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REALISM

Realism as a philosophical school of thought traces its origins back to

Aristotle (384-322 BC), who is often considered its founder. In his works,

Aristotle laid the groundwork for realism as a direct response to the

philosophical doctrine of idealism. While idealism posits that the

universe is a construct of the mind, realism asserts the opposite view:

that the universe is real, and that matter, knowledge, and values exist

independently of the mind.

Philosophical realism

Philosophical realism usually not treated as a position of its own but as

a stance towards other subject matters – is the view that a certain kind

of thing (ranging widely from abstract objects like numbers to moral

statements to the physical world itself) has mind-independent existence,

i.e. that it exists even in the absence of any mind perceiving it or that

its existence is not just a mere appearance in the eye of the

[Link] includes a number of positions

within epistemology and metaphysics which express that a given thing

instead exists independently of knowledge, thought,

or [Link] can apply to items such as the physical world,

the past and future, other minds, and the self, though may also apply

less directly to things such as universals, mathematical truths, moral

truths, and thought itself. However, realism may also include various

positions which instead reject metaphysical treatments of

reality entirely.

Realism can also be a view about the properties of reality in general,

holding that reality exists independent of the mind, as opposed to non-

realist views (like some forms of skepticism and solipsism) which

question the certainty of anything beyond one's own mind. Philosophers

who profess realism often claim that truth consists in a correspondence

between cognitive representations and reality.

Realists tend to believe that whatever we believe now is only an

approximation of reality but that the accuracy and fullness of

understanding can be improved. In some contexts, realism is contrasted

with idealism. Today it is more often contrasted with anti-realism, for

example in the philosophy of science.

PROPONENTS OF REALISM

Realism is a philosophical perspective that asserts the existence of an

objective reality independent of human perception or interpretation.

Several proponents of realism have contributed to its development over

time. Here are some notable figures.

1. Plato
Plato's realism is often associated with his theory of Forms. In "The

Republic," Plato presents the allegory of the cave, where he describes a

world of shadows representing the imperfect realm of sensory

perception contrasted with the world of Forms, which represents the

realm of true reality. Plato believed that objects in the physical world are

mere reflections or imperfect copies of these eternal, immutable Forms.

2. Aristotle
Aristotle's realism is grounded in his concept of substance and essence.

In "Metaphysics," he argues that substances have inherent properties

and exist independently of human thought. He distinguishes between

primary substances (individual entities) and secondary substances

(universal categories), asserting that both have objective existence.

3. Thomas Aquinas
Aquinas integrated Aristotelian metaphysics with Christian theology,

advocating for a realism that acknowledges both the natural world and

divine realities. In "Summa Theologica," he argues for the existence of

God as the ultimate ground of reality, while affirming the reality of the

material world as created by God.

4. René Descartes
Descartes' realism, often called Cartesian dualism, posits the existence of

two distinct substances: mind (res cogitans) and matter (res extensa). In

"Meditations on First Philosophy," Descartes establishes the certainty of

the mind's existence through introspection, leading to his famous cogito

argument. He then argues for the existence of a material world based on

the clear and distinct perceptions of the senses.

5. John Locke
Locke's realism is characterized by direct realism, which asserts that the

mind directly perceives external objects through sensory experiences. In

"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding," Locke argues against

innate ideas and emphasizes the role of sensation and reflection in

acquiring knowledge about the external world.

6. Immanuel Kant
Kant's realism is complex, blending elements of realism with

transcendental idealism. In "Critique of Pure Reason," Kant distinguishes

between phenomena (objects as they appear to us) and noumena

(things-in-themselves), arguing that while we can never know noumena

directly, they serve as the ground of phenomena, allowing for a form of

transcendental realism.

7. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel

Hegel's realism, known as absolute idealism, posits that reality is a

dialectical process of Spirit unfolding through history. In

"Phenomenology of Spirit," Hegel explores the development of

consciousness and the progression toward absolute knowledge, wherein

the subject and object are ultimately reconciled.

8. Bertrand Russell
Russell's critical realism emphasizes the distinction between appearance

and reality. In "The Problems of Philosophy," he argues for the existence

of an external world independent of our perceptions, while

acknowledging the role of perception and language in shaping our

understanding of reality. Russell's realism is tempered by epistemic

humility, recognizing the limitations of human knowledge.

TYPES OF REALISM

 CLASSICAL REALISM

Classical realism according to Wikipedia is an international relations

theory from the realist school of [Link] makes the following

assumptions: states are the main actors in the international relations

system, there is no supranational international authority, states act in

their own self-interest, and states want power for self-preservation.

Classical realism differs from other forms of realism in that it places

specific emphasis on human nature and domestic politics as the key

factor in explaining state behavior and the causes of inter-state conflict.

Classical realist theory adopts a pessimistic view of human nature and

argues that humans are not inherently benevolent but instead they are

self-interested and act out of fear or aggression. Furthermore, it

emphasizes that this human nature is reflected by states in international

politics due to international anarneed

# Classical realism first arose in its modern form during the interwar

period of (1918-1939) as the academic field of international relation

began to grow during this era. Classical realism during the inter-war

period developed as a response to the prominence of idealist and

utopian theories in international relations during the time. Liberal

scholars at the time attributed conflict to poor social conditions and

political systems whilst, prominent policy makers focused on

establishing a respected body of international law and institutions to

manage the international system. These ideas were critiqued by realists

during the 1930s. After World War II, classical realism became more

popular in academic and foreign policy settings. E. H. Carr, George F.

Kennan, Hans Morgenthau, Raymond Aron, and Robert Gilpinare central

contributors to classical realism.

During the 1960s and 70s classical realist theories declined in popularity
and became less prominent as structural realist (neorealist) theorists

argued against using human nature as a basis of analysis and instead

proposed that explaining inter-state conflict through the anarchic

structure of the international system was more empirical. In contrast to

neorealism, classical realism argues that the structure of the

international system (e.g. anarchy) shapes the kinds of behaviors that

states can engage in but does not determine state behavior. In contrast
to neorealism, classical realists do not hold that states' main goal is

survival. State behavior is ultimately uncertain and contingent.

Theoretical origins

Classical realist writers have drawn from the ideas of earlier political

thinkers, most notably, Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas

Hobbes and Thucydides. These political theorists are not considered to

be a part of the modern classical realism school of thought, but their

writings are considered important to the development of the theory.

These thinkers are sometimes evoked to demonstrate the

"timelessness" of realist thought; scholars have disputed to what extent

these thinkers adhered to realist views.

MAJOR CONTRIBUTOR TO CLASSICAL REALISM

Thucydides

Thucydides was an ancient Athenian historian (460BC to

400BC). Thucydides works contains significant parallels with the writings

of classical realists. In the Melian Dialogue, Thucydides critiques

moralistic arguments made by states by arguing that it is instead self-

interest and state power which motivate states and that idealistic

arguments disguise this. His writings have been a significant topic for

debate in the international relations field. Scholarly interest in

Thucydides peaked during the Cold War as International Relations

scholars made comparisons between the bi-polarity of the US and Russia

and his account of the conflict between Athens and Sparta. Rusten

describes Thucydides influence on international relations as "after the

Second World War, Thucydides was read by many American opinion-

makers (and by those academics who taught them) as a prototypical

cold war policy analyst."

Niccolo MMachiavelli

was a political theorist and diplomat in the Republic of Florence (1469-

1527). His work diverged from the traditions of political theory during his

time. In his text the Prince he advocated for a separation of morals and

politics whilst, at the time political theory was heavily influenced by

religious ideals. Machiavelli also argues that people should view things

as they are, not how they should be, and justified the use of power as a

means of achieving an end. Machiavelli's writings have been prominent

in western political science and this has extended to the international

relations field where his writings have been the source of liberal and

realist debate.
SCIENTIFIC REALISM

Scientific racism, sometimes termed biological racism, According to

Wikipedia is the pseudo scientific belief that the human species can be

subdivided into biologically distinct taxa called "races", and

that empirical evidence exists to support or justify racism (racial

discrimination), racial inferiority, or racial superiority. Before the mid-

20th century, scientific racism was accepted throughout the scientific

community, but it is no longer considered scientific. The division of

humankind into biologically separate groups, along with the assignment

of particular physical and mental characteristics to these groups through

constructing and applying corresponding explanatory models, is referred

to as racialism, race realism, or race science by those who support

these ideas. Modern scientific consensus rejects this view as being

irreconcilable with modern genetic research.

Scientific racism misapplies, misconstrues, or

distorts anthropology (notably physical

anthropology), craniometry, evolutionary biology, and other disciplines

or pseudo-disciplines through proposing

anthropological typologies to classify human populations into physically

discrete human races, some of which might be asserted to be superior

or inferior to others. Scientific racism was common during the period

from the 1600s to the end of World War II, and was particularly

prominent in European and American academic writings from the mid-

19th century through the early-20th century. Since the second half of

the 20th century, scientific racism has been discredited and criticized as

obsolete, yet has persistently been used to support or validate racist

world-views based upon belief in the existence and significance of racial

categories and a hierarchy of superior and inferior races.

After the end of World War II, scientific racism in theory and action was

formally denounced, especially in UNESCO's early antiraciststatement,

"The Race Question" (1950): "The biological fact of race and the myth of

'race' should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes, 'race' is

not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth of

'race' has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In

recent years, it has taken a heavy toll in human lives, and caused untold
suffering." Since that time, developments in human evolutionary

genetics and physical anthropology have led to a new consensus among

anthropologists that human races are a sociopolitical phenomenon

rather than a biological one.

The term scientific racism is generally used pejoratively when applied to

more modern theories, such as those in The Bell Curve(1994). Critics

argue that such works postulate racist conclusions, such as a genetic

connection between race and intelligence, that are unsupported by

available evidence.]Publications such as the Mankind Quarterly, founded

explicitly as a "race-conscious" journal, are generally regarded as

platforms of scientific racism, because they publish fringe interpretations

of human

evolution, intelligence, ethnography, language, mythology, archaeology,

and race.
MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS TO SCIENTIFIC REALISM

 François Bernier

François Bernier (1620–1688) was a French physician and traveller. In

1684, he published a brief essay dividing humanity into what he called

"races," distinguishing individuals, and particularly women, by skin color

and a few other physical traits. The article was published anonymously

in the Journal des Savants, the earliest academic journal published in

Europe, and titled "New Division of the Earth by the Different Species or

'Races' of Man that Inhabit It.

In is essay, he distinguished four different races:

1) The first race included populations from Europe, North Africa, the

Middle East, India, south-east Asia, and the Americas;

2) the second race consisted of the sub-Saharan Africans;

3) the third race consisted of the east- and northeast Asians; and,

4) the fourth race were Sámi people. A product of French salon culture,

the essay placed an emphasis on different kinds of female beauty.

Bernier emphasized that his novel classification was based on his

personal experience as a traveler in different parts of the world. Bernier

offered a distinction between essential genetic differences and

accidental ones that depended on environmental factors. He also

suggested that the latter criterion might be relevant to distinguish sub-

types. His biological classification of racial types never sought to go

beyond physical traits, and he also accepted the role of climate and diet

in explaining degrees of human diversity. Bernier had been the first to

extend the concept of "species of man" to racially classify the entirety of

humanity, but he did not establish a cultural hierarchy between the so-

called 'races' that he had conceived. On the other hand, he clearly

placed white Europeans as the norm from which other 'races' deviated.

 Robert Boyle

An early scientist who studied race was Robert Boyle (1627–1691), an

Anglo-Irish natural philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor. Boyle

believed in what today is called monogenism, that is, that all races, no

matter how diverse, came from the same source: Adam and Eve. He

studied reported stories of parents' giving birth to differently

coloured albinos, so he concluded that Adam and Eve were originally

white, and that whites could give birth to different coloured races.

Theories of Robert Hooke and Isaac Newton about color and light

via optical dispersion in physics were also extended by Robert Boyle into

discourses of polygenesis, speculating that perhaps these differences

were due to "seminal impressions." However, Boyle's writings

mentioned that at his time, for "European Eyes," beauty was not

measured so much in colour, but in "stature, comely symmetry of the

parts of the body, and good features in the face." Various members of

the scientific community rejected his views, and described them as

"disturbing" or "amusing.

CONTEMPORARY REALISM

contemporary realism movement is a worldwide style of painting which

came into existence c. 1960s and early 1970s. Featuring a

straightforward approach to representation practiced by artists such

as Philip Pearlstein, Alex Katz, Jack Beal and Neil Welliver. The

movement refers to figurative art works created in a natural yet highly

objective style. Today the term Contemporary Realism encompasses all

post-1970 sculptors and painters whose discipline is representational

art, where the object is to portray the "real" and not the "ideal".

In Canada the realist movement found a strong following on the east

coast in the Maritimes. The group of artists that became known as

Maritime Realists developed at Mount Allison University which

established the first degree granting Fine Arts program in the

country. Alex Colville who taught in the Fine Arts program at Mount

Allison is considered the leading figure in this movement, along with a

number of his students including Christopher Pratt, Mary Pratt, Tom

Forrestall, DP Brown and Nancy Stevens. Some Contemporary Realists,

like Beal and Rackstraw Downes, began as trained abstract painters.

(Abstract Expressionism had been well-established by c. 1960.) Rural

artist enclaves (e.g., The Hamptons; areas of Maine) encouraged

naturalistic imagery for some. Others shared approaches and methods

of Photorealism. Some art schools, notably the Pennsylvania Academy of

Fine Arts, have continued to nurture the legacy of 19th-century

American Realist painting; Yale has seen a loose, inter-generational

network of representational painters over the past few decades.

The New York Academy of Art continues to further contemporary

figurative art. A number of women artists have been prominently

associated with stylistic variants of contemporary realism, including (not

limited to) Jane Freilicher, Jane Wilson, Lois Dodd, Janet Fish, Catherine

Murphy, Yvonne Jacquette, and Martha Mayer Erlebacher. Another

woman contemporary realist is Ann Mikolowski, whose art explores

representational technique in the context of photography, abstraction,

and super realism

THE CURRICULUM AS POSTULATED BY THE SCHOLARS OF REALISM

Scholars of realism advocate for a curriculum that emphasizes empirical

observation, critical thinking, and the acquisition of knowledge about the

objective world. The curriculum postulated by realist scholars typically

includes the following components:

1. Science and Mathematics : A strong emphasis on science and

mathematics education is central to the realist curriculum. Students are

encouraged to engage in hands-on experimentation, data analysis, and

problem-solving activities to develop their understanding of the natural

world and mathematical concepts.

2. Critical Thinking Skills : Realist scholars prioritize the development of

critical thinking skills, including logical reasoning, analysis, and

evaluation. Students are taught to question assumptions, examine

evidence, and draw well-supported conclusions based on empirical

observation and sound reasoning.

3. Literature and Humanities : While the focus of realism is on empirical

knowledge, realist scholars also recognize the importance of studying

literature and the humanities to cultivate empathy, cultural awareness,

and ethical reasoning. Literature and humanities courses may provide

opportunities for students to explore diverse perspectives, ethical

dilemmas, and the human condition.

4. Social Studies and History : Realism acknowledges the importance of

understanding social structures, historical context, and human behavior.

Social studies and history curricula may focus on examining past events,
societal trends, and political systems to develop students' awareness of

the complexities of the human experience.

[Link] Integration : Realist scholars recognize the role of

technology in facilitating access to information, conducting research, and

solving real-world problems. The curriculum may include opportunities

for students to utilize digital tools, conduct online research, and

collaborate with peers in virtual environments.

6. Practical Skills Development : In addition to academic subjects, realist

scholars emphasize the importance of practical skills development, such

as communication skills, teamwork, and problem-solving abilities. The

curriculum may incorporate project-based learning, internships, or

vocational training to prepare students for success in various professions

and life situations.

Overall, the curriculum postulated by scholars of realism aims to provide

students with a well-rounded education that equips them with the

knowledge, skills, and attitudes needed to navigate the complexities of

the world and contribute meaningfully to society.

THE METHODS OF TEACHING AS POSTULATED BY REALISM

the methods of teaching as postulated by realism, drawing from

philosophical principles and educational practices:

Realism, as a philosophical perspective, holds that reality exists

independent of our perceptions or interpretations. In the realm of

education, realism emphasizes the importance of teaching subjects that

are objectively true and based on empirical evidence. Here, are the
methods of teaching as postulated by realism, drawing from

philosophical principles and educational practices:

1. Focus on Objective Truth: Realism in education stresses the

importance of teaching subjects that reflect the objective truth about

the world. This means emphasizing subjects like mathematics, science,

history, and literature, where

knowledge can be verified through empirical evidence and logical

reasoning.

2. Use of Empirical Methods: Realist teaching methods rely heavily on

empirical observation and experimentation. Students are encouraged to

explore the world around them through hands-on activities,

experiments, and field trips. This approach helps students develop

critical thinking skills and a deeper understanding of the natural world

3. Emphasis on Facts and Knowledge: Realism promotes the

transmission of factual knowledge and information. Teachers present

students with a body of knowledge that has been verified through

empirical research and scholarly inquiry. This helps students develop a

solid foundation of knowledge upon which they can build

further understanding.
4. Teacher-Centered Instruction: Realism often involves a teacher-

centered approach to instruction, where the teacher serves as the

primary source of knowledge and guidance. Teachers are seen as experts

in their field who impart knowledge to students through lectures,

demonstrations, and guided discussions.

5. Rigor and Discipline: Realist education emphasizes rigor and

discipline in the learning process. Students are expected to engage with

challenging material, follow rules and procedures, and adhere to high

standards of academic performance. This approach instills in students

the value of hard work, perseverance, and intellectual rigor.

6. Integration of Technology and Resources: While realism values

traditional teaching methods, it also recognizes the importance of

integrating technology and other educational resources into the

learning process. Teachers may use multimedia presentations, online

resources, and educational software to enhance instruction and provide

students with additional

opportunities for learning.

7. Assessment of Objective Knowledge: In line with the emphasis on

objective truth, assessment in realist education

focuses on measuring students' mastery of factual knowledge and their

ability to apply critical thinking skills. Assessment methods may include

quizzes, exams, essays, and projects that require students to

demonstrate their understanding of course material through reasoned

analysis and argumentation.

THE IMPLICATIONS OF REALISM ON NIGERIA’S EDUCATION SYSTEM

the implications of realism on Nigeria's education system, focusing on

the philosophy's emphasis on empirical observation, scientific inquiry,

and the objective nature of reality. Realism posits that knowledge exists

independently of the mind and can be discovered through observation

and experimentation.
Implementing realism in Nigeria's education system involve:

1. Emphasis on Science and Empirical Inquiry: Prioritizing science

education and hands-on learning experiences to develop students'

critical thinking skills and their ability to analyze and interpret empirical

evidence.

2. Integration of Technology: Leveraging technology to facilitate access

to scientific information, virtual experiments, and educational resources,

thereby enhancing students' understanding of the natural world and

fostering innovation.

3. Teacher Professional Development: Providing educators with training

in scientific methods and inquiry-based teaching strategies to effectively

engage students in exploring real-world phenomena and conducting

experiments.

4. Curriculum Development : Designing curricula that align with

scientific principles and promote interdisciplinary approaches to

problem-solving, enabling students to apply scientific concepts across

various fields of study.

6. Promotion of Research and Innovation: Encouraging research

initiatives and partnerships between educational institutions, industries,

and research organizations to advance scientific knowledge, stimulate

innovation, and address societal challenges.

REFERENCE

 Norton, Heather L.; Quillen, Ellen E.; Bigham, Abigail W.; Pearson,

Laurel N.; Duns worth, Holly (July 9, 2019). "Human races are not like

dog breeds: refuting a racist analogy". Evolution: Education and

Outreach. 12 (1): 17. doi:10.1186/s12052-019-0109-y.

ISSN 1936-6434. S2CID 255479613.

 Kenyon-Flatt, Britanny (March 19, 2021). "How Scientific Taxonomy

Constructed the Myth of Race". Sapiens.

 "Contemporary Realism".[Link]. Retrieved 2017-

03-29.

 "Alex Katz | artnet". [Link]. Retrieved 2017-03-29.

 "Realism Art Movement: History, Characteristicsof Naturalism".

[Link]. Retrieved 2017-03-29.