers to the total volume (bbls) in the annulus. A more precise term
for unitvolume per foot is annular capacity factor. The annular capacity factor is used to determine total
annular volume in bbls, known as annular volume. In these calculations, casing size is based on inside
diameter (ID) whereas tubing size is based on outside diameter (OD).

Annular Volume Calculations

Annular Capacity Factor (bbls/ft) =

[Casing ID (inches)2 -
Tubing OD (inches)2] ÷ 1029.4

Annular Volume = Annular CapacityFactor

(bbls/ft)  Length (ft)

Example:
Given: 10,000 ft 2-3/8"; 4.7ppf tubing
inside 5-1/2"; 17 ppf casing
Find: Annular volume in bbls
Solution: Annular Capacity Factor =
(4.8922 - 2.3752) ÷ 1029.4 =
0.01777 bbl/ft

Annular Volume = 0.01777  10,000

= 178 bbls
Figure 2-8 Determining annular capacity factor and annular volume
Displacement Volume
The displacement volume of a tubular is the amount of liquid the tubular displaces when it is run into
the hole. This volume is equal to the volume of steel in the tubular. If tubing is run into the hole, the
steel displaces liquid in an amount equal toits displacement volume. Conversely, as tubing is pulled out
of the hole, the liquid fills in the void left by the tubing and the fluid level drops in proportion to the
displacement volume. “Closed-end displacement” refers to a situation in which thetubing is plugged
(intentionally or otherwise) when it is run into the hole. Because fluid is not free to fill the inside of the
tubing, the displacement volume increases significantly.
The term displacement is often used to mean the unit displacement per foot of tubing (bbl/ft), but it
may also mean the total displacement volume in barrels. Displacement factor is a more precise term for
describing the unit displacement, anddisplacement volume, or total displacement, for the total
displacement volume.
Displacement Calculations

Displacement Factor (bbls/ft) =

Pipe Weight (ppf) ÷ 2750*

Displacement Factor (bbls/ft)** = [Tubing OD

(inches)2 – Tubing ID (inches)2] ÷ 1029.4

Displacement Volume (bbls) = Displacement

Factor (bbls/ft)  Length (ft)

Closed-end Displacement Factor (bbls/ft) =OD

(inches) 2 ÷ 1029.4

Example 1:

Given: 10,000 ft of tubing 2-3/8" ID; 4.7 ppf

Find: Steel displacement volume in bbls
Displacement Factor = 4.7 ÷ 2750* =
0.00171 bbls/ft

Displacement Volume = 0.00171  10,000 =

17.1 bbls

Example 2:

Given: 10,000 ft of tubing 2-3/8" ID; 4.7 ppf

Find: Closed-end displacement in bbls
Displacement Factor = 2.3752 ÷ 1029.4 =
0.00548 bbl/ft

Displacement Volume = 0.00548  10,000 =

54.8 bbls
*2750 valid for steel only
Figure 2-9 Determining displacement factor and displacement volumes
Fluid Tank Volumes
Fluid tanks hold workover fluid at the surface. Knowing the volume at the surface and monitoring any
volume changes is very important. During workover operations,monitoring tank volumes can reveal the
presence of influx in the wellbore or loss offluid downhole. A pit volume totalizer system usually
monitors the fluid tank volumes on a drilling rig, but not all workover rigs have this system. Some
fluid tanks are marked to show what a vertical drop or increase in liquid level representsin number of
barrels and thus can help monitor downhole conditions. But since tanks sent to a workover rig may not
be marked to reflect accurate volumes, the WSS must be able to determine tank volumes with several
equations and a tape measure. Tank volume can be used to obtain the tank capacity factor, expressed
in volume per unit of tank depth (bbls/inch), which can help you equate a vertical dropor rise in tank
level with a specific volume.

Rectangular Rig Tank Volume

Tank Volume (cubic feet or ft3) = Length (ft)  Width (ft)  Depth (ft)

Tank Volume (bbls) = Tank Volume (ft3) ÷ 5.61*

Tank Capacity Factor (bbls/inch) = Tank Volume (bbls) ÷ Tank

Depth (ft) ÷ 12

Example:

Given: Rig tank measuring 20' 10" L  8' 0" W  6' 3" H
Find: Tank volume and tank capacity factor
Solution:
Convert dimensions to decimals
20'10" = 20 + 10/12 = 20.83'
8' 0" = 8.0'
6' 3" = 6 + 3/12 = 6.25'
Tank Volume (ft3) = 20.83  8.0  6.25 = 1,041.5 ft3
Tank Volume (bbls) = 1,041.5 ÷ 5.61 = 185.65 bbls
Tank Capacity Factor = 185.65 ÷ 6.25 ÷ 12 = 2.46 = 2.5 bbl/in
*conversion factor to convert cubic feet to bbl
Pump Output
The WSS must be able to determine the pump output (volume per pump stroke) of the positive displacement
pumps on the rig. Although pump manufacturers provideoutput information, it may not be available at the
rig site or it may no longer be accurate due to pump wear or poor maintenance. If the measured output is 25%
lessthan the rated output, the integrity of the pump is questionable.
During a well control operation, it is imperative for the WSS to base calculationsand pump rate
selection on true pump output and not the manufacturer’s data or anumber believed to be correct by
the rig crew. Pump output calculations vary somewhat, depending on whether the pump is equipped
with a stroke counter.

Pump with Stroke Counter

Actual Pump Output (bbl/stroke) = bbls pumped ÷ strokes recorded

Procedure:
1 Zero the stroke counter.
2 Pump a measurable volume, 5 or 10 bbls, into a calibrated tank.
3 Record the number of strokes pumped.
4 Calculate the output.

Example:
Given: 5 bbls, pumped into a calibrated tank; 71 strokes recorded
Find: Actual pump output in bbl/stroke
Solution: Pump Output = 5 ÷ 71 = 0.070 bbl/stroke

The workover procedure may call for pumping at a certain volume rate in barrels per minute (bpm).
Even if a rig has a stroke counter, you cannot accurately calculatebpm without knowing that the pump is
putting out the correct volume per stroke. Toensure accuracy, the actual output is used to calculate the
required pump speed, expressed in strokes per minute (spm).
Required Pump Speed (spm) = Required Volume Rate (bpm) ÷ ActualPump
Output (bbl/stroke)

Example:
Given: Workover procedure requiring volume rate of 3.0 bpm; actual
pump output of 0.070 bbl/stroke (see previous example)
Find: Required pump speed in spm
Solution: Required Pump Speed = 3.0 bpm ÷ 0.070 bbl/stroke = 42.9 =
43 spm

Pump without Stroke Counter

On some workover rigs stroke counters are not installed on the pumps, so the rig crew may have to estimate
pump output based on the tachometer reading for the engine driving the pump. To determine the actual
pump rate (bpm) in this case, usethe following procedure and calculations.

Actual Pump Rate (bpm) = barrel increase in tank ÷ minutes pumped

Procedure:
1 Align pump to pump from one tank and discharge to another tank that is
calibrated to measure volume.
2 Have the rig contractor operate the pump at the rate he believes it is
operating (e.g., 2 bpm). An experienced contractor’s estimate will usually
be close to the actual rate.
3 Pump at the above rate for an even increment of time (e.g., 1 minute, 5
minutes, etc.).
4 Record barrel increase in discharge tank.
5 Calculate actual pump rate.

Example:
Given: Pump operated at a rate of 2 bpm for 5.0 minutes, with increase of
9.5 bbls
Find: Actual pump rate in bpm
Solution: Actual Pump Rate = 9.5 bbl ÷ 5.0 min = 1.9 bpm
Additional Practice in Pump Calculations
The following workover example combines several of the situations andcalculations provided earlier to
give you a workover case study.

Workover Example

Given: You are in charge of a workover rig in a remote location. There is no

accurate output data for the positive displacement pump (which has a stroke
counter). You instruct the crew to pump between tanks for about 200 strokes
and record the exact number of strokes pumped as well as the inches gained
in the discharge tank. The crew reports 214 strokes and a gain of 10 inches.
Fluid tank dimensions: 8' (W)  15' (L)  6' 6" (H)
Tubing: 3-1/2"  9.3 ppf, ID = 2.995"
Tubing and annulus length = 12,200 ft
Casing ID = 6.995"
Workover specification: displace tubing and annulus at 2.5 bpm

Find: Tank calibration (bbls/in), bbls required, actual pump output, total
strokes, required pump speed, and total minutes

Solution:

1. Tank calibration
Volume (ft3) = 8.0  15.0  6.5 = 780.0 ft3
Volume (bbls) = 780.0 ÷ 5.61 = 139.04 bbls
Required volume bbls/in = 139.04 ÷ 6.5 ÷ 12 = 1.78 bbls/in

2. Bbls required
Tubing Capacity Factor = 2.9922 ÷ 1029.4 = 0.00870 bbl/ft
Tubing Volume = 0.00870  12,200 = 106.1 bbl
Annulus Capacity Factor = (6.9952 - 3.52) ÷ 1029.4 = 0.03563 bbl/ft
Annular Volume = 0.03563  12,200 = 434.7 bbl
Total bbls required = 434.7 + 106.1 = 540.8 = 541 bbls

3. Actual pump output (bbl/stroke)

Bbls pumped = 10 inches  1.78 bbl/in = 17.8 bbls
Output = 17.8 bbls ÷ 214 strokes = 0.0832 bbl/stroke

4. Total strokes = 541 bbls ÷ 0.0832 bbl/stroke = 6,502 strokes

5. Required pump speed = 2.5 bbls/min ÷ 0.832 bbl/stroke = 30.04 = 30 spm

6. Total minutes = 6,502 strokes ÷ 30 spm = 217 minutes

Hydrostatic Pressure Loss When Pulling Pipe
The calculations and concepts in this section combine principles for hydrostatic pressure,
displacements, and capacities. It is important to remember that the hydrostatic pressure in the well
drops when the fluid level drops while pulling production tubing from the hole. You must also be able
to quantify (put a number to) the loss of hydrostatic pressure when the fluid level drops. If you are
unaware ofthis effect or ignore it for too long, the well can become underbalanced and begin toflow.
You could experience a kick or even a blowout. Fatalities, environmental damage, well damage, and
loss of rigs have occurred because the hydrostatic pressure drop was not carefully monitored and
controlled.
As you pull tubing from a well, you remove steel volume from the liquid in the hole,and the liquid level
drops to fill in this space. A drop in liquid level reduces hydrostatic pressure and thus bottomhole
pressure. If the level drops both inside andoutside the tubing, you are pulling dry pipe. The hydrostatic
pressure loss caused bypulling dry pipe is given below.

Hydrostatic Pressure Loss (Dry Pipe)

Fluid Level Drop (ft) = Displacement Factor  Length Pulled

(Annular Capacity Factor + Tubing Capacity Factor)

(Tubing wt/ft  2750)  Length Pulled

=
(Casing ID2 – Tubing OD2  1029.4) + (Tubing ID  1029.4)

Hydrostatic Pressure Loss = Fluid Level Drop (ft)  Fluid Weight (ppg)
 0.052
Example:

Given: 1,000 ft of tubing with 2-7/8" OD and 6.5 ppf inside casing with
5-1/2" ID and 17 ppf (4.892" ID), 10.2 ppg completion fluid in wellbore
Find: Fluid level drop and loss of hydrostatic pressure
Solution:
Fluid Level Drop = (6.5  2750)  1,000
(4.8922 – 2.8752  1029.4) + (2.4412  1029.4)

0.00236  1,000
=
0.01522 + 0.00579 = 112.33 ft

Hydrostatic Pressure Loss = 112.33  10.2  0.052 = 59.58 = 60 psi

As the example shows, if you pull 1,000 feet of tubing without filling the hole, youlose 60 psi hydrostatic
pressure due to fluid level drop. Even more important; you would lose 60 psi of bottomhole pressure, which
might be enough to cause the wellto flow, depending on the well condition.

Hydrostatic Pressure Loss (Wet Pipe)

Fluid Level Drop (ft) =

(Displacement Factor + Capacity Factor)  Length Pulled
(Annular Capacity Factor)

((Tubing wt/ft  2750) + (Tubing ID2  1029.4))  Length Pulled

(Casing ID2 – Tubing OD2 )  1029.4

Hydrostatic Pressure Loss =

Fluid Level Drop (ft)  Fluid Weight (ppg)  0.052

Example:
Given: 1,000 ft of 2-7/8"OD, 6.5 ppf tubing (2.441" ID) inside 5-1/2" ID,
17 ppf casing (4.892" ID), 10.2 ppg completion fluid in wellbore
Find: Fluid level drop and loss of hydrostatic pressure
Solution:
((6.5  2750) + (2.4412  1029.4))  1,000
Fluid Level Drop =
(4.8922 – 2.8752)  1029.4

(0.00236 + 0.00579)  1,000

= = 535.37 ft
0.01522

Hydrostatic Pressure Loss = 535.37  10.2  0.052= 59.58 = 284 psi*

* Compare this hydrostatic pressure loss to that of the dry pipe example. The
tubular sizes and fluid weights are identical, yet the hydrostatic pressure loss is
over four times as great. Since you are pulling the contents of the pipe out of
the hole as well as the metal, the displacement for wet pipe is significantly
higher than that for dry. Therefore the fluid level drop and resulting hydrostatic
pressure loss are proportionally higher.
In certain geographic areas, there may be regulations concerning the amount of pipethat can be pulled from a
well without filling the hole as well as a requirement that this amount must be calculated and posted near
the driller’s station on the rig. In that case, it is convenient to rearrange the equation to solve for this
amount, as shown in the following example

Hydrostatic Pressure Effect

Sample Regulation: “When coming out of the hole with a work string, the
annulus shall be filled with well control fluid before the change in fluid level
decreases the hydrostatic pressure by 75 psi. The number of stands (or feet)
that may be pulled and the equivalent well control fluid volume shall be
calculated and posted near the driller’s station.”
Allowable Pipe Displacement Volume =
Allowable Pressure Loss (psi)  (Tubing Capy. Factor + Ann. Capy. Factor)
0.052  Fluid Weight (ppg)

Pipe Length Equivalent = Displacement Volume  2750

to Allowable Volume Pipe Weight (ppf)

Example:

Given: A well with tubing of 2-7/8" OD and 6.5 ppf (2.441" ID) is inside
casing of 5-1/2", 15.5 ppf (4.950" ID); fluid weight is 10.2 ppg.
Find: Allowable displacement volume of pipe that can be pulled to comply
with the sample regulation above (assume an allowable loss of 75 psi) and
equivalent length.
Solution:
Allowable Displacement Volume =
75  (0.00579 + 0.01577)
0.052  10.2 = 3.048 bbl

Equivalent Length = 3.048  2750

= 1 290ft
6.5
Dynamic Pressure Analysis
So far, this lesson has presented only static bottomhole pressure calculations. As stated earlier, static
bottomhole pressure refers to the pressure at the bottom of the hole (or pressure acting against the
formation) with the pumps off. As you learned earlier, however, friction pressure caused by moving
fluid exerts additional pressuredownhole. Therefore, when the pumps are running, as will be the case in
most workover kill procedures, you can expect extra pressure downhole. This pressure, inaddition to the
hydrostatic pressure of the workover fluid, will create circulating bottomhole pressure. As mentioned
earlier, the magnitude of the pressure will depend on the circulation path. Furthermore, the extra
frictional pressure downholeis “invisible” on the surface—it cannot be read on the pump gauge.
Understanding wellbore physics is important if you are to control downhole conditions. Fig. 2-10 and
the sample calculation illustrate this concept.
Figure 2-10 Conditions for determining circulating bottomhole pressure
Circulating Bottomhole Pressure

Given: Tubing friction = 2,400 psi; annulus friction = 300 psi; hydrostatic
pressure = 5,200 psi (see Fig. 2-10)
Find: Circulating bottomhole pressure (BHP) and pump pressure for
forward and reverse circulation
Solution:

1. Forward circulation
Circulating BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Annulus Friction Loss
Circulating BHP = 5,200 psi + 300 psi = 5,500 psi
Pump Pressure = Total Friction = 300 psi + 2,400 psi = 2,700 psi

2. Reverse circulation
Circulating BHP = Hydrostatic Pressure + Tubing Friction Loss
Circulating BHP = 5,200 psi + 2,400 psi = 7,600 psi
Pump Pressure = Total Friction = 2,400 psi + 300 psi = 2,700 psi

Note that in Fig. 2-10 the surface indicators (pump pressures) are identical but the bottomhole
pressures differ by 2,100 psi (7,600 - 5,500 = 2,100). As discussed in alater lesson (see “Reverse
Circulation Method” on page 3-19), there are valid reasons for choosing reverse circulation over
forward, but you must be aware that the two paths can produce significant differences in bottomhole
pressure.
Reverse circulation does not always yields higher bottomhole pressures. In a well with large tubing
and a relatively small annulus, as in a high-volume gas well completion, reverse circulation would
actually yield a lower bottomhole pressure. Bottomhole pressure is a function of the relative frictional
pressures, not merely thecirculation path.
Forces
A force can be defined as a push or a pull on an object. Although there are manytypes of forces
downhole, a workover crew must be especially concerned with pressure force and differential force.

Pressure Force
The force created by wellbore pressure, often referred to as pressure force, can be asafety concern to people
and equipment. The WSS must know where pressure forceexists, the extent of the force, and how to avoid its
effects.
To determine the pressure force on a typical round section of equipment (e.g., a
plug, a pipe, a packer), you must first calculate the area of the cross-section.

Cross-Sectional Area (in2) = 0.7854* 

Outside Diameter2

Example:
Given: Plugged pipe with 5" OD
Find: Cross-sectional area (in2)

Solution: Area = 0.7854  52 = 19.64 in2

Figure 2-11 Determining cross-sectional area

Pressure Force (pounds) =
Pressure (psi)  Area (in2)

Example:
Given: Closed-end pipe with area
of 19.64 in2, shut-in BOP under
3,000 psi

Find: Pressure force on pipe

Solution: 3,000  19.64 =
58,920 lbs of upward force

Figure 2-12 Determining pressure force on a cross-sectional area

The total upward force generated on the pipe in the example above is 58,920 pounds. Because the force
is coming from the bottom of the hole toward the surface,it is trying to eject the pipe from the hole. In
fact, the pipe would be ejected from thehole if the sum of the weight of the pipe and the frictional force
of the BOP ram rubbers totaled less than 58,920 pounds. Although this is a simplified example, it
illustrates why the WSS must be aware of these pressure forces when performing workover operations.

Differential Force
A differential force (or delta force) exists when the force acting on an object in one direction is
different from that acting in the opposite direction. Fig. 2-13 illustratesdifferential force on a plug
placed in a tubing bore during a workover. The net forceon the plug is equal to the difference in
formation pressure force pushing upward and the force of the hydrostatic pressure of the tubing fluid
pushing downward (sometimes called delta pressure). In this example the differential force is 22,500
pounds. If the plug were released suddenly, it would be propelled up the hole.
Therefore it is standard practice to equalize the pressure across these plugs beforeattempting to
release them. A lubricator assembly should also be installed.
Example:
Formation Pressure = 8,000 psi
Hydrostatic Pressure = 5,000 psi
Delta Pressure = 3,000 psi

Plug Area = 7.5 in2

Force = 3,000  7.5 = 22,500 lbs

Figure 2-13 Differential force

Differential force can also exist across downhole packers. The magnitude of this force on packers can be
much larger than that of plugs due to the larger cross- sectional area of the packers. Differential forces on
packers can be hundreds of thousands of pounds. Sand bridges sometimes occur inside tubing that
completely block the tubing bore, thus isolating the tubing above the bridge from formation pressure.
Tremendous differential forces can build up across these bridges. The WSS must be aware of this possibility
and plan to keep adequate fluid weight on topof the bridge before it is penetrated to prevent damage to
equipment or loss of wellcontrol.
The Barrier Concept
While a workover is in progress, physical barriers are necessary to prevent kicks
because the usual controls and conditions that prevent kicks during drilling are not
present. Workover conditions that differ from drilling conditions include the
following:
• Formations are more permeable since they have been perforated, stimulated, or
hydraulically fractured.
• Overbalanced conditions sustained in drilling are difficult to sustain in
workover wellbores that contain open, permeable zones.
• Workovers do not normally use a solids-laden fluid to deposit an impermeable
filter cake, so the formation is more likely to take fluid, resulting in a loss of
hydrostatic column height and possibly a loss of primary well control.
A barrier, as defined in Standard IPM-ST-WCI-012, is “any impervious material or
device that can be demonstrated to temporarily or permanently prevent the flow of
wellbore and reservoir fluids.” For a fluid to be considered a barrier, its hydrostatic
pressure must be greater than the formation pressure and its condition and position
must be capable of being monitored. Monitoring includes knowing the density of
the fluid and the level of the fluid. The fluid level is most accurately determined by
taking a sonic “picture” of the top of the fluid using a device called an echometer,
which is described in Lesson 6.
Barriers are divided into the following classes:
• Primary barriers are those used during normal workover operations. They
include such tools as a wireline stuffing box (see Fig. 6-17) or a workover fluid
providing hydrostatic pressure.
• Secondary barriers are used in support of normal operations or as a contingency
(e.g., an annular preventer or back-pressure valve).
• Tertiary barriers are used in emergencies—e.g., a shear or blind ram or a tree
master valve used to cut wireline (see Fig. 6-26 and Fig. 6-23).
Standard IPM-ST-WCI-012 requires at least two barriers at all times. The WSS
should review this entire standard to ensure compliance with all its conditions. (For
a list of standards applicable to workovers, see “IPM Standards” on page A-14 in
the Appendix.)
Gas Behavior in the Wellbore
Wellbore gas behaves according to a gas law that can be expressed mathematicallyas follows:
P 1  V1 = P2  V2

where
P1 = initial gas pressure (psi) V1 = initial gas volume
(bbls)P2 = final gas pressure (psi) V2 = final gas volume
(bbls)

For simplicity, the equation here does not include the effects of compressibility andtemperature.
As the equation shows, gas pressure and gas volume are related:
• If the pressure on the gas decreases, its volume must increase and vice versa.
• If the volume of a gas increases, its pressure must decrease and vice versa.
• If the volume of a gas remains the same, its pressure will remain the same.

Gas Expansion in an Open Wellbore

Fig. 2-14 illustrates gas behavior in an open wellbore as it moves upward,
expanding according to the gas law.
Example:

A 5 bbl gas bubble rises through 12 ppg

completion fluid to the top of a 10,000
ftopen well.

P1 = 0.052  12  10,000 = 6,240 psi

V1 = 5 bbls

V2 = P 1  V1 ÷ P 2

What is the gas volume when the bubble

has risen halfway to the surface (5,000
ft)?

V2 = 6,240  5 ÷ 3,120 = 10 bbls

What is the gas volume when the

bubblehas risen three-fourths of the
way to the surface, or half the previous
distance (2,500 ft)?

V2 = 6,240  5 ÷ 1,560 = 20 bbls

What is the gas volume when the

bubblehas risen seven-eighths of the
way to thesurface, or half the previous
distance (1.250 ft)?

V2 = 6,240  5 ÷ 780 = 40 bbls

What is the gas volume when the

bubbleexits the wellbore into the
atmosphere (atmospheric pressure =
Figure 2-14 Gas expansion according to the gas law
As the illustration shows, the gas volume doubles each time it moves one half its previous distance because
the hydrostatic fluid pressure on the gas is halved each time. This doubling effect becomes quite apparent
near the top of the wellbore, where it accelerates. A gas influx that is allowed to move this far up the
wellbore undetected will result in a strong increase in flow as workover fluid is pushed out ofthe well above
the gas. Without primary well control, more gas can enter the wellbore from the formation, further
accelerating the process until all the fluid has been blown out of the well, resulting in uncontrolled flow
from the formation.

Gas Expansion in a Wellbore Being Killed

In the previous example, the well is open at the top, as when displacing fluids during normal workover
operations or when tripping the tubing or work string intoor out of the hole. During workover kill
operations, the well is closed in with the BOPs. A choke is used to control back pressure on the well, which
maintains constant bottomhole pressure while the kick is being removed from the wellbore. Ina wellbore,
gas will still expand as it moves up the wellbore, but the amount of expansion will not be as great as in an
open well. The gas law explains this: since additional back pressure is applied to the wellbore and hence to
the gas itself, the pressure on the gas is greater and its volume increase must be less. Typically, as thegas
moves from the bottom to the top of the well, its volume increases about three tofour times its original
volume at shut-in. Compare this volume increase to that illustrated in Fig. 2-14.
Associated with the increase in gas volume is an increase in casing pressure, as expected. The expanding
gas pushes the heavier wellbore fluid out the top of the well through the choke. Since gas is lighter than
wellbore fluid, the annulus becomes progressively lighter. The annulus acts as a force pushing down against
theformation force pushing up. If the annulus force decreases, the casing pressure mustincrease to
compensate. This casing pressure increase is illustrated in Fig. 3-4 and Fig. 3-8.

Gas Migration in a Closed Wellbore

Fig. 2-15 illustrates gas migration, another mode of gas behavior. In the oilfield, theterm gas migration
refers to the undesirable condition of gas moving upward in a totally closed-in well without the freedom to
expand. If the gas cannot expand, thenits volume cannot change and, according to the gas law, its pressure
cannot change
either. The gas moves up the wellbore at its original pressure. This has a detrimentaleffect, increasing
the pressure at every point in the wellbore, including the pressureon the casing, the tubing, the
formation, the surface gauges, and the bottomhole pressure.

Example:

A 5 bbl gas bubble rises through 12 ppg

completion fluid to the top of a 10,000
ftclosed-in well. The formation pressure
is6,240 psi.

What is the bottomhole pressure

(BHP)after the gas has risen 5,000 ft?

BHP = pressure of the gas +

hydrostatic pressure of the
completionfluid below the gas

Hydrostatic Pressure = 0.052  12.0 

5,000 = 3,120 psi
BHP = 6,240 + 3,120 = 9,350 psi

What is the bottomhole pressure (BHP)

after the gas has risen to the top of the
well(10,000 ft)?
BHP = pressure of the gas +
hydrostatic pressure of the
completionfluid below the gas

Hydrostatic Pressure = 0.052  12.0 

10,000 = 6,240 psi
Figure 2-15 Effect of gas migration on bottomhole pressure