1

CHAPTER 1

PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING

Background of the Study

In the English teaching and learning process, there are four skills that

are identified as very important; listening, speaking, reading and writing

(Brown, 2016). High school students are the last stage of a student before

entering the College and University live and at this stage the level of

understanding English is around Intermediate to advanced level. The ability to

read opens new knowledge and opportunities, especially the ability to read

texts in foreign languages English. This allows students to get information,

pleasure and do many other things that are done by the world community due

to information obtained from reading. Better reading skills also enable people

to be successful in academics (Iftanti, 2015). A current study showed that the

better the reading skills students have, the better students in achieving

knowledge (Yaykiran, 2016).

In Indonesia, the government has considered English language as the

most important foreign language and the compulsory foreign language subject

that must be learnt by students from elementary school until university level.

This country are still less than those of neighboring countries; Malaysia,

Singapore and Brunei Darussalam. This factor has greatly influenced every

individual especially on their attitudes toward reading comprehension.

Therefore research that aims to identify the problems that exist in the learning
2

process of reading comprehension English texts by high school students

needs to be done, weighing their importance at this time where Indonesia is

among the lowest ranked countries in literacy (Murak, 2018).

In the Philippines, According to the results of the PISA 2018 reading

test, the Philippines received the lowest score among the 79 countries

and economies that took part in the study. In addition, more than 80% of

students did not achieve the bare minimum level of reading ability in English

matters represent in one of the highest proportions of low performers among

all PISA-participating countries and economies. Despite the fact that the PISA

2018 results were unsatisfactory, DepEd sees this as an opportunity for

further improvement and evaluation of the current standing of Filipino

learners. Moreover, the schools in the Northern District of Nueva Vizcaya, it

clearly shows that any or another educational effort of all levels that was not

associated with the development of reading skills moreover. It is also known

in fact that tributes to the students that their academic performance is poor

and lack of reading skills.

In Montevista District, the schools suffered the transition of learners

from face to face to modular learning wherein the learners do not have a

comprehensive learning brought about the pandemic worldwide. Learners

have an educational freeze and factors have arose why student did not know

how to comprehend. As of this time, learners at High School struggled greatly

with their reading comprehension abilities. The researcher is interested in

understanding more about the main challenges that learners faced while

studying reading, as well as the root reasons of those challenges.

3

Additionally, by analyzing the impact of integrating dimensions on

learners' academic status, the current research will close the achievement

gap between learners' performance in English subjects. It will also assist

learners in promoting a successful learning path for these two critical learning

skills. A learner is not a vessel that must be filled but rather a fire that must be

ignited. To illuminate this fire, a lot of efforts are required on the part of

teachers as well as learners. Effective communication leads to effective

learning. All the learners are not identical. Their learning needs are also

different depending upon their intelligence level. Individual differences are the

main barriers in the way of communication with all types of learners. No

communication strategy can satisfied every learner at the same time in the

classroom situation

Statement of the Problem

This study aims to determine if there is a significant relationship

between Reading Comprehension and Academic Performance in English

class of Senior High students in Davao Winchester, Colleges, Inc.

Specifically, this study deals with the following:

1. What is the profile of Senior High School students in Reading

Comprehension and Academic Performance in English class of Senior

High school students in Davao Winchester, Colleges, and Inc.?

1.1 gender;

1.2 strand;

1.3 grade level?

4

2. What is the level of reading comprehension of Senior High school

students in Davao Winchester, Colleges, and Inc. students in terms of:

1.1Literal;

1.2 Inferential;

1.3 Evaluative?

3. What is the level of academic performance in English class of Senior

High school students in Davao Winchester, Colleges, and Inc.?

4. Is there a significant relationship between Reading Comprehension and

Academic Performance in English class of Senior High school students in

Davao Winchester, Colleges, and Inc.

Significance of the Study

The finding accumulate by this study may provide significant benefits to

the following groups or individual:

Students. This study helps the students improving their reading

comprehension and to have a better academic performance in English class

and to prepare themselves to be a better researcher in helping our society.

Parents. The knowledge of this study gives vital information for the parents to

guide their student's in developing their reading comprehension in English

class.
5

Teachers. It helps the teachers to know for the students enhance their

reading materials, and also it can help the researchers to know where they

can priorities in teaching students.

School. This study may give ideas and help the school to determine the

effectiveness and discover possible and useful strategies to overcome issues

on their reading comprehension preferences. In addition, the results may

provide possible ways on how to strengthen the academic performance in

English class.

Future Researchers. This research serves as guide for the next researcher

for their future study. It will improve their ideas and knowledge and help them

more discover more about this matter.

Definition of terms

The following terms are define conceptually and operationally.

Reading comprehension. Conceptually, according to King and

Stanley cited in Putra is an active process of exploring and getting the

information of the text and knowing the capability to construct the meaning of

written text in process of applying some aspects of reading comprehension

while reading it. Operationally, it has a big impact to the students to their

reading comprehension if learners are exposed to the readers that could help

the readers to enhance the high level of reading comprehension including

literal, inferential and evaluative.

6

Literal Comprehension. Conceptually, according to Muayanah it

referred to understand the direct meaning, such as understanding facts,

vocabulary, locations, times, dates, and many more. Questions from this

category could be answered explicitly based on the provided content.

Operationally, a literal comprehension is the indicator of the independent

variable that presented to a learner basic information in a text that can be

directly found.

Inferential Comprehension. Conceptually, according to Muayanah

involves determining what the text means. Determining inferential meaning

requires you to think about the text and draw a conclusion. Operationally, an

inferential comprehension is the indicator of the independent variable that

presented to a learner then used to determine deeper meaning that is not

explicitly stated.

Evaluative Comprehension. Conceptually, according to Muayanah

that it involves analyzing and weighing an event or an author’s intent, opinion,

language, and style of presentation. It also includes evaluating the

appropriateness of the author’s devices in achieving his aim and then making

inferences based on the fact or idea implied in the event or reading material.

Operationally, an evaluative comprehension is the indicator of the

independent variable that presented to a learners comprehension that

requires a deeper understanding of the topic or event in a texts.

Academic Performance in English. Conceptually, according to

Borase refers to a student’s performance in academic areas such as reading,

language arts, math, science and history as measured by achievement tests.

7

English academic achievement occupies a very important place in education

as well as in the learning process. Operationally, this refers to the represents

performance or specific outcomes in 1st quarter examinations score in English

subject especially in written works such as essays processes indicating the

extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals in reading in the

Grade 11 students in Davao Winchester Colleges, and Inc.

First Quarter Examination. Conceptually, in Department of Education,

learners’ English examination scores is the calculated performance of

students in English based on their written work especially essays.

Operationally, the first quarter examination is the indicator of the dependent

variable of the study and will be gathered through the learners’ respective

advisers.
8

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter presents the related legal basis, review of related

literature, review of related studies, and conceptual framework of the study.

The primary goal of this quantitative research study is to analyze the

Proficiency Level of Reading Comprehension and English Academic

Performance of Senior High school students in Davao Winchester, Colleges,

and Inc.

Legal Basis

R.A. 9155 is an act instituting a frame work of governance for basic

education, establishing authority and accountability, renaming the Department

of Education, Culture and Sports as the Department of Education and for

other purposes. The Act is known as "Governance of Basic Education Act of

2001." During the assembly the declaration of policy of the state to protect

and promote the right of all citizens to quality basic education and to make

such education accessible to all Filipino children a free and compulsory

education in the elementary level and free education in the high school level
9

was made. The goal of basic education is to provide students and learners

with skills, knowledge and values they need to become caring, self-reliant,

productive and patriotic citizens. Governance of basic education shall begin at

the national level; it is at the regions, divisions, schools and learning centers.

Moreover, Act No. 74 of 1901 enacted into law by the Philippine Commission,

the Act created the Department of Public Instruction, laid the foundations of

the public school system in the Philippines, provided for the establishment of

the Philippine Normal School in Manila and made English as the medium of

instruction.

To achieve the purpose stated above, the state shall encourage local

initiatives for improving the quality of basic education. The state shall ensure

that the values, needs and aspirations of a school community are reflected in

the program of education for the children, out-of-school youth and adult

learners. Schools and learning centers shall be empowered to make decisions

on what is best for the learners they serve.

In the Philippines, the Department of Education, the Commission on

Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical Education and Skills

Development Authority (TESDA) fully support the policies sought to be

established herein and have favorably endorsed the issuance of this

Executive Order No. 210, establishing the policy to strengthen the use of the

English language as a medium of instruction in the educational system. In

addition, it shall evaluate the proficiency of educators in the English language

and conduct training programs nationwide to develop and improve it.

Understanding depends on the ability of the reader to draw meaning from

printed words to interpret information correctly in English section. This

10

understanding can include text variables, such as vocabulary, syntax, and

grammar and reader variables, such as background knowledge, cognitive

development, and use of strategies, interests and goals.

Related Literatures

Reading Comprehension

Reading is a psychological mental process that entails the ability

to transform written symbols into verbal symbols. It is one of the basic

psychological activities requiring the use of various mental processes to be

employed in various contexts. It is also one of the basic skills in the cognitive

dimension of child development, a major focus of teaching and learning in the

early school stages, a significant means for acquiring knowledge. The reading

skill represents the third level of the hierarchical model for language

development containing five levels: Receptive language, expressive

language, reading, writing, and employing written and verbal language in daily

life (Al-Khasawneh, 2020). Also, reading comprehension is widely recognized

as a crucial indicator of education and plays a significant role in an individual's

overall development. It serves as a mental exercise and a gateway to deeper

understanding of the world around us (Martins, 2016). Fundamental skills

required in efficient reading comprehension know meaning of words, ability to

understand meaning of a word from discourse context, ability to follow

11

organizations of passage and to identify antecedents and references in its

ability to draw inferences from a passage about its contents, ability to identify

the main thought of a passage, ability to answer questions. In other words,

reading refers to how meaning is constructed utilizing reader’s background

information, the information from the text and contextual clues (Wixson,

Peters, Weber, & Roeber, 2016). The Reading Comprehension is anchored to

Barrett Taxonomy theory of reading comprehension skills that has been

widely utilize by basal series. This system describes three levels of

questioning and cognitive understanding: Literal, Inferential and Evaluative

(Muayanah, 2018). In addition, this study is also anchored based on cognitive

theory of Jean Piaget this theory asserts that the way people behave is a

product of the information they gather externally and the way they interpret

that information internally. There are two main approaches. The three degrees

of reading comprehension are as follows. There are three types of

interpretation: literal (reading between the lines), inferential, and evaluative

(reading beyond the lines). The texts are read, the words are heard, or the

pictures are seen at the literal level. It entails determining the crucial and vital

facts. Students are capable of differentiating between ideas that are crucial

and those that are not. On the other hand, at the inferential level, the

emphasis switches to reading between the lines and examining the

implications of the information being studied, (Berger, 2019). Moreover,

familiarity with text structures and the demands of texts from different genres,

such as narrative and informational texts that utilize different text structures,

are also useful in supporting reading comprehension (Baker, 2015).

12

The English teacher can check students' comprehension of the text

because the reading comprehension questions are as media to stimulate the

students' thinking about the matter based on the text. The questions are

essential when used effectively in a lesson that requires reading (Widyanata,

2017). Through consistent reading, one can expand other cognitive capacities

and develop imagination. In globalized world, reading English is essential in

preparing learners to study, work, and live in diverse contexts (Grabe &

Stoller, 2019). Moreover, Dechant (2015) claims that effective reading is the

most essential approach of efficient learning as the unity in the entire teaching

and learning process demands effective reading. As Francis Bacon famously

stated, "Reading maketh a full man" (2015), highlighting the profound impact

of reading on knowledge acquisition and the development of cooperative and

language skills. According to Martins (2016) cited by Henriques and Madeira

(2017), mastering written language, encompassing both reading and writing,

represents a critical milestone for children during the early years of primary

education. The purpose of reading comprehension is to relate new information

with the previous knowledge and expand the knowledge. English language

teachers do plays significant role in creating an environment for students

where students can learn more and improve their performance in reading

comprehension skills. They should teach students reading strategies and

encourage them to read and have them practice reading comprehension

through exercises that will ultimately help them enhance their reading

comprehension (Muliawati; 2017).

Likewise, the previous study had been conducted by Novytasar (2017),

and the title is “Analysis of Reading Comprehension Questions in the English

13

Textbook for Eleventh Graders Based on Barrett’s Taxonomy.” The purpose

of conducting research is to know whether the textbook for eleventh graders

published by the government presents a balanced distribution of questions of

lower and higher levels of thinking.

Literal Comprehension

The Literal Comprehension is the first level of comprehension, requires

that a student be able to extract information that is explicitly stated in a

passage (Carnine et al., 2016). This level of understanding is dependent upon

students’ word-level processing skills, or their ability to accurately identify

individual words and understand the meaning created by the combination of

words into propositions and sentences (Perfetti, Landi, & Oakhill, 2019).

Although these word-level processing abilities are requisite skills for

understanding a text, they alone are not sufficient for facilitating

comprehension (NRC, 2017).

Moreover, literal comprehension tasks typically require only that a

student locate information that is explicitly stated in the text (sometimes even

using the same phrasing or wording that appeared in the text), the cognitive

processing demands for proficient readers may be fairly minimal; students will

need to be able to decode and understand the words and be able to locate

words or phrases that appear in the text (Carnine et al., 2016).

According to Rupley and Blair (2019), several studies conducted that

literal comprehension is composed of two strategies: recall, or the ability to

provide an idea (e.g., main idea or detail) that was part of a passage; and

recognition, or the ability to recognize whether specific information is provided

14

in a passage. It is not sufficient, in other words, to simply remember a fact

stated in the passage. The fact must also be recognized as existing within the

context of a passage to determine whether or not comprehension has actually

occurred; otherwise it is unclear if the reader comprehended what was read or

relied on prior knowledge and understanding.

Inferential Comprehension

Inferential comprehension can be viewed as a logical extension of the

recognition step of literal comprehension in that readers are required to go

beyond recognizing that facts are derived from a passage to actually

interacting with a text to make inferences about meanings not explicitly stated

in the text (Rupley and Blair 2019). At this stage, it is no longer sufficient for

the reader to recognize and understand what the author has said. Instead, the

reader is required to manipulate information in the text to search for

relationships among the main idea and details and to use that information to

interpret and draw conclusions about the author’s intended meaning (Vacca et

al., 2016).

These relationships between objects, events, or details within the

passage are more frequently than not implied in the text, thereby requiring

readers to ‘‘read between the lines’’ to make their discovery. This interaction

with the text, in which readers bring to the text their own background

information and draw connections between pieces of information presented in

the text enable them to construct a situation model of what the text is about

(Perfetti, 2019).
15

Much of the research conducted thus far on reading comprehension

has examined the role of inferences because they are at the ‘‘heart of the

comprehension process’’ (Perfetti, 2019). Readers are required to make

different types of inferences, such as text-based inferences (also known as

text-connecting inferences) and knowledge based (or gap-filling) inferences to

understand the text. Text-based, or causal inferences, for example, are those

that are required to establish coherence within a text and these types of

inferences, however, are not sufficient to fully understand the text being read.

More complex inferences, such as knowledge-based inferences that draw on

a reader’s knowledge to help represent and understand the relationships

between persons or events described in the text are also needed for

understanding (Kintsch & Rawson, 2019).

Evaluative Comprehension

Evaluative comprehension is refer to extending the text beyond and the

third most complex level of reading comprehension proposed by the levels of

comprehension theory is evaluative comprehension (a.k.a. critical or applied

understanding). Moreover, it can be seen as an extension of the knowledge,

skills, and strategies required of literal and inferential comprehension tasks.

This extension is evidenced by the fact that the reader is required to

understand the text written on the page (literal comprehension), make

interpretations about the author’s intended meaning and/or understand the

relationships between the elements presented in the text (inferential

comprehension), and subsequently analyze or evaluate the information

acquired from the text in terms of prior knowledge or experiences or

16

knowledge that is imported from outside of the text (Rayner, Foorman,

Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg, 2016).

According to Herber (2019), the evaluative level readers are required to

juxtapose what they have read in the text with their own prior knowledge and

experience, a juxtaposition that creates new meanings and/or relationships

that extend beyond the scope of the text. The creation of these new meanings

and relationships involves a myriad of different skills including divergent

thinking, critical analysis, synthesis, and evaluation in addition to affective, or

personal and emotional responses, when necessary.

Academic Performance in English

As stated by Borase, (2015, p. 1), it represents performance outcomes

that indicate the extent to which a person has accomplished specific goals

that were the focus on activities related to English instructional environments,

specifically in school, college, and university. Directorate of High School

(2015) states that students' assessments developed by teachers are expected

to encourage the students' higher-order thinking skills, creativity, and build

their self-reliance to solve problems.

In investigating the relationship between reading comprehension and

academic performance MacGregor and Price (2019), noted that vocabulary,

the ability to read and comprehend, word problems are important factors

affecting academic performance in reading comprehension task in English.

17

Guiding students to recognize these perceived relationships promotes

understanding and decreases the risk of being overwhelmed by the

complexities of the text being viewed, heard or read (Estremera, 2018).

According to Rodriguez (2017) her study reviews on performance and

spirituality, and compares students’ attributions of the causes of their

academic success or failure across a secular and religiously affiliated

colleges, finding similar results: students who do well credit their spirituality as

the major cause, and students who do poorly blame their lack of spirituality as

being a major cause for their poor academic performance." In addition, self-

concept can be defined as student rating of their skills, ability, enjoyment and

interest towards the English subject. He added that this factor may affect the

students’ academic performance (Peteros et al, 2019).

Furthermore, According to Boraie (2013), teaching in English classes

should focus on nurturing students' thinking and language content, outcomes,

and learning activities. Thus, the course book is developed by applying

activity-based, not content-based. The activities are authentic, related to

students' daily life, such as giving a compliment.

First Quarter Examination

Examination weeks are the peaks of an academic year. The paper-

and-pen test determines whether the learners are able to attain the specific

educational standards set by the pedagogical curriculum they follow.

Moreover, the summative test scores of the students are used as an

18

assessment tool for the evaluation of the effectiveness of teaching

approaches, strategies and methodologies utilized by teacher in delivering the

lesson to the class. There is only one quarterly examination during the

grading period, but there should also be opportunities for students to turn in

written work and use performance tasks to show what they know and are

capable of. Assessment is a mechanism through which instructors determine

their students’ learning level, which is an essential part of education. The

comprehensive evaluation is intended to document or announce the

accomplishments of students (Harlen, 2018).

According to Taras (2018) describes summative evaluation as a kind of

judgment that encapsulates all the facts on a specific basis. This point could

be a time period in the form of an exam or a quiz. It is essential to mention

that the summative evaluation relies on recent results but does not include

potential recommendations to enhance student growth in the future. Herrera

Mosquera, Macías, and Fernando (2015) consider a summative evaluation to

be a method of assessment that communicates the instructors about the

progress or lack of learning on a numerical basis. Therefore, given the

meanings as mentioned above, the summative assessment can be

summarized as a recording, on a numerical scale, of the students’ academic

achievement to one point, to look back and take stock of how students have

accomplished their goals (Ahmed, Ali, & Shah, 2019).

Moreover, the examination is carried out for secondary and

intermediate levels by the regional Board of Intermediate and Secondary

Education (BISE), and the successful candidates are awarded a certificate

(UNESCO, 2015). Considering its global importance, Punjab's Government

19

declared English as an instructional medium in April 2010, initially in 12,000

public schools, to bring about an uninformed system of education in Pakistan.

In these classes, the mandatory topics of Mathematics and Science are

taught in English. At the same time, the Government conducted seminars and

training courses for teachers of public schools to upgrade those (Ishaq et al.

2020d).

Furthermore, teachers across all levels of education are expected to be

competent in developing quality assessment tools to be able to evaluate

learners validly and reliably. The Philippine Professional Standards for

Teachers, which is built on National Competency-Based Teacher Standards

(NCBTS), complements the reform initiatives on teacher quality from pre-

service education to in-service training. It articulates what constitutes teacher

quality in the K to 12 Reform through well-defined domains, strands, and

indicators that provide measures of professional learning, competent practice,

and effective engagement. Based on PPST, there are 7 domains that are

required by teachers to be effective in the 21st Century in the Philippines. One

of these domains requires that teachers apply a variety of assessment tools

and strategies in monitoring, evaluating, documenting and reporting learners’

needs, progress and achievement. Also, they use assessment data in a

variety of ways to inform and enhance the teaching and learning process and

programs and provide learners with the necessary feedback about learning

outcomes that informs the reporting cycle and enables teachers to select,

organize and use sound assessment processes (PPST, 2017). In addition,

considering the indispensable role of pen- and paper test in the summative

assessment of learners, the goal of this study is to develop and establish a

20

teacher- made summative assessment instrument that is appropriate for

instructional decisions since assessing the performance of every learner is a

very critical task for classroom teacher. Test constructors believe that every

assessment tool should possess good qualities. Most literatures consider that

the most common technical concepts in assessment, whether traditional or

authentic, are the validity and reliability. (Kubiszyn and Borich, 2017).

According to Linn and Gronlund (2019), validity means the degree to

which a test measures what it intends to measure. Reliability, on the other

hand, means the extent to which a test is consistent and dependable. Hence,

this study aimed to examine the face validity, determine the content validity,

establish the internal consistency and conduct an item analysis of the test

administered by determining the Index of difficulty, Index of discrimination and

measure of attractiveness of the distractors of the items.

Theoretical Framework

In reading some text or books we need our knowledge in order to

comprehend it properly. In reading we really need this stock knowledge in

order for us to understand what we are reading so there is a theory that can

support it which is the Schema Theory by Rumelhart (1980), and cited by

Richard Anderson (2017) stating that explanation of how readers we prior

knowledge to comprehend and learn from text. And also comprehending text

in an interactive process between the readers' background knowledge and the

text. Reading Comprehension is a skills in which the student needs to

21

enhance, in order to enhance this skills learners need to read more exposed

themselves to different reading materials.

Moreover, Barrett’s taxonomy is a taxonomy made by Thomas C.

Barrett in 1968; it is used for reading. As stated by Blair, Helman and Rupley

(2019), Barrett’s taxonomy is representative of a comprehension taxonomy

that can be used when developing instructional activities, identifying questions

and specifying reading comprehension instruction (p. 242). It consists of four

levels: (1) literal recognition or recall, (2) inferential, (3) evaluation, and (4)

appreciation. These levels are divided based on their difficulties. If the reading

comprehension questions are made based on Barrett’s taxonomy, the

students can enhance their reading ability because they can train themselves

to comprehend the text by answering questions that are made based on

appropriate levels of thinking skills.

According to Dupuis and Askov (2019), students should be given

questions of four levels of Barrett’s taxonomy. By having a good textbook as

their media to learn, the senior high school students can surely improve their

learning, especially with a textbook that has many reading passages and

appropriate numbers of reading comprehension questions of each level of

questions made based on comprehension taxonomy. To know whether the

English textbook used in senior high school can support the students‟ reading

ability by having various levels and appropriate numbers of reading

comprehension questions, this study entitled “The Classification of Reading

Comprehension Questions in English Textbook Entitled “English” Based on

Barrett’s Taxonomy” is conducted.

22

Conceptual Framework

Independent

Dependent

Reading Comprehension: Academic Performance in

English Class of Grade 11
HUMSS students in Davao
 Literal Winchester Colleges, and
Comprehension Inc.
 Inferential
Comprehension
 Evaluative  First Quarter
Comprehension Examinations
23

 Gender
 Age
 Grade level

Moderator

Figure 1 Conceptual Paradigm of the Study

Related Studies

Reading Comprehension

According to Twining (2018), Reading comprehension is the goal of

instruction in reading. Although word recognition is a means to an end,

reading comprehension represents the major goal or end product of reading.

This relatively unexplained cognitive area, called reading comprehension, is

easier to manage for instructional purposes if approached through a more

didactic treatment of invented or hypothesized sub-skill areas. Topics such as

schema, metacognition, and specific learning strategies are beginning to

appear in instructional materials on a limited basis. However, it is difficult to

24

delineate clearly the related assessment and instructional procedures with

any assured degree of empirical accuracy.

Reading comprehension itself is an advanced level of reading and or reading

skills. At least there are two levels of reading; the initial level and level of

reading comprehension. The initial level is teaching reading where the teacher

introduces to students orthographic writing in separate alphabetical order.

Reading comprehension on literal, inferential, and evaluative aspects involved

several components that assessed different facets of reading proficiency.

Students must be able to use their cognitive skills to understand the

interrelated conditions between written and oral communication where

basically these types of communication differ from each other (Oakhill, 2015).

According to Klingner, Vaughn and Broadman (2016), Reading

Comprehension is the process of interaction between readers and what they

bring to the text, such as their prior knowledge or background and use of

strategies. This process also includes variables related to the text, such as

readers’ interest in the text and their understanding of the text genre. This

means that what the reader learns and how they respond and understand the

text is individualistic. The process of building meaning depends on individual

competencies, such as experience and how to interpret the text.

Moreover, “Reading can be explained as cognitive activity in which reader’s

takes part in a convention with the author through text.” In reading the readers

can get the main idea of what author’s message on the text. It is very

important for us to learn the technique on how to read most especially reading
25

comprehension in order to reach or to improve the level of proficiency most

especially to improve academic performance in English (Cullinan, 2017).

Moreover, Tierney (2020) refers to reading comprehension as a constructive

process involving engagement and situation-based decisions. The

comprehension process requires the interaction of multiple-skill mastery and,

at times, a simultaneous application of skill competencies. The holistic, or

interactive, skill model is an important consideration in interpreting data and

planning instruction. Whereas the cognitive process covers the activation of

the necessary background knowledge, identification of text structure, making

sense of the author’s purpose and inference generation (Graesser, 2015).

Reading comprehension has several types ranging from low to high levels

comprehension. These include literal comprehension, inferential

comprehension, and evaluative comprehension. Each comprehension

requires different cognitive demands on the reader and involves varying levels

of interaction with the text (Lah & Hashim, 2015). Several studies identify

differences between standardized and non-standardized measures in reading

comprehension and a favor of non-standardized measures developed by the

researchers (Pyle et al., 2017).

In recent years, many researches have been focused upon the

comprehension as a composite of skills which, as a result, requires reading

comprehension to be perceived as an evolution of reader applied skills. In

addition to the reader’s decoding fluency, his or her affective characteristics,

prior knowledge, and cultural background impinge upon comprehension

(Irwin, 2016).
26

According to Choate and Rakes (2018), “Reading” infers comprehension. In

fact, without comprehension, reading is little more than pronouncing words.

Reading means interpreting print, either orally or silently, with understanding.

Letter and word recognition in the absence of meaning is not reading. There

is, in general, more similarity that difference between existing list of major skill

components of reading comprehension or comprehension taxonomies. The

grouping may vary, but the overall composition of skill recommended is

comparable with many global representations of comprehension curricula.

The use of four major sub skill categories helps make assessment and

programming manageable within an educational setting.

Having good reading comprehension skills is very important because these

skills are not only helpful academically, but also professionally and personally.

Having excellent reading comprehension skills is also believed to increase

students' enjoyment and effectiveness of reading. More importantly, good

reading comprehension enables students to express thoughts, ideas, and

feelings, which helps them become well-integrated citizens in the long run

(Hong, Ma, Lin, & Yuan-Hsuan, 2020).

Reading comprehension is a complex process that involves a number of

different strategies. Such strategies refer to a number of specific actions that

students can take to help their reading comprehension (Abdelrahman, 2015).

These strategies consist of two categories, namely cognitive and

metacognitive strategies. The former refer to activities that involve thought

processes such as making predictions at the beginning of reading, activating

background knowledge, connecting existing knowledge with reading,

determining important points in reading, drawing conclusions, using guiding

27

questions in reading, identifying the focus of reading and summarizing

(Green, 2016). In addition, According to Ahmad (2023) define reading

comprehension as a process in which a reader uses his/ her senses to

understand the message in printed material.

A number of studies have shown the positive effects of applying these

cognitive strategies, either individually or in combination with several

strategies, on improving students' reading comprehension outcomes The

latter, refer to student activities that are reflecting their thoughts or thought

processes while reading (Abdelrahman, 2015). Metacognitive strategies in

relation to reading comprehension cause students to reflect on their

understanding, know the strategies to use when they do not understand the

text they are reading and recognize situations where metacognitive abilities

are used. This also applies to reading comprehension learning where

metacognitive abilities help improve students' reading comprehension

(Ernawati, & Fatmawati, 2021).

Likewise, a number of studies have shown that many teachers do not have

sufficient knowledge about cognitive and metacognitive strategies and

therefore they do not teach students how to employ cognitive and

metacognitive processes in reading comprehension Therefore, teachers need

to improve their own cognitive and metacognitive understanding and how to

teach them to others. One way to increase the teacher's understanding is

through self-development training activities (Abdelrahman, 2015).

In addition, Lah & Hashim (2020) studied comprehension skills of low and

high achievers in Malaysia's Grade 4, 5 and 6 students. Altogether, the study

28

involved 4101 students who completed a comprehension test which consisted

of 50 multiple-choice questions. The test items were categorized into several

comprehension categories, including literal and inferential. The study found

that both low and high achievers had no difficulties in the literal category and

could do the test. However, in an inferential category, low achievers struggled

to complete inferential questions compared to high achievers. Although the

main objective of this study was not to find the level of students'

comprehension skills, it can be implied that more students have difficulties in

inferential comprehension in this study.

Literal Comprehension

In literal comprehension, the reader will be able to understand the reading by

reading what is stated directly in the reading text. In this case, the reader

recognizes and captures the message that is expressed explicitly. Literal

comprehension is needed to develop an understanding of the message

contained in the text or to utilize concepts that have been understood by the

reader (Cain, & Elbro, 2020). Literal comprehension is considered to give aid

to higher comprehension skills. Question words that are usually used for literal

questions are what, who, where, and when (Nation, 2015).

Burns, Roe and Ross (2019) explain the literal level in terms of textually

explicit meaning, which involves recognizing the sequence and facts that are

explicitly stated in the text as well as answering factual questions.

Understanding sequential order of events is a somewhat more difficult task

than factual recall for some readers. It requires students to remember detail
29

but do so in an organized or sequential manner. This skill is particularly

necessary when reading science, social studies, and other content subjects.

Educators are occasionally criticized for focusing exclusively on the recall of

facts. Literal reading as a low level of comprehension encompasses behaviors

in the learning process that are said to be crucial as the foundation of higher-

level comprehension growth.

According to Saadatnia et al. (2017), literal understanding necessitates

students extracting specific information from a paragraph. This requires the

capacity to process words individually and recognize individual words in order

to derive meaning from a long string of words that includes propositions and

sentences. Literal reading comprehension should contain the context, facts,

and sequence that can exist in a text, according to research. The context can

be defined as the entire image formed by the correlation of facts, where facts

are information placed in a text and sequences are how the information is

organized in chronological order of occurrences. This level of understanding

also requires pupils to determine the correct and accurate meaning of words

or terminology used in a book at the word or sentence level, to gather

information from reading, and to paraphrase what they learn. This diagram

depicts the skills that students should have mastered by the end of the literal

reading course.

Moreover, Naniwarsih & Andriani (2018) reveal in their study that students in

their third year of junior high school have a strong degree of literal reading

comprehension. However, the questionnaire results suggest that students

struggle with vocabulary since they have inadequate vocabulary knowledge.

Given the importance of vocabulary acquisition in literal reading

30

comprehension, the study's findings cannot be justified as valid. This present

study attempts to answer the gap among the previous researches about how

literal comprehension in reading affects the higher levels of comprehension;

interpretive, critical, creative. It is important to observe how literal

comprehension plays roles in the development of comprehension skill

especially in reading skill.

Inferential Comprehension

Inferential comprehension is considered more challenging with expository

texts than narrative texts. This is thought to be due to differences in both

content and structure by genre as narrative texts are centered on character

goals whereas expository texts are more varied in structures (Lorch, 2015). In

addition, inferential comprehension on the other hand demands that the

reader think at a higher level because in inferential understanding the reader

must be able to catch what is not directly stated in the text but which is part of

the author’s message. The reader is required to interpret the nuances of the

text that has been read.

Moreover, inferential questions are types of questions that require answers

that cannot be found explicitly expressed in the text but must be made based

on the results of an interpretation after reading the text. In other words, the

answer to an inferential question is the result of deducing the author’s

underlying meaning (Basaraba et al, 2019). The background knowledge to

generate inferences for narratives is typically based on everyday life

experiences whereas expository texts may require background knowledge

that readers often do not have, making it more challenging to generate

31

inferences. Indeed, there have been studies that show expository texts

appear to be more challenging than narrative texts. However, there have also

been studies of inferential comprehension that do not necessarily indicate that

expository texts are more difficult than narrative texts. These conflicting

findings necessitate a comprehensive overview of what research has been

conducted and what the inferential differences by genre are (Denton et al.,

2015).

According to Franks (2020), skilled adult readers typically do not need to exert

conscious effort when making inferences to construct a representation of the

text; in contrast, these inferences require considerable effort from children and

struggling. For example, college students performed better on assessments of

inferential comprehension of narratives than did seventh-grade readers. In

addition, college students had better memory of stories if they answered

inferential questions while reading, but school-aged readers did not benefit

from answering questions while reading.

Kendeou (2015) reviewed evidence from the developmental literature to

demonstrate that inference generation is a general skill that develops early in

a child’s life. For example, infants make inferences about what they see and

what they hear, the locations of different objects, and people’s emotions from

facial expressions; 2-year-old children infer relations between sequences of

events, 4- and 6- year-old children infer antecedents and consequences of

actions in various settings and contexts including aurally presented stories, 7-

and 8-year old children begin to understand the dynamic interrelationships

between sequences of pictures. Thus, even very young children engage in

inferential processes to comprehend the events they experience in their

32

everyday lives. Evidence that inference making can be prompted with

questioning dates back to Graesser and Franklin’s (2019) cognitive model of

question answering called QUEST, which specified information sources and

mechanisms that are at play when answering questions. More recent

evidence comes from numerous examples of question-based interventions

focused specifically on inference generation during reading in elementary

grades. Consistent with the conceptualization of inferences as the activation

and integration of information, questions have potential to prompt inferences

because they (a) “cue” activation of relevant information, and (b) facilitate

integration of that information, because integration is needed to answer the

question. (McMaster & Espin, 2017 for a review).

Furthermore, an individual’s familiarity with (and fluency in attending to)

different grammatical structures of static and dynamic visual narratives might

also influence inference generation. Such familiarity or fluency is an important

prerequisite for the use of visual narratives to improve reading comprehension

(Cohn, 2018). In addition, McMaster et al. (2021) examined whether the type

of questioning influences students’ inference generation, by comparing three

types of questions asked during reading in fourth graders: causal (specific

“why” questions about the text), general (generic prompts to make

connections within the text), and “W” (who, what, where, when) questions.

The findings showed no differences among types of questioning. However,

further analyses indicated that subgroups of readers who struggled with

comprehension responded differently to the types of questioning. Specifically,

readers who tended to over-rely on background knowledge while reading

(termed “elaborators”) responded better to the causal questioning approach,

33

perhaps because causal questions directed them to relevant information in

the text.

Evaluative Comprehension

Evaluation, requires the learner to give a global or comprehensive judgment

about some aspect of the text. For example, a comprehension question that

requires the reader to give an evaluation of this article is: How will the

information in this article be useful to you? In order to answer this type of

question, students must use both a literal understanding of the text and their

knowledge of the text's topic and related issues. Some students, because of

cultural factors, may be reluctant to be critical or to disagree with the printed

word. In such circumstances, the 10 teacher might want to model possible

answers to evaluation questions, making sure to include both positive and

negative aspects (Pearson and Johnson, 2018).

Evaluative questions make students think and reflect their thoughts and

attitudes. The questions are usually used to motivate students to read the

text, enrich their understanding, and facilitate students’ cooperative learning.

The evaluation included the following: (1) a questionnaire on critical thinking

attitudes, (2) a questionnaire on reading strategies for expository texts, and

(3) a critical reading test based on Wallace’s (2006) questions. Three

passages were selected for the three equivalent tests: pre-test, mid-test, and

post-test. All the materials were in similar genres and had approximately the

same difficulty level, though the text length was slightly varied: The pre-test
34

comprised 190 words, the mid-test, 287 words, and the post-test, 283 words

(Tanaka & Tsuji, 2015).

According to Cottrell’s (2017, p.2), list of important and relevant reading

instructions were followed: (1) identifying other people’s positions, arguments,

and conclusions; (2) evaluating the evidence for alternative points of view; (3)

weighing up opposing arguments and evidence fairly; (4) being able to read

between the lines, seeing behind surfaces, and identifying false or unfair

assumptions; and (5) synthesizing information: drawing together your

judgments of the evidence, synthesizing these to form your own new position.

The five main questions were chosen: Why has the text been written? To

whom is the text addressed? What is the topic? How is the topic written

about? What other ways of writing about the topic are there? Based on the

passage, the details of questions were modified so that students could

understand and think better.

Academic Performance in English

In a study of Kobayashi (2002), using open questions, close, and multiple-

choice shows that the type and format of the reading comprehension

assessment test significantly influence student performance in English class

and that more structured tests help to better differentiate the good ones and

the poor ones in reading comprehension. Finally, about student diversity,

studies link reading comprehension with the interest and intrinsic motivation of

university. In Shamim's perspective (2012), fluency in English is deemed

crucial as it is a gateway to success and facilitates upward social mobility.

35

Moreover, Iwai, Filce and Ramp (2015) argue that reading is necessary for

academic success. For that, students must read a lot and develop reading

proficiency in word recognition, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension. It is

the only language in Pakistan regarded as worth learning, and it has

marginalized almost all other local languages. Success, development, and

prosperity are often linked with the learning of the English language. English

encompasses four primary skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

This study focuses on one skill of the language, which is reading. There is a

common complaint in Pakistan, which is often proved by research, that

students struggle with reading from class one up to university. Reading

constitutes one of the language's essential skills, which is considered a

gateway to all other knowledge. However, there needs to be more

understanding about the reading. It is often associated with pronunciation.

Engaging in a dialogue with the writer via the text is a cognitive process that

occurs during reading (Zare, 2013).

Previous studies show that communicating with the English language

presents challenges for students in general and college students in particular.,

reading is an intentional, active process incorporating several word-level

abilities, including vocabulary, fluency, and decoding (Villanueva, 2022).

Multiple-choice questions and open-ended response can also be designed to

assess comprehension of ideas that are not explicitly stated in the text

(Margolin et al., 2013).

According to Grabe and Stoller (2018) found that reading strategy studies that

had introduced reading programs which incorporated cognitive and

36

metacognitive reading strategies along with training in planning and self-

monitoring, showed significant improvements in reading comprehension

performance. . Moreover, Pressley (2002) noted that reading strategies such

as asking questions, making predictions and strategies aimed at inferential

thinking enabled readers to think more strategically and to make more sense

of what they were reading. After being taught metacognitive reading strategies

that invite reflection of the reading process as a whole, students became more

active in their reading, mimicking the successful strategic reading process

which would normally be automatically employed by proficient readers. In

addition, structured training instructs students in using L2 reading strategies

effectively, combined with the metacognitive understanding of why and how

reading strategies can aid understanding, can assist in the monitoring and

checking of the reading process (Paris, Wasik & Turner, 2016).

Taraban, Kerr and Rynearson (2018) found support in their study for the view

that students in higher education choose and utilize reading strategies that

they believe orientate them towards their success in academic tasks. The

researchers asked 575 college students to complete the Metacognitive

Reading Strategy Questionnaire (MRSQ), 1 on their use of cognitive and

metacognitive reading strategies to solve reading comprehension issues

encountered during their studies. The researchers found that reading

comprehension was not perceived by students to be an automatic process but

one which required direct cognitive effort and the application of metacognitive

input, by way of reading strategies. Students reported allocating significant

attention to the checking, monitoring and evaluation of their reading process.

In a meta-analysis on the effectiveness of L2 reading strategies studies on

37

reading comprehension performance, Yapp, De Graaff and Van den Bergh (in

press) analysed 46 L2 reading strategy studies to ascertain which reading

strategies and pedagogical approaches were the most effective in improving

reading comprehension performance. The average effect size of the reading

strategy studies analysed was found to be large (g = .91), meaning that

reading strategy interventions in L2 reading comprehension are effective.

Furthermore, the meta-analysis found that reading strategies that required

explicit cognitive action to be taken by the reader produced significantly large

effect sizes, for example: semantic mapping, paying attention to structure and

signal words, activating background knowledge, asking questions while

reading, and connecting new information to what is already known (for

descriptions and effect sizes, see Appendix 1).

According to Amirabadi & Biria (2016) was found to be significantly effective

with the reading strategies of visualization and skimming and scanning, but

less effective with the strategies semantic mapping and asking questions

while reading. These students have had little, or no experience at all, in

dealing with complex academic texts in English, and have often not

accumulated the reading expertise and background knowledge that would be

expected from them to tackle their higher education reading demands.

Likewise, these students have not attained sufficient academic reading

proficiency in their four years of vocational secondary school, compared to

other undergraduate students with a non-vocational previous education

(Beeker, 2016).

Scientific investigation into the effectiveness of reading strategy instruction in

ESL contexts in higher education has been lacking.This study is an attempt to

38

address this research gap by, first, exploring whether a specifically designed

L2 reading strategy method could be effective and could lead to improved

levels of L2 reading comprehension performance among first-year college

students (Khalifa & Weir, 2018).

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY
39

This chapter presents the discussion of research methods and procedures

used by the researchers in the study. The subtopics of this chapter are the

research design, the respondent of the study, the researcher instrument of

the study, the data gathering procedure, and statistical treatment of data

employed conduct of the study.

Research Design

The researcher design in this study is descriptive-quantitative which used

correlation design. This method is used to collect data to explain the variables

of interest and explain their relationship without making any claims about

cause and effect. According to Valeña, (2015) this research design was

selected as it was deemed suitable for gathering information about the

existing situations related to the understanding of reading comprehension and

academic performance in English class.

Respondents of the Study

The respondents of this study are the Grade 11 HUMSS students in Davao

Winchester Colleges and Inc.

Research Instrument
40

The researcher adopted downloadable scale from web source. The

questionnaire entitled Fostering Critical Reading Skills at High School English

Reading Classes: Focusing on Inferential and Evaluative Questions from

Bulletin of the Educational Research and Development, Faculty of Education,

Kagoshima University 2022, Vol.31, 54-63 to determine the level of reading

comprehension among Grade 11 HUMSS students. To evaluate the students

English academic performance in Davao Winchester Colleges and Inc., the

researcher will request and collect the data needed from their respective

advisers.

To ensure the accuracy of the questionnaire, the draft was first shown to the

researchers’ adviser for comments and suggestions, after which experts will

be requested to validate the said questionnaire. After validation, the reliability

of the survey will be tested through split-half method.

Data Gathering Procedure

This study will be conducted in Davao Winchester Colleges, Inc. The

researchers will ask an approval to the school principal by handing a letter.

Upon approval, the researchers will send a letter to the school head of Davao

Winchester Colleges, Inc. After it will be approved by the school head, the

researcher will coordinate with the respective advisers to aid the respondents

for data gathering.

In gathering the data for the level of student’s reading comprehension, the

researchers will distribute and administer the questionnaire to the Grade 11

HUMSS students and will retrieve the same after it is accomplished. In

41

gathering the 1st quarter examination in English subject of the Grade 11

HUMSS students, the data will be collected from the respective advisers of

Grade 11 HUMSS students in Davao Winchester Colleges and Inc. The data

that will be gathered will be tallied and tabulated and then be given to the

school statistician to be analyzed and interpreted based on the purpose of the

study.

Statistical Treatment of the Data

The data from the study were interpreted using the following statistical tools.

Frequency. This will be used to determine the number of respondent's male

and female pupils.

Percentage. This will be used to determine the percent of the respondents.

Mean. This will be used to determine the level of Reading comprehension and

Academic Performance of Grade 11 HUMSS students in Davao Winchester

Colleges and Inc.

Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient and Test for

Significance of Rho. This will be used to determine the relationship between

the level of Reading comprehension and Academic Performance of Grade 11

HUMSS students in Davao Winchester Colleges and Inc.

42
43
44