KLB Chem FORM 2

Table of Contents

Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Prologue
Acknowledgements
Chapter 1: Structure of The Atom and The Periodic Table
Structure of the Atom
Atomic Number and Mass Number
Isotopes
Energy Levels and Electron Arrangement
Development of the Periodic Table
Relative Atomic Mass and Isotopes
Ion Formation
Chemical Formular
Chemical Equations
Revision Exercise
Chapter 2: Chemicalfamilies; Patterns in Properties
The Alkali Metals
Pysical Properties of Alkali Metals
Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
Pysical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals
Chemical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals
Chemical Formular of Some Alkaline Earth Metal Compounds
Halogens
Physical Propeties of Halogens
Chemical Properties of Halogens
Noble Gases
Properties and Trends Across a Period
Trends in Physical Properties of Elements in Period 3
Trends in Chemical Properties of Elements in Period 3
Revision Exercise
Chapter 3: Structure and Bonding
Ionic Bond
Giant Ionic Structures
Covalent Bond
Co-ordinate Bond
Molecular Structures
Giant Covalent Structures
The Metallic Bond
Types of Bonds Across a Period
Oxides of Elements in Period 3
Chlorides of Period 3 Elements
Revision Exercise
Chapter 4: Salts
Types of Salts
Solubility of Salts in Water
Methods of Preparing Salts
Preparation of Salts by Direct Combination of Elements
Action of Heat on Carbonates
Action of Heat on Nitrates
Revision Exercise
Chapter 5: Effect of An Electric Current on Sustances
Electrical Conductivity in Solids
Electrical Conductivity of Molten Substances
Electrical Conductivity of Substances in Aqueous State
Electrolysis
Application of Electrolysis
Revision Exercise
Chapter 6: Carbon and Some of Its Compounds
Allotropes of Carbon
Chemical Properties of Carbon
Carbon (IV) Oxide
Uses of Carbon (IV) Oxide
Carbon (II) Oxide
Carbonates
Large Scale Production of Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate
Effects of Carbon (IV) Oxide and Carbon (II) Oxide on the Environment
The Carbon Cycle
Revision Exercise
Sample Questions
Answers to Sample Questions
Back Cover
Secondary Chemistry
Form Two
Students’ Book
(Fifth Edition)
KENYA LITERATURE BUREAU
P.O. Box 30022 - 00100, Nairobi
Website: www.kenyaliteraturebureau.com
Email: [email protected]

© Kenya Literature Bureau

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transcribed in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission
of the publisher.
ISBN 978 – 9966 – 44 – 846 – 0
First Published 1987

Reprinted 1988, 1989,1990
Second Edition 1994
Reprinted 1995, 1996, 1997 (twice), 1998 (twice, 1999 (twice) 2000 (twice), 2001 (twice)
Third Edition 2003
Reprinted 2004 (twice), 2005, 2006, 2007 (four times)
Fourth Edition 2008
Fifth Edition 2009
Reprinted 2010 (twice), 2011 (thrice)
KLB 10376 10m 2011
Published and printed by Kenya Literature Bureau

Prologue
This student’s book has been written to assist Secondary Chemistry Form Two students. The
book meets all the requirements of the current syllabus. It also conforms to current
international trends in the teaching of the subject.
Chemistry is a practical subject which equips students with concepts and skills that come in
handy in solving the day-today problems in life. The subject aims at providing the learner
with the necessary knowledge for individual benefit in daily life and for further education.
This book recognises these aspects and provides adequate practical exercises to sharpen the
student’s practical skills. In addition, it also provides end of topic questions for self
evaluation.
In this fifth edition, the book has been revised and given a new easy to read lay out, the
revision exercises fully address the syllabus requirements and there is a whole new section
of sample examination style questions with answers.
I am grateful to the panel of writers and every body who took part in the writing, editing and
production of this fifth edition of the book.
THE MANAGING DIRECTOR

Kenya Literature Bureau
CONTENTS
Prologue
Acknowledgements
CHAPTER 1: STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

Structure of the atom
Atomic number and mass number
Isotopes
Energy levels and electron arrangement
Development of the periodic table
Relative atomic mass and isotopes
Ion formation
Chemical formular
Chemical equations
Revision Exercise
CHAPTER 2: CHEMICALFAMILIES; PATTERNS IN PROPERTIES

The alkali metals
Pysical properties of alkali metals
Chemical properties of alkali metals
Alkaline earth metals
Pysical properties of alkaline earth metals
Chemical properties of alkaline earth metals
Chemical formular of some alkaline earth metal compounds
Halogens
Physical propeties of halogens
Chemical properties of halogens
Noble gases
Properties and trends across a period
Trends in physical properties of elements in period 3
Trends in chemical properties of elements in period 3
Revision Exercise
CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURE AND BONDING

Ionic bond
Giant ionic structures
Covalent bond
Co-ordinate bond
Molecular structures
Giant covalent structures
The metallic bond
Types of bonds across a period
Oxides of elements in period 3
Chlorides of period 3 elements
Revision Exercise
CHAPTER 4: SALTS
Types of salts
Solubility of salts in water
Methods of preparing salts
Preparation of salts by direct combination of elements
Action of heat on carbonates
Action of heat on nitrates
Revision Exercise
CHAPTER 5: EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ON SUSTANCES

Electrical conductivity in solids
Electrical conductivity of molten substances
Electrical conductivity of substances in aqueous state
Electrolysis
Application of electrolysis
Revision Exercise
CHAPTER 6: CARBON AND SOME OF ITS COMPOUNDS

Allotropes of carbon
Chemical properties of carbon
Carbon (IV) oxide
Uses of carbon (IV) oxide
Carbon (II) oxide
Carbonates
Large scale production of sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate
Effects of carbon (IV) oxide and carbon (II) oxide on the environment
The carbon cycle
Revision Exercise
Sample Questions
Answers to Sample Questions
Acknowledgements
The Managing Director of Kenya Literature Bureau would like to thank the following writers
who participated in the revision of this Fifth Edition of the Secondary Chemistry Form Two
Student’s Book.
1. Cornelius Masila Muange — Mukaa Sec. School, Nunguni
2. Emma Achieng Ogutu – Moi Girls’ High School Eldoret
3. Raphael Kelly Wambua – Mutomo Mixed Sec. School, Kitui
4. Rose Amatikide Emoru – Bunyore Girls’ Sec. School
5. Silas M. Mango – St. Cecilia Misikhu Girls’ High School, Webuye.

Structure of the atom and the Periodic Table
By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:

(a) Describe the structure of the atom and write electron configuration.
(b) Define atomic number, mass number, isotopes and relative atomic mass.
(c) Determine relative atomic mass from isotopic composition.
(d) Use electron configuration to determine the position of an element in the periodic
table and predict the type of ion it forms.
(e) Define valency and oxidation number of an element.
(f) Use valency to derive chemical formulae of compounds.
(g) Write balanced chemical equations.
Structure of the Atom

In Form One, the atom is defined as the smallest particle of an element that can take part in
a chemical reaction. Studies have shown that an atom is made up of even smaller particles.
These smaller particles are collectively called sub-atomic particles. The sub-atomic
particles are; neutrons, protons and electrons. The atom is made up of two regions, a small
central part called the nucleus and a larger region surrounding the nucleus. The nucleus
consists of protons and neutrons. The protons and neutrons are referred to as nucleons
because they are found in the nucleus. The larger region surrounding the nucleus consists of
electrons. The general structure of an atom is as shown in figure 1.1.
Fig 1.1 General structure of an atom
The hydrogen atom, which is the simplest in composition has one proton, one electron and
has no neutron. The atom of the next element, helium has two protons, two electrons and
two neutrons. The structure of the atoms of the first two elements is as shown in Figure 1.2
(a) and (b)
Fig 1.2 Structure of a helium atom
The proton is positively charged, the electron is negatively charged while the neutron has no
charge. The number of protons is equal to the number of electrons for any given atom. This
makes the atom to be electrically neutral. For example, a hydrogen atom has one proton and
one electron while a helium atom has two protons and two electrons. The neutrons in the
nucleus contribute to the stability of the nucleus.
Atomic Number and Mass Number
The mass of any given atom is equal to the sum of the relative masses of the protons and
neutrons in its nucleus. Studies have revealed that the mass of a proton and that of a neutron
are nearly the same while that of an electron is almost negligible. Since the hydrogen atom
is made up of one proton and one electron, the mass of the hydrogen atom is largely due to
the mass of the one proton. The hydrogen atom is arbitrally assigned atomic mass of one
unit. Table 1.1 is a summary of the characteristics of sub-atomic particles.
Table 1.1 Characteristics of the sub atomic particles
Sub atomic particle Relative mass Electrical charge

Proton 1 + 1 (positive)
Neutron 1 0 (neutral)
Electron – 1 (negative)
Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. For example, a hydrogen
atom has 1 proton in the nucleus; therefore its atomic number is 1.
Likewise, an atom of helium has 2 protons and therefore its atomic number is 2. Sodium has
11 protons in the nucleus therefore it’s atomic number is 11.
Mass number is the sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom of an element. For example,
an atom of hydrogen has 1 proton and no neutrons in it’s nucleus; therefore the mass number
is 1.
Note
Mass No: = protons + neutrons, e.g., Sodium has 11 protons and 12 neutrons. Hence, its mass number is 11 + 12 = 23
1 proton + 0 neutrons = 1
A helium atom has 2 protons and 2 neutrons. Consequently, the mass number is 4.
2 protons + 2 neutrons = 4
Both mass and atomic number can be written along with the symbol of an element. The
conventional way of representing the mass number is to write the mass number as a
superscript infront of the chemical symbol e.g. 23Na. the atomic number is written as a
subscript (infront of the symbol) e.g. 11Na. therefore, the element is represented as Na.
Copy and complete table 1.2 for the first twenty elements.
Table 1.2: A list of the first Twenty Elements

Isotopes
Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons but they may have different
number of neutrons. Therefore this means that atoms of the same element may have
different mass numbers. For example, some atoms of chlorine have 18 neutrons while others
have 20 neutrons but they have the same number of protons.
Thus, atoms of the same element may have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers. Such atoms are called isotopes. Table 1.3 gives examples of isotopes of some
elements.
Table 1.3 Examples of Isotopes

Energy Levels and Electron Arrangement
Electrons occupy regions around the nucleus known as energy levels. Electrons occupying
the same energy level have approximately the same amount of energy. These energy levels
are numbered 1, 2, 3, … starting with the one closest to the nucleus. Each energy level can
only accommodate a given maximum number of electrons. The first energy level can only
hold a maximum of two electrons and the second energy level a maximum of eight electrons.
For the first twenty elements, the third energy level accommodates a maximum of eight
electrons. See fig 1.4
Fig 1.4 Electron configuration
Hydrogen has one electron in the first energy level. Helium with two electrons, has the
two electrons in its first energy level. Helium therefore has one energy level which is filled
up.
When an energy level is full, additional electrons occupy the next energy level until it is
completely filled up. Thus, lithium with three electrons, has two electrons in its first energy
level and one electron in its second energy level.
The distribution of electrons in the energy levels of an atom is referred to as electron
arrangement (electron configuration). This can be represented as: 1 for hydrogen, 2 for
helium, 2.1 for lithium and 2.8 for neon. Electron arrangement may also be represented by a
diagram in which electrons are represented by crosses (×) or dots (·) as shown in figure 1.5
to 1.7. Note in this book crosses (×) are used.
Fig 1.5 Lithium atom

Fig 1.6 Magnesium atom
Fig 1.7 Sulphur atom
Answer the following questions

1. Draw and show the electron arrangement of the following atoms:
(a) Boron (5 electrons)
(b) Nitrogen (7 electrons)
(c) Fluorine (9 electrons)
(d) Phosphorus (15 electrons).
2. Copy and complete table 1.3 and use it to answer the following questions:
(a) Write down in separate rows the elements which have:
(i) One energy level
(ii) Two energy levels
(iii) Three energy levels
(iv) Four energy levels.
(b) List in separate columns elements with the same numbers of electrons in their
outermost energy levels.
Table 1.4: Electron Arrangement of the First twenty (20) Elements
Discussion
The elements with the same number of occupied energy levels belong to the same period.
For example, hydrogen and helium have one occupied energy level hence they belong to
Period 1. Lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and neon have two
occupied energy levels. These elements belong to Period 2. Similarly, sodium, magnesium,
aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon have three occupied energy
levels and hence belong to Period 3. Those elements with the same number of occupied
energy levels can be arranged in the same row, starting with the elements with the lowest
atomic number. See table 1.5
Table 1.5: Elements with same number of occupied energy levels
First row
Period 1
Hydrogen and helium.
Second row Lithium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, flourine and neon.
Period 2
Third row Sodium, magnesium, aluminium, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and argon.
Period 3
Fourth row
Period 4
Potassium and calcium.
Elements with the same number of electrons in the outermost energy level form a group.
For example, hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium have one electron in the outermost
energy level hence they belong to group I. Similarly, beryllium, magnesium, calcium have two
electrons in the outermost energy level, therefore they belong to group II.
Elements with the same number of electrons in the outermost energy level can be
arranged in the same vertical column. The columns represent members of a group. There are
eight groups numbered in Roman numerals. The first twenty elements are arranged into
their respective groups in table 1.6. Group 8 is also referred to as group zero. This is because
these elements have little tendency to lose or gain electrons during reactions. This will
become more clear in latter sections of this book.
Table 1.5: Elements with same number of electrons in the outermost energy level
This information can be merged into a grid. The resulting figure is the periodic table of
elements.
The periodic table shown in table 1.7 is a simplified form. It shows the electron arrangement
and atomic numbers of the first twenty elements. The arrangement of elements in the
periodic table is based on increasing atomic number.
Table 1.7: Development of the Periodic Table
In the periodic table of elements, the atomic numbers and mass numbers are usually
shown in the style described earlier. See next page for a complete version of the modern
periodic table.
Between group II and group III lies a group of elements referred to as the Transition metals. The elements have some
unique characteristics that make them not to fit in the eight groups of the periodic table.
The Periodic Table

In the modern Periodic table atomic masses are used instead of mass numbers. The use of
atomic masses takes care of elements with isotopes.
Relative Atomic Mass and Isotopes

The masses of individual atoms are very small. It is therefore very difficult to weigh an atom.
The mass of an atom is in the order of 10-22g. An ordinary laboratory balance cannot be used
to weigh an atom.
It is more convenient to express the mass of an atom relative to that of a chosen standard
element. A hydrogen atom was initially chosen as the reference because it is the lightest. The
mass of a hydrogen atom was arbitrarily fixed as one atomic mass unit (a.m.u)
The mass of any atom compared to that of a single hydrogen atom is then called relative
atomic mass. For example, the relative atomic mass of sodium is 23. This means that one
atom of sodium is 23 times as heavy as one atom of hydrogen. In the early twentieth century,
the hydrogen scale was replaced by the oxygen scale. It was later discovered that the oxygen
scale led to problems due to the existence of several oxygen isotopes. The International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) recommended a new scale based on carbon –
12 in 1961. On this new scale, an atom of carbon that contains six protons and six neutrons
weighs exactly 12.000 atomic mass units (a.m.u).
The relative atomic mass (R.A.M) of an element is now defined as the average mass of an
atom of the element compared with an atom of carbon –12, the mass of which is 12.000
(a.m.u).
An instrument called the Mass spectrometer is used to accurately determine the relative
atomic masses of elements. It can also be used to obtain the relative abundance of isotopes
of a given element. The relative atomic mass of an element can be a fraction because it is an
average mass of the isotopes of the element.
The relative atomic mass is closest in value to the mass of the most abundant isotope of
the element. This is illustrated by the following examples.
Example 1
Chlorine –35 forms 75% of the total mass of chlorine and chlorine –37 forms 25%. Calculate
the relative atomic mass of chlorine.
Mass spectrometer trace for chlorine
Solution
Consider a sample containing 100 atoms of chlorine. Therefore 75 atoms will each have a
mass of 35.
Therefore, Total Mass = 35 × 75
25 atoms will have a mass of 37
Therefore, Total Mass = 37 × 25
The average mass of a chlorine atom would be;
Therefore, RAM of chlorine = 35.5

As can be seen, the relative atomic mass is nearer to the mass number of the most abundant
isotope, that is chlorine –35. See mass spectrum of chlorine.
Example 2
An element X, consists of three isotopes with mass number of 22, 24 and 25 with percentage
abundance of 89.6%, 6.4% and 4.0% respectively. Find the relative atomic mass of element
X.
Note
Relative atomic mass is a ratio and therefore has no units.
Solution
Consider a sample of 100 atoms of element X:

89.6 atoms of X have a mass of 22
Total mass = 89.6 × 22


Hence, the relative atomic mass of an element is closer to the mass of the most abundant
isotope.
1. An element P has two isotopes with relative abundance of 65% and 35%. If the mass
number of the two isotopes is X and 31 respectively, find the mass number
represented by X given that the relative atomic mass of element P is 30.
2. Lithium has two isotopes with mass number 6 and 7. If the relative atomic mass of
lithium is 6.94, determine the percentage abundance of each isotope.
Ion Formation
Atoms with an electron configuration of 2, 2. 8 and 2.8.8 are said to be stable. Atoms without
this electron configuration tend to attain this stability by either losing or gaining electrons.
Sodium with atomic number 11 and an electron configuration 2.8.1 can acquire the stable
electron configuration of 2.8 by losing one electron or 2.8.8 by gaining seven electrons. Since
it requires less energy, it is easier to loose one electron than to gain seven electrons. The
resulting sodium particle will have only ten electrons while the nucleus still has 11 protons.
Ten negative charges and 11 positive charges give the resulting particles a net positive
charge of 1(+1). The particle formed is a sodium ion, written as Na+ and is shown in figure
1.8 (a).
Fig. 1.8(a): The formation of a Sodium ion Na+
A chlorine ion can also be formed, Cl–.
Fig. 1.8(b): The formation of a chloride ion Cl–
Thus, a chlorine atom with atomic number 17 and an electron configuration of 2.8.7 can
acquire a configuration of 2.8 by losing seven electrons or a configuration of 2.8.8 by gaining
one electron. It is easier for the chlorine atom to gain one electron than to lose seven.
Therefore, a chorine atom with 17 electrons and 7 protons will gain an electron and have 18
electrons. Since it still has 17 protons, a chlorine particle with a net negative charge of 1 is
formed i.e a chlorine ion. The ion formed is written as Cl–. See figure 1.8 (b). It is also refered
to as a chloride ion.
The ideas used to explain the formation of sodium ions and chloride ions can be used to
predict the formation of ions of other elements.
More examples; Magnesium has an atomic number of 12. The electron arrangement is
2.8.2. The magnesium atom can acquire the stable electron configuration of 2.8 by losing the
two electrons in the outermost energy level. This means that the resulting particle will have
a net positive charge of two. The ion formed is called a magnesium ion, and is written as Mg2+.
See figure 1.9.
Fig. 1.9: The formation of a Magnesium ion, Mg2+
In a similar manner, oxygen atomic number 8 and electron arrangement of 2.6 can
acquire a stable electron configuration of 2.8 by gaining two electrons. The resulting particle
will have a net negative charge of two. The ion formed is an oxide ion and is written as O2–.
Fig 1.10: Formation of oxide ion, O2–
Ion formation may be shown in a different format using chemical symbols. For example:
Sodium: Na Na+ + e–
Chlorine: Cl + e– Cl–
Magnesium: Mg Mg2+ + 2e–
Oxygen: O + 2e– O2–
The charged particles formed when atoms gain or lose electrons are called ions.
Positively charged ions are called cations and negatively charged ions are called anions.
Metals mostly lose electrons to form positively charged ions while non-metals gain electrons
to form negatively charged ions.
During chemical reactions atoms of metals react by losing electrons from their outermost
energy level. On the other hand, non-metals generally gain electrons into their outermost
energy level.
For example, a reaction between sodium and chlorine will involve the transfer of one
electron from a sodium atom to a chlorine atom. In this reaction, sodium loses one electron.
The chlorine atom gains one electron from sodium. The number of electrons an atom loses
or gains during a chemical reaction is the valency of that atom. Valency is also refered to as
the combining power of an element.
All elements in Group I have a valency of one while Group II elements have a valency of
two.
On the other hand, elements in Group VII have a valency of one, since they require one
electron to acquire a stable electron configuration. It should be noted that some elements
have variable valencies. For example, iron can have a valency of 2 or 3, copper can have a
valency of 1 or 2 while lead can have a valency of 2 or 4.
Note
Electrons in the outer most energy level are called valence electrons because they can be used to predict valency. Valence
should not be confused with valency.
Radicals
Radicals are groups of atoms with a net charge that exist and react as a unit during chemical
reactions. The valency of a radical is the same as the value of its charge. For example, a
sulphate ion (SO42+) has a valency of 2, a nitrate ion (NO–3) has a valency of 1, an ammonium
ion (NH+4) has a valency of 1. Table 1.9 (a) and (b) summaries the valency of some common
elements and radicals.
Table 1.9: (a) Valency of Some Common Elements and radicals

(a) Metals
(b) Radicals
Oxidation number
Elements react by either gaining or losing electrons, they are said to acquire a new state. This
is commonly referred to as oxidation state or oxidation number. The oxidation number of
an element shows the number of electrons which have been removed or added to it to get the
present state.
There are positive oxidation numbers and negative oxidation numbers. Since atoms are
electrically neutral, they are assigned an oxidation number of zero. Table 1.10 shows the
oxidation numbers of some ions.
Note
The net charge in an atom is zero because of the equal number of protons and electrons in the atom.
Table 1.10: Oxidation Numbers of Some Ions and Atoms

Particle Oxidation number
Mg2+ +2
Fe2+ +2
Fe+3 +3
H+ +1
Cu+ +1
Cu2+ +2
Cl– –1
Cu 0
Mg 0
H 0
Oxidation state should not be confused with charge. Oxidation states are written with the
positive or negative sign coming before the number, e.g., – 2, + 3. Charge on the other hand
is written as a superscript with the number coming before the positive or negative sign e.g
X2+ or X3+.
1. What is the oxidation number of the following ions?
(a) Copper (I) ion, Cu+
(b) Lead (II) ion, Pb2+
(c) Bromide, ion Br–
(d) Aluminium ion, Al3+
(e) Sulphide ion, S2–
2. Study and complete Table 1.11. The symbols are not the actual symbols of elements.
Table 1.11
Chemical Formulae
When elements combine, they form compounds. Sodium and chlorine react to form sodium
chloride. During the reaction, a sodium atom loses an electron to form a sodium ion, Na +. A
chlorine atom then gains the electron lost by the sodium atom to form a chloride ion, Cl–. The
ions then combine to form sodium chloride.
Na+ + Cl– NaCl
The product of the reaction between sodium and chlorine when represented in chemical
symbols is called the chemical formula. A chemical formula is a representation of a chemical
substance using chemical symbols it shows the constituent elements and the proportions in
which they are combined.
In order to write a correct chemical formula, it is necessary to know the symbols and
valencies of the elements which form the compounds. When writing the formula, always
start with the element which is more likely to lose an electron or electrons then follow with
the one that gains.
The chemical formula of a compound can be derived using the valencies of the combining
elements.
Example 1
Combining atoms Mg F
Combining power (valency) 2 1
For magnesium to combine with fluorine to form magnesium fluoride, each magnesium
atom requires two fluorine atoms. Accordingly the formula for magnesium fluoride is:
Mg F2.
In the formula the valencies are interchanged and written as subscripts.
For example
Therefore, the formula is Mg1F2

When the subscript is 1, it is usually not written since the symbol represents 1 atom. Thus
the formula of magnesium fluoride is MgF2.
Example 2
Combining atoms Mg O
Formula Mg2O2
When the subscripts are the same it indicates that the combining ratio is 1:1 and it is
therefore omitted from the formula. Hence, the formula of magnesium oxide is: MgO
Example 3
Combining atoms CO
Formula C2O4
The combining ratio is 2:4 which is simplified to 1:2 hence the formula for Carbon (IV)
oxide is: CO2
Example 4
Combining atoms Al O
Formula Al2O3
Example 5
In deriving formula for compounds involving radicals, the net charge on the radical is
taken to be equal to the valency of the radical.
Combining particles Na+ CO32+
Formula Na2CO3
Example 6
Where the formula of a compound contains more than one radical of the same type, the
symbol of the radical is put in brackets and the number of radicals indicated as a subscript
to the right outside the brackets.
Combining radicals NH4+ SO42–
Combining power 1 2
Formula (NH4)2SO4
When an element shows variable valency in its compounds, the valency exhibited is
indicated in Roman numbers in brackets when naming its compounds as shown below
Examples
Write the chemical formula for the following compounds.
(a) Calcium fluoride
(b) Carbon (II) oxide
(c) Carbon (IV) oxide
(d) Lead (IV) oxide
(e) Aluminium carbonate
(f) Potassium nitrate
(g) Calcium hydrogen sulphate
Chemical Equations
A chemical equation represents a chemical change by use of symbols and formula. The
formulae of the reactants on the left hand side and those of the products on the right hand
side.
To write a correct chemical equation one must write correct formula of the reactants and
the products. For example, copper metal reacts with oxygen to form copper (II) oxide. The
chemical reaction is represented by a word equation as follows:
Copper metal + oxygen copper (II) oxide
The equation which represents the reaction can be written in form of symbols as follows:
2Cu + O2 2CuO
Balancing chemical equations

This is the process of making the number of each kind of atom on both sides of the equation
equal.
A chemical equation is correct if it is balanced. An equation is balanced when the number
of atoms of each type of reactants is equal to that on the products side. This is because atoms
are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical reaction. The following guidelines
should be observed when balancing chemical equations:
A proper chemical equation should be balanced!
(i) Write the chemical reaction in words.

Copper metal + Oxygen gas copper (II) oxide
(ii) Write the correct chemical formulae for both reactants and products.
Cu + O2 CuO (unbalanced)
(iii) Check whether the number of atoms of each element on the reactants side is equal
to that on the products side.
(iv) If the number is not equal, multiply he chemical formula containing the unbalanced
atoms with the lowest common multiple. In this case multiply the products side by
two.
2Cu + O2 2CuO (balanced)
(v) Check again to ensure that all the atoms are balanced.
The chemical formula of the reactants and products should never change during
balancing of the equations.
(vi) A chemical equation is correct and complete if the physical state of the reactants
and products are indicated. The following symbols represent the physical states
which are written in brackets after each reactant or product as solid (a), liquid (l),
in solution/aqueous (aq), gas (g).
Thus
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2 CuO (s)
showing that copper is a solid, oxygen is a gas and the product copper oxide is a solid.
Example
Zinc granules react with dilute hydrochloric acid liberating hydrogen gas and a solution of
zinc chloride is formed.
The word equation for the reaction is:
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas
The unbalanced chemical equation for the reaction is:
Zn + HCl ZnCl2 + H2
There are two atoms of chlorine and two atoms of hydrogen on the products side while
there is one atom of chlorine and one atom of hydrogen on the reactants’ side of the equation.
The number of each of the atoms on both sides of the equation should be equal.
To balance the equation, two molecules of hydrochloric acid are used i.e. the number two
is written before the formula of hydrochloric acid.
The balanced equation is:
Zn + 2HCl ZnCl2 + H2
The equation is not yet complete as the state symbols are not in place. Thus to complete
the equation these have to be placed.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Complete the following word equations. Write balanced chemical equations for the reactions
listed below.
(a) Sodium hydroxide + dilute hydrochloric acid
(b) Zinc oxide + dilute sulphuric acid
(c) Zinc metal + dilute nitric acid
(d) Calcium carbonate + dilute sulphuric acid
(e) Calcium hydrogen + carbon (IV) oxide
(f) Sodium + water
Summary
1. Elements are made up of small particles called atoms.
2. Atoms are made up of sub-atomic particles namely; protons, electrons and neutrons.
A proton is positively charged, an electron is negatively charged while the neutron
has no charge.
3. The protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus. Electrons move around the
nucleus in regions called energy levels.
4. Each energy level can only accommodate a certain fixed number of electrons. The
arrangement of electrons in energy levels around the nucleus is called electron
configuration.
5. The atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus. This
is also equal to the number of electrons around the nucleus.
6. The mass number of an element is equal to the sum of protons and neutrons in the
nucleus of its atom.
7. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons, hence have different mass numbers.
8. The periodic table consists of rows and columns of elements. The rows are called
periods while the columns are called groups.
9. When elements react by losing or gaining electrons, they form charged particles called
ions. Metals lose electrons to form positively charged ions called cations. Non-metals
gain electrons to form negatively charged ions called anions.
10. Valency of an element is the number of electrons an atom loses or gains in a chemical
reaction. It is also known as the combining power. The valency of an element is the
same as its oxidation number. The valency of a radical is equal to the charge on the
radical.
11. A balanced chemical equation is one in which the number of each type of atoms of
element on the reactants side is equal to that on the products side.
Revision Questions
1. (a) Name the particles that are found in an atom.
(b) Atoms are said to be electrically neutral. Explain.
(c) Distinguish between the following:
(i) Atomic number and mass number.
(ii) Mass number and relative atomic mass.
2. An isotope Q, has 18 neutrons a mass number of 34.
(a) (i) Draw the atomic structure of Q.
(ii) Write its electron arrangement
(b) To which period and group does Q belong? Explain your answer.
(c) How does Q form its ion? Explain.
3. (a) Determine the relative atomic mass of the following elements whose isotopic
compositions occur in the proportions given.
(i) Neon
(ii) Argon
(iii) Potassium
(b) Calculate the number of neutrons in each isotope of potassium.

4. The table below shows a section of the periodic table showing atomic numbers. Note
that the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G do not represent actual chemical symbols of the
elements.
(a) Which letter represents an element that forms an ion with a positive charge of
2.
(b) Give the letters that represent elements which would gain one electron each to
acquire an octet (outermost energy level with eight electrons) structure.
(c) Draw a dot (·) or cross (×) diagram for the electron arrangement of F and G.
(d) Which of the elements in the table represented above have a valency of 1?
5. (a) How many atoms of each element are present in each of the following
compounds:
(i) Lithium chloride.
(ii) Zinc chloride.
(iii) Calcium carbonate.
(iv) Ammonium nitrate.
(b) Both lead and copper have a valency of 2. Write the formula of:
(i) Lead carbonate
(ii) Copper chloride.
(c) Give the valencies of the cation and onion in each of the following compounds:
(i) Zinc sulphate
(ii) Magnesium carbonate
(iii) Aluminium nitrate
(iv) A2B3
(v) X2Y
6. The table below shows some elements in the periodic table. Use it to answer questions
that follow. The letters are not the actual symbols of the elements.
(i) An element K has an atomic number of 20. Indicate its position in the grid.
(ii) Write the formula of the compound formed between V and T.
(iii) Which element belongs to period 2 and group VIII?
(iv) Write the electron configuration of P, Q and S.
7. The valencies of metals X, Y and Z are 1, 2 and 3 respectively. What are the formulae
of their:
(a) hydroxides?
(b) sulphates?
(c) carbonates?
(d) hydrogen carbonates?
(e) nitrates?
(f) phosphates?
8. Balance the following equations:
(a) Mg(s) + HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(b) Na(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
(c) NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(Aq) + H2O(l)
(d) CuCO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(e) H2S(g) + 3O2(g) SO2(g) + H2O(l)
(f) C2H6(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(l)
9. Write a balanced equation for each of the following reactions:
(a) Heating sodium metal in oxygen to obtain sodium oxide.
(b) Magnesium metal with steam.
(c) Action of dilute hydrochloric acid on calcium carbonate.
(d) Calcium metal and water.
(e) Copper (II) oxide solid with dilute sulphuric acid.
Chemical families; Patterns in Properties
Objectives
By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:
(a) Identify and write electron arrangement of alkali metals, alkaline earth metals,
halogens and noble gases.
(b) State and explain the trends in physical properties of elements in group I, II, VII and
VIII.
(c) State and explain the trends in reactivity of elements in group I, II, VII and VIII.
(d) Explain the similarities in chemical formulae of compounds of the elements in a
group.
(e) Explain the unreactive nature of group VIII elements.
(f) Identify and write electron arrangement of period 3 elements.
(g) State and explain the trends in physical and chemical properties of the elements in
period 3.
Chemical families
As discussed earlier, the elements in the periodic table are classified according to the number
of valence electrons and the number of occupied energy levels into groups and periods
respectively. Elements in the same group are said to belong to the same chemical family. In
this chapter, four of these families are considered in detail. Trends in physical and chemical
properties provide useful information in predicting the physical and chemical behaviour of
the elements within a family.
The Alkali Metals

The elements in group I of the periodic table are called Alkali metals. These include, lithium,
sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium. The electron arrangements of the first
three alkali metals are as follows:
Position of the alkali metals in the periodic table
Lithium (L) : 2.1

Sodium (Na) : 2.8.1
Potassium (k) : 2.8.8.1
Each alkali metal atom has one electron in the outermost energy level. Down the group
there is an increase in the number of occupied energy levels.
Gradation in Size of the Atom and Ion
It is not possible to measure the sizes of atoms and ions of elements in the laboratory due to
their small size. It is also difficult to measure the values of ionization energies of the atoms.
Table 2.1 gives a summary of the values of the sizes of atoms, ions and ionization energies of
the first three elements in group I. Study the table and answer the questions that follow.
Table 2.1: Changes in Atomic and Ionic Radius in Group I

1. State and explain the trends in the following properties down the group.
(i) Atomic radius.
(ii) Ionic radius
(iii) Energy levels.
2. How does the ionic radius and atomic radius of an element compare?
Discussion
Atomic radius is the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and the outermost
energy level occupied by an electron or electrons. The atomic radii and ionic radii of the alkali
metals increase down the group. This is because each alkali metal has one more occupied
energy level than the preceding member in the group. Lithium has two energy levels. Sodium
has three while potassium has four. The outermost electron in a sodium atom is therefore
further from the nucleus than the outermost electron in a lithium atom.
This explains why atomic radii of the alkali metals increase down the group.
When an atom loses an electron to form a positively charged ion, the remaining electrons
experience greater nuclear attraction. The remaining energy levels move closer to the
nucleus resulting in a reduction in the radius.
An alkali metal forms an ion by losing the single electron from the outermost energy level.
The resulting ion (cation) has one occupied energy level less than the corresponding atom.
Hence the ionic radius of an alkali metal is less than its atomic radius.
Physical Properties of Alkali metals

Table 2.2 below shows some physical properties of alkali metals. Study it and answer the
questions that follow.
Table 2.2: Physical Properties of Alkali Metals

State and explain the trends in the following properties down the group?
(i) Appearance
(ii) Ease of cutting
(iii) Melting and boiling points.
(iv) Electrical conductivity.
(v) 1st ionization energy
Discussion
The alkali metals have a shiny metallic lustre when freshly cut. However, the surface quickly
tarnishes. The surface tarnishes because of reacting with air.
The alkali metals are soft and easy to cut. The softness and ease to cut increase down the
group. This is due to the decrease in the strength of the forces holding the atoms together as
you move down the group.
The alkali metals have relatively low melting and boiling points. The melting and boiling
points decrease down the group. This is due to the weakening of the forces holding the atoms
together. The strength of the forces holding atoms together depends on the size of the atoms.
The larger the atoms, the weaker the force. Thus as the atomic radius increases the forces of
attraction between the atoms weaken, hence the decrease in the melting and boiling points
down the group.
Alkali metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Conductivity in metals is due to
the presence of delocalised electrons in the structure of the metal. Since they all have one
electron in their outermost energy level, their conductivity is similar.
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from the
outermost energy level of an atom in the gaseous state.
Down the group from lithium to potassium, the 1st ionization energy decreases. This
means that less energy is needed to remove the electron from the outermost energy level of
a potassium atom than a sodium atom and a lithium atom. This is because the effective force
of attraction on the outermost electron by the positive nucleus decreases with increasing
atomic size and distance from the nucleus.
In metals, the electrons in the outermost energy level move randomly throughout the
metallic structure. Since the electrons do not remain in one fixed position, they are said to be
delocalised.
Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals

In book one chapter 4 and 5, the reactions of potassium and sodium metals with both air and
water were discussed. In this section the chemical properties of alkali metals based on those
reactions shall be reviewed. For safety purposes, very small pieces should be used in these
experiments.
Lithium, sodium and potassium react vigorously with both air and water. Potassium is
the most reactive and lithium, the least reactive.
When sodium is exposed, it reacts with moisture in the air to form sodium hydroxide.
The sodium hydroxide further reacts with carbon (IV) oxide in the air to form sodium
carbonate.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
2NaOH(aq) + CO2 (g) Na2CO3 · H2O(s)
Sodium burns in air with a yellow flame to form a yellowish white solid which is mainly
sodium oxide.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium Oxide
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
When sodium burns in air enriched with oxygen it forms mainly sodium peroxide.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium peroxide
2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)
Potassium burns in air with a lilac flame to form a white solid which is potassium oxide.
Potassium + oxygen Potassium oxide
4K(s) + O2(g) 2K2O(s)
The observations made when alkali metals react with water are summarised in table 2.3
Table 2.3: Reaction of Alkali Metals with Water
Metal Observation when metal reacts with water Rate of

reaction
Lithium floats in water. A colourless gas is produced.
Lithium The gas does not ignite spontaneously. The resulting solution turns red litmus paper blue.
Vigorous
Sodium metal darts on the water surface as it melts into a silvery ball. A hissing sound is produced. More
Sodium A colourless gas is produced which may ignite spontaneously. The solution formed is alkaline. vigorous
The metal darts about on the surface of the water and melts into a silvery ball. A colourless gas is
Potassium produced which spontaneously bursts into a flame. Potassium vapour burns with a lilac flame. The Explosive
resulting solution is alkaline.
Alkali metals react with water to form alkaline solutions and hydrogen gas.
Metal + Water Metal hydroxide + Hydrogen
Lithium + Water Lithium hydroxide + hydrogen gas
2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) 2LiOH(aq) + H2(g)
Sodium + Water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Potassium + water Potassium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
2K(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
From the observations it can be deduced that potassium is the most reactive alkali metal.
This is because the electron in the outermost energy level is loosely held by the nucleus and
is easily removed during a reaction. The ease of losing valence electrons increases down the
group as the atomic radius increases, hence the increase in reactivity from lithium to
potassium.
Experiment 2.1: How do alkali metals react with chlorine?

Cut a small piece of sodium and place it in a deflagrating spoon. Warm it and quickly lower
it into a gas jar containing chlorine. Record your observations.
Caution: This experiment should be done in a fume chamber or in the open. Chlorine gas is
poisonous. Do NOT attempt this reaction with potassium.
1. What is observed when a hot piece of sodium metal is lowered into a gas jar
containing chlorine?
2. What is formed when sodium metal reacts with chlorine?
3. Predict how lithium and potassium would react with chlorine.
4. Write balanced equations for the reactions between chlorine and sodium, lithium and
potassium metals.
Discussion
When hot sodium metal is lowered into chlorine gas, the metal bursts into flame, white fumes
of sodium chloride are formed.
Sodium metal + chlorine gas Sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
Lithium reacts less vigorously with chlorine while potassium reacts much more violently
with chlorine than sodium.
Lithium + chlorine gas Lithium chloride
2Li(s) + Cl2(g) 2LiCl(s)
Potassium + chlorine gas Potassium chloride
2K(s) + Cl2(g) 2KCl (s)
Alkali metals react with chlorine gas to form the corresponding metal chlorides. The
reactivity of alkali metals with chlorine increases down the group. This is because of the
increase in atomic radius which leads to increasing ease to lose the electron in the outermost
energy level.
Alkali metals react by losing the one electron from their outermost energy level to attain
a stable electron configuration.
Similarity of Ions and formulae of some compounds of Alkali metals.

Complete table 2.4 by writing the formula of the compound formed between an alkali metal
ion and hydroxide, oxide chloride ions.
Table 2.4: Formulae of hydroxides, oxides and Chlorides of Alkali metals

Answer the following question
Explain the similarity in the chemical formulae of the compounds formed between alkali
metal ions and hydroxides, oxides and chloride ions.
Discussion
Each alkali metal ion combines with a single hydroxide ion to form the respective hydroxide
namely; Lithium hydroxide (LiOH), sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and potassium hydroxide
(KOH). This is because the valency of Group I elements is one. The same applies in the
formation of lithium chloride (LiCl), sodium chloride (NaCl) and potassium chloride (KCl)
two alkali metal ions combine with one oxide ion to form the corresponding oxide namely;
Lithium oxide (L2O), sodium oxide (Na2O) and potassium oxide (K2O).
This is because the valency of oxygen is two. Therefore one oxygen ion requires two alkali
metal ions to combine with to form the corresponding oxide.
Due to their high reactivity, alkali metals are not found as free elements. They are
normally found in the combined state in the earths’ crust.
Uses of Alkali metals and their compounds

1. Sodium is used in the manufacture of Sodium cyanide for use in the extraction of gold.
2. Lithium is used in the manufacture of special high strength glasses and ceramics
A lithium ion battery
3. Lithium compounds are used in the manufacture of dry cells for use in mobile phones,
laptops, stop watches and zero emission electric vehicles.
4. A molten mixture of sodium and potassium is used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.
5. Sodium vapour is used to produce the yellow glow in streetlights.
6. Molten sodium is used as a reducing agent in the extraction of titanium from titanium
(IV) chloride.
TiCl4(g) + 4Na(l) Ti(s) + 4NaCl(l)
7. Sodium chloride is used as a food additive.
8. A mixture of Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and carbon disulphide is used in the
manufacture of artificial silk called rayon.
Alkaline Earth Metals

The elements in group II of the periodic table are called alkaline earth metals. They consist
of beryllium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, barium and radium. The electron arrangement
of the first three alkaline earth metals is as follows:
Beryllium (Be) ; 2.2
Magnesium (Mg); 2.8.2
Calcium (Ca) ; 2.8.8.2
An atom of an alkaline earth metal has two electrons in the outermost energy level.
Position of the alkaline earth metals in the periodic table
Gradation in Size of Atom and Ion
Table 2.5: Size of atom and ion

Fig 2.1: Gradation in size down the group
Study table 2.5 and figure 2.1 then answer the question that follows.
State and explain the trends in atomic and ionic sizes down the group
Discussion
Atomic radius increases down the group as more energy levels are occupied. Beryllium has
the smallest atomic radius among the alkaline earth metals because it has the least number
of occupied energy level.
Group II elements form ions by losing the two electrons in the outermost energy level in
order to attain a stable electron arrangement. The loss of two electrons in the outermost
energy level accounts for the smaller ionic radius compared to the atomic radius of the
corresponding atom.
Ion Electron arrangement
Be2+ 2
Mg2+ 2.8
Ca2+ 2.8.8
Beryllium ion with only one occupied energy level is therefore the smallest ion.
Physical Properties of the Alkaline Earth Metals
Experiment 2.2: What are some of the physical properties of magnesium and calcium?
Cut a small piece of magnesium ribbon with a knife and clean it with sand paper. Use the
piece of magnesium to complete an electric circuit as shown in figure 2.2. Record your
observations. Repeat the procedure using calcium instead of magnesium..
Fig 2.2: Electrical circuit

1. What is the appearance of a polished surface of an alkaline earth metal?
2. What is observed when:
(a) One cuts an alkaline earth metal?
(b) Magnesium and calcium are separately used to complete an electric circuit?
3. How do the physical properties of alkaline earth metals compare with those of alkali
metals?
Discussion
When an alkaline earth metal is polished, it acquires a metallic luster. Alkaline earth metals
lose their metallic luster when exposed to air because of oxidation. The purpose of polishing
the surface of the alkaline earth metals before using them in experiments is to remove the
thin oxide layer that usually forms on their surface. Both magnesium and calcium have a
metallic luster.
Magnesium is hard to cut with a knife. However it is ductile and malleable. Calcium is
brittle hence it cannot be cut with a knife. Both magnesium and calcium are good conductors
of heat and electricity due to the presence of delocalised electrons. Table 2.6 gives a summary
of some physical properties of alkaline earth metals.
A ductile material is one which can be drawn into a wire. Materials which can be
hammered into sheets are said to be malleable. A brittle substance is one which is hard and
likely to break.
Table 2.6: Physical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals

1. State and explain the trend in:
(a) Melting and boiling points
(b) Ionization energy down the group.
2. Explain why the second ionization energy is higher than the first ionization energy.
The melting and boiling points of beryllium are very high compared to other alkaline
earth metals. This is because the beryllium atom is very small and the forces of attraction
between the atoms are very strong.
Down the group the melting point and boiling points decrease. This is because in metals
atoms are held together by forces of attraction between positive nuclei and delocalised
electrons. As the atomic radius increase this attraction decreases because of the increasing
distance from the +ve nucleus to the delocalised electrons. This explains why the melting
point and boiling point decreases down the group.
The first ionization energy for magnesium is the minimum amount of energy required to
remove one electron from the outer most energy level.
Mg(g) Mg+(g) + e– (1st I.E. = 736 kJmol–1)
The second ionisation energy of magnesium is the minimum amount of energy required to
remove a second electron from a magnesium ion with a single positive charge.
Mg2+(g) Mg2+(g) + e– (2nd I.E. = 1450 kJmol–)
The second ionisation energy is always higher than the first ionization energy. Once an
electron has been lost from an atom, the overall positive charge holds the remaining
electrons more firmly. This then means that removing a second electron form the ion
requires more energy than the first electron.
Chemical Properties of Alkaline Earth Metals
Experiment 2.3: How do alkaline earth metals react with air and water?
Cut a 2 cm piece of polished magnesium ribbon and hold it using a pair of tongs. Heat it
strongly.
Caution: Magnesium burns with a bright blinding flame and should not be stared at for a
long time.
Take another polished piece of magnesium and put it in a beaker containing water. Test
the resulting solution with litmus paper. Record your observations. Repeat the experiment
using calcium instead of magnesium.
1. What is observed when magnesium and calcium are:
(a) Heated in air?
(b) Placed in water and solution tested with litmus paper?
2. Which of the two metals is more reactive?
3. Write balanced equations for the reactions between the two metals with:
(a) Air
(b) Water
Discussion
Magnesium burns in air with a blinding brilliant white flame forming a white solid. The white
solid is a mixture of magnesium oxide and magnesium nitride.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
Magnesium + nitrogen Magnesium nitride
3Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
Calcium on the other hand burns with a faint orange-red flame forming a white solid,
which is a mixture of calcium oxide and calcium nitride.
Calcium + Oxygen Calcium oxide
2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)
Calcium + Nitrogen Calcium nitride
3Ca(s) + N2(g) Ca3N2(s)
The trend in reactivity of the alkaline earth metals when burning in air is not clear due to
the oxide coating on calcium.
Magnesium reacts slowly with cold water to form magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen
gas bubbles of which stick on the surface of the metal. Magnesium hydroxide dissolves
slightly in water to form an alkaline solution.
Magnesium + Water Magnesium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2H2O(I) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
A steady stream of hydrogen gas is evolved when calcium reacts with cold water. A white
suspension appears in the beaker due to the formation of calcium hydroxide which is
sparingly soluble in water. The calcium hydroxide solution formed is alkaline.
Calcium + Water Calcium hydroxide + Hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2H2O (s) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
The atomic radii increase from beryllium to calcium. Therefore, the two outer electrons
in a calcium atom are more loosely held by the positive nucleus than the outer electrons in
magnesium. This means that less energy is required to remove the outer electrons in calcium
than in magnesium. Calcium is therefore more reactive than magnesium.
The order of reactivity of the alkaline earth metals increases down the group.
Experiment 2.4: How does magnesium react with steam?

Put some wet sand at the bottom of a test tube. Insert a clean piece of magnesium ribbon (5
cm) into the middle of the test-tube ensure that the coil touches the sides of the tube. Set up
the apparatus as shown in figure 2.3.
Fig 2.3: Reaction of Magnesium with steam
Heat the sand gently first, then heat the magnesium ribbon strongly until it glows, then
continue to heat the wet sand to generate steam. Record your observations. Test any gas
produced using a burning splint. Before the heating is discontinued, the delivery tube should
be removed from the water.
1. State and explain what is observed in the reaction tube.
2. Explain the observation made when a burning splint is lowered into a test tube of the
gas collected.
Discussion
Magnesium burns in steam with a white flame. A white solid is formed and a colourless gas
is produced. A pop sound is produced when a burning splint is introduced into a test-tube
containing the gas. The refore the colourless gas is hydrogen.
The sand is heated initially to drive out the air that would otherwise react with
magnesium by generating some steam. The delivery tube is removed from the water before
heating is stopped at the end of the experiment to prevent sucking back as the apparatus
cools.
Magnesium + Steam Magnesium oxide + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)
Note
The reaction between calcium and steam is explosive and dangerous. It should never be attempted.
Experiment 2.5: How do the Alkaline Earth Metals react with chlorine?
Use a deflagrating spoon to lower a piece of burning magnesium into a gas jar full of chlorine.
Record your observations. Repeat the procedure using a hot piece of fresh calcium instead
of magnesium.
1. What is observed when chlorine gas reacts with:
(a) A burning piece of magnesium?
(b) A hot piece of calcium?
2. Name the products formed when the metals react with chlorine? Write equations for
the reactions.
Discussion
When a burning piece of magnesium is lowered into a gas jar containing chlorine, the metal
continues to burn with a brilliant white flame to form a white powder. The white ash formed
is magnesium chloride.
Magnesium + Chlorine Magnesium chloride
Mg(s) + Cl2(s) MgCl2(s)
Calcium may not react steadily with chlorine. This is because a coating of calcium oxide
is formed first when the metal is heated. However, under suitable conditions calcium may
react with chlorine to form calcium chloride.
Calcium + Chlorine gas Calcium chloride
Ca(s) + Cl2(g) CaCl2(s)
Experiment 2.6: How do alkaline earth metals react with dilute acids?
Caution: Care must be taken when reacting calcium with dilute acids.
Place a clean piece of magnesium ribbon into a test-tube containing dilute hydrochloric acid.
Test any gas produced using a burning splint. Place another clean piece of magnesium ribbon
into a separate test-tube containing dilute sulphuric (VI) acid. Test the gas produced using a
burning splint. Record your observations.
Repeat the experiment using a small piece of calcium and dilute hydrochloric acid and
sulphuric (VI) acid.
1. What is observed when magnesium ribbon reacts with:
(i) Dilute hydrochloric acid?
(ii) Dilute sulphuric acid?
2. What is observed when calcium reacts with:
(i) Dilute hydrochloric acid?
(ii) Dilute sulphuric acid?
3. Write equations for the reactions between magnesium and calcium metals with both
dilute sulphuric acid and hydrochloric acid.
Discussion
There is effervescence when a piece of magnesium is placed in hydrochloric acid. The gas
produced during the reaction produces a ‘pop’ sound when a burning splint is introduced to
the mouth of the test tube. This shows that the gas produced is hydrogen.
Magnesium + Hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq)+ H2(g)
Magnesium + Sulphuric acid Magnesium sulphate + hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Similarly calcium reacts with dilute hyrdrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas and
calcium chloride.
Calcium + Hydrochloric acid calcium chloride + hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
When sulphiric (VI) acid is used, the reaction quickly stops. This is due to to the formation
of insoluble calcium sulphate which forms a coating on the surface of calcium metal
preventing further reaction.
Calcium + Sulphuric acid Calcium sulphate + Hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) CaSO4(s) + H2(g)
Similarity of ions and formulae of some compounds of alkaline earth metals

Copy and complete table 2.7 by writing the formulae of the compound formed between an
alkaline earth metal ion and hydroxide, oxide or chloride ions.
Table 2.7: Formation of hydroxides, oxides and chlorides of alkaline earth metals.

What is the valency of the following ions?
(i) Calcium
(ii) Magnesium
(iii) Hydroxide
(iv) Oxide
(v) Chloride
Discussion
Both magnesium and calcium ions have a valency of 2. The hydroxide ion and chloride ion
have a valency of 1. Therefore two hydroxide ions combine with one magnesium ion to form
magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2. Similarly, two chloride ions will combine with one
magnesium ion to form magnesium chloride, MgCl2. On the other hand, the oxide ion has
valency of 2. therefore, one calcium ion combines with one oxide ion to form calcium oxide,
CaO. All alkaline earth metals have a valency of two (2). Hence the chemical formulae of their
compounds are similar.
Uses of some Alkaline Earth Metals and their Compounds

1. Magnesium is used in the manufacture of magnesium hydroxide which is used as anti-
acid medicine. This is because magnesium hydroxide is a non-toxic base.
2. A low-density alloy of magnesium and aluminium is used in aeroplane construction.
3. Hydrated calcium sulphate (Plaster of Paris) is used in hospitals to set fractured
bones.
4. Cement is made by heating a mixture of calcium carbonate (limestone), clay and sand.
5. Calcium carbonate is used in the extraction of iron.
6. Calcium oxide (quicklime) is added to acid soils to raise pH for agriculture purposes.
7. Calcium nitrate is used as a nitrogenous fertilizer.
8. Magnesium oxide is used in the lining of furnances.
9. Barium sulphate is used in diagnosis of ulcers.
10. Barium nitrate is used to produce the green flame in fireworks.
11. Calcium carbonate is mixed with oil to make putty.
Halogens
The word halogen is derived from the Greek word ‘halo’ meaning salt and ‘gen’ meaning
producer. Halogen thus means salt producer. Halogens are non-metals in Group VII of the
periodic table. Fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine are the first four members of the
halogen group. The electron arrangement of fluorine and chlorine is as follows:
Fluorine 2.7
Chlorine 2.8.7
Position of the halogens in the periodic table
Gradation in Size of Atoms and Ion in halogens
Table 2 Size of atom and ions

1. Explain the trend in the following properties down the group:
(i) Atomic radius
(ii) Ionic radius
2. How do the atomic radii of the halogens compare with their ionic radii?
Discussion
The atomic and ionic radii of the halogens increase down the group. This is because of the
increase in the number of occupied energy levels.
The atomic radius of a halogen atom is less than the radius of its ion. For example, the
atomic radius of a chlorine atom is less than the ionic radius of a chloride ion. This is because
the chlorine atom has 17 protons in the nucleus attracting 17 electrons in the energy levels.
The chloride ion has 17 protons in the nucleus attracting 18 electrons. The effect of the
positive nucleus is thus lower. The reduction in the nuclear attraction is due to repulsive
effect between the existing electrons and the incoming electron.
Physical Properties of Halogens
Chlorine can be prepared by the action of concentrated hydrochloric acid on potassium
manganate (VII) (KMnO4) or Magnese (IV) oxide (MnO2). Heat is required when manganese
(IV) oxide is used.
Fig 2.4: Set up for preparing chlorine gas
Experiment 2.7 What are the physical properties of some halogens?

Using prepared samples of chlorine gas in stoppered boiling tubes:
(a) Observe the colour of the gas.
(b) Invert a boiling tube full of chlorine gas into a beaker containing water as shown in
the diagram. Repeat the experiment using tetrachloromethane in place of water in
the beaker. Record your observations.
Fig 2:5 Dissolving chlorine in water
(c) Place a drop of bromine in two separate boiling tubes and immediately cork them.
Note the appearance of bromine. Allow the drop of bromine to vapourise and fill the
boiling tubes.
(i) Invert a boiling tube containing bromine vapour in a beaker containing water.
Allow the mixture to stand for a few minutes.
(ii) Invert a boiling tube of bromine vapour into a beaker containing
tetrachloromethane. Allow the mixture to stand for a few minutes.
(iii) Record your observations.
(d) Take a few crystals of iodine and:
(i) Examine the colour of the solid. Put a few crystals of iodine in a test-tube
containing a little tetrachloromethane and shake the mixture. Repeat the
experiment using water.
(ii) Put a few crystals of iodine in a test-tube and heat strongly. Record your
observations.
(iii) Put some iodine crystals in a beaker and connect a circuit as shown in figure
2.6. Record the observations.
Fig 2.6: Do iodine crystals conduct electricity?
Caution: These experiments should be carried out in the open or in a fume chamber because
fumes of halogens are highly poisonous.
1. What is the physical state of chlorine, bromine and iodine at room temperature?
2. What is the colour of chlorine, bromine and iodine?
3. (a) What is observed when chlorine and bromine are shaken with:
(i) Water
(ii) Tetrachloromethane
(b) What is observed when iodine is shaken with:
(i) Water
(ii) Tetrachloromethane
4. Explain what is observed when iodine is heated.
5. Does iodine conduct electricity? Explain.
Discussion
Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature. Bromine is a volatile liquid while
iodine is a solid. Fluorine is pale yellow while chlorine is green-yellow. Bromine is a brown
liquid while iodine is a shiny dark grey solid.
When a boiling tube containing chlorine gas or bromine vapour is inverted in water or
tetrachloromethane, the level of the solution rises in the boiling tube. The level of the
solution rises more in tetrachloromethane than in water. The rise in water level is higher in
the case of chlorine compared to bromine. This shows that chlorine is more soluble in water
than bromine. Solubility of halogens in water therefore decreases down the group. All
halogens are soluble in tetrachloromethane.
Iodine sublimes when heated to form a purple vapour. This is because the particles are
held by weak forces which require little energy to break. Halogens are non conductors of
heat and electricity. This is because there are no delocalised electrons in their structures.
Table 2.7 gives a summary of some physical properties of some halogens.
Table 2.7: Physical Properties of Halogens

Explain the trends in the following properties down the group.
(i) Melting points.
(ii) Boiling points.
Halogens exists as diatomic molecules.
The forces of attraction between molecules (intermolecular forces) increase with the
increase in the size of the molecules. Hence, the forces of attraction between molecules
among the four halogens are strongest in iodine and weakest in fluorine. The melting and
boiling points of halogens therefore increase down the group.
Chemical Properties of Halogens

It is not easy for non metals to lose electrons because the amount of energy required
(ionisation energy) is very large. Therefore non metals do not easily form positively charged
ions. Non metals therefore react by gaining electrons to form negatively charged ions.
Ion formation
Halogens have seven electrons in their outermost energy level. They react by gaining one
electron to attain a stable electron configuration and form negatively charged ions. During
ion formation, energy is released. The energy change for this process of electron gain is called
electron affinity.
F + e– F– (Elctron affinity = –322 kJmol–1)
Cl + e– Cl– (Electron affinity = –349 kJmol–1)
Br + e– Br– (Electron affinity = –325 kJmol–1)
I + e– I– (Electron affinity = –295 kJmol–1)
Generally, the electron affinity decreases as the size of the atoms increases hence
reactivity decreases down the group.
Experiment 2.8: How do halogens react with metals?
Caution: Halogens are highly poisonous therefore the experiments should be carried out in
a fume chamber or in open air.
Pass a stream of dry chlorine gas over heated iron wool as shown in figure 2.7 (a). Record
your observations. For bromine and iodine, heat the iron wool in a test-tube in which
bromine and iodine vapour is generated and passed over the wool as shown in figure 2.7 (b)
and 2.7 (c).
The test-tube should be held with a test-tube holder, alternatively, using a defragrating
spoon, place hot iron wool into a gas jar of chlorine.
Fig 2.7 (a): Reaction of chlorine with metals
Fig 2.7 (b) and (c)

1. What is observed when the hot iron wool reacts with:
(i) Chlorine?
(ii) Bromine?
(iii) Iodine?
2. What is the order of reactivity of halogens? Explain.
3. State and explain the role of the concentrated sodium hydroxide?
4. Write chemical equations for the reactions between chlorine, bromine and iodine
with iron.
Discussion
The reaction between iron and a halogen results in the formation of a salt. Chlorine reacts
most vigorously with hot iron forming dark-brown crystals of iron (III) chloride. Hot iron
glows in bromine vapour to form dark-red crystals of iron (III) bromide. Iodine vapour reacts
slowly with hot iron to form grayish black crystals of iron (II) iodide. Iodine is not reactive
enough to form a salt with iron.
The equations below represent the reactions which occur.
Iron + Chlorine Iron (III) chloride
2Fe (s) + 3 Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
Iron + Bromine Iron (III) bromide
2Fe(s) + 3Br2(g) 2FeBr3(s)
Iron + Iodine Iron (II) iodine
Fe(s) + I2(g) Fel2(s)
Concentrated sodium hydroxide is used to react with excess chlorine to avoid emitting
poisonous chlorine gas into the air.
Similarly, halogens react with heated zinc to form zinc salts.
Zinc + Chlorine Zinc chloride
Zn(s) + Cl2(g) ZnCl2(s)
Zinc + Bromine Zinc bromide
Zn (s) + Br (g) ZnBr2(s)
Zinc + Iodine Zinc iodide
Zn(s) + I2(g) ZnI2(s)
Other salts formed in the same method are MgCl2, AlCl3 and NaCl.
The reaction between chlorine and metals is more vigorous than that of bromine. The order
of reactivity of the halogens with metals decreases down the group.
The ability of an atom to gain an electron in its outermost energy level decreases as the
size of the atoms increase, hence the decrease in reactivity of halogens down the group.
Experiment 2.9: How do halogens react with water?
Bubble chlorine through water in a conical flask for a few minutes using an experimental set-
up as shown in figure 2.8.
Fig 2.8: Formation of chlorine water
Observe the colour of the resulting solution. Test the solution with litmus paper.
Caution: This experiment should be done in a fume chamber or in the open air.
1. What is observed when chlorine is passed through water for some time?
2. What changes are observed on the litmus papers.
3. Write an equation for the reaction between chlorine and water.
Discussion
Chlorine dissolves in water to form chlorine water which is a mixture of hydrochloric acid
and chloric (I) acid.
Chlorine + water Hydrochloric acid + Chloric (I) acid
Cl2(g) + H2O(g) HCl(aq) + HClO (aq)
When the chlorine water is tested with litmus paper, the blue one turns red, showing that
the solution is acidic. Then the litmus papers are bleached (decolourised) immediately. The
bleaching action is a property of Chloric (I) acid. Chloric (I) and acid is unstable and
decomposes to form hydrochloric acid and an atom of oxygen. The oxygen atom then
combines with the natural dye in the litmus papers to form a colourless compound.
Chlorine does not bleach dry litmus paper because chloric (I) acid cannot be formed in
the absence of water. The bleaching action is only possible in the presence of water. Chlorine
water is yellow due to the presence of chloric (I) acid. In sunlight the chlorine water is
decolourised due to the decomposition of chloric (I) acid to oxygen gas and hydrochloric acid
by the sunlight.
This reaction does not take place in the dark.
Fig 2.9
Some uses of Halogens and their Compounds

1. Fluorine is a raw material in the preparation of a synthetic fibre known as
polytetraflouroethene.
2. Some compounds of fluorine are added to water and some tooth pastes in small
quantities to reduce tooth decay.
3. Fluorine is used to manufacture hydrogen fluoride used to engrave words or pictures
on glass.
4. Chlorine is used to make bleaches used in paper pulp and textile industries.
5. Chlorine is added to water to kill micro-organisms in water treatment works.
6. Chlorine is used in the manufacture of a plastic known as polyvinylchloride (PVC).
7. Chlorine is used in the large-scale manufacture of hydrochloric acid.
8. Bromine is used in the manufacture of silver bromide which is used to make the light
sensitive photographic paper and films.
9. A solution of iodine in alcohol (tincture of iodine) is used as a disinfectant.
Noble gases
The elements in group (VIII) of the periodic table are called noble gases. Noble gases are
found as free atoms in nature and form about 1% of air. They include helium, neon, argon,
krypton, xenon and radon. Argon is the most abundant and forms about 0.9% of air by
volume. The electron arrangement of the first three noble gases is given in table 2.8
Position of the noble gases in the periodic table
Table 2.8: Electron Arrangements of the first three Noble Gases
Helium with only two electrons has one occupied energy level which is full. Hence it has
a duplet. The rest have eight electrons in their outermost occupied energy level. Thus they
have the octet.
Under normal conditions noble gases neither gain nor lose electrons. They are therefore
stable and non reactive. Table 2.9 is a summary of some of the physical properties of noble
gases. Study it and answer the questions that follow.
Note
Noble gases were initially called inert gases because they were thought to be unreactive.
Table 2.9: Physical Properties of Noble gases

What happens to each of the following properties down the group?
(a) Atomic radius.
(b) Melting point and boiling point.
(c) Ionization energies.
Discussion
Group VIII elements are colourless monoatomic gases. Helium has a duplet electron
arrangement while the others have an octet in their outermost energy level. Therefore they
all have a stable electron arrangement. This explains the high ionization energies for all the
elements.
Atomic radii increase down the group due to the increase in the number of energy levels.
The increase in atomic radii down the group explains why the first ionization energy of the
gases decreases down the group.
Noble gases have low melting and boiling points. This is because of the weak inter atomic
forces of attraction between the atoms. However, as the atomic size increases down the
group there is increase in strength of inter atomic forces of attraction between atoms. Hence
the rise in melting and boiling points down the group.
Xenon has a large atomic radius. In xenon an electron in the outermost energy level is
relatively far from the positive nucleus. It therefore has a low ionization energy compared to
the other noble gases. For this reason, xenon takes part in some reactions.
Uses of Noble Gases
The inert nature of the noble gases enables them to have a wide range of uses.
1. Argon is used in light bulbs to provide an inert environment to prevent oxidation.
2. Argon is used as an insulator in arch-welding.
3. Neon gas is used in street and advertisement lights.
4. Helium mixed with oxygen is used in deep sea diving and mountaineering. The
mixture is also used in hospitals for patients with respiratory problems and those
undergoing certain forms of surgery.
5. Helium can be used instead of hydrogen in balloons for meteorological research.
6. Helium is used in thermometers for the measurement of very low temperatures.
7. Liquid helium is used to keep certain metal alloys at temperatures low enough for
them to become super conductors.
Properties and Trends across A period
As discussed earlier, elements in the same period have the same number of occupied energy
levels. As you move across the period, the number of electrons in the outermost energy level
increases by one. While the elements in the same group exhibit similar properties, those
across a period show a gradual change in properties. This can be illustrated by considering
elements in Period 3 from left to right.
Position of period 3 elements in the periodic table
Trends in Physical Properties of Elements in Period 3

(a) Electrical conductivity
Experiment 2.10: Which of the element in period 3 are Good Conductors of Electricity?
Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 2.10. Connect a piece of magnesium ribbon to the
circuit using crocodile clips.
Fig 2.10: Set-up for testing electrical conductivity of elements

Close the switch and observe what happens to the bulb. Record your observations.
Repeat the experiment using aluminium foil and roll sulphur instead of magnesium. The
electrical conductivity of sodium can be tested by connecting sodium to the circuit using long
pins.
1. List the elements in period 3 that conduct electricity.
2. Explain the trends in the electrical conductivity of the elements in period 3.
Discussion
When the circuit is closed, sodium, magnesium and aluminium allow an electric current to
pass through and the bulb lights. This shows that they are good conductors of electricity.
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium have delocalised electrons in their structures. These
delocalised electrons are responsible for the conduction of electricity. Conductivity increases
with increase in the number of delocalised electrons. Therefore, aluminium with three
delocalised electrons from each atom in the structure has the highest electrical conductivity.
Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine and argon are all made up of molecules and therefore are
non-conductors of electricity. Silicon is unique among the elements because it is a semi-
conductor. Its electrical conductivity increases with increase in temperature.
(b) Other physical properties
Table 2.10 summarises some physical properties of the elements in period 3. Study and
answer the questions that follow.
1. Explain the trends in atomic radii across the period
2. Explain the trends in melting points and boiling points across the period.
3. Why is the melting point of aluminium higher than that of sodium?
4. Silicon, a non-metal, has a much higher melting point than all the other elements in
the period. Explain.
5. Why are boiling points of chlorine and argon very low?
Discussion
The atomic radii of the elements gradually decrease across the period from left to right. This
is explained by the increase in the nuclear charge across the period due to an increase in the
number of protons. Although there is an additional number of electrons, they enter the same
energy level. This means that the shielding effect remains the same as the nuclear charge
increases. The forces of attraction between the nuclei of these elements and the electrons in
the outermost energy levels progressively increase across the period. As a result, the
electrons in the outermost energy level are pulled closer to the nucleus, thereby decreasing
the size of the atoms across the period from sodium to chlorine.
Table 2.10 Summary of some physical properties of the elements in period 3
Sodium, magnesium and aluminium have giant metallic structures. Therefore, they have
strong metallic bonds. These bonds require a lot of energy to break hence high melting and
boiling points. Aluminium contributes three electrons to the metallic lattice whereas sodium
contributes only one. Also, due to the small size of the aluminium atom, the packing of the
atoms is close. Therefore, the metallic bonds in aluminium are stronger than in sodium and
magnesium, hence the higher melting and boiling points of aluminium.
Silicon has a giant atomic structure in which all the atoms are held together by strong
covalent bonds. These need a lot of heat energy to break, hence the high melting and boiling
points of silicon. In contrast, phosphorus and chlorine are molecular. The atoms in the
molecules are held together by strong covalent bonds while the molecules themselves are
held together by van der Waals forces which require little energy to break. Melting involves
breaking the van der Waals forces.
Chlorine and argon exist as gases at room temperature. They have low melting and
boiling points due to the presence of weak van der Waals forces. Chlorine is diatomic while
argon is monoatomic.
Note
Details of structure and bonding are discussed in chapter three.
Trends in Chemical Properties of the Elements in Period 3
Experiment 2.11: How do elements in period 3 react with oxygen?
(a) Place a small piece of sodium in a deflagrating spoon and warm gently until it
catches fire. Lower it into a gas jar of oxygen. Note the colour of the flame. Remove
the deflagrating spoon and add 10 cm3 of water containing universal indicator into
the gas jar. Record your observation.
(b) Repeat (a) using a strip of clean magnesium ribbon and then with a piece of
aluminium foil.
(c) Place a small piece of white phosphorus in a deflagrating spoon. Warm slightly to
start the reaction. Lower the spoon into a gas jar full of oxygen and allow the
phosphorus to burn. Remove the deflagrating spoon and add water to the gas jar.
Shake well and add universal indicator. Record your observations.
(d) Repeat the procedure in (c) above using sulphur.
Record your observations as shown in table 2.11
Table 2.11: Reaction of Period 3 Elements with Oxygen
Element Observations
Sodium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Phosphorus
Sulphur
1. State and explain the trend in reactivity of the metals and non metals in Period 3 with
oxygen.
2. Write equations for the reactions between oxygen and the elements.
3. State the nature of the resulting solution when metal or non metal oxides of period
three elements are dissolved in water.
Discussion
Sodium reacts vigorously with oxygen to form a white solid, sodium oxide.
Sodium + Oxygen Sodium oxide
4Na(s) + O2 (g) 2Na2O (s)
The sodium oxide produced in the reaction readily dissolves in water to form an alkaline
solution
Sodium oxide + Water Sodium hydroxide
Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
Magnesium burns with a bright white light to give a white solid, magnesium oxide.
Magnesium + Oxygen Magnesium oxide
2Mg (s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s)
The magnesium oxide produced in the reaction is slightly soluble in water. The solution
formed is alkaline.
Magnesium oxide + water Magnesium hydroxide
MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)
Aluminium foil is usually coated with a layer of aluminium oxide, Al2O3. This prevents the
reaction with oxygen. When polished, aluminum reacts slowly with oxygen to form the white
solid, aluminium oxide.
Aluminium + Oxygen Aluminium oxide
4Al(s) + 3O2(g) 2Al2 O3(s)
The aluminium oxide is insoluble in water.
Silicon powder can only burn in oxygen at high temperatures (about 450°C) to form solid
silicon (IV) oxide.
Silicon + Oxygen Silicon (IV) oxide
Si(s) + O2(g) SiO2(s)
Silicon (IV) oxide is insoluble in water.
Phosphorus readily burns in oxygen with a bright orange flame to form a white solid,
phosphorus (V) oxide.
Phosphorus + Oxygen Phosphorus (V) oxide
P4(s) + 5O2(g) 2P2O5(s)
Phosphorus (V) oxide readily dissolves in water to form an acidic solution.
Phosphorus (V) oxide + Water Phosphorus (V) acid
P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(aq)
Sulphur burns in oxygen with a blue fame to form a gas sulphur (IV) oxide.
Sulphur + Oxygen Sulphur (IV) oxide
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
The sulphur (IV) oxide gas readily dissolves in water to give an acidic solution of
sulphuric (IV) acid, H2SO3, which is easily oxidized to sulphuric (VI) acid H2SO4.
Sulphur (IV) oxide + Water Sulphuric (IV) acid
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
Sulphuric (IV) acid + Oxygen Sulphuric(VI) acid
2H2SO3(aq) + O2(g) 2H2SO4(aq)
Chlorine burns in oxygen under certain conditions to form acidic oxides while argon is
not reactive.
From the above observations, the following trends in the elements of period 3 can be
identified.
• All the elements across period 3, with the exception of argon, burn in oxygen to form
oxides.
• The reactivity of the metals with oxygen decreases from left to right across the period.
Sodium is the most reactive of the three metals in the period and aluminium the least.
The order of reactivity with oxygen is therefore Na > Mg > Al. This is because of the
increase in nuclear charge from sodium to aluminium, which makes it easier to
remove an electron from a sodium atom than from an aluminium atom.
• Metallic elements burn in oxygen to form basic oxides. Soluble metallic oxides dissolve
in water to form alkaline solutions.
• The reactivity of the non-metallic elements with oxygen increases from left to right
across the third period. This is because the ease of gaining electrons increases from
left to right. Phosphorus is the least reactive and chlorine the most reactive. The order
of reactivity with oxygen, starting with the most reactive is therefore: Cl > S > P. Non-
metals react by gaining electrons.
• The non-metallic elements burn in oxygen to form acidic oxides which dissolve in
water to form acidic solutions.
Experiment 2.12: How do Period 3 Elements react with Water?
Place a small piece of sodium metal in a beaker of water to which universal indicator has
been added. Record your observations.
Repeat the experiment using small pieces of magnesium, aluminium, phosphorus and
sulphur instead of sodium.
1. Describe how each of the elements in period 3 react with water.
2. Explain why the reactivity varies across the period.
3. Write equations for the reactions between:
(i) Sodium and water.
(ii) Magnesium and water.
Discussion
Sodium reacts violently with cold water to form sodium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.
Sodium + Water Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Na(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium reacts very slowly with cold water to form magnesium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
Magnesium + water Magnesium hydroxide + Hydrogen
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Aluminium does not normally react with cold water or steam due to the presence of a
coating of aluminium oxide, which prevents any reaction. However, at temperatures above
700 °C steam can react with aluminium. Due to its apparent inability to react with water,
aluminium was prefered for making cooking vessels such as pans and sufurias.
In general, the reactivity of the metals with water decreases from sodium to aluminium,
Na > Mg > Al. sodium is more reactive because it loses its valence electron more readily than
magnesium and aluminium.
Non-metals do not displace hydrogen from water. Therefore, silicon, phosphorus and
sulphur do not react with either cold water or steam.
Chlorine is an exception since it dissolves in water to form chlorine water, which is a
mixture of hydrochloric acid and chloric (I) acid.
Chlorine + water Hydrochloric acid + Hypochlorous acid
Cl2(g) + H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
Experiment 2.13: How do Period 3 elements react with Acids?
Place 5 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid in a test-tube. Drop a piece of cleaned magnesium
ribbon (about 1 cm long) into the acid. Test for any gas given out. Record your observations.
Repeat experiment (a) using a small piece of aluminium foil, small quantities of phosporus
and sulphur. Repeat experiments (a) and (b) using dilute sulphuric (VI) acid in place of dilute
hydrochloric acid.
1. Which gas is produced when magnesium reacts with dilute hyrdrochloric acid?
2. Explain the trend in reactivity of the metals with dilute acids.
3. Write equations of the reactions between:
(i) Magnesium and dilute sulphuric acid.
(ii) Aluminium and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Table 2.12: Reaction of Elements of Period 3 with Air, Water and Dilute Acids
Discussion
Magnesium reacts with both dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid to form
a salt and hydrogen gas.
Magnesium + hydrochloric acid Magnesium chloride + Hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Magnesium + Sulphuric (VI) acid Magnesium sulphate + Hydrogen gas.
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Aluminium does not readily react with dilute acid due to the presence of an aluminium
oxide coating. However, on removing the oxide coating, the metal reacts.
Aluminium + Hydrochloric acid Aluminium chloride + Hydrogen gas
2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO)4 (aq) + 3H2(g).
The reaction between sodium and acids is explosive and should NEVER be tried. The
order of reactivity with acid is Na > Mg > Al.
Silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine do not react with dilute acids.
Table 2.12 gives a summary of the reaction of elements of period 3 with air, water and dilute
acids.
Summary
1. Elements are grouped in chemical families according to similarities in the number of
electrons in their outermost energy levels.
2. The reactivity of the alkali and alkaline earth metals increase down the group due to
increasing ease of electron loss.
3. The reactivity of the halogens decreases down the group because the ease of electron
gain decreases down the group as the atomic radii increase.
4. Elements react in order to acquire the stable electron configuration of noble gases.
5. Noble gases are chemically stable because their outer energy levels are full. The stable
electron configuration of helium is referred to as the duplet configuration, while the
rest of the noble gases have the octet configuration.
6. Elements of period 3 have three occupied energy levels.
7. Across the third period from left to right there is:
(a) A decrease in atomic radius, metallic character basic character of oxides and
reactivity of metals.
(b) An increase in ionisation energy, non-metallic character and reactivity of non-
metals.
Revision Exercise
1. What is meant by chemical family of elements?
2. Briefly explain the following observations.
(a) Alkaline earth metals are generally less reactive than alkali metals in the same
period.
(b) Generally, metals react by losing electrons whereas halogens react by gaining
electrons.
(c) The boiling and melting points of the alkali metals decrease down the group
whereas the melting and boiling points of the halogens increase down the group.
(d) The order of reactivity increases down group I but decreases down group VII.
(e) Noble gases are generally unreactive.
3. Rubidium (Rb) is a member of the alkali metals. Predict how the element reacts with:
(a) Water.
(b) Air.
(c) Chlorine.
(d) Hydrochloric acid.
4. Describe a simple experiment that can be performed in the laboratory to demonstrate
the formation of iron (III) chloride from iron fillings.
5. Explain why all group VIII elements are gases at room temperature.
6. Explain the following observations.
(a) Atomic radii generally decrease across a period.
(b) Melting points increase from sodium to aluminium in the third period.
(c) Sodium is more reactive than magnesium.
(d) Chlorine is more reactive than sulphur.
7. Write equations for the following reactions.
(a) Burning magnesium in air.
(b) Reaction of:
(i) Magnesium with steam.
(ii) Sodium oxide with water.
(iii) Aluminium with dilute sulphuric (VI) acid.
(iv) Sulphur with oxygen.
8. Though sodium and aluminium are in the same period and are both metals,
aluminium is a better conductor of electricity. Explain.
9. Consider the elements sodium, aluminium, silicon and sulphur. Which one will form
an oxide that will give a pH of less than 7 when in solution?
10. Many cooking pans are made of aluminium although it is a reactive metal. Explain.
Structure and Bonding
Objectives
By the end of the chapter the learner should be able to:
(a) State the significance of valence electrons in bonding.
(b) Explain qualitatively the formation of ionic, covalent and metallic bonds.
(c) Diagrammatically illustrate ionic, covalent, dative, hydrogen bonds and van der
Waals forces.
(d) Predict the bond type and structure of a given substance from its physical
properties.
(e) Explain the changes in bond type across period 3.
(f) Select materials for use based on bond types and structure.
(g) Predict the properties of a given substance on the basis of the bonds present.
When atoms of the same or different elements combine during a chemical reaction, a mutual
force of attraction develops between them. The mutual force of attraction holds the particles
together and is called a chemical bond. Chemical bonds hold the particles of a substance
together in a regular pattern called structure.
In order to understand the nature of the different chemical bonds and the structures
formed when atoms combine, it is important to remember the following:
(a) Atoms are composed of negatively charged electrons positively charged protons
and neutrons which are electrically neutral.
(b) Noble gases are chemically stable, with electron arrangements of 2 (duplet state)
for helium and 2.8, 2.8.8 (octet state) for neon and argon respectively.
Atoms of other elements achieve the stable electron arrangement of noble gases by
gaining, losing or sharing the valence electrons.
There exists attraction between unlike charges and repulsion forces between like
charges.
Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding also called electrovalent bonding involves complete transfer of valence
electrons from one atom to another. This results in the formation of ions with opposite
charges which mutually attract one another. Consider the reaction which takes place when
sodium reacts with chlorine to form sodium chloride as shown in figure 3.1.
Fig 3.1: Sodium atom reacting with chlorine atom
The sodium atom reacts by losing its single valence electron to the chlorine atom. The
resulting sodium particle has 10 electrons and 11 protons. This results in the formation of a
sodium ion with a net positive charge, Na+. The chlorine atom on the other hand, accepts the
electron donated by the sodium atom into its outermost energy level. The resulting particle
(a chloride ion) has 18 electrons and 17 protons. Thus the chloride ion formed has net
negative charge, Cl–.
The sodium ion with a net positive charge and the chloride ion with a net negative charge
attract each other. The electrostatic forces of attraction, which develop between the ions
with opposite charges, constitute an ionic bond and the resulting compound is referred to
as an ionic compound.
An ionic bond is therefore formed when there is complete transfer of valence electrons
from one atom to another resulting in two ions with opposite charges. Generally, the reaction
between metals and non-metals results in the formation of ionic compounds.
Other examples of ionic compounds include potassium fluoride, magnesium oxide and
magnesium chloride. Diagrams in figure 3.2(a), (b) and (c) represent the formation of
potassium fluoride, magnesium chloride and magnesium oxide.
Fig 3.2 (a) Formation of potassium fluoride

Fig 3.2 (b) Formation of magnesium chloride
Fig 3.2 (c) Formation of magnesium oxide
Giant Ionic Structures

Sodium chloride structure consists of many sodium ions and chloride ions that are arranged
and packed in a regular pattern. Each sodium ion is surrounded by six chloride ions that are
equidistant from it. Similarly, each chloride ion is surrounded by six sodium ions. This
pattern repeats itself many times in all directions. The result is the formation of a giant ionic
structure. Most ionic substances are crystalline in nature.
Note
A crystal is a solid form of a substance in which the particles are arranged in a definite pattern repeated regularly in three
dimensions.
The structure of sodium chloride
Other examples of ionic substances with giant ionic structures include potassium nitrate,
sodium iodide, potassium bromide and calcium nitrate.
Physical Properties of Ionic Compounds
Table 3.1 is a summary of some physical properties of ionic compounds. Study it and answer
the questions that follow.
Table 3.1: Properties of Ionic Compounds

1. Comment on the solubility of ionic substances in water.
2. Explain why the melting and boiling points of ionic compounds are generally high.
3. Explain why ionic compounds conduct electricity in the molten state and in aqueous
solution but not in the solid state.
Discussion
Most ionic substances dissolve in water because they are made up of oppositely charged ions
which are attracted by the polar water molecules. Ionic substances have high melting and
boiling points. This is because ionic bonds are strong. Melting and boiling involve breaking
these ionic bonds. A lot of heat energy is required to break the bonds.
Ionic compounds do not conduct electricity in the solid state. This is because the ions
forming the structure are not mobile but occupy fixed positions in the structure. In the
molten state or aqueous solutions, the ions are mobile within the molten liquid or solution
and therefore conduct electricity.
Covalent Bond
Consider what happens when atoms of non-metals combine. It is important to realise that
the combining atoms could be of the same element or from different elements. Consider two
hydrogen atoms combining to form a hydrogen molecule.
Each hydrogen atom has only one electron in its occupied energy level. It therefore needs to
gain one electron to attain the stable electron arrangement of 2 helium (duplet state).
Since the combing atoms are of the same element, none would readily lose an electron to
the other. The atoms therefore end up sharing a pair of electrons, each atom contributing an
electron to the shared pair.
Fig 3.3 (a) Formation of a Hydrogen molecule
When atoms combine by sharing electrons their respective nuclei attract the shared
electrons, this constitutes the covalent bond holding the two atoms together.
The covalent bond formed by the two hydrogen atoms in a hydrogen molecule can also
be represented as follows.
Fig 3.3 (b)
When hydrogen atoms combine, they form a hydrogen molecule. The molecules of hydrogen
consist of two atoms which are covalently bonded.
A molecule is a group of atoms (two or more) of the same or different elements that are
held together by strong covalent bonds. Substances consisting of molecules include water,
most gases, sugar, oils, fats, naphthalene, paraffin wax and sulphur. Substances consisting of
molecules are referred to as molecular substances.
The single line ( – ) between the hydrogen atoms represents a covalent bond consisting
of a shared pair of electrons. A single shared pair of electrons is represented by a single line
(–) and is called a single covalent bond e.g. H – H. Two shared pairs of electrons are
represented by two lines (=) and are called a double covalent bond e.g. O=O
Three shared pairs of electrons are represented by three lines thus: (≡) and are referred
to as a triple covalent bond e.g. N≡N.
The diagrams in figure 3.4 (a), (b), (c), (d), (e) and (f) represent water, chlorine, nitrogen,
ammonia and carbon (IV) oxide molecules. In each case, only the valence electrons are
shown.
Fig 3.4 (a): Water molecule (H2O)
Fig 3.4 (b): Chlorine molecule (Cl2)
Fig 3.4 (c): Oxygen molecule (O2)

Fig 3.4 (d): Nitrogen molecule (N2)
Fig 3.4 (e): Ammonia molecule (NH3)
Fig 3.4 (f) Carbon (IV) Oxide molecule (CO2)
Co-ordinate Bond
Consider the reaction which takes place hen a hydrogen ion (H+) and an ammonia molecule
(NH3) combine to form an ammonium ion (NH4+).
It should be realised that the hydrogen ion has no electron around its nucleus. On the
other hand, the ammonia molecule has an unshared pair of valence electrons that has not
been used in bonding.
When the hydrogen ion combines with the ammonia molecule, the hydrogen ion accepts
the pair of electrons into its empty first energy level.
The total number of protons in the ammonium ion is more than the total number of
electrons resulting in a net positive charge. In a co-ordinate bond all the electrons of the
shared pair are donated by only one of the combining species. In the case of ammonium ion,
the pair of electrons forming the co-ordinate bond is contributed by the ammonia molecule.
Another example in which a co-ordinate bond exists is carbon (II) oxide. A carbon atom
has four valence electrons and therefore needs to gain four electrons to fill its outermost
energy level. Oxygen on the other hand has six valence electrons and needs two electrons to
attain the stable configuration of 2.8.
Note
The co-ordinate bond is also called a dative bond.
The oxygen atom and the carbon atom in carbon (II) oxide form two covalent bonds and
a co-ordinate bond.
Oxygen donates one of its two unshared pairs of electrons to form a co-ordinate bond
with the carbon atom.
Since a co-ordinate bond is formed when the combining species share a pair of electrons,
it is a type of covalent bond. The shared pair of electrons is however from only one of the
combining species. A co-ordinate bond is a type of a covalent bond in which the shared pair
of electrons forming the bond is contributed by only one of the atoms forming the bond.
Substances which have covalent bonds have either molecular or giant covalent (atomic)
structures.
Molecular Structures
Most molecular substances are gases or liquids at room temperature. Some molecular
substances include sulphur, sugar, iodine, fats, paraffin wax and naphthalene. The atoms
forming the molecules are held together by strong covalent bonds. The molecules in the solid
substance are in turn held together in a regular pattern by weak van der Waals forces. The
regular pattern repeats itself many times resulting to a molecular structure as shown in
figure 3.5.
Fig 3.5: Molecular structure of iodine
The van der Waals forces hold the iodine molecules together in layers. This arrangement
explains the flaky nature of iodine crystals.
Physical Properties of Substances with Molecular Structures
Table 3.2: Properties of substances with molecular structure

1. State and explain the differences in the solubility of molecular substances?
2. (a) What is the general trend in the melting and boiling points in relation to the
molecular masses?
(b) Explain the difference exhibited by sugar (sucrose) on the melting of molecular
substances?
3. Give the reasons why molecular substances are poor conductors of electricity?
Discussion
Molecular substances are poor conductors of both heat ad electricity. This is because they
have structures composed of molecules. There are no ions or delocalised electrons in the
structures to enable them to conduct electricity.
Molecular substances also have low melting and boiling points. Although the atoms
forming a molecule are held by strong covalent bonds, the intermolecular forces are usually
the weak van der Waals forces. As melting and boiling involves breaking the weak van der
Waals forces, the melting and boiling points are low.
Melting and boiling points of molecular substances increase with the increase in relative
molecular mass. Some substances however, display a disparity. For example, water (H2O)
with relative molecular mass of 18 has a higher melting point of (°C) than hydrogen sulphide
with a relative molecular mass 34 and a melting point of –85°C. In water the molecules are
held together by hydrogen bonds while molecules in H2S are held by the weak van der Waals
forces.
A hydrogen bond is an intermolecular force in which the electropositive hydrogen atom of
one molecule is attracted to an electronegative atom of another molecule. In water, the
electropositive hydrogen of one molecule is attracted to the electronegative oxygen of
another molecule.
Fig 3.6: Hydrogen bonding in water molucles
Van der Waals forces are weak forces of attraction between molecules or atoms which exist
only when the particles are close together. A hydrogen bond is stronger than the van der
Waals forces but weaker than a covalent bond.
The influence of hydrogen bonding on the physical properties of molecular substances is
also illustrated by ethanol (C2H5OH) and dimethyl ether (C2H6O). Both substances have the
same relative mass, 46. However, dimethyl ether boils at –24°C while ethanol boils at 78.4°C.
This is because ethanol has hydrogen bonds as the intermolecular forces while dimethyl
ether has the weaker van der Waals forces.
Most molecular substances are insoluble in water. However, some such as sugar, ethanol
and ethanoic acid are soluble due to the presence of hydrogen bonding.
Giant Covalent Structure (Atomic)
Covalent bonding does not always result in the formation of molecular substances. In some
substances, the structure consists of an indefinite number of atoms which are all covalently
bonded together. The pattern repeats itself and extends in all directions. A good example of
such substances include diamond, graphite and silicon (IV) oxide.
Diamond
Diamond is an allotrope of carbon. Allotropes are different forms of an element in the same
physical state.
In the structure of diamond each carbon atom is bonded to other carbon atoms by strong
covalent bonds. The carbon atoms in diamond form an octahedral structure as shown in
figure 3.7.
Fig 3.7: Structure of diamond
The pattern repeats itself in all directions resulting in a giant atomic structure. All the valence
electrons of each carbon atom are used in bonding. There are therefore no delocalised
electrons in the structure.
Diamond is the hardest known substance. This is because all the bonds in diamond are
strong covalent bonds and the atoms in the structure are closely packed. For this reasons its
melting point is very high (3700°C)
Graphite
Each carbon atom in graphite is bonded to three other carbon atoms. Because only three of
the four valence electrons in each atom are used in bonding, the forth valence electron is
delocalized in the structure.
The structure of graphite consists of layers in which the carbon atoms are held together
by strong covalent bonds forming hexagonal arrangement as shown in figure 3.8. Each layer
is held to the other by van der Waals forces.
Fig 3.8: Structure of graphite
The presence of delocalised electrons in the structure of graphite explains its electrical
conductivity. Layers of graphite are held together by van der Waals forces, therefore easily
slide over each other when pressed and this gives graphite its slippery feel.
Silicon (IV) Oxide
Silicon has four electrons in its outer occupied energy level. Each silicon atom is bonded
covalently to four oxygen atoms forming a giant covalent structure as in figure 3.9.
Fig 3.9: Giant covalent structure of silicon IV oxide
The Metallic Bond

In a metallic structure there are many atoms surrounding any one atom. The valence
electrons are therefore mutually attracted to many nuclei. This gives rise to a situation where
the positive nuclei appear to be immersed in a sea of mobile electrons. The mobile electrons
in the structure are said to be delocalised. See fig 3.10.
Fig 3.10: A model of the metallic structure
The electrostatic forces of attraction between the positively charged nuclei and the
negatively charged delocalised electrons hold the atoms together in the metallic bond.
Metallic bonds are strong bonds. The pattern is repeated many times resulting in a giant
metallic structure. Table 3.3 is a summary of some physical properties of metals.
Table 3.3: Some Physical Properties of Metals

1. Why are metals good conductors of electricity?
2. Explain why potassium has a lower melting point than lithium.
3. (a) Magnesium has lower melting point than aluminium. Explain.
(b) Aluminium is a better electrical and thermal conductor than magnesium.
Explain.
Discussion
All metals are good conductors of both heat and electricity. This is because there are
delocalised electrons in the metallic structure. Thermal and electrical conductivity increases
with the increased number of delocalised electrons from each atom in the structure. This
explains why aluminium is a better conductor than magnesium.
Metals have relatively high melting and boiling points. This is because the metallic bond
is a strong bond.
Aluminium is used extensively in power transmission.
The melting point of lithium is higher than that of potassium because lithium has a
smaller atomic size than potassium, therefore it has a stronger metallic bond. Aluminium has
a higher melting point and boiling point than magnesium. This is because aluminium has a
smaller atomic size than magnesium therefore it has stronger metallic bonds. Aluminium
also has more delocalized electrons than magnesium which also contribute to the strength
of the metallic bond.
Types of Bond Across a Period
The number of electrons in the outermost energy level play an important role in determining
chemical bonding. As discussed in the previous chapter, bond types vary from metallic to
covalent across a period. The structures also vary from giant metallic, giant covalent to
molecular. It is expected that similar compounds of the elements in period 3 will exhibit
variation in bond types, structure and properties. This can be illustrated by studying the
bond types and properties of oxides and chlorides of elements in period 3.
Oxides of Elements in Period 3
The elements in period 3 form oxides when they react with oxygen. The oxides of sodium
and magnesium dissolve in water to form alkaline solutions. Aluminum oxide does not
dissolve in water. The oxides of the non-metals dissolve in water to form acidic solutions,
however silicon (IV) oxide does not dissolve in water.
Oxides of sodium and magnesium react with acids to form a salt and water. Aluminium
oxide reacts with both acids and alkalis and therefore it is an amphoteric oxide. Oxides of
the non-metals do not react with acids but react with alkalis.
Table 3.4: Bond types and properties of oxides of elements in period 3

1. Explain why sulphur (IV) oxide is a gas at room temperature.
2. Why is the melting point of magnesium oxide higher than that of sodium oxide?
3. Explain the high melting and boiling points of silicon (IV) oxide.
4. What is the general trend in the bond types of the oxides of elements across period 3?
Discussion
All the oxides of elements in period 3 except those of sulphur and chlorine are solids. Sulphur
(IV) oxide is a gas at room temperature. Several gaseous oxides of chlorine do exist, however
they cannot be prepared in the laboratory.
The atoms of sulphur and oxygen are held together by covalent bonds but the molecules
of sulphur (IV) oxide are attracted to each other by weak van der Waals forces.
Both sodium oxide and magnesium oxide have a giant ionic structure. However, the
melting point of magnesium oxide is higher because the electrostatic forces of attraction
between magnesium ions and oxide ions are stronger. This is due to the fact that the
magnesium ion has a charge of +2 and is smaller in size than the sodium ion.
Silicon (IV) oxide has a giant covalent structure. Each silicon atom is attached to four
oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom is attached to two silicon atoms. Silicon uses all its
valency electrons to form strong covalent bonds with oxygen. The covalent bonds in silicon
are extra ordinarily strong. This explains the high melting point of silicon (2231°C).
In general the bond types change from ionic to covalent across the period. The structure
of the oxides changes from giant ionic, to giant atomic and finally to molecular. This explains
the trends in properties of the oxides.
Chlorides of Elements in Period 3
Most elements of period 3 form stable chlorides.
The trend in bond types, structure and properties of chlorides of period 3 elements show
variation across the period.
Experiment 3.1: How do chlorides of elements in Period 3 react with water?
(a) Half fill a test-tube with water. Measure the temperature of the water. Carefully, add
a spatulaful of sodium chloride to the water, stir well and record your observation.
Record the temperature when all the solid has dissolved. Note the change in
temperature. Add two drops of universal indicator into the solution and record the
pH.
(b) Repeat experiment (a) using chlorides of magnesium, aluminium, silicon and
phosphorus. Record your observations as shown in table 3.5.
Table 3.5: Properties of Chlorides of Elements in Period 3

1. Which chlorides dissolve and result in:
(a) Decrease in temperature?
(b) Small increase in temperature?
(c) Highest change in temperature?
2. Do all the chlorides dissolve? Explain.
3. Comment on the pH values of the resulting solutions when chlorides react with water.
4. Write equations for the reactions of water with
(a) Aluminium chloride.
(b) Silicon (IV) chloride.
(c) Phosphorus (IV) chloride.
Discussion
Sodium chloride dissolves in water resulting in a slight drop in temperature. Magnesium
chloride dissolves readily with a small increase in temperature. Both chlorides form neutral
solutions. These chlorides are ionic and therefore fully dissociate into ions.
Anhydrous aluminium chloride differs from the other metallic chlorides because it exists
in molecular form. Aluminium combines with chlorine by forming covalent bonds to form a
molecule of aluminium chloride (Al2Cl3). Two aluminium chloride molecules then combine
through coordinate bonds to form a dimer as shown in figure 3.11.
Fig 3.11: Formation of a dimer in aluminium chloride
Aluminium chloride is hydrolysed by water to form an acidic solution and therefore

behaves as a covalent rather than an ionic chloride.
Silicon (IV) chloride is also hydrolysed by water to form a solution which is acidic. Alot
of heat is given out and fumes of hydrogen chloride gas are given out.
Silicon (IV) chloride + Water Silicon (IV) Oxide + Hydrogen chloride
SiCl4(l) + 2H2O (l) SiO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)
Phosphorus (III) chloride + Water Phosphorous acid + Hydrogen chloride
PCl3(s) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(s) + 3HCl(g)
Phosphorus (III) chloride or phosphorus (V) chloride react vigorously with water to form
an acidic solution. Alot of heat is also evolved and this makes the temperature of the water
to rise.
Phosphorus (V) chloride + Water Phosphoric acid + hydrogen chloride
PCl5(s) + 4H2O(l) H3PO4(aq) + 5HCl(aq)
The reaction involves breaking down a substance by water. This type of reaction is called
hydrolysis. Molecular chlorides undergo hydrolysis. Table 3.6 shows the trends in bond
types, structure and properties of chlorides of elements in period 3.
Table 3.6: Trends in Bond Types and Properties of Chlorides of Elements of Period 3
Summary
1. Giant metallic structures, giant ionic structures and giant covalent structures have
high melting and boiling points because all the bonds in the structures are strong.
2. Metals conduct electricity because they have delocalised valence electrons.
3. Graphite, a giant atomic structure conducts electricity because there are delocalised
electrons in the structure.
4. Molecular substances do not conduct electricity or heat.
5. Ionic substances do not conduct electricity when in the solid state. They however,
conduct electricity when in the molten state or in aqueous solutions.
6. A covalent bond is a bond formed when the combining atoms share a pair (or pairs)
of electrons between them, each donating an electron to the shared pair.
7. A co-ordinate bond is a covalent bond. It is formed when the shared pair of electrons
is donated by only one of the combining atoms.
8. An ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between ions with opposite
charges.
9. Metallic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between the positive nuclei and
the delocalised valence electrons in the metallic structure.
10. Molecular substances have low melting and boiling points. This is because the
processes involves only the breaking of the weak van der Waals forces
(intermolecular forces).
11. The type of bond and the resulting structure determine the properties of a substance.
This relationship is summarised in table 3.7.
12. Sodium and magnesium form ionic chlorides while aluminium and non-metals in
period 3 form covalent chlorides.
13. The chlorides of sodium and magnesium dissolve in water producing neutral
solutions while the chlorides of aluminium and non-metals hydrolyse in water to
produce acidic solutions.
Table 3.7: Summary of Characteristics of Bonds
Revision Exercise
1. Using dot (.) and (×) diagrams draw the structure of the following molecules.
(a) Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
(b) (i) Ammonia (NH3)
(ii) Ammonium ion (NH4+)
(c) Ethane (C2H6)
(d) Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2)
2. Molten magnesium chloride conducts electricity whereas solid magnesium chloride
does not. Explain.
3. State and illustrate the bond type in each of the following compounds.
(a) Calcium fluoride (CaF2)
(b) Methane (CH4)
(c) Carbon (II) oxide.
(d) Ammonium ion (NH4+)
4. Explain the following observations:
(a) Melting point of sodium is higher than of potassium.
(b) The melting point of sodium fluoride is higher than that of sodium iodie.
(c) Molecular substances have low melting points.
5. Both graphite and diamond are allotropes of carbon. Graphite conducts electricity
whereas diamond does not. Explain.
Salts
Chapter objectives
(a) Define a salt.
(b) State and describe the types of salts.
(c) Identify soluble and insoluble salts.
(d) State the methods of preparing soluble and insoluble salts.
(e) Define the terms: saturated solution, crystallisation, neutralisation and
precipitation.
(f) Write ionic equations for the preparation of insoluble salts.
(g) State the effect of heat on salts.
(h) State the uses of some salts.
In Chapter three of Student’s Book One, zinc granules were reacted with dilute sulphuric-
acid to produce hydrogen gas and a salt, zinc sulphate. Table salt (sodium chloride), sodium
hydrogen carbonate, ammonium nitrate, calcium phosphate, potassium carbonate and iron
(II) sulphide are other examples of salt.
A salt is a substance that is formed when the hydrogen ions in a acid are wholly or partially
replaced by a positive ion.
Types of Salts
There are four types of salts namely; normal salts, acid salts, basic salts and double salts.
Normal salts
A normal salt is salt that does not contain any replaceable hydrogen atom. Some examples of
normal salts are sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium sulphate (K2SO4) sodium carbonate
(Na2CO3) and calcium nitrate (Ca(NO3)2). These salts are neutral in aqueous state.
Acid salts
Acid salts are salts that contain a replaceable hydrogen atom.
Some examples are sodium hydrogen carbonate (NaHCO3), potassium hydrogen sulphate
(KHSO4) and sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4). They have acidic properties due to
the presence of replaceable hydrogen.
Basic salts
Basic salts are salts that contain hydroxyl (OH–) ions.
It is the presence of hydroxyl ions in these salts that is responsible for the basic
properties. Examples are basic magnesium chloride (Mg(OH)Cl, basic lead (II) carbonate
(Pb(OH)2.PbCO3), basic zinc chloride (Zn(OH)Cl) and basic copper (II) carbonate (CuCO3).
Cu(OH)2).
Double salts
Double salts are salts in which there are two different anions or cations.
Examples are hydrated potassium aluminium sulphate (KAl(SO4)2.12H2O) hydrated
ammonium iron (II) sulphate (Fe(NH4)(SO4).6(H2O) and trona (Na2CO3. NaHCO3.2H2O).
Solubility of Salts in Water

Experiment 4.1: Do salts dissolve in water?
Label four test-tubes 1, 2, 3 and 4. Arrange the four test-tubes in a test tube rack. Place about
5 cm of water into each test-tube. Add about a spatulafull of sodium sulphate in test tube 1,
sodium chloride in test tube 2, sodium nitrate in test tube 3 and sodium carbonate in test
tube 4 respectively.
Shake the mixture. If the salt appears not to dissolve, warm the mixture. Record your
observation as shown in table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Dissolving salts in water
Put a tick ( ) if the salt is soluble, a cross ( ) if the salt is insoluble, Ss if the salt is
slightly soluble and sh if it is only soluble in hot water. The table has been completed for
sodium chloride and magnesium carbonate as examples.
Repeat the experiment using similar salts of sodium, potassium, ammonium, magnesium,
calcium, aluminium, zinc, iron, lead, copper and barium.
1. Which cations form salts that are soluble in water?
2. Which anion forms salts that are soluble in water?
3. From the results obtained list insoluble:
(a) Sulphates.
(b) Chlorides.
4. Using he results of experiment 4.1, list the soluble carbonates.
5. Comment on the solubility of sulphate, chlorides, nitrates and carbonates.
Discussion
Table 4.2 shows the expected observations for experiment 4.1
Table 4.2: Summary of Tests on Solubility of Salts
• All potassium, sodium and ammonium salts are soluble in water.

• All nitrates are soluble.
• All sulphates are soluble except those of barium and lead. Calcium sulphate is slightly
soluble.
• All chlorides are soluble except lead (II) chloride and silver chloride. Lead (II) chloride
is insoluble in cold water but soluble when hot.
• All carbonates are insoluble except those of Group I metals and ammonium.
Carbonates of aluminium and iron do not exist.
Table 4.3 summarises the Solubility of salts.
Table 4.3 Summary of Solubility of Common Salts

Solubility of Bases in Water
Some salts are products of chemical reactions between acids and bases. Knowledge about
the solubility of bases is therefore useful in the formation of certain salts.
Experiment 4.2: Do bases dissolve in water?
Place about 10 cm3 of water into a boiling tube. Put half a spatulaful of calcium oxide in the
boiling tube. Shake the mixture and test the resulting solution with a litmus paper. Record
your observations in the format shown in table 4.4.
(i) Repeat the experiment using oxides of magnesium, lead, zinc, aluminium and
copper.
(ii) Repeat the experiment using he hydroxides of sodium, potassium, calcium, zinc,
copper and aluminium.
Note
Zinc,copper and aluminium hydroxide can be pre-prepared by precipitating the hydroxide by double decomposition.
Table 4.4: Solubility of Bases
* Use these symbols in completing the table:

Soluble , Insoluble , Slightly soluble Ss
1. Which oxides are:
(a) Soluble?
(b) Insoluble?
2. Which hydroxides are:
(a) Soluble?
(b) Insoluble?
3. What is the nature of the solutions formed when bases are dissolved in water?
Discussion
Table 4.5 shows the expected solubilities of bases.
Table 4.5: Summary of Tests of Solubility of Bases
The oxides of calcium and magnesium are slightly soluble. The solution formed is alkaline
and turns red litmus paper blue.
Calcium oxide + water Calcium hydroxide
CaO(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2 (aq)
Magnesium oxide + water Magnesium hydroxide
MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2 (aq)
Potassium and sodium oxides are also soluble. The oxides of zinc , aluminium, lead, iron
and copper are insoluble in water. Ammonium oxide does not exist.
Potassium and sodium hydroxides are soluble in water. The hydroxides of calcium and
magnesium are slightly soluble. The resulting solutions are; alkaline and turn red litmus
blue.
Potassium hydroxide + water Potassium hydroxide solution
KOH(s) + water KOH (aq)
Sodium hydroxide + water Sodium hydroxide solution
NaOH(s) + water NaOH(aq)
The hydroxides of zinc, aluminium, iron, lead and copper are insoluble in water.
Ammonia is a base and dissolves in water to form aqueous ammonia.
How to obtain crystals of a salt from a solution
Experiment 4.3: How are crystals of copper (II) sulphate obtained from a solution of
copper (II) sulphate?
Measure about 20 cm3 of water in a beaker. Add a spatulaful of copper (II) sulphate crystals
in the beaker and stir. Continue adding until it does not dissolve anymore. Decant a portion
of the solution into an evaporating dish. Place the evaporating dish on a water bath and heat.
See figure 4.1.
Fig 4.1: Set up for preparing copper (II) sulphate crystals
Evaporate the solution until it is about to form crystals. To find out if this point has been
reached, dip a clean glass rod into the solution and hold it up in the air to cool. Examine the
rod to find out whether the crystals have formed on it. Continue heating until crystals are
seen on the glass rod when the rod is dipped in the solution. Allow the solution to cool slowly
to form crystals. Observe the crystals with a hand lens.
To obtain larger crystals, cover the evaporating dish with a perforated paper. Leave the
set-up undisturbed and observe after 12 hours. Filter off the crystals and dry them between
filter papers.
1. How can you tell whether a solution has dissolved as much copper (II) sulphate as
possible.
2. Explain why the solution is not evaporated to dryness.
3. Why are the crystals not dried by heating?
Discussion
When a spatulaful of copper (II) sulphate is added to water it dissolves to form a blue
solution. As more and more of the salt is added into the solution, a point is reached when no
more can dissolve and some crystals remain at the bottom of the beaker.
The resulting solution is said to be saturated. A saturated solution is one that cannot
dissolve any more solute at a given temperature.
As the hot saturated solution cools, it forms solid particles with a regular shape. These
solid particles are called crystals and the process is referred to as crystallisation.
Evaporation is not done to dryness so that larger crystals may form. Slow cooling allows the
salt to form large crystals. Otherwise the crystals formed would be small.
Crystals of some salts contain some amount of water in fixed proportions. The salts are
said to be hydrated. The fixed amount of water incorporated within the crystal structure of a
salt is called water of crystallisaton. Water of crystallisation is important in the formation
of crystals for hydrated salts.
Crystals of copper (II) sulphate are not dried by heating because heating would drive out
water of crystallisation to leave behind a powder, anhydrous copper (II) sulphate. Examples
of hydrated salts include; sodium carbonate decahydrate (Na2CO3.10H2O), Iron (II) sulphate
heptahydrate (FeSO4.7H2O).
Methods of Preparing Salts

The method chosen for preparation a specific salt may depend on the solubility of the salt in
water.
Preparation of Soluble salts

Experiment 4.4: How is zinc sulphate prepared?
Measure about 20 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid (VI) acid and transfer it into a beaker. Add zinc
powder a little at a time as you stir with a glass rod. Continue adding zinc powder until it is
in excess. Filter the solution and pour the filtrate into an evaporating basin. See fig 4.2 (a),
(b), and (c).
Evaporate the filtrate to saturation. To find out if this point has been reached, dip a glass
rod into the solution and hold it up in air to cool. If cystals form on the tip of the rod, the
solution is ready to form crystals and heating can be stopped to allow the now saturated
solution to cool and evaporate slowly.
FIg 4.2: Preparation of zinc sulphate crystals

1. Explain why zinc powder is added in excess.
2. Why is filtration necessary in this experiment?
3. Write an equation for the reaction between zinc powder and dilute sulphuric acid.
4. (a) Suggest other salts that can be prepared in a similar way.
(b) Write equations for the reactions in 4 (a).
Discussion
Zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric (VI) acid to produce zinc sulphate and hydrogen gas.
Effervescence stops when all the sulphuric acid has completely reacted with zinc powder.
Excess zinc is used to ensure all the acid reacts completely. The unreacted zinc is removed
by filtration.
Zinc + Sulphuric (VI) acid Zinc sulphate + Hydrogen gas
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
The saturated salt solution is allowed to cool for zinc sulphate crystals to form. The
process of obtaining salt crystals from a saturated solution by cooling is called
crystallisation. Other salts that can be prepared by the same method are magnesium nitrate,
zinc chloride and calcium chloride.
Equations
Magnesium + Nitric acid Magnesium nitrate + Hydrogen gas
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2 (g)
Zinc + Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Hydrogen gas
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Calcium + Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + Hydrogen gas
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
The reaction of an acid and a metal as seen, is one of the methods of preparation of salts.
It is suitable for the preparation of soluble salts.
Experiment 4.5: How is copper (II) sulphate prepared?
Measure about 20 cm3 of dilute sulphuric (VI) acid and pour it into a glass beaker. Warm the
acid in the beaker. Using a spatula, add copper (II) oxide to the warm acid a little at a time
while stirring with a glass rod until no more oxide can dissolve. Filter and collect the filtrate.
Transfer the filtrate to the evaporating basin. Evaporate the filtrate over a water bath to
saturation. Stop heating and allow the saturated solution to cool to form crystals. Dry the
crystals between filter papers.
1. Why was copper (II) oxide added in excess?
2. Explain why the acid was warmed before adding copper (II) oxide?
3. Besides the salt, what is the other product?
4. Why was evaporation done over a water bath?
5. Write an equation for the reaction between copper (II) oxide and dilute sulphuric
acid.
Discussion
The reaction between copper (II) oxide and dilute sulphuric (VI) acid produces a salt and
water only. This type of reaction is called neutralisation.
Copper (II) oxide + Sulphuric (VI) acid Copper sulphate + water
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Excess copper (II) oxide is used to ensure that all the acid has reacted. Since the reaction
between the acid and the oxide is slow, warming speeds up the reaction. Evaporation of the
filtrate is carried out over a water bath to ensure slow evaporation and formation of large
crystals.
Other salts that can be prepared in a similar way are lead (II) nitrate, magnesium sulphate
and calcium chloride.
Lead (II) oxide + dilute nitric (V) acid Lead nitrate + water
PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Magnesium oxide + dil. sulphuric (VI) acid Magnesium sulphate + water
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Calcium oxide + dil. hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + water
Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
The reaction of acids on insoluble bases is another method of preparation of salts, ideal
for preparation of soluble salts.
Experiment 4.6: How is sodium chloride prepared?
Measure 25 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid and pour it in a beaker. Dip universal indicator
paper into the beaker. Record the pH. Measure 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide and pour it in
another beaker. Record its pH also. Add 2–3 drops of phenolphthalein into the sodium
hydroxide. Pour the hydrochloric acid slowly into the beaker containing sodium hydroxide
until the pink colour just disappears. Test the resultant solution with universal indicator
paper. Pour about 25 cm3 of the resultant solution into a clean evaporating basin, evaporate
the solution until it is saturated. Allow the saturated solution to cool for crystals to form.
1. Explain the role of phenolphthalein in this experiment.
2. Write an equation for the reaction that takes place between sodium hydroxide and
hydrochloric acid.
3. (i) Name the acid and base that can be used to prepare:
(a) Potassium nitrate
(b) Sodium sulphate
(c) Ammonium chloride
(ii) Write balanced equations for the reactions hat produce the salts in 3(i), (a) to
(c) above.
Discussion
The pH of sodium hydroxide is about 13 while hydrochloric acid has a pH of about 2. When
hydrochloric acid is added to sodium hydroxide solution and the resulting solution tested
with universal indicator paper, it is found to have a pH of about seven (7). This shows that
the solution formed is neutral. The neutral solution contains a salt and water. A reaction in
which a salt and water is formed is called a neutralisation reaction.
Sodium hydroxide + hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride + water
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Phenolphthalein indicator is pink in alkaline solutions and colourless in acidic solutions.
It is used in this reaction to determine when the reaction is over, the point at which just
enough of the acid has been added to exactly neutralise the alkali. This point is known as the
end point.
Universal indicator paper shows a range of colours in alkaline and acidic solutions. It is
blue in sodium hydroxide and red in hydrochloric acid. It is not very suitable for determining
the end point of an acid base reaction. In this experiment, phenolphthalein is used to
determine the neutralisation point between the acid and the base.
Potassium nitrate, ammonium chloride, ammonium sulphate and sodium sulphate are
prepared by the same method. The equations given are for the reactions between various
acids and bases to produce salts.
Potassium hydroxide + Nitric acid Potassium nitrate + water
KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Ammonium hydroxide + Hydrochloric acid Ammonium chloride + water
NH4OH (aq) + HCl(aq) NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium hydroxide + Sulphuric (VI) acid Sodium sulphate + water
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Neutralisation, the action of acids on soluble bases to produce a salt and water is
another method used to prepare soluble salts.
Experiment 4.7: How is lead nitrate prepared from lead (II) carbonate?
Measure about 25 cm3 of dilute nitric (V) acid and pour it into a glass beaker. Warm the acid
in the beaker gently. Add lead (II) carbonate to the warm acid, a little at a time and stir.
Continue adding the carbonate while stirring until effervescence stops. Stop warming and
filter off the unreacted carbonate. Evaporate the filtrate to saturation and allow it to form
crystals.
1. What are the products of the reaction?
2. Write an equation for the reaction between lead (II) carbonate and nitric acid.
3. Write equations to show how the following salts may be prepared from their
corresponding carbonates.
(i) Zinc nitrate.
(ii) Calcium chloride.
(iii) Ammonium sulphate.
(iv) Sodium nitrate.
Discussion
When lead (II) carbonate is added to the warm nitric acid, there is immediate effervescence.
Warming speeds up the reaction. The effervescence is due to production of carbon (IV) oxide
gas. The reaction is complete when there is no more effervescence and unreacted lead (II)
carbonate remains. The excess carbonate is used to ensure that all the acid reacts completely.
Lead(II) carbonate + Nitric (IV) acid Lead nitrate + Carbon(IV) oxide + Water
PbCO3(a) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2 + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
The following equations show reactions by which some other salts can be prepared from
the action of acids on carbonates.
Zinc carbonate + Nitric (IV) acid Zinc nitrate + carbon (IV) oxide + Water
ZnCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2 (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Calcium carbonate+ Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + carbon (IV) oxide +
water
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Ammonium carbonate + Sulphuric (VI)acid Ammonium sulphate + Carbon
(IV) oxide + Water
(NH4)2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Sodium carbonate + Nitric (IV) acid Sodium nitrate + Carbon (IV) oxide +
Water
Na2CO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) 2NaNO3(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The reaction of acids with carbonates is another suitable method for preparing soluble
salts.
Preparation of salts by Direct Combination of Elements

Salts can also be prepared by reacting a metal with a non-metal. This method is suitable for
preparing both soluble and insoluble salts.
Experiment 4.8: How is Iron (II) sulphide prepared?
Put a spatulaful of iron filling in a crucible. To the same crucible add a spatulaful of sulphur.
Mix them well. Heat the mixture strongly. When the reaction is complete, allow the products
to cool.
1. What is the colour of:
(i) Iron filings?
(ii) Sulphur?
(iii) The product?
2. What was observed when the mixture was being heated?
3. Write an equation between iron filings and sulphur.
Discussion
When a mixture of sulphur and iron fillings is strongly heated, it glows red even when the
source of heat is removed. This shows that the reaction between iron and sulphur produces
heat. The colour of iron is grey and that of sulphur is yellow while the colour of the product
is black. The black solid formed is iron (II) sulphide.
Iron + Sulphur Iron (II) sulphide
Fe (s) + S(s) FeS(s)
The method used to prepare iron (III) sulphide is called direct synthesis. Other salts that
can be prepared by this method are sodium chloride and iron (III) chloride.
Sodium + Chlorine Sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) 2NaCl(s)
Iron + Chlorine Iron (III) chloride
2Fe(s) + 3 CL2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
Preparation of insoluble salts

Experiment 4.9: How is lead (II) sulphate prepared?
Put 10 cm3 of lead (II) nitrate in a beaker. To the same beaker, add excess magnesium
sulphate solution. Stir the solution using a glass rod. Let the solid settle then decant the
liquid. Wash the solid with distilled water. Filter and dry the solid between filter papers.
1. Which ions are present in the reactants?
2. What observations are made when lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulphate solutions
are mixed?
3. Write an equation for the reaction between lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulphate.
4. (i) Name the solid formed in 3 above.
(ii) Which ions react to form the solid.
(iii) Write an equation using the ions that form the solid.
5. (a) Choose any pair of salts that react to form :
(i) Barium sulphate.
(ii) Lead iodide.
(iii) Silver chloride.
(iv) Copper carbonate.
(b) Write a balanced equations for 5 (a) (i) to (iii)
Write balanced ionic equations for the reactions in 5 (a) (i) to (iii)
Discussion
When lead (II) nitrate and magnesium sulphate solutions are mixed, a white solid is formed.
The ions present in the reactants are lead (Pb2+), and nitrate (NO3–) ions from lead (II) nitrate;
magnesium (Mg2+) and sulphate (SO42–) ions from magnesium sulphate. When the two salt
solutions react, lead sulphate and magnesium nitrate salts are formed.
In this reaction, the metal ions of the salts simply exchange their anions. Lead sulphate is
formed as a white solid (precipitate). This type of reaction is called double decomposition.
Lead (II) nitrate + Magnesium sulphate Lead (II) sulphate + Magnesium
nitrate
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + MgSO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + Mg(NO3)2(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq) + Mg2+(aq) + SO2–4(aq) PbSO4(s) + Mg2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq)
The ions in the salt solutions that react to form lead sulphate are lead ions (Pb2+) and
sulphate ions (SO42–). These ions are in aqueous state in the begining of the reaction and end
up in the solid state at the end of the reaction. The ions undergo a change in their physical
state as shown by the equation below.
Pb2+(aq) + SO2–4(aq) PbSO4(s)
The equation obtained by writing only those ions that undergo change during a chemical
reaction is called an ionic equation.
Magnesium ions (Mg2+) and nitrate ions (NO–3) are in aqueous state in the begining and at
the end of the reaction, they remain unchanged through out the reaction. The ions that
remain unchanged during a chemical reaction are called spectator ions and are omitted
when writing ionic equations.
Reactions in which solids are formed from aqueous solutions are called precipitation
reactions. The solids formed are referred to as precipitates. Precipitation reactions are
suitable for preparing insoluble salts.
Other examples of precipitation reactions are:
Barium nitrate + Zinc sulphate Barium sulphate + Zinc nitrate
Ba(NO3)2(Aq) + ZnSO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + Zn(NO3)2(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq) + Zn2+(aq) +SO2–4 BaSO4(s) + Zn2+(aq) + 2NO–3(g)
Ionic equation: Ba2+(aq) + SO2–4 (aq) BaSO4(s)
Lead nitrate + Potassium iodide Lead iodide + Potassium nitrate.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq) PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq) + 2K+(aq) + 2I–(aq) PbI2(s) + 2K+(aq) + 2NO–3(aq)
Ionic equation: Pb2+(aq) + 2I–(aq) PbI2(s)
Silver nitrate + Sodium chloride Silver chloride + Sodium nitrate
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
Ag+(aq) + NO–3(aq) + Na+ + Cl–(aq) AgCl(s) + Na+ (aq) + NO–3(aq)
Ionic equation: Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) AgCl(s)
Copper chloride + Sodium carbonate Copper carbonate + Sodium chloride
CuCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CuCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) + 2Na+(aq) +CO32–(aq) CuCO3(s) + 2Cl–(aq) + 2Na+(aq)
Ionic equation: Cu2+(aq) + CO2–3(aq) CuCO(s)
In a precipitation reaction, the two reactants must be soluble salts and one of the
products must be insoluble.
Experiment 4.10: What happens when salts are exposed to the atmosphere?
Place a spatulaful of the following salts in separate watch glasses labelled 1 to 6 and leave
the samples uncovered overnight.
1. Common salt.
2. Anhydrous calcium chloride.
3. Potassium nitrate.
4. Hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O)
5. Anhydrous Iron (III) chloride.
Observe and record any changes that may have occurred.
1. What observations are made each sample?
2. Suggest explanations for each of the observations.
Discussions
When anhydrous calcium chloride is exposed to the atmosphere overnight, it forms a
colourless solution. The shiny black crystals of iron (III) chloride also form a yellow solution.
This is because they absorb so much water from the atmosphere that they form solutions.
Such salts are said to be deliquescent and the process is called deliquescence. Other
deliquescent substances are sodium hydroxide, calcium chloride, iron (II) chloride,
potassium hydroxide and zinc chloride.
When anhydrous copper (II) sulphate is exposed to the atmosphere, the white solid turns
blue and becomes damp. This is because it absorbs water from the atmosphere but does not
dissolve. Such a salt is said to be hygroscopic and the process is called hygroscopy.
Examples of hygroscopic salts are anhydrous cobalt (II) chloride, potassium nitrate and
common table salt.
Pure sodium chloride is not hygroscopic, but common table salt is hygroscopic because
it contains other salts such as magnesium chloride which makes it behave like a hygroscopic
salt. It is the magnesium chloride, that absorbs water and makes the salt damp.
When crystals of hydrated sodium carbonate (Na2CO3.10H2O) are exposed to the
atmosphere over-night a white powder is formed. This, is because the crystals lose some
water of crystallisation to form a white powder, sodium carbonate monohydrate.
(Na2CO3.H2O). Salts which lose some of their water of crystallisation when exposed to the
atmosphere are said to be efflorescent. The process is called efflorescence. Other examples
of efflorescent salts include iron(II) sulphate heptahydrate, (FeSO4.7H2O) and Sodium
sulphate deca-hydrate (Na2SO4.10H2O)
Uses of Salts
Salts are widely used. Some of the uses are:
1. Fertilizers contain sodium nitrate, potassium sulphate and ammonium salts such as
ammonium nitrate, ammonium sulphate and ammonium phosphate.
2. Sodium chloride is used as a food additive while sodium hydrogen carbonate is used
in baking powder.
3. Calcium sulphate (Plaster of Paris) is used in hospitals on people with fractures or
dislocations.
4. Calcium chloride is used in road surfacing to keep the road moist due to its
deliquescent nature, moisture absorbs dust.
5. Calcium chloride is used in the extraction of sodium metal by electrolysis.
6. Potassium nitrate is used for making fireworks and gunpowder.
7. Sodium carbonate is used in the softening of hard water, making of glass and
detergents.
8. Many salts are used for de-frosting snow in cold countries during winter by lowering
its freezing point. Calcium chloride is applied on roads to melt snow.
Action of heat on salts

Heat energy can bring about changes in substances when applied to them. The following
experiments demonstrate the effect of heat on carbonates, nitrates and sulphates.
Action of Heat on Carbonates

Experiment 4.11: What is the effect of heat on carbonates?
Put half a spatulaful of sodium carbonate in a test tube. Heat the sample gently and then
strongly until no further change occurs. Test the gas given off by placing a glass rod which
has been dipped in calcium hydroxide solution at the mouth of the test tube. Record your
observations as in table 4.6. Repeat the experiment using the carbonates of potassium,
calcium, zinc, lead, ammonium, copper and hydrogen carbonates of sodium and potassium.
Table 4.6: Effect of Heat on Carbonates

1. Which carbonates are not affected by heat? Explain.
2. Write equations for the reactions which occur when some carbonates are heated.
3. What is the relationship between ease of decomposition of a metallic carbonate and
the position of the metal in the reactivity series?
Discussion
Pure carbonates of sodium and potassium are not affected by heat. Carbonates of these
metals are stable because of the high position of the metals in the reactivity series. If
hydrated, the salts only lose their water of crystallisation. The water vapour condenses on
the sides of the test tube as a colourless liquid. The residue is a white solid.
The other metal carbonates decompose on heating to give off a colourless gas and the
corresponding metal oxide. On testing the gas with calcium hydroxide, a white precipitate is
formed confirming the gas to be carbon (IV) oxide.
The general equation is;
The position of a metal in the reactivity series determines the ease of decomposition of
its carbonate.
Ammonium carbonate decomposes to form ammonia gas, carbon (IV) oxide and steam.
Presence of ammonia is confirmed by the turning of moist red litmus paper to blue.
Hydrogen carbonates of metals high in the reactivity series decompose on heating to

produce the corresponding metal carbonates, carbon (IV) oxide and water.
The hydrogen carbonates of calcium and magnesium exist only in solution whereas
hydrogen carbonates of aluminium and iron do not exist.
Action of Heat on Nitrates

Experiment 4:12: What is the effect of heat on nitrates?
Heat about half a spatula of potassium nitrate in a boiling tube. Observe the colour of the
gas(es) evolved and test using moist litmus paper. Insert a glowing splint into the test tube.
For hydrated nitrates, do not test for the gases until all the water of crystallisation is driven
off. Record your observations as shown in table 4.7.
Repeat the experiment using the nitrates of sodium, calcium, zinc, lead and copper.
Table 4.7: Action of Heat on Nitrates

1. Identify the products when each nitrate is heated.
2. Write equations for the reactions that occur when the metal nitrates were heated.
3. What is the general trend of the action of heat on nitrates?
Discussion
Potassium nitrate and sodium nitrate decompose to form oxygen and a white residue which
is potassium nitrite and sodium nitrite respectively.
The nitrates of calcium, zinc, lead and copper decompose on heating to form the metal
oxide, nitrogen (IV) oxide and oxygen gas.
The general equation for the decomposition of nitrates is shown below;
The nitrates of silver and mercury decompose to give nitrogen (IV) oxide, oxygen and the
corresponding metal.
The general equation for the decomposition of these nitrates is:
The ease with which metal nitrates decompose on heating increases down the reactivity
series of metals. Ammonium nitrate decomposes to give steam and nitrogen (I) oxide.
All nitrates decompose on heating.

Experiment 4.13: What is the effect of heat on sulphates?
Place a spatulaful of hydrated iron (II) sulphate in a test tube. Heat the test-tube gently at
first and then strongly. Test any gas evolved with moist litmus paper. Repeat the experiment
using the hydrated sulphates of sodium, magnesium, zinc, copper. Record your observations
as shown in table 4.8.
Table 4.8: Effect of heat on Sulphates

1. Which sulphates are not affected by heat? Give a reason.
2. Write equations for the reactions that occur when some metal sulphates are heated.
Discussion
The sulphates of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium are stable and are not affected
by heat. However, if hydrated they lose water of crystallisation on heating which condenses
high up in the test tube.
Zinc sulphate and copper (II) sulphate decompose on strong heating to form the metal
oxide, water and sulphur (VI) oxide gas which is colourless. The gas turns moist blue litmus
paper red.
Iron (II) sulphate crystals decompose to give iron (II) oxide, sulphur (IV) oxide, sulphur
(VI) oxide and water.
It is important to note that all ammonium salts decompose on heating.

Summary
1. Salts are ionic compounds containing metallic or ammonium cations bonded to
anions from acids.
2. Soluble salts are prepared by the action of acids on metals, bases, carbonates or
hydrogen carbonates.
3. Some salts can be prepared by direct combination of the constituent elements. This
method is referred to as direct synthesis.
4. Insoluble salts are prepared by precipitation reactions. These reactions involve
exchange of ions by the reactants.
5. Normal salts are formed when all replaceable hydrogen of an acid is replaced by metal
or ammonium ions. Normal salts form neutral solutions in water.
6. Acid salts are formed when some of the replaceable hydrogen ions in an acid are
replaced by metal or ammonium ions. Acid salts form acidic solutions when dissolved
in water.
7. Basic salts are salts that contain hydroxyl ions.
8. The basicity of an acid is the number of replaceable hydrogen ions per molecule of the
acid.
9. Deliquescent salts absorb water from the atmosphere to form solutions. They should
be prepared and stored in dry places.
10. Hygroscopic salts absorb water from the atmosphere but do not form solutions.
11. Efflorescent salts lose their water of crystallisation to the atmosphere.
Revision Exercise
1. Below is a brief outline of a method used in preparing lead chloride. Lead carbonate
is added to warm dilute nitric acid. When the carbonate has reacted with the warm
acid, more carbonate is added until the carbonate is in excess. The mixture is filtered.
Some sodium chloride solution is added to the filtrate.
(a) (i) What observations are made when lead carbonate is added to the warm
nitric acid?
(ii) Explain why warm nitric acid is used.
(iii) What happens when sodium chloride is added to the filtrate?
(b) Write an equation for the reaction between:
(i) The carbonate and the acid.
(ii) The filtrate and sodium chloride.
(c) Write an ionic equation for the reaction in b (ii).
(d) Name the reaction that takes place between the filtrate and sodium chloride.
2. Write balanced equations for the reactions between:
(i) Copper (II) oxide and nitric acid.
(ii) Silver nitrate and potassium carbonate solutions.
(iii) Zinc (II) ions and carbonate ions.
(iv) Aluminium and chlorine gas.
3. Explain the meaning of each of the following terms:
(a) Neutralisation.
(b) Crystallisation.
(c) Deliquescence.
(d) Hygroscopy.
(e) Efflorescence.
4. Given lead (II) oxide, nitric (V) acid, sodium carbonate solution and water. Explain
briefly how you can prepare lead carbonate. Use equations where possible.
5. Below are instructions that should be followed in carrying out an experiment to
prepare copper (II) sulphate crystals. The instructions are not given in the correct
order. Arrange them in order, so that the experiment can be carried out successfully.
Refer to each instruction by its letter.
Q — Filter and collect the filtrate in an evaporating dish.
R — Warm the contents of the beaker to give a blue solution.
S — Place about 20 cm3 of dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker.
T — Dry the crystals between two pieces of filter paper.
U — Repeat this procedure until there is excess copper (II) oxide.
V — Add a spatulaful of copper (II) oxide.
W — Heat and boil the filtrate until crystals form on the tip of a glass rod which
is dipped into it and removed to cool.
X — If all the black solid disappears, add some more.
Y — Allow to cool in order to crystalise.
Z — Pour off the liquid which is called ‘mother liquor’.
6. Study the scheme below and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Name
(i) Solid X.
(ii) The yellow residue.
(b) Write an equation for the decomposition of solid X.
7. Name two carbonates that do not decompose on heating.
8. Give two disadvantages of evaporating a solution to dryness during crystallisation.
Effect of an electric current on substances
Chapter objectives
(a) Define the terms conductor, non-conductor, electrolyte, non-electrolyte, current
and electrode.
(b) Differentiate electrolyte from conductor in terms of the particles they contain.
(c) Explain the process of electrolysis and define the terms anode and cathode.
(d) State the products of electrolysis of binary compounds.
(e) State some applications of electrolysis.
In the previous chapter, it was noted that some substances conduct an electric current while
others do not. An electric current is a flow of electrons and is a form of energy. In this chapter,
the effect of an electric current on some substances will be studied.
Electrical Conductivity of Solids

Experiment 5.1: Do all types of solids conduct an electric current?
Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 5.1. Connect a piece of aluminium strip to the circuit
using crocodile clips. Close the switch and record your observations.
Fig 5.1: An electric circuit

Repeat the experiment using the following solids instead of aluminium: magnesium, zinc,
graphite, wood, sugar, sulphur, sodium chloride, lead (II) bromide and lead (II) iodide urea.
Record your observations as shown in table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Conductivity of Solids

1. What is the purpose of the bulb in the experiment?
2. Name the substances used in the experiment which:
(i) Conduct an electric current.
(ii) Do not conduct an electric current.
3. What type of substances:
(i) Conduct an electric current?
(ii) Do not conduct an electric current?
4. Suggest a reason for the electrical conductivity in the substances that conduct.
Discussion
In order to determine whether a substance will conduct an electric current or not an electric
circuit which includes the substance being tested is used. A bulb is used to show whether a
current is flowing when the circuit is completed. When the switch is closed, the bulb lights
up if the substance being tested allows a current to pass through it. The bulb does not light
if the substance being tested does not allow a current to pass through it.
Substances which allow an electric current to pass through them are called conductors.
Substances which do not allow an electric current to pass through them are called non-
conductors. Among the substances tested, only aluminum, magnesium, zinc and graphite
are found to be conductors. The rest of the substances are found to be non-conductors.
Aluminium, magnesium and zinc are metals. Generally, metals are conductors of
electricity. In metals, the atoms are packed together very closely and the delocalised
electrons move freely from one point to another within the structure.
Graphite is a non-metal but it conducts an electric current. In graphite, the carbon atoms
are bonded in such away that the resulting structure has some delocalised electrons. The
delocalised electrons in metals and graphite are responsible for the electrical conductivity in
these substances.
All solid substances that do not have delocalised electrons in their structures are non-
conductors.
The battery in the circuit provides the necessary driving force which make the electrons
to flow in one direction through the circuit.
Electrical Conductivity of Molten Substances

The arrangement of apparatus used to investigate the electrical conductivity of molten
substances consists of two solid conductors each with one end dipped in the melt under
investigation. To the other end of each solid conductor is connected a source of direct
current. The solid conductors should not come into contact with each other. Either a bulb or
an ammeter are used to indicate the flow of the electric current.
The two solid conductors are called electrodes. The electrode connected to the positive
terminal of the battery is called the anode and the electrode connected to the negative
terminal is called the cathode. Graphite rods are frequently used as electrodes because they
are uncreative and cheap.
Experiment 5.2: What type of substances conduct an electric current when in molten
state?
Cation: This experiment MUST be done in a fume cupboard
Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 5.2. Fill the crucible up to a third with lead (II)
bromide. Ensure that the graphite rods do not come close to each other. Close the switch.
Heat the Lead (II) bromide until it melts. Record your observations.
Fig 5.2: Electrical conductivity of substances in the molten state
Repeat the experiment using Lead (II) iodide, sugar, sulphur and wax. Record your
observations as shown in table table 5.2.
Table 5.2: Conductivity of Molten Substances

What explanation can you give on those substances that did not conduct when in the solid
state but conduct when melted?
1. (i) Name the substances in the experiment which do not conduct electricity
when in the solid state but conduct when melted.
2. Why should care be taken to prevent the graphite rods from coming into contact?
3. What explanation can you give on those substances which do not conduct whether in
the solid or molten state?
Discussion
Lead (II) bromide does not conduct an electric current in the solid state. However, it conducts
an electric current when melted. Similarly, lead (II) iodide does not conduct in the solid state
but does so when melted. Lead (II) bromide and lead (II) iodine are ionic compounds. In the
solid state, the ions are held firmly by strong electrostatic forces and thus cannot move.
Melting weakens these forces enabling the ions to move. These mobile ions in the melt are
responsible for the conductivity of lead (II) bromide and lead (II) iodide.
Other ionic substances do not conduct in the solid state but conduct when in molten
(liquid) state.
Sugar, sulphur and wax do not conduct an electric current in the solid state. When molten
they also do not conduct. These substances have molecular structures and lack charged
particles. The absence of charged particles is responsible for non- conductivity of an electric
current in sugar, sulphur and wax.
Metals are good conductors both in the solid and molten state because of the presence of
delocalised electrons in their structure. When metals are melted. The delocalised electrons
remain mobile enabling metals to be conductors in the molten state. The melting points of
metals are high and their conductivity in the molten state may not easily be investigated in
the school laboratory.
Electrical Conductivity of Bubstances in Aqueous State

Experiment 5.3: What type of substances conduct an electric current when dissolved in
water?
Half fill a 100ml beaker with distilled water. Add a spatulaful of sodium chloride crystals. Stir
with a clean glass rod to dissolve the sodium chloride completely. Using graphite electrodes
set up a circuit as shown in figure 5.4.
Fig 5.4: Electrical conductivity of substances in aqueous state
Close the switch and record your observations. Discard the solution and rinse both
electrodes and the beaker. Repeat the experiment using solutions of the following
substances; copper (II) chloride, copper (II) sulphate, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid,
sodium hydroxide, ammonia, urea, and sugar. Record your observations as shown in table
5.3.
Table 5.3: Electrical Conductivity of Substances in Aqueous solutions

1. Name the substances in the experiment which do not conduct electricity in the solid
state but conduct when dissolved in water.
2. What do those substances which conduct electricity when dissolved in water have in
common?
3. Which substances do not conduct electricity either in the solid state or when dissolved
in water?
Discussion
Sodium chloride, copper (II) chloride and copper (II) sulphate do not conduct electricity in
the solid state but when dissolved in water they conduct. Solutions of sulphuric (VI) acid,
hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide and ammonia were also found to conduct electricity.
Aqueous solutions of salts bases and acids contain mobile ions. The mobile ions are
responsible for the electrical conductivity. When the circuit is completed, the positive ions
in the solutions move towards the negative electrode (cathode) while the negative ions move
towards the positive electrode (anode), see figure 5.5.
Fig 5.5: Electrical conductivity of salts in aqueous solution
Conventionally, an electric current is shown to move from the positive terminal to the
negative terminal even though the electrons actually flow from the negative to the positive
terminal.
The movement of the ions in the solution constitutes the current through the solution.
Solutions of sugar and urea did not conduct electricity. Sugar and urea are molecular
substances. Their solutions do not contain ions.
Electrolysis
In the previous subtopic the electrical conductivity of substances in molten and aqueous
states was studied. In this sub-topic, the effect of an electric current on substances in the
molten state will be investigated.
Experiment 5.4: What products are formed when an electric current is passed through
molten lead (II) bromide?
Caution: This experiment should be carried out in a fume chamber or open air.
Fill a crucible up to a third with lead (II) bromide. Set up the apparatus as shown in figure
5.6.
Fig. 5.6: Electrolysis of Lead (II) bromide
Close the switch. Heat the lead (II) bromide until it melts. Record your observations.
1. What is observed at each of the electrodes?
2. Suggest an explanation for the observations made.
Discussion
A red vapour of bromine gas is produced at the anode while grey beads of lead metal are
formed at the cathode. Bromine gas and lead metal are produced as a result of the
decomposition of the lead (II) bromide by the electric current.
Lead (II) bromide is an electrolyte. An electrolyte is a substance which when melted or
dissolved in water conducts an electric current and gets decomposed by the current. The
process of decomposing an electrolyte by passing an electric current through it is called
electrolysis.
Fig 5.7: Electrolysis of molten lead (II) bromide
The changes that occur when lead (II) bromide is electrolysed are explained below:
At the cathode
The positively charged lead (II) ions get attracted to the negatively charged cathode and
migrate towards it. On reaching the cathode, the lead ions gain electrons to form electrically
neutral atoms of lead metal. The metal is deposited as grey beads on the cathode. This change
is illustrated by the following equation.
Pb2+(aq) + 2e– Pb(s)
At the anode
The negatively charged bromide ions get attracted to the positively charged anode and
migrate towards it. On reaching the anode, the bromide ions lose electrons to form bromine
atoms. The bromine atoms combine to form diatomic molecules of the brown bromine gas.
This change is illustrated by the equation.
2Br–(aq) Br2(g) + 2e–
Lead (II) bromide is an example of a binary electrolyte. This is because its melt contains
only one type of cation and one type of anion. Copy and complete table 5.4
Table 5.4: Composition of Electrolytes
Application of Electrolysis
The process of electrolysis is applied in such processes as:
(a) Extraction of metals such as sodium, magnesium and aluminium by electrolysis of
their molten compounds.
(b) Purification of metals.
(c) Electroplating of metals such as iron to improve their appearance and prevent
corrosion.
(d) Manufacture of pure chemicals such as hydrogen gas, chlorine gas and sodium
hydroxide.
Summary
1. Metals conduct electricity while non-metals, do not. Graphite is a non-metal that
conducts electricity.
2. In metals and graphite, electrical conductivity is due to the presence of delocalised
electrons in their structures.
3. Electrolytes are substances which when molten or dissolved in water conduct an
electric current and decomposes.
4. Solutions of salts, acids and bases are electrolytes.
5. The electrical conductivity of electrolytes is due to the presence of mobile ions.
6. Non-electrolytes are composed of molecules hence they do not conduct an electric
current whether solid, melted or dissolved.
7. A binary electrolyte is one which contains only one type of cation and one type of
anion.
8. When an electrolyte is electrolysed, the positive ions always move to the negatively
charged cathode where they gain electrons to form neutral atoms. The negatively
charged ions move to the positively charged anode where they lose electrons to form
neutral atoms.
9. Graphite is the most commonly used electrode because it does not react with many
electrolytes or their products and it is cheap.
Revision Exercise
1. Name the particles that are responsible for electrical conductivity in:
(a) Solids.
(b) Melts.
(c) Aqueous solutions.
2. Give two properties of graphite that make it suitable for use as an electrode.
3. Define the following terms:
(a) Conductor.
(b) Electrode.
(c) Electrolyte.
(d) Electrolysis.
(e) Cathode.
(f) Anode.
4. The diagram below shows a set up which was used by a student to investigate the
effect of electricity on molten lead (II) iodide.
(a) Explain what happens to the lead iodide during the electrolysis.
(b) Why does solid lead (II) iodide not allow the passage of electricity?
(c) Why was it important to carry out the experiment in a fume chamber?
(d) Write equations to show the reaction taking place:
(i) At the cathode.
(ii) At the anode.
Carbon and some of its compounds
Objectives
(a) Define the terms allotropy and allotropes.
(b) State and explain some physical and chemical properties of carbon.
(c) Describe the laboratory preparation of carbon (IV) and carbon (II) oxides
(d) State and explain the physical and chemical properties of carbon (IV) and carbon
(II) oxide
(e) State the uses of carbon, carbon (IV) and carbon (II) oxides.
(f) Describe the chemical properties of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates.
(g) Describe the extraction and manufacture of sodium carbonate.
(h) State the effects of carbon (IV) and carbon (II) oxides on the environment.
Carbon is the first element in group (IV) of the periodic table. It has an electron
arrangement of 2.4. It forms covalent bonds in most of its compounds. It occurs in the pure
state as diamond and graphite, and in the impure state as amorphous carbon. It also occurs
in the combined state in compounds such as carbonates, mineral oils, organic matter, and
carbon (IV) oxide.
Allotropes of Carbon
Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form, in the same physical state. The
different forms are called allotropes. Carbon has two naturally occurring allotropes,
diamond and graphite.
Carbon can be manipulated using energy such as laser beams to form other allotropes
known as fullerens or ‘buckyballs’.
Diamond
This is one of the stable allotropes of carbon. It is a colourless, transparent shiny crystalline
solid. Figure 6.1 outlines the structure of diamond.
Fig 6.1 A raw diamond and cut diamonds
In diamond, carbon uses all the four valence electrons to form covalent bonds. Since it uses
all the four electrons in the outermost energy level for bonding, it does not conduct both
electricity and heat.
Diamond has a density of 3.51 g/cm3. The high density is due to continuous close packing
of carbon atoms. Diamond has a high melting point (3700ºC). The high melting point is due
to the strong covalent bonds.
Diamond is one of the hardest naturally occurring substances. The hardness is due to the
uniformity of covalent bonds between the atoms throughout the structure.
Diamond has a giant atomic structure in which each carbon atom is bonded to four other
carbon atoms arranged in a regular tetrahedron shape. The whole structure of diamond
extends in all directions forming a rigid mass of atoms.
Diamond is found in some parts of India, South Africa and in Tanzania where it is mined.
It is used as a jewel because of its shiny appearance when polished. It is used in glass cutters
and drill bits because of its hardness.
Graphite
This is another stable allotrope of carbon. It is a black, soft, slippery crystalline solid. Graphite
is made up of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms bonded together in layers where each
atom is bonded to three carbon atoms. The layers are held together by van der Waals forces.
Graphite has a density of 2.3g/cm3. The low density is due to the spaces between the
layers. It is soft and slippery because the layers in the structure can slide over each other due
to the weak van der Waals forces. In graphite, each carbon atom uses only three electrons in
the outer energy level to form covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. One electron in the
outer energy level of each atom is not used in bonding. It is delocalised hence graphite
conducts heat and electricity.
Fig 6.2 The structure of graphite
Both melting point (3500ºC) and boiling point (4800ºC) of graphite are high because of
the strong covalent bonds between the atoms in its layers. Graphite has a giant atomic
structure in which layers are held together by van der Waals forces.
The high melting point and its slippery nature makes graphite a good lubricant in moving
machine parts where a lot of heat is produced. The high melting point also makes graphite
useful in making moulds for casting metals. It has delocalised electrons within its structure
hence is used as an electrode.
Graphite is mixed with clay to make pencil ‘leads’ because the carbon layers can slide
over each other. Graphite is found in South Africa, Brazil , Sweden, Germany and U.S.A.
Fullerenes
Fullerenes are synthetic allotropes of carbon. They are found in different shapes such as
spherical, tubular or elliptical. The best known fullerene is the spherical C60 molecule
illustrated in figure 6.1. It consists of hexagonally arranged carbon atoms similar to the
panels of some soccer balls.
Amorphous Carbon
This is an impure form of carbon. Examples are charcoal, soot, coke and coal. They contain
small amounts of graphite. They do not conduct electricity or heat, because of the irregular
arrangement of graphite crystals in their structure.
Amorphous carbon especially charcoal has the ability to adsorb gases and liquids. It is
therefore used in gas masks. Charcoal is used to adsorb colored impurities in sugar refining
industries. Carbon black is mixed with rubber in the manufacture of tyres as a filler to
improve tensile strength and reduce wear and tear. It also gives tyres the black appearance.
Fig. 6.1 The structure of a fullerene
Chemical Properties of Carbon

Experiment 6.1: What is formed when carbon burns in oxygen?
In the previous section the physical properties of carbon in both the pure and impure forms
were dealt with. In this section, the chemical properties of carbon will be investigated.
Arrange the apparatus as shown in figure 6.2. Pass dry oxygen over the hot charcoal.
Record your observations.
Fig 6.2: Burning of carbon in oxygen

1. What is observed in:
(a) The combustion tube?
(b) The boiling tube?
2. Name the product of complete combustion of carbon.
3. Write an equation for the combustion of carbon.
4. Would all allotropes of carbon burn in oxygen?
Discussion
When carbon is heated, it glows red. A colourless gas is produced which reacts with calcium
hydroxide to form a white precipitate. The red glow shows that the reaction produces heat.
The white precipitate shows that the gas produced is carbon (IV) oxide.
When pure carbon is used in this experiment there is no residue in the combustion tube.
Carbon + oxygen carbon (IV) oxide
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Carbon (IV) oxide + Calcium Calcium carbonate + water
CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
(white)
All forms of carbon burn in oxygen to produce carbon (IV) oxide. However, the
temperature at which they burn varies from one allotrope to another.
Experiment 6.2: What is observed when a mixtures of carbon and some metal oxides are
heated?
Place a small amount of copper (II) oxide and powdered charcoal in a test tube and mix well.
Set up the apparatus as shown and heat.
Fig. 6.3: Effect of heating carbon with some metal oxides

Record your observations in the format as in table 6.1. Repeat the experiment using the
oxides of zinc, iron, and lead in place of copper (II) oxide.
Table 6.1: Effect of carbon on some metal oxides
Oxide Observations
Copper (II) oxide
Zinc oxide
Iron (III) oxide
Lead (II) oxide

1. What is observed in the test tubes?
2. Write equations for the reactions that occur in each case.
3. Explain the action of carbon in metal extraction.
4. Suggest a practical application of the reaction in question (3).
Discussion
When a mixture of copper (II) oxide and carbon is heated the black mixture turns into a
brown powder. A colourless gas produced forms a white precipitate with calcium hydroxide.
The brown powder is copper metal and the colourless gas is carbon (IV) oxide.
Copper (II) oxide + Carbon Copper + Carbon (IV) oxide
Similarly, carbon removes combined oxygen from zinc oxide, lead (II) oxide and iron (III)
oxide.
Lead (II) oxide + Carbon Lead + Carbon (IV) oxide
Zinc oxide + Carbon Zinc + Carbon (IV) oxide
Iron (III) oxide + Carbon Iron + Carbon (IV) oxide

Carbon has the ability to remove combined oxygen from some metals. In these reactions,
carbon is oxidised to carbon (IV) oxide and the metal oxides are reduced to metals. In terms
of competition for combined oxygen, carbon can be placed in the reactivity series of metals
between Aluminium and Zinc. Thus, it reduces the oxides of all the metals below it in the
reactivity series. Therefore, carbon is a reducing agent.
Fig 6.4: The reactivity series of metals showing the position of carbon and hydrogen.
Carbon is a reducing agent because it reduces metal oxides to metals. Oxidation is the
addition of oxygen to a substance while reduction is the removal of oxygen from a substance.
The reducing property of carbon is used in the extraction of metals from their oxides.
At temperatures of about 1200ºC, carbon reduces steam to hydrogen gas. Carbon is in
turn oxidised to carbon (II) oxide. A mixture of the two gases is called water gas.
Carbon + Steam Carbon (II) oxide + Hydrogen
C(s) + H2O(l) CO(g) + H2(g)
Experiment 6.3: How does Carbon react with concentrated nitric (V) acid and sulphuric
acids?
Place a small amount of charcoal in a test tube, add 5 cm3 of concentrated nitric (V) acid and
warm. Test the gas(es) using calcium hydroxide. Repeat the experiment using concentrated
sulphuric acid in place of nitric (V) acid.
1. What is observed when carbon reacts with:
(a) Concentrated nitric acid?
(b) Concentrated sulphuric acid?
2. Write equations for the reactions that occur.
Discussion
Carbon reduces hot concentrated nitric acid to brown nitrogen (IV) oxide gas and water.
Carbon is in turn oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas. Hot concentrated sulphuric acid is
reduced to sulphur (IV) oxide and water while carbon is oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide gas.
Both sulphur (IV) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide react with calcium hydroxide to form a white
precipitate of calcium sulphite and calcium carbonate respectively.
Carbon + Conc. Nitric (V) acid Nitrous (IV) oxide + Carbon (IV) oxide + water
Carbon + Conc. Sulphuric (VI) acid Sulphur (IV) oxide + carbon (IV) oxide +
water
C(s) + 2H2SO4(l) 2SO2(g) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
The two hot concentrated acids react with carbon because they are strong oxidizing
agents.
Carbon (IV) oxide (CO2)
This is the most stable oxide of carbon. In carbon (IV) oxide, the carbon atom forms strong
covalent bonds with two oxygen atoms. Carbon (IV) oxide is a molecular substance. The gas
accounts for 0.03% of the volume of air. However, it occurs in some regions at a higher
concentration due to various activities such as volcanic action. In Kenya, these regions are:
Esageri near Eldama Ravine and Kerita in Kimabu where commercial tapping of the gas is
done.
Experiment 6.4: How is carbon (IV) oxide prepared and what are its properties?
Place a few marble chips (solid calcium carbonate) in a conical flask. Arrange the apparatus
as shown in figure 6.5. Add dilute hydrochloric acid drop wise and collect seven gas jars of
the gas. Reserve for use in the tests outlined in table 6.2
1. What is observed in the conical flask containing the reactants?
2. Write an equation for the reaction that occurs between calcium carbonate and dilute
hydrochloric acid.
3. Explain the purpose of sodium hydrogen carbonate in this set-up.
4. Explain why the gas is passed through concentrated suphuric acid.
5. Suggest an alternative to concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid.
Fig. 6.5 Preparation of carbon (VI) oxide
Discussion
Carbon (IV) oxide is prepared by reacting calcium carbonate with dilute hydrochloric acid.
Calcium carbonate + Dil. hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + Carbon (IV)
oxide + Water
When dilute hydrochloric acid is added to calcium carbonate, a vigorous effervescence
occurs releasing carbon (IV) oxide gas. The gas is passed through sodium hydrogen
carbonate or water to remove traces of hydrochloric acid fumes in the gas. When required
dry, the gas is passed through concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid. Anhydrous calcium chloride
can be used in place of concentrated sulphuric (VI) acid as a drying agent.
However, any other carbonate can be used with a suitable acid. Dilute sulphuric (VI) acid
should not be reacted with calcium carbonate, barium carbonate and lead carbonate. This is
because insoluble sulphates produced form a coating on the carbonates and prevent further
reaction. For the same reasoned dilute hydrochloric acid is not reacted with lead carbonate.
Experiment 6.4 (b): What are the properties of carbon (IV) oxide
Set up the apparatus for preparation of carbon (IV) oxide. Prepare the gas and use it to carry
out the following tests. Record your observations.
Table 6.2: Properties of Carbon (IV) oxide

1. Explain why carbon (IV) oxide is collected by downward delivery.
2. What deductions can be made about the properties of carbon (IV) oxide gas from the
following tests?
(a) Bubbling the gas through water containing the universal indicator.
(b) Inverting separate gas jars of carbon (IV) dioxide in troughs of water and
sodium hydroxide solution.
3. Explain using equations, the change observed when carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled
through limewater until there is no further change.
4. Write chemical equations for the reactions that take place when:
(a) Magnesium is burnt in carbon (IV) oxide gas.
(b) Carbon (IV) oxide is reacted with sodium hydroxide solution for a few seconds.
Discussion
Carbon (IV) oxide is a colourless, odourless gas. The gas is denser than air and this explains
why it is collected by down ward delivery. Carbon (IV) oxide neither burns nor supports
combustion. This is why the gas puts off a burning candle. The gas is acidic, and turns the
universal indicator solution red.
Fig 6.6 (a): The extinguishing power of power carbon (IV) oxide
Carbon (IV) oxide gas slightly dissolves in water to form carbonic acid, a weak acid.
Carbon (IV) oxide + Water Carbonic acid
CO2(g) oxide + H2O(g) H2CO3(g)
Carbon (IV) oxide gas is acidic and readily reacts with sodium hydroxide solution to form
sodium carbonate.
Sodium hygdroxide + Carbon (IV) oxide Sodium carbonate + Water
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)
If the gas is in excess, a further reaction occurs that leads to the formation of sodium
hydrogen carbonate.
Sodium carbonate + Water + Carbon (IV) oxide Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) 2NaHCO3(aq)
When Carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled through calcium hydroxide for a short while, a white
precipitate is formed. The white precipitate is due to the formation of the insoluble calcium
carbonate. This is the confirmatory test for carbon (IV) oxide.
Calcium hydroxide + Carbon (IV) oxide Calcium carbonate + Water
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
When the gas is passed through the mixture for a while the white precipitate dissolves to
form a colourless solution of calcium hydrogen carbonate.
Calcium carbonate + Water + Calcium (IV) oxide Calcium hydrogen
carbonate
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Although the gas does not support combustion, burning magnesium continues to burn in
it to produce a white powder of magnesium oxide and black specks of carbon. The burning
magnesium produces a lot of heat that decomposes carbon (IV) oxide to carbon and oxygen.
Magnesium + Carbon (IV) oxide Magnesium oxide + Carbon
2Mg(s) + CO2(g) 2MgO(s) + C(s)
The addition of dilute nitric (V) acid dissolves magnesium oxide leaving black specks of
carbon.
Uses of Carbon (IV) oxide gas

Carbon (IV) oxide gas is used as a refrigerating agent for perishable goods. This is because
solid carbon (IV) oxide sublimes when heated, leaving no residue.
Carbon (IV) oxide is non-flammable and has a higher density than air therefore it forms
a ‘blanket’ on fire cutting off oxygen supply. It is therefore used to extinguish fires.
One type of a fire extinguisher shown in fig 6.5 (b), contains Carbon (IV) oxide under high
pressure. This type can be used intermittently without refilling after each use.
It is used in the manufacture of sodium carbonate in the Solvay process. Carbon (IV)
oxide is dissolved in water to make aerated drinks to add taste, it is also used to make baking
powder.
Fire extinguishers
Carbon (II) Oxide

This is another oxide of carbon in which a carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with one
oxygen atom. It is a molecular substance.
Carbon (II) oxide
The dot (·) and cross (×) diagram shows the three covalent bonds in a carbon (II) oxide
molecule one of which is a dative bond.
Carbon (II) oxide may be prepared by dehydrating methanoic acid using concentrated
sulphuric (VI) acid as shown in figure 6.7 (a).
HCOOH(s) CO(g) + H2O(l)

Fig 6.7: Laboratory preparation of carbon (II) oxides gas
Ethanedioic acid (oxalic acid) may be used in place of methanoic acid as shown in figure
6.7 (b)
Fig 6.7 (b) Laboratory preparation of Carbon (II) oxide

The gaseous mixture should be passed through a concentrated solution of sodium
hydroxide to remove the carbon (IV) oxide, CO2. See figure 6.7 (b) The gas may also be
prepared by passing Carbon (IV) oxide over heated charcoal as shown in fig 6.8.
Carbon (IV) oxide + Carbon Carbon (II) oxide
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
Fig 6.8: Production of carbon (II) oxide gas from carbon (IV) oxide gas
Physical properties of Carbon (II) oxide

Carbon (II) oxide gas is colourless, odourless and slightly less dense than air. It has a low
boiling point of -111ºC. The low boiling point is because of the weak forces of attraction
between the molecules. The gas is slightly soluble in water. The solution formed is neutral.
The gas is extremely poisonous. It combines with haemoglobin in the blood to form a stable
compound known as carboxy-haemoglobin. The carboxy-haemoglobin formed prevents
formation of oxyhaemoglobin leading to suffocation.
Note
The density of CO is 1.25 gl–1 while that of air is 1.2929 gl–1. Due to this closeness in density, CO cannot be collected by
downward displacement of air.
Chemical properties of Carbon (II) oxide

Experiment 6.6: What is formed when carbon (II) oxide is burned in oxygen?
The set up in fig 6.9 (a) is for the combustion of Carbon (II) oxide.
Fig 6.9 (a) Burning Carbon (II) oxide gas in oxygen
Experiment 6.7: Does Carbon (II) oxide gas reduce some metal oxides?
Figure 6.9 (b) shows the set up that may be used to show the effect of Carbon (II) oxide on
hot metallic oxides.
Fig 6.9 (b) Effect of Carbon (II) oxide on metallic oxides
Discussion
Carbon (II) oxide burns in air with a blue flame to form Carbon (IV) oxide
Carbon (II) oxide + Oxygen Carbon (IV) oxide
2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
Carbon (II) oxide gas readily removes combined oxygen from metals low in the reactivity
series such as copper, lead and iron. It is inturn oxidized to carbon (II) oxide. Therefore
carbon (II) oxide is a reducing agent.
Copper (II) oxide + Carbon (II) oxide Copper + Carbon (IV) oxide
CuO(s) + CO(g) Cu(s) + CO2(g)
Zinc (II) Oxide + Carbon (II) oxide Zinc + Carbon (IV) oxide
ZnO(s) + CO(g) Zn(s) + CO2(g)
Lead (II) oxide + Carbon (II) oxide Lead + Carbon (IV) oxide
PbO(s) + CO(g) Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Iron (III) oxide + Carbon (II) oxide Iron + Carbon (IV) oxide
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + CO2(g)
The reducing property of carbon (II) oxide makes the gas useful in the extraction of some
metals from their oxides.
Other Sources of Carbon (II) oxide

Carbon (II) oxide is encountered almost in every day situations through combustion of
charcoal and fossil fuels such as kerosene, diesel, petrol and coal.
When charcoal burns in a charcoal stove (jiko) three reactions occur in the various regions
after five as shown in figure 6.10.
Fig 6.10: Carbon oxides in a burning charcoal jiko
Region A: Region a in this region plenty of air enters the jiko allowing complete combustion
of carbon to carbon (IV) oxide .
Carbon + Oxygen Carbon (IV) oxide
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
Region B: The carbon (IV) oxide produced in region ‘A’ rises up to region ‘B’ where it is
reduced.
Carbon (IV) oxide + Carbon Carbon (II) oxide
CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)
Region C: Here, there is enough oxygen therefore carbon (II) oxide produced in region B
burns to form carbon (IV) oxide.
Carbon (II) oxide + Oxygen Carbon (IV) oxide
2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
In case of insufficient air, some carbon (II) oxide produced in region B is released into the
atmosphere. This is common in poorly ventilated rooms.
Carbonates
Carbonates are salts of metal ions or ammonium ions with carbonate ions. The carbonate
ions are indirectly obtained from carbonic acid (H2CO3) formed when carbon (IV) oxide is
dissolved in water. Carbonates occur naturally in rocks as limestone (CaCO3), malachite
(CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 and dolomite, CaCO3.MgCO3. In Kenya, dolomite is mined in Kariandusi near
Gilgil.
Hydrogencarbonates are salts derived from carbonic acid formed by the partial
displacement of hydrogen by a metal or ammonium radical. Hydrogencarbonates of sodium,
potassium and ammonium exist as solids at room temperature, where as those of calcium
and magnesium only exist in solution. The hydrogen carbonates of other metals do not exist.
Reaction of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates with dilute acids

Experiment 6.8: What happens when dilute acids are added to carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates?
Set up the apparatus as shown in figure 6.11. Place a small amount of calcium carbonate in a
test tube. Add dilute hydrochloric acid using a dropper.
6.11: Reaction of carbonates with acids
Repeat the experiment using copper (II) carbonate, zinc carbonate and sodium hydrogen
carbonate in place of calcium carbonate. Record your results as in table 6.4
Table 6.4: Reaction of carbonates and hydrogen carbonates with acids

1. Write chemical equations for the reactions between dilute acids.
(a) Carbonates.
(b) Hydrogen carbonates.
Discussion
All carbonates give off carbon (IV) oxide when reacted with acids. For example:
Calcium carbonate + Dil. Hydrochloric acid Calcium chloride + Carbon (IV)
oxide + Water
Zinc carbonate + Dil. Hydrochloric acid Zinc chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide +
Water
ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Sodium hydrogen carbonate + Dil. Hydrocloric acid Sodium chloride + Water
+ Carbon (IV) oxide
NaHCO3 + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(g) + CO3(g)
Lead carbonate + Dil. Nitric acid Lead + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water
PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Sodium carbonate + Dil. Sulphuric (VI) acid Sodium sulphate + carbon (IV)
oxide + Water
NaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
The reaction between calcium carbonate or lead carbonate with dilute sulphuric acid
does not go to completion. This is due to the formation of insoluble calcium sulphate and lead
sulphate respectively. The insoluble sulphates form a coating on the carbonate and prevent
further reaction. The reaction between lead carbonate and hydrochloric acid also does not
go to completion because of the formation of the insoluble lead chloride.
Calcium carbonate + Dil. Sulphuric (VI) acid Calcium sulphate + Carbon (IV)
oxide + Water
CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Lead carbonate + Dil. Sulphuric (VI) acid Lead sulphate + Carbon (IV) oxide +
Water
PbCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Lead carbonate + Dil. Hydrochloric acid Lead chloride + Carbon (IV) oxide +
Water
PbCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + CO2 + H2O
Action of Heat on Carbonate and Hydrogen Carbonates

Experiment 6.9: What happens when carbonates and hydrogen carbonates are heated?
Set up the apparatus as shown in the figure 6.12. Place a spatulaful of copper (II) carbonate
in a test tube and heat. Record your observations as shown in table 6.5. Repeat the
experiment using zinc carbonate, lead carbonate, calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate and
sodium hydrogen carbonate in place of copper (II) carbonate.
Fig 6.12: Set up for heating carbonates in air
Table 6.5: Action of heat on Carbonates and hydrogen carbonates
Carbonate or hydrogen carbonate Observations

(a) Copper (II) carbonate
(b) Zinc carbonate

(c) Lead carbonate
(d) Calcium carbonate
(e) Sodium carbonate
(f) Sodium hydrogen carbonate

1. What is observed when carbonates or hydrogen carbonates are heated?
2. Write chemical equations for the effect of heat on carbonates and hydrogen
carbonates.
Discussion
All carbonates except the carbonates of potassium and sodium decompose when heated to
produce a metal oxide and carbon (IV) oxide. The ease of decomposition depends on the
position of the metal in the reactivity series. Those lower in the reactivity series are easily
decomposed.
Ammonium carbonate decomposes when heated to produce ammonia, carbon (IV) oxide
and water.
Hydrogen carbonates decompose on heating to produce a carbonate, carbon (IV) oxide
and water.
The calcium carbonate is further decomposed by heat to produce an oxide and hydrogen
carbonate.
Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + Carbon (IV) oxide
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Large scale production of Sodium Carbonate and Sodium Hydrogen

Carbonate
Sodium carbonate is an important raw material in the glass and paper industries. It is also
used in water treatment plants. This important raw material is obtained in two ways
extraction from trona and preparation by Solvay process.
Extraction from Trona
Trona is a double salt containing sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate and water
of crystallisation, Na2CO3.NaHCO3.H2O, found in some lakes in the Rift valley. These lakes have
only in-lets but no out-lets. Lake Magadi in Kenya is a good example. The flow chart in figure
6.13 shows the steps in the extration of trona from salty water.
Fig 6.13: Steps in the manufacture of sodium carbonate
Lake Magadi contains large amounts of solid trona and small amounts of sodium chloride.
Trona is dug by bucket dredges and taken to the washery where it is washed in water to
remove mud and small rocks. The wet trona is then centrifuged to remove water and to
purify it further. The dry trona is then heated to about 300ºC in a kiln to decompose the
sodium carbonate.
After removal of the trona from the lake, a solution rich in sodium chloride remains. The
solution is pumped into shallow basins where evaporation takes place until the percentage
of sodium chloride is 14%. The solution is then transfered to another basin for crystalisation.
During the day when the temperature is about 40ºC trona crystalises and is removed.
During the night when the temperature is about 21ºC sodium chloride crystalises and is
removed.
The sodium carbonate obtained is cooled, ground,, sieved and bagged ready for storage
and transportation to the consumers.
Solvay Process
In places where trona is not available, sodium carbonate and sodium hydrogen carbonate
are manufactured by the Solvay process. The raw materials for this process are sodium
chloride, calcium carbonate, coke and ammonia. These raw materials are readily available
and cheap. The flow chart in figure 6.14 represents the steps in the manufacture of sodium
carbonate.
Fig 6.14: The Solvay process for manufacture of sodium carbonate
Discussion
Ammonia is dissolved in brine in the Solvay tower to produce ammoniacal brine. A lot of heat
is produced in the process. The amount of heat produced is controlled by regulating the flow
of brine into the Solvay tower. The ammoniacal brine is then pumped into the carbonator
from the top where it trickles down the carbonator while carbon (IV) oxide from the kiln is
pumped from the base. The carbonator has to be cooled regularly to reduce the amount of
heat produced in it. Sodium hydrogen carbonate being less soluble than ammonium chloride
at low temperatures, forms crystals in the lower cooled part of the carbonator. The reactions
that take place in the carbonator are as follows:
Ammonia + Carbon (IV) oxide + Water Ammonium hydrogen carbonate
NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) NH4HCO3(aq)
Ammonium hydrogen carbonate + Sodium chloride Sodium hydrogen
carbonate + Ammonium chloride
NH4HCO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) NaHCO3(s) + NHC4(aq)
The reaction in the carbonator can be summarized by the equation below:
Ammonia + Carbon (IV) oxide + Sodium chloride + Water Sodium hydrogen
carbonate + Ammonium chloride
NH3(g) + CO2(g) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) NaHCO3(s) + NH4Cl(aq)
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is separated from ammonium chloride by filtration. Sodium
hydrogen carbonate is dried and decomposed by heat at 300ºC to produce sodium
carbonate.
The initial carbon (IV) oxide used in the process is mainly from the decomposed calcium
carbonate and the burning of coke in the kiln.
Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide + carbon (IV) oxide
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Carbon + oxygen carbon (IV) oxide
C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)
The ammonia used in this process is obtained from the Haber process. The calcium oxide
produced in the limestone kiln is slaked (combined) with water and mixed with the filtrate
ammonium chloride to produce ammonia gas, water and calcium chloride.
Calcium oxide + Water Calcium hydroxide
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)
Calcium hydrogen carbonate + Ammonium chloride Ca lcium chloride + Water
+ Ammonia
Ca(OH)2(s) + 2NH4Cl(aq) CaCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)
The Solvay process is one of the best examples of an efficient industrial chemical process,
because pollution problems are considerably reduced. The carbon (IV) oxide and ammonia
gases produced are recycled to minimise costs.
The water produced is also recycled to minise thermal effects on the water source near
the plant. The process does not involve large consumption of energy because the coke
burned in the kiln supplies the necessary heat in the process. The only by-product in the
process which is not recycled is calcium chloride and it has a wide range of uses. The best
site for the Solvay process plant should be close to a river or large source of water to cool
down the carbonator.
Sodium carbonate is used in water softening, glass making, paper industry and making
of sodium silicate. The sodium silicate is used in the making of detergents.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate is used in the making of health drinks and as baking powder
in the food industry.
Effects of Carbon (IV) oxide and Carbon (II) oxide on the Environment
The level of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere is increasing due to the use of fossil fuels
such as petrol, diesel, natural gas and coal. This increase is causing global warming due to
the green house effect. Some of the effects of global warming include melting of polar ice caps
which leads to the rise in the sea water levels and erratic weather patterns.
Vehicle exhaust fumes make-up more than 60% of all the carbon (II) oxide emitted into
the atmosphere. Carbon (II) oxide emmissions are highest during cold weather. This is
because low temperatures make combustion less complete. Carbon (II) oxide can cause
death through suffocation. Luckily, carbon (II) oxide is quickly removed from the
atmosphere by micro-organisms in the soil.
The Carbon Cycle

The way in which carbon compounds circulate in nature constitutes the carbon cycle which
is shown in figure 6.15. The processes that release carbon (IV) oxide to the atmosphere
include combustion of fuels, respiration in both animals and plants, fermentation,
decomposition of carbonates and hydrogencarbonates. Those processes that remove carbon
(IV) oxide in the atmosphere include photosynthesis in plants, dissolving of carbon (IV)
oxide in seas and oceans. The amount of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere has remained
fairly constant at 0.03% owing to the delicate balance between the processess that absorb
the gas and those that evolve it. Lately, the balance is being interfered with by human activity
leading to an increase in the level of carbon (IV) oxide in the atmosphere thus causing global
warming since carbon (IV) oxide has a green house effect.
Fig 6.15: The carbon cycle
Summary
1. Carbon is a non-metal unique in its ability to form numerous compounds. It occurs
naturally in pure form as diamond, graphite and fullerenes also occurs in impure form
as amorphous carbon.
2. Allotropy is the existence of an element in more than one form without change of
state. Diamond and graphite are naturally occuring allotropes of carbon.
3. Carbon (IV) oxide occurs naturally in the atmosphere, it is extracted for commercial
purposes from underground sources.
4. Carbon (IV) oxide is prepared in the laboratory by the action of an acid on a carbonate
or hydrogen carbonate.
5. Carbon (II) oxide, an atmospheric pollutant is produced due to incomplete
combustion of fossil fuels and other carbon containing compounds.
6. The way in which carbon circulates in nature constitutes the carbon cycle.
7. Carbonates other than potassium and sodium carbonates decompose on heating.
Revision Exercise
1. Explain why graphite is a poor conductor of electricity at high temperature.
2. Diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon. Describe an experiment that
would show that both substances are allotropes of carbon.
3. Under what circumstances will graphite be used as a lubricant instead of grease?
Explain.
4. Explain why vendors keep ‘dry ice’ in their ice cream boxes.
5. When carbon (IV) oxide is passed through calcium hydroxide solution for a short time,
a white precipitate is formed, but when passed through sodium hydroxide, no
precipitate is formed. Explain.
6. The apparatus illustrated below were used to prepare and collect carbon (II) oxide in
the laboratory.
(i) State the conditions necessary for the reaction to occur.
(ii) Identify Z and state its role in this reaction.
(iii) Write an equation for the reaction.
(iv) Explain why carbon (II) oxide is collected over water.
(v) Carbon (II) oxide is not collected by upward delivery. Explain.
SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. The nitrates of metals A, B, and C were heated over a blue Bunsen burner flame. The
table below shows the products of the decomposition. Study the information in the
table and answer questions that follow. A, B, and C are not the actual symbols of the
metals.
Metal nitrate Products
A Metal Nitrite and Oxygen gas

B Metal, Nitrogen (IV) oxide and Oxygen
C Metal oxide, Nitrogen (IV) oxide and Oxygen gas
(i) Which of the metals is the most reactive? Explain.
(ii) Name a metal that would possibly be B.
(iii) Write an equation for the thermal decomposition of the nitrate of metal C?
2. State and explain using equations the changes in mass that occur hen metallic copper
and copper carbonate are separately heated in open crumbles.
3. State and explain what is observed when a lighted candle is covered with a jar full of
carbon (IV) oxide.
4. (i) Carbon (IV) oxide neither burns nor supports combustion, however burning
magnesium continues to burn in it. Explain.
(ii) State two properties of Carbon (IV) oxide that makes it suitable for putting off
petrol fires.
5. Below is a structure of Aluminium chloride
(i) Identify the bonds labelled A and B.

(ii) When aluminium chloride is dissolved in water, the result and solution has a
pH of 3. Explain.
6. In terms of structure and bonding, explain why water (H2O) is a liquid at room
temperature while hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is gas.
7. During the preparation of Copper (II) sulphate excess Copper (II) oxide is used.
Explain.
8. When lead nitrate and magnesium sulphate react, a white precipitate is formed
(i) Identify the while precipitate. Give a reason.
(ii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.
9. When an hydrous calcium chloride is exposed to the atmosphere it forms a solution.
(i) Name the process that takes place.

(ii) State on use of the process displayed by anhydrous calcium chloride.
10. The diagram below is a structure of a certain compound. Use it to answer questions
that follow.
(i) Identify the type of structure above.

(ii) Explain why the structure requires high temperatures before melting.
11. The diagram below represents a set up of apparatus used to investigate the effect of
electric current on Lead (II) oxide.
12. Electrolysis of the electrolyte Copper (II) chloride produces chlorine at one electrode
and copper at the other electrode.
(i) Explain the terms:
(a) Electrolysis
(b) Electrolyte
(ii) At which electrode does reduction occur? Explain.
11. The table below gives the first ionisation energy of four elements.
14. (i) Explain why the metals such as magnesium and aluminium are good
conductors.
(ii) Give two reasons why Aluminium is preferred to magnesium for making
cooking pans.
15. Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon. In terms of structure and bonding,
Explain why;
(i) Graphite is slippery
(ii) Diamond is used in cutting of glass
16. (i) Distinguish between covalent bond and dative bond.
(ii) Draw a diagram to show bonding in
I Hydroxonium ion (H3O+)
II Water (H2O)
17. An element y has an electron arrangement of 2.8.5.
(i) State the period and group which the elements belongs.
(ii) Write the formula of the most stable ion formed when element Y ionizes.
(iii) Explain the difference between the atomic radius of element Y and its ionic
radius.
18. A student represented an atom of element Z as in the diagram.
(i) What is the atomic number of element Z? Explain.

(ii) If element Z conducts electricity, state the particles responsible for electrical
conductivity.
(iii) Write the formulae of the most stable ion of Z.
19. (a) What are isotopes?
(b) Lithium has two isotopes and Determine the number of neutrons in
(c) If the relative atomic mass of lithium is 6.94. Which of the two isotopes is the
most abundant? Give a reason.
20. Atoms of element X exist as and .

(a) What name is given to the two types of atoms.
(b) Use dot (·) and (×) diagrams to illustrate the atomic structure of x.
(c) Write the electron configuration of the atom in (b) hence. Write the formula of
the compound formed when it combines with Oxygen (O = 8)
21. The set up shown was carried out to investigate how Sodium metal reacts with
chlorine gas. Study it and answer the questions that follow.
(i) State two observations that would that made in the gas jar.
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction that would occur.
(iii) Name one use of the product formed.
22. Calcium hydroxide is used to test for Carbon (IV) while solution hydroxide solution is
not. Explain.
23. The figure below shows the interaction of carbon and oxygen in ‘dry ice’ Solid carbon
(IV) oxide.
(a) Letter X and Y represent bond types.

Name:
(i) Bond type X _________
(ii) Bond types Y _________
(b) What happens when dry ice is heated?
24. Ethanedioic acid (COOH)2 is used instead of methanoic acid (HCOOH) to prepare
Carbon (II) oxide in the laboratory. It gives equal volume of Carbon (II) oxide and
Carbon (IV) oxide.
(a) If water is one of the products write an equation for the dehydration of
Ethanedioic acid.
(b) How can pure Carbon (II) oxide be obtained from the mixture of two gases?
25. The table below gives the atomic numbers of elements represented by letters K, L, M,
and N.
Name the type of bond that exists in the compound formed between:
(i) N and L.
(ii) K and M
(iii) Give a reason for your answer, in each case.
(iv) Use a dot (·) and cross (X) diagram to shows boundary between K and M.
26. In an experiment hydrogen gas was passed over heated Copper (II) oxide as shown.
(i) State the observations made in the combustion tube after the experiment.
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction between Copper (II) oxide and Hydrogen gas.
(iii) Explain why heat is necessary in this experiment.
27. Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow.
(i) Name the process that takes place in step I.
(ii) State one commercial use of substance E.
(iii) Explain why a colourless solution would not be formed if in step I Dilute
Sulphuric (VI) acid was use instead of Dilute Hydrochloric acid.
28. The following table gives a summary of some properties of elements P, Q, R and S. the
letters do not represent the actual symbols of the elements. Study the table and
answer the questions that follow.
Element Electron arrangement Valency
P 2.2 2
Q 2.7 1
R 2.8.2 2
S 2.8.8.2 1
(a) Which two elements have similar chemical properties. Explain.
(b) What is the most likely formula of a carbonate of S?
(c) (i) Identify the element which is a non-metal.
(ii) With an explanation, state the family and period to which the element in (ii)
belongs.
29. A student wanted to prepare Carbon (IV) oxide. Part of the set up is as shown in the
figure below.
(a) Identify one mistake in the set up.

(b) Complete the set up to show how dry Carbon (IV) oxide many be prepared and
collected.
(c) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction that occurs in the conical
flask.
(d) State and explain, using relevant equations the observation made when carbon
(IV) oxide is bubble through calcium hydroxide solution for along time.
(e) Give two reasons why Carbon (IV) oxide is used as a fire extinguisher.
(f) State two environmental effect of the increase in level of Carbon (IV) oxide in the
atmosphere.
30. Study the flow chart below and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Identify substances

A
B
C
D
E
(b) Name process 1.
(c) Write a balanced equation for the formation of B, C, and D for solid A.
(d) Describe the test for colourless gas C.
(e) Write a balanced equate for the format of white precipitate E.
(f) What does process (II) indicate about the solubility of E.
31. Figure _______ is a set up used to investigate the reaction of Calcium with water.
(a) State the observations made in the solution.
(b) Identify gas C and state its test.
(c) (i) Write a balanced equation for the reaction between Calcium and water.
(ii) State the effect of the solution in C (i) on Phenolphthalein indicator.
(iii) State one laboratory application of the solution formed in the reaction
(d) Explain why this cannot be carried out using a potassium metal.
(e) The solution obtained when calcium reacts with water is filtered. State and
explain observed when Carbon (IV) oxide gas is bubbled through the solution
for a short time.
32. The flow chart below shows a sequence of reactions starting with copper.
Study it and answer the questions that follow.
(a) Identify
(i) Gas P
(ii) Reagent Q
(iii) Solid R
(iv) Reagent X
(b) Write an equation for the reaction between;
(i) Solid R and dilute nitric (V) acid
(ii) Copper (II) sulphate and reagent Q
(iii) Name the type of reaction that occurs between Copper (II) sulphate and
reagent Q.
ANSWERS TO SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. (i) A; The more reactive the element, the more stable the nitrate.
(ii) Silver, mercury.
(iii) 2C(NO3)2(s) 2CO + 4NO2(g) + O2)g)
(iv) Write an equation for the thermal decomposition of the nitrate of metal C
2. There is increase in mass when copper is heated because it combines with oxygen to
form copper (ii) oxide. There is a decrease in mass when copper (ii) carbonate is
heated it decomposes to produce carbon (iv) oxide which escapes.
3. The candle goes off immediately because carbon (IV) oxide does not support
combustion.
4. (i) The heat produced by burning magnesium decomposes carbon (iv) Oxide to
carbon and oxygen. The oxygen produced supports the burning of
magnesium.
(ii) (a) It is denser than air hence it forms ` blanket on the fire and cuts off the
supply of oxygen
(b) It does not support combustion
5. (i) A – covalent
B – Dative or co-ordinate
(v) Aluminum chloride undergoes hydrolysis with production of hydrated hydrogen
ions which are responsive for the 10 wph.
6. Both H2O and H2S have molecular structure, The water molecules are however held
by hydrogen bonds which are much stronger than the vander waals forces between
the hydrogen sulphide molecules.
7. To ensure all the acid has reacted so that the salt obtained is pure.
8. (i) Lead sulphate
(ii) Pb2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) PbSO4(s)
9. (i) Deliquescence
(ii) Drying
10. (i) Giant ionic structure
(ii) The ions are held together by strong ionic bonds which require a lot of energy
to break hence the high melting and boiling point
11. (i) A – Cathode
B – anode
(ii) Brown fumes are evolved. Bromide (Br) ions lose electrons to form bromine
atoms. The bromine atoms combine to form bromine gas which is evolved.
(iii) To show when current flows on gas measure the amount of current flowing.
(iv) Pb2+ (l) + 2e- Pb (l)
12. (i) (a) The decomposition of an electrolyte by passing an electric current
through it.
(b) A compound which when melted or dissolved in water conduct an electric
current and decomposes.
(ii) Cathode. At the cathode there is gaining of electrons
13. (i) The minimum amount of energy required to remove an electron from the
outermost energy level of an atom in the gaseous state
(ii) IV, II, I, III. For metals, the lower the ionization energy the more reactive the
element
14. Because they have devocalized electrons.
15. (i) The hexagonal layers in graphite are held by weak Van der Waals forces hence
they can slide over each other when pressure is applied.
(vi) Diamond has a giant atomic structure in which the carbon atoms are held together
by strong covalent bonds which are uniformly distributed making it very hard to
dislodge the carbon atoms.
16. (i) In a covalent bond each of the bonded atoms contributes half of the shared
electrons. In adaptive bond, all the shared electrons are contributed by one of
the bonded atoms.
(ii) H3O+ H2O
17. (i) group

(ii) Y3-
(iii) The ionic radius is larger because of the electron-electron repulsion between
the existing electrons and the added electron.
(V), period 3
18. (i) II. Z has II electrons. The number of electron and protons are equal in a neutral
atom.
(ii) Electrons
(iii) Z+
19. (a) Atoms of the same element but with different mass numbers.
(b) 3
(c) Li, the relative atomic mass is closer to the mass number of the more abundant
isotope.
20. (a) Isotopes
(c) x : 2.4
X. O2
21. (i) • The sodium bursts into flames
• The sodium burns with a yellow flame
• White fumes are produced
(ii) • 2Na(s) + Cl2(g) > 2NaCl(s)
(iii) • Food additive
• deicing of roads
• manufacture of sodium carbonate
22. Calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon (IV) oxide to form insoluble calcium carbonate.
Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon (iv) oxide to form soluble sodium carbonate.
23. (a) (i) Van der Waals
(ii) Covalent bond
(b) It sublimes
24. (a) (COOH)2 H2SOP4(l) CO2(g) + CO(g)
(b) The carbon (IV) Oxide is absorbed when mixture is passed through
concentrated sodium hydroxide leaving behind the carbon (II) oxide.
25. (i) Ionic bond N loses 2 electrons to form N2+ the two electrons are gained by L
to form L2-.
(ii) Covalent – Both K and M are non metals. Non metals react by sharing electrons
26. (i) The b lack copper (II) Oxide changes unto a brown solid and a colourless
liquid collects on the cooler parts of the tube
(ii) CuO(s) + H2(g) Cu(s) + H2O(l)
(iii) To speed up the reaction
27. (i) neutralization
(ii) Calcium oxide reacts with sulphuric (VI) acid to produce sparingly soluble
calcium sulphate
28. (a) P1R and S. because they have same number of electrons in their outermost
energy level.
(b) SCO3
(c) (i) Q
(ii) Halogens, has seven electrons in outermost energy level. Period 2, has two occupied
energy levels.
(d) Ionic, giant ionic structure.
S reacts by losing two electrons to form an electron to form Q- ions. The S2+ and Q-ions
ions together through ionic bond.
(b) CaCO3(s) + 2HCL(aq) > Cal2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(c) A whiter precipitate is formed. The precipitate then dissolves forming a
colourless solution
CO2(g) + Ca (OH)s(aq) > CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)
CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) > Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
(d) It does not support combustion It is denser than air
30. (a) A Pb(NO3)2
B NO2
C O2
D PbO
E PbCl2
(b) Thermal decomposition
(c) 2PB(NO3)2(s) heat 2PbO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)
(d) When a glowing splint is lowered into a gas jar of C it relights it
(e) PbO(s) + 2HCl(aq) > PbCl2(s) + H2O(l)
(f) E is soluble in warm water. Its solubility increases with increase in temperature.
31. (a) A white suspension is observed.
(b) Hydrogen gas; use a burning splint
(c) (i) Ca(S) + 2H2O(4) > Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
(ii) It turns phenolphthalein pink
(iii) To test for presence of carbon (iv) oxide
(d) Potassium reacts explosively with water.
(e) A white precipitate is formed. Carbon (W) oxide reacts with calcium hydroxide
to form insoluble calcium carbonate
32. (a) (I) CO2
(II) Na2CO3 or K2CO3
(III) CuO
(IV) dilute H2SO4
(b) (i) CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) > Na2SO4(aq + CuCO3(s)
(c) Precipitation or double decomposition

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Table of Contents

© Kenya Literature Bureau

ISBN 978 – 9966 – 44 – 846 – 0

First Published 1987

KLB 10376 10m 2011

Published and printed by Kenya Literature Bureau

THE MANAGING DIRECTOR

CHAPTER 1: STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

CHAPTER 2: CHEMICALFAMILIES; PATTERNS IN PROPERTIES

CHAPTER 3: STRUCTURE AND BONDING

CHAPTER 5: EFFECT OF AN ELECTRIC CURRENT ON SUSTANCES

CHAPTER 6: CARBON AND SOME OF ITS COMPOUNDS

1. Cornelius Masila Muange — Mukaa Sec. School, Nunguni

2. Emma Achieng Ogutu – Moi Girls’ High School Eldoret

3. Raphael Kelly Wambua – Mutomo Mixed Sec. School, Kitui

4. Rose Amatikide Emoru – Bunyore Girls’ Sec. School

5. Silas M. Mango – St. Cecilia Misikhu Girls’ High School, Webuye.

By the end of this topic, the learner should be able to:

Structure of the Atom

Fig 1.1 General structure of an atom

Table 1.1 Characteristics of the sub atomic particles

Sub atomic particle Relative mass Electrical charge

Table 1.2: A list of the first Twenty Elements

Table 1.3 Examples of Isotopes

Fig 1.5 Lithium atom

Fig 1.7 Sulphur atom

Answer the following questions

Table 1.4: Electron Arrangement of the First twenty (20) Elements

Table 1.5: Elements with same number of occupied energy levels

Table 1.7: Development of the Periodic Table

The Periodic Table

Relative Atomic Mass and Isotopes

Mass spectrometer trace for chlorine

Therefore, RAM of chlorine = 35.5

Consider a sample of 100 atoms of element X:

Total mass = 89.6 × 22

Total mass = 6.4 × 24

A chlorine ion can also be formed, Cl–.

Fig. 1.8(b): The formation of a chloride ion Cl–

Fig. 1.9: The formation of a Magnesium ion, Mg2+

Fig 1.10: Formation of oxide ion, O2–

Table 1.9: (a) Valency of Some Common Elements and radicals

Table 1.10: Oxidation Numbers of Some Ions and Atoms

Combining power (valency) 2 1

Therefore, the formula is Mg1F2

Combining power (valency) 4 2

Combining power (valency) 3 2

Combining power (valency) 1 2

Balancing chemical equations

A proper chemical equation should be balanced!

(i) Write the chemical reaction in words.

(b) Calculate the number of neutrons in each isotope of potassium.

The Alkali Metals

Lithium (L) : 2.1

Table 2.1: Changes in Atomic and Ionic Radius in Group I

Answer the following questions

Physical Properties of Alkali metals

Table 2.2: Physical Properties of Alkali Metals

Answer the following questions

Chemical Properties of Alkali Metals