SYLLABUS

MSBTE Syllabus w.e.f Academic Year 2012-13 ‘G’ Scheme

Course Name : Mechanical Engineering Group (ME/PG/PT/MH/MI)
Semester : Fifth
Subject Title : Metrology and Quality Control (17530)

Theory Content :
Topic and Contents Marks

1. Engineering Materials - Structure and Properties

Specific Objectives :
 List basic types and crystal structure of materials
 Compare properties of material
 Define steel and cast iron
10
Contents :
1.1 Introduction, Classification of materials as amorphous and crystalline, ferrous and
non ferrous, Crystal structure Properties of metals Physical Properties, Mechanical
Properties, unit cell and space lattice, Concept of packing efficiency
1.2 Introduction to steels and Cast irons as alloys of iron and carbon.

2. Equilibrium Diagrams
Specific Objectives:
 Define pure metal, alloy, solid solutions
 Learn different equilibrium Diagrams
 Draw Iron carbon phase equilibrium diagram, locate fields of steels and cast iron on
diagram
Contents :
2.1 Definitions of phase, pure metal, alloy and solid solutions.
 Types of solid solutions -substitutional and interstitial.
 Solid solubility
16
2.2 Solidification of pure metal and Alloys :
 Cooling curves equilibrium diagrams for isomorphous, Eutectic, Eutectoid
systems.
2.3 Iron Carbon Equilibrium diagram
 Study of various phases
 Critical temperatures & significance
 Reactions on Iron carbon equilibrium diagram
 Introduction of steels and cast irons
 Classification of steels on various basis as low , medium, high carbon steels,
Hypo, Hyper eutectoid steels
3. Heat Treatment of Steels
Specific Objectives :
 Represent various heat treatment processes on TTT diagram
 Suggest different heat treatment processes
 Compare surface heat treatment processes for different steels
Contents :
3.1 Transformation in steel on heating under equilibrium conditions
 Transformation of pearlite to austenite
 Transformation of Austenite to Pearlite
 T T T diagrams/isothermal diagram for plain carbon and alloy steels
3.1.1 Annealing :
 Purposes of annealing, Annealing temperature range
 Types of annealing like conventional / full annealing, isothermal annealing,
spheroidizing annealing, Process Annealing
3.1.2 Normalizing : 24
 Purposes of Normalizing, Temperature range,
 Broad applications of Normalizing
3.1.3 Hardening :
 Purposes of hardening, Hardening temperature range
 Conventional hardening process, Structure of martensite and properties
 Quenching mediums, hardening defects.
3.1.4 Tempering:
 Purpose of tempering
 Variations of properties of hardened steel with tempering temperatures
 Types of tempering as low, medium and high temperature tempering.
 Martempering, Austempering and patenting processes
3.2 Surface Heat Treatment
 Need of Surface heat treatment,
 Types of Surface heat treatments like Surface hardening and case hardening.
 Surface hardening methods like Flame Hardening , Induction Hardening
 Case hardening methods like Carburizing, Nitriding, Cyaniding.

4. Steels and Cast Irons :

Specific Objectives :
 List different types of steels and cast irons
 Know manufacturing processes of steels & cast irons
 Refer to specifications systems of steels and cast irons
 Suggest suitable steels/ cast irons in specifications for particular applications.
Contents :
4.1 Broad Classification of steels, Plain carbon steels 20
 Definition, Types & Properties
 Compositions and applications of low, medium and high carbon steels.
4.2 Alloy Steels :
 Definition & Effects of alloying elements on properties of alloy steels.
 Tool steels: Cold work tool steels, Hot work tool steels, High speed steels(HSS),
HCHC and OHNS
 Stainless Steels
 Spring Steels
4.3 Cast Irons: Classification of cast irons and applications. Types
of cast irons as white, gray, nodular, malleable
4.4 Specifications of steels and cast Irons:
 Bureau Of Indian Standards BIS, AISI / SAE , British Standard B.S.
specifications of steels & their equivalents Specifications of cast irons
 Selection of appropriate steels and cast irons for engineering applications like
Shafts, axles, Nuts, bolts, Levers, crank shafts, camshafts, Shear blades,
agricultural equipments, House hold utensils, machine tool beds, car bodies.

5 Non ferrous Metals and Alloys

Specific Objectives :
 Select various non ferrous metals/alloys in view of their composition, properties
for applications
Contents :
10
5.1 Chemical compositions, properties and applications of Copper alloys - brasses,
bronzes
5.2 Aluminium alloys --Y-alloy, Hindalium, duralium with their composition and
applications.
Bearing materials like white metals (Sn based), aluminium bronzes. Porous self
lubricating bearings.

6 Non Metallic Materials

Specific Objectives :
 Select non metallic materials in view of their composition, properties and
applications
Contents :
6.1 Polymeric Materials
 Polymers- types, characteristics,
 Properties and uses of Thermoplastics, Thermosetting Plastics & Rubbers.
12
6.2 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Plastic materials
 Characteristics and uses of ABS, Acrylics. Nylons and Vinyls,
 Epoxides, Melamines & Bakelites
6.3 Rubbers :
Neoprene, Butadiene, Buna & Silicons – Properties & applications.
6.4 Other Engineering Materials of importance -Properties and applications–
Ceramics, glasses, Glass Wool. Introduction to Composite Materials like,
Laminated & Fibre reinforced materials
Nano materials – nature, properties and applications

7. Powder Metallurgy & Nondestructive Testing

Specific Objectives :
 Know concepts of powder metallurgy process with their applications
 Compare Different Non destructive testing processes
Contents :
7.1 Powder Metallurgy : 08
 Advantages, limitations and applications of Powder Metallurgy for
engineering products.
 Brief Description of Process of Powder Metallurgy – Powder making,
blending, compacting, sintering, infiltration & impregnation.
 Applications of Powder metallurgy for tungsten carbide tip tools & porous
bearing.
7.2 Non destructive Testing:
 Importance of Non-destructive testing, Difference between Destructive and
Nondestructive testing.
 Nondestructive testing methods - Radiography (X-Ray & Gamma Ray),
Ultrasonic crack detection, Dye penetrant test, Magnaflux test – Comparison &
applications

Total 100
08
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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303)

CONTENTS

Chapter No. 01 : Engineering Materials-Structure & Properties ....................................... 1 to 18

1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................
1.1.1 Classification of materials ...................................................................................................
1.1.2 Metals & their alloys are broadly classified as.......................................................................
1.1.3 Crystal Structure.................................................................................................................
1.1.4 Properties of Materials ........................................................................................................
1.1.5 Mechanical Properties.........................................................................................................
1.1.6 Concept of Packing Efficiency ............................................................................................
1.1.7 Cast Iron ............................................................................................................................
Summary ..................................................................................................................................
Question Bank ..........................................................................................................................

Chapter No. 02 : Equilibrium Diagrams .......................................................................... 19 to 29

2.1 Definitions of phase, alloy and solid solutions ......................................................................
2.1.1 Types of solid solution ........................................................................................................
2.1.2 Rules of Solid Solubility .....................................................................................................
2.2 Solidification of Pure Metal.................................................................................................
2.2.1 Types of Cooling Curve ......................................................................................................
2.2.2 Cooling Curves & Equilibrium Diagram ..............................................................................
2.3 Iron Carbon equilibrium diagram .........................................................................................
2.3.1 Phases in Iron carbon diagram .............................................................................................
2.3.2 Critical Temperature ...........................................................................................................
Summary ....................................................................................................................................
Question Bank ............................................................................................................................

Chapter No. 03 : Heat Treatment of Steel ........................................................................ 30 to 60

3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................
3.2 Transformation of Steel on heating under equilibrium condition ............................................
3.3 Time Temperature transformation (T.T.T) Diagrams (Isothermal Diagram) ............................
3.4 Heat Treatment...................................................................................................................
3.4.1 Classification of Heat Treatment Processes ..........................................................................
3.4.2 Variations of Properties of hardened steel with tempering Temperature..................................
3.5 Surface Heat Treatment.......................................................................................................
Summary ....................................................................................................................................
Question Bank ............................................................................................................................

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303)

Chapter No. 04 : Steels & Cast Iron................................................................................. 61 to 92

4.1 Classification of steels (plain carbon steels) ..........................................................................
4.1.1 Broad classification of steels ...............................................................................................
4.1.2 Plain carbon steel................................................................................................................
4.2 Alloy Steel .........................................................................................................................
4.2.1 Effect of individual alloying element on properties of steel....................................................
4.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Alloy Steel .......................................................................
4.2.3 Tool Steels .........................................................................................................................
4.2.4 Stainless steel.....................................................................................................................
4.2.4.1 Classification of stainless steel ..........................................................................................
4.2.5 Spring steels .......................................................................................................................
4.3 Cast-Iron............................................................................................................................
4.3.1 Classification of Cast Irons..................................................................................................
4.3.2 Types of Cast Irons.............................................................................................................
4.4 I.S. Specification of Materials..............................................................................................
4.4.1 Bureau of Indian Standards BIS, AISI/ SAE, British Standard B.S. Specifications of Steels ....
4.4.2 Selection of Appropriate Steels and Cast Irons......................................................................
Summary ....................................................................................................................................
Question Bank ............................................................................................................................

Chapter No. 05 : Non Ferrous Metals and Alloys........................................................... 93 to 105

5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................
5.1.1 Copper and its Alloys..........................................................................................................
5.1.2 Properties of copper............................................................................................................
5.1.3 Copper alloys .....................................................................................................................
5.2 Aluminium & its alloy ........................................................................................................
5.2.1 Bearing Materials ...............................................................................................................
5.2.3 Porous self-lubricating bearings ...........................................................................................
Summary ....................................................................................................................................
Question Bank ............................................................................................................................

Chapter No. 06 : Non Metallic Material....................................................................... 106 to 123

6.1 Polymeric Material .............................................................................................................
6.1.1 Types of polymer................................................................................................................
6.2 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting plastic materials ...............................................................
6.2.1 Thermoplastic material........................................................................................................
6.2.2 Thermosetting plastics: Epoxides, Melamine’s and Bakelite’s ...............................................

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6.3 Rubbers .............................................................................................................................

6.3.1 Properties and applications of Neoprene, Butadiene, Buna & silicons.....................................
6.4 Properties and application of other Engineering materials......................................................
6.4.1 Introduction to composite materials .....................................................................................
6.4.2 Nano – Materials – Nature, Properties and Application .........................................................
Summary ....................................................................................................................................
Question Bank ............................................................................................................................

Chapter No. 07 : Powder Metallurgy & Nondestructive Testing .................................. 124 to 146
7.1 Powder Metallurgy .............................................................................................................
7.1.1 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy .......................................................................................
7.1.2 Processes of Powder Metallurgy ..........................................................................................
7.1.3 Application of Powder Metallurgy for Tungsten Carbide tip Tools and Porous Bearing ...........
7.2 Non Destructive Testing......................................................................................................
7.2.1 Importance of Non-destructive Testing (NDT)......................................................................
7.2.2 Non-Destructive Testing Methods .......................................................................................
Summary ....................................................................................................................................
Question Bank ............................................................................................................................

MSBTE - Question Paper - Summer 2015.................................................................... 147 to 150

MSBTE - Model Answer - Summer 2015 ..................................................................... 151 to 170

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

Chapter No.01
Engineering Materials-Structure & Properties

1.1 Introduction :
A material is defined as anything that has mass & occupies space in
beginning of 20th century, gave birth to new age of materials. During this
period, steel, aluminum, copper & plastics were developed. They were most
extensively used but the most recent exciting development like polymers,
ceramics are materials used in electronics & computers, materials used in
Engineering called “Engineering Materials”.

1.1.1 Classification of materials:

Engineering materials

Metal & alloys Ceramics & glasses organic polymers

Ferrous Non-ferrous Thermoplastics Misc. Thermosetting

Fig.1.1.1: Classification of materials

The Engineering materials may be broadly classified into three types:

1. Metals
2. Ceramics
3. Organic polymers

Metals :
Metals are element substances that readily electrons to form metallic
bonds (positive bands by giving electron) & conduct electricity, When two or
more pure metals are melted together to form a new metal whose properties
are quite different from those of original metal it is called an alloy.

OR

Alloy is a mixture of two or more than two metals which gives the properties
different than the parent metals.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

Properties of Metal :
1. Plasticity
2. Strength
3. Lusture
4. Hardness
5. Resistance to corrosion, thermal, Electrical conductivity, Malleability,
stiffness
6. Magnetic etc.

The above properties are due to two points i.e.:

1. The atoms of which the metals are composed.
2. The way in which these atoms are more distributed in its structure.

Basic Properties of metals are :

1. They are good conductors of heat & electricity.
2. They are solid at room Temperature.
3. They have relatively high density.
4. They are malleable & ductile for some extent
5. They possess metallic lusture on polishing.
6. They possess crystalline structure.
7. They have ability to form positive ion by donating electron.
Alloys are formed due to poor physical & mechanical properties of metals.
In alloy formation the metal present in largest amount is called as “Base
Metal”. other metal or non-metal present in smaller quantity is called as
“alloying element”.

1.1.2 Metals & their alloys are broadly classified as :

1. Amorphous solids (Non-Crystalline solids & Crystalline solid).
2. Ferrous metals & Non-ferrous metals.

1. Amorphous Solids/ Non Crystalline Solids :

Amorphous means “Without form.” In amorphous solids there is a lack
of Systematic regular arrangements of atoms over large atomic distances.
In amorphous solids there is no regular/proper arrangement of atoms. An
amorphous substance usually possess plasticity no elasticity (except
rubber) for example Glass, SiO2, Polymers on plastics.

2. Crystalline Solids :
A Crystalline solid is one in which atoms, molecules or ions are
arranged in a regular manner which respect to each other. In Crystalline
solid the atoms are arranged in a regular pattern so called as Crystalline.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

In crystalline solids long range order exists. on solidification the atoms will
position themselves in a respective 3-D pattern in which atom is bonded to
its nearest neighbour atoms. Crystalline solids are built-up of metallic
crystals or Non-metallic crystals.

Metallic crystals are used extensively in the engineering as they

possess the following properties :
Strength, Ductility, Conductivity reflection also they have short bonds &
high density.
e.g. : 1) Face Centered Cubic (FCC) : Cu, Ag, Al, Ni, PD.
2) Body Centered Cubic (BCC) : W, Mo, Cr
3) Hexagonal close pack (HCP) : Mg, Zn, Ti, Ca, Zr.

Sr.
Amorphous Solid Crystalline Solid
No.
They don‟t have Regular They have regular arrangement of
1
arrangement of atoms. atoms.
Anisotropic in nature different in
2 Isotropic in nature i.e. different direction. (physical properties
(same physical properties in all direction)
are different in different direction )

3 Do not have sharp melting point. The melting point is very sharp.

There are not closely packed so are Atoms are closely packed hence
4
not dense. these are more dense.

Ferrous Metals :
All metallic materials having iron as their main constituent are popularly
known as ferrous metals. Examples are wrought iron, cast irons and steels.
These metals go a long way in bringing prosperity to a country.

Ordinarily, the terms iron, cast iron & steel in reference to a metal in which the
element iron is the major element do not refer to specific metal or alloy, but
are loosely used to indicate a general type of iron alloy. The term iron should
be used only when reference is made to the element iron.

Steel is obtainable in great quantities both in wrought & cast form, its
plasticity, whether at room temperature or at elevated temperatures, allows it
to be worked either hot or cold. It‟s combination of strength with plasticity
makes it the most important metal for use in large structures.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

By varying the carbon content & by suitable heat treatment, we can

alter the properties from a very soft, workable steel of the type used in
pressed metal parts, wire& similar materials to a hard, strong steel suitable for
use in tools & machinery where great strength & hardness are required.

Cast iron is fundamentally an alloy whose chief elements are irons, silicon &
carbon. Iron are available with a wide range, range of properties. Pig iron,
grey cast iron, while cast iron, chilled cast iron & malleable iron are all referred
to as cast iron, chiefly because these forms of irons are not plastic enough
even when hot to be forgeable.

Crystal structures deal with the atomic arrangement in solids. They are
regular three dimensional patterns of atoms in space. This regularity of atomic
arrangement in solids comes due to geometrical conditions which are
imposed by directional bonding or close packing of atoms. The most stable
arrangement which minimizes the energy per unit volume i.e. in other words
the one that :

1. Preserves electrical neutrality.

2. Satisfies the directionality and discreteness of all covalent bonds.
3. Minimizes strong ion-ion repulsion.
4. Packs the atoms as closely as possible consistent with I,II & III.

The Crystal structures observed in solids are described in terms of an

idealized geometric concept called a space lattice. Space lattices is a three
dimensional pattern of points in space.

Characteristics of Ferrous Metals :

 Metal can be classified by their contents. There are two common types,
ferrous metal &Non-ferrous metal.
 The term ferrous is derived from Latin word „Ferum‟ which means
„containing iron‟.
 The ferrous metals contain iron & Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron.
 Ferrous metal may contain pure iron, like wrought iron, steel being on alloy
iron & carbon would therefore be ferrous metal.
 Ferrous metals are often magnetic, but this properly is not sufficient to
classify a metal as ferrous or Non-ferrous.
 Cobalt is non-ferrous but magnetic.
 common ferrous metal include the various irons and steel.
 Common non-ferrous metals include aluminum, tin copper, zinc, the
precious metals silver, gold & platinum are also non-ferrous.
 Austenite stainless steel even though ferrous metal is non-magnetic.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

Application of Ferrous Metals :

1. Making iron bars for manufacturing of bolts rivets, engine bolts.
2. Manufacturing of Plates.
3. General forging operations.
4. Manufacturing of pipes.
5. Manufacturing of chains & other steel items.

Non-ferrous Metals :
Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain iron as a base. The
chief pure metals in the non-ferrous group are aluminum, copper, lead, tin &
zinc. The non-ferrous alloys which have gained popularity & largely replaced
steels & cast irons in many engineering fields are the eight alloys. i.e. the
alloys of aluminum & Mg due to their high strength to weight ratio.

Non-ferrous metals are used for the following reasons :

1. Low density.
2. Good formability.
3. Resistance to corrosion.
4. Softness & facility cold working.
5. Special electrical & magnetic properties.
6. Fusibility & ease of casting.
7. Attractive colour.

1.1.3 Crystal Structure:

There are three states of matter namely solid liquid & gas solid is that
state of matter in which atoms are very closely packed as compared to liquids
or gases. The atoms of the solid are not stationary but are vibrating around
fixed points & thus giving orderly arrange of crystal structure.

Crystal Space Lattice Or Crystal Lattice & Unit Cell :

Fig. 1.1.3(a): A point lattice Fig. 1.1.3(b): A unit cell

Fig.: Space Lattice and Unit cell

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Fig.1.1.4.: Space Lattice

 A crystal is defined as „an orderly array of atoms in space. Normally a
metal consists number of a crystals & each crystal consists of a large
number of atoms.

 Fig.1.1.3(a) shows the cross-section of a metal crystal in which the atoms

are arranged in a regular pattern, in this cross-section. If all the circles are
replaced by points corresponding to the centers of all the atoms, we get a
group of points as shown in fig.1.1.3(b) These points are called lattice
points. The three dimensional networks of lattice points is called the crystal
lattice or space lattice. The smallest unit having the full symmetry of the
crystal is called the unit cell.

 A unit cell is a building block of the crystal. The crystal consist of unit cells
stacked together, each identical in size, shape & orientations with all
others.

Crystal Structures For Metallic Elements :

Most metals crystallize in relatively simple crystal structures as under.
1. Simple cubic structure.
Ex.- Polonium
2. Body center cubic structure (BCC)
Ex: Cr, V, Mo, Na, Mn α-Fe, W etc.
3. Face centered cubic Structure (FCC)
Ex: Al, Cu, Ni, Au, Ag, Pb, Y-FE, α-Sn etc.
4. Hexagonal close packed (HCP or CPH) structure.
Ex: Mg, Zn, Cd, Co, α-Ti etc.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

1. Simple cubic structure(SCS) :

 In this one atom is located at each of

the (eight) corner of the cube.
Therefore, it contains eight atoms at the
corners, which are shared by the
adjoining eight cubes. Hence, the share
of each cube = 1/8th of each atom.

 Therefore, Total number of atoms in Fig.1.1.5.: Simple cubic structure

simple cubic structure =1/8x8=1 atom.

2. Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC) :

Fig.1.1.6.: Body Centered cubic Structure (BCC)

 In BCC structure there is one atom at
each corner of the cube & one atom at the
body center of the cube. Each atom is
surrounded by eight adjacent atoms,
whether located at a corner or at the
center of the unit cell. Therefore the BCC
structure contains nine atoms.

 Eight corner atoms are shared by the Fig.1.1.7.: Body-Centered

cubic structure
adjoining eight cubes. Hence, share of
each cube =1/8th
Therefore total number of corner atoms 1/8x8=1 atom.
One atom at center not share = 1 atom.
Therefore Total atoms in BCC = 2 atoms.

 This type of unit cell is found in metals like Lithium Sodium, Barium,
Vanadium, Molybdenum etc.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

3. Face-Centered cubic structure (FCC) :

Fig. 1.1.8. : Face – centered cubic structure (FCC)

 In this unit cell, an atom is located at each
corner of the cube & in addition, one atom
is Located at the center of each six faces
of the cube. The face-centered atom is
located at the intersection of the diagonals
of the face.

 Each corner atom is shared by eight Fig.1.1.9. : Face centered cubic

structure
adjoining cubes. Each face-centered atom
is shared by only two-cubes.
Total atoms in a face- centered unit cell in FCC
Total number of center atoms = 8 x 1/8= 1 atoms.
Total number face- centered atoms = 6 x1/2 = 3 atoms.
Therefore, Total number of atoms in FCC = 4 atoms.

 This type of unit cell is found in metals like Copper, Silver, Gold,
Calcium, Aluminium, Lead etc.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

4. Hexagonal close packed structure (HCP):

(a) HCP unit cell (b) Rhombus NIJO

Fig. 1.1.10. : Hexagonal close-packed structure

 The HCP structure contains:

i. One structure atom at each corner of the hexagon.
ii. One atom each at the centers of the two hexagonal faces &
iii. Three atoms in the form of a triangular midway between the two
basal planes.

 These three triangular atoms are located at center of the line

connecting the perpendicular in case of three rhombuses, namely
OJKL, NOLM & NIJO as shown in fig. 1.1.3.4

 Each come atom of the hexagon is shared by six surrounding

hexagons. The center atoms of the hexagon face is shared by two
surrounding hexagon & three middle layer atoms cannot share by and
other hexagon.

Therefore, the unit cell of the H.C.P structure contains :

12 atoms at the corners x 1/6=2 atoms.
2 face-centered atoms x 1/2= 1 atom.
3 middle layer atoms = 3 atoms.
Total atoms in H.C.P = 6 atoms.

 This type of unit cell is found in metal like Zinc, lithium, magnesium,
beryllium etc.

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Slip& Slip Planes &Directions :

Plastic deformation takes place by slip, twinning or simultaneously by both.
1. Slip :
Slip represents displacements of one part of crystal relative to the other as
shown.
This occurs by movement or sliding of one plane of atoms over the other.

(a) Before slip (b) After slip

Fig. 1.1.11.: Schematic illustration of slip in a single crystal

The planes on which the sliding occurs are called slip planes or the planes
on which slip occurs are called slip planes. Slip always occurs on certain
crystallographic planes &in direction definite or specific direction.

1.1.4 Properties of Materials :

Different engineering application requires different types of materials for
that purpose we must be well known of the properties of materials. These are
classified on-

a) Physical : Dimensions, Density, Porosity, Structure.

b) Chemical : Composition, Structure, Corrosion Resistance.
c) Mechanical : Elasticity, Plasticity, Strength, Stiffness, Resilience,
Fatigue, Creep.
d) Electrical : Resistivity, Conductivity, Dielectric Strength Semi
Conductivity, Super Conductivity.
e) Thermal : Heat capacity, Specific heat, Thermal conductivity,
Thermal stresses & Strain, Melting Point.
f) Magnetic : Permeability, Hysteresis.
g) Optical : Refractive Index, Absorptivity, Reflectivity.
h) Technological : Castability, Machinability, Weldability, Solderability,
Workability, and Formability.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

Some of physical & mechanical properties are physical properties are

characteristics of material that are determined by nature. Physical properties
do not require the material to be deformed or destroyed in order to determine
the value of the property.

1. Lusture :
it is the ability of a metal to reflect light when finely polished.
e.g. : Al, Antimony(Sb), Zn : Bright
Silver, Stainless Steel, Cr : shining
Tin, Cobalt, Mn : metallic
Cu, C.I. : Bright metallic
Grey C.I. : Dull

2. Colour :
Colour is the indication & it is for distinguishing from other.
e.g. : Brass & Gold are yellow.
Silver : white

3. Density :
Man per unit volume is known as density. & denoted by „ ‟
„ ‟= m/V (kg lm3)

4. Porosity :
It is the ratio of porous volume to total vol. of body.
Porosity = ( )

Means number of pores ( small holes) present on body.

5. Dimension :
This includes size, shape &tolerances of materials.
Size : Breadth, Height, Length, Diameter.
Shape : Square, Circular, I-section.

6. Melting point :
It is the fixed or constant temperature at each the metal turns to liquid
stage.
OR

The minimum temperature at which solid converts to liquid is called as

Melting Point.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

1.1.5 Mechanical Properties :

The properties of a material that determine its behaviour under application
of forces is known as mechanical properties of a material. These properties
are expressed as function of stress, strain etc. Mechanical properties are of
foremost importance in selecting materials for structural machine
components.

1. Stress :
It is the internal resistance set-up by the force in a material to deform. It
can also be defined as the force per unit area required to deform a body. It
is denoted by „ ‟ and measured in N/mm2
( )
Stress ( ) = ( )

2. Strain :
It is the deformation produced per unit length of a body under the
action of force.
OR
It is defined as change in length to the original length & denoted by or „ ‟
( )
Strain ( ) = change in length ( )

3. Elasticity :
It is the ability of material to regain its original Size & Shape after
removal of load is known as elasticity.

e.g.:- Steel, Rubber.

4. Plasticity :
The ability of material to undergo permanent deformation even after the
removal of Load is known as plasticity.
Plastic deformation will take place only after the elastic limit has exceeded.

Elasticity Plasticity

1. Ability to regain original shape & 1. Ability to deform permanently

size after removal of Load. after removal of Load.
2. Elastic Materials works under 2. Plasticity appears after Elastic
Elastic limit i.e. Modulus of limit.
elasticity =

3. This property plays major role in 3. Plays important role in Forging,

structural & machine members. Shaping, Rolling.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

5. Strength :
Ability of a material to withstand hammering forces without fracture
(stresses) is called as strength, e.g.:- Tensile strength, Camp strength.

Ductility :
The property of a material to undergo deformation under tension is
called as ductility. It can also be defined as the property of material to form
wires is called as ductility. It can also be defined as the property of material to
form wires is called as ductility.
e.g. Wire drawing operation.

Malleability :
The capacity of a material to withstand deformation under compression
without rupture is called „Malleability‟.
OR
Property of a material to form thin sheets of material is called malleability.

Ductility Malleability

1. Deformation under tension 1. With stand deformation under

without fracture. compression without rupture.
2. Tensile property of material. 2. Compressive property of material.
e.g. wire drawing e.g. Sheet formation.

Brittleness :
It is the property of a material by virtue of which it will fracture without
deformation is called as Brittleness. ¼eksMsu i.k okd.kkj ukgh½
e.g. C.I., Concrete & Glass.

Hardness :
It is the ability of material to withstand scratching, wear & abrasion or
indentation (penetration) by harder bodies is known as badness.
It is measured in BHN, VHN
e.g. Diamond, Calcite.

Toughness:
It is the total energy absorbed by the material before it fractures, this
energy is the sum of elastic energy & plastic energy.
Toughness is measured by (I-zod & Charpy test & the unit for toughness is kg
f-m or joules.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

Resilience :
It is the total energy absorbed by the material during its elastic
deformation. Resilience is the capacity of a material to absorb or store energy
to resist shock& impact.
e.g. Spring

Resilience Toughness

1. It is the capacity of material to 1. It is the amount of energy that a

absorb or store energy & to resist material can absorb before it
shock & impact. fractures.

2. It is measured by amount of 2. Total Area under Load extension

energy absorbed per unit volume diagram.
in strening a material up to its
elastic limit.
e.g. Spring e.g. Machines parts.

Fatigue :
The failure of a material caused under repeated loads or stresses is
known as „Fatigue or Fatigue failure‟
e.g. Aircraft wings.

Creep :
The slow & progressive
deformation of a material with time at
constant stress is called „Creep‟ & it is
the phenomenon occurs in steel at high
temperature a material subjected to
constant, tensile load at on elevated
temp will creep & undergo a time
dependent deformation.

Metals generally exhibit creep at high Fig.1.1.12. : Various stages showing creep
temp whereas plastics, rubbers & formation
similar a amorphous materials are very
temperature sensitive to creep.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

1.1.6 Concept of Packing Efficiency :

The Fractional amount of volume or space occupied by atoms in an unit cell is
called atomic packing factor or atomic packing density / efficiency.

APF =

Fig.1.1.13.: Body centered cubic structure

From Fig. 1.1.6 :

Volume of unit cell = a3

Volume of an atom = 4/3

but, DG2 = DC2 + CG2

and DF2 = DG2 + GF2
= ( ) ( )
√
r =

Atomic packing factor =

√
( )
√
= ( )

= 68%

1.1.7 Cast Iron :

Cast irons are basically the alloys of iron & carbon in which „C‟ varies
between 2.0% to 6.67%. i.e. more that the solubility limit of „C‟ in Austenite
formed by casting process so called as Cast Iron (C.I.)

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

Properties :
1) They are the cheapest among the commercial alloys.
2) They are easier to melt because of their lower melting temp (1150-1250 )
as compared to steels (1350-1500 ).
3) They have excellent castability due to high fluidity of melt & low shrinkage
during solidification.
4) Their corrosion resistance is fairly good. White cast iron has high hardness
& high resistance to wear & abrasion.

Gray cast–has excellent machinability & very good damping capacity.

Steel : Steel is an alloy of iron & carbon in which the maximum percentage of
carbon is near about 2% the difference between steel & CI is of carbon
percentage only. As the percentage of carbon increases steel becomes more
harder & tougher.

If carbon content increases beyond 2% then it is said to be C.I. than steel can
be said to be an alloy of iron & carbon up to 2% carbon only so called as plain
carbon steel & steel having carbon percentage more than 2%upto 4.3% is
called as Cast Iron (C.I.). The carbon content is upto 4.3% in C.I. in addition to
this other elements like Si, S, P, Mn, are present in Cast Iron (C.I.) is used to
make castings of machine parts & it is very hard in nature.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Engineering Materials -Structure & Properties

Summary

 Anything which occupy space & having some mass is called as material.

 A substance which has electrons & form metallic bond & conduct electricity is
called as metal.

 Alloys are mixture of two or more metal which gives different properties from that
of parent material.

 Metals & alloys are classified as Amorphous & crystalline and ferrous &
Nonferrous.

 Amorphous means without proper arrangement of atoms in a structure.

 Crystalline means proper arrangement of atoms with respective to neighbour in a

structure.

 The substance containing iron as their main constituent is called as ferrous metal.

 In Non-ferrous metals iron is not the main constituent.

 A unit cell is a building block of crystal.

 Body centered cubic structure has one atom at each corner & one at the Centre
of body.

 In FCC (face centered cubic) structure one atom is located at each corner & in
addition one atom at Centre of each face.

 In HCP (Hexagonal six pack), one atom is there at each comer of Hexagon, each
at Centre of Hexagonal face & three atom present in a triangular midway
between two Hexagonal plane.

 Elasticity, Plasticity, Ductility, Malleability, Brittleness, Hardness etc are the

mechanical properties of metals.

 Porosity, shape, size, colour, dimensions are the physical properties of metal.

 Elasticity is detailed as Body can regain its original size & shape after removing
effort.

 Cast iron is very hard compound having large amount of carbon & can be
classified into white cast iron and gray cast iron.

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Question Bank

1. Define strength, toughness, Density. (2-marks)

2. How engineering materials are classified? Give example of each. (4-marks)

3. Give suitable classification of properties of metals. (4-marks)

4. Give typical slip planes & direction of FCC & BCC metals. (4-marks)

5. State characteristics of ferrous metals. (2-marks)

6. List all mechanical properties of material. (4-marks)

7. Define creep & fatigue. (2-marks)

8. What is metal? State its two properties. (2-marks)

9. Write short note on – (4-marks)

i) Body cantered cubic (BCC)
ii) Fatigue.

10. Write the varies application of engineering material. (4-marks)

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

Chapter No.02
Equilibrium Diagrams

2.1 Definitions of phase, alloy and solid solutions :

1. Phase:
Phase is homogeneous, physically distinct & mechanically separable
part of the system under study.

2. Alloy :
Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements having metallic properties.
The element present in largest quantity is metal & other is non-metal.

3. Solid Solution :
It is an alloy in which the atoms of solute are distributed in the solvent
& has the same structure as that of the solvent. It have different
compositions with similar structure.

2.1.1 Types of solid solution :

1. Substitutional solid solution
2. Interstitial solid solution
1. Substitutional Solid Solution :
This means the atoms of „B‟ element i.e.solute are substituted at the
atomic sites of „A‟elementi.e. Solvent Depending on this they are two
types i.e.-
1. Regular/ordered
2. Random as shown

Fig. 2.1.1. : Substitutional Solid Solution

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

Fig.2.1.2(a): Substitutional solid solution

e.g. Au-Cu solid solution. shows ordered structure up to 400oC &

disordered structure at higher temperature.
2. Interstitial Solid Solution :
The atoms of „B‟ occupy the interstitial sites of „A‟ this type of solid
solution formation is favoured when the atomic size of „B‟ is very much
small as compared to atomic size of „A‟

e.g. Carbon, Boron, Oxygen,H2

Fig. 2.1.3.:InterstitialSolid Solution

Fig.2.1.1(b) :interstitial solid solution

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2.1.2 Rules of Solid Solubility :

Information of solid solution, the solubility of solute in the solvent is governed
by certain factor that factor is known as solubility.

1. Atomic size factor.

2. Chemical affinity factor.
3. Relative valency
4. Crystal structure

Polymorphism :
Many substances exists in more than one stable crystalline form the various
forms have the same composition but different crystal structure such a
change of structure w.r.t. temperature / pressure is called as„polymorphism‟.

 Enantiotropy
 Monotropic

e.g. Iron- BCC -iron :910

FCC -iron : 910-1400
BCC -iron : 1400-1539

2.2 Solidification of Pure Metal :

Solidification occurs by the nucleation & growth of Crystals in the melt.

Fig.2.2(a): Solidification Phase Diagram

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Fig.2.2(b): Time – temp curve for solidification of pure metal

The first step in the solidification is the formation of Nuclei. The

Nucleus can be regarded on a small Clusture of atoms having the right
crystalline arrangement when the melt is cooled below its melting point Nuclei
begin to form in many parts of the melt at the same time. At any temperature
below the melting point a nucleus has to be a certain minimum size, called
Critical Size. So that it will grow.

Growth of the nuclei occur by diffusion process which is also a function of

temperature & hence the rate of Nucleation (N) & the rate of growth (G) are
Functions of temperature.

2.2.1 Types of Cooling Curve :

Dig.

Fig.: 2.2.1

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

Gibb’s Phase Rule : P+F= C+2

P= No.of phases existing in a system under consideration
F=Degree of freedom
C= No.of components

2.2.2 Cooling Curves & Equilibrium Diagram :

Isomorphous System :
These diagrams are of a 100p type & are obtained for two metals having
complete solubility in the Liquid state as well as solidstate.

e.g.: Cu-Ni, Au-Ag, Au-u, Mo-W

Fig.2.2.2.1 : Phase diagram of Isomorphous System

Let us consider an isomorphous system of two metals A&B Let „z‟ be the
composition of the alloy under consideration & „T‟ be the temperature at which
the amounts of phases are to be found out.

At this temp, the phases are solid & liquid. Let the amount of solid be S &
hence the amount of Liquid (L) will be 1-s, if the total amount is assumed to
be 1.

i. From 1 to 2, the alloy is in the liquid state & no change occurs.

ii. At Just below 2,solidification starts separating out from the liquid. As temp
decreases,the amount of solid increases & this continues up to 4 where
last liquid freezes to solid. Between 2 & 4 the Alloy contains Liquid & solid
phases. At any temp between 2 & 4, the average composition of existing

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

solid is indicated by the solidus line while that liquid by the liquidus line. At
the temperature of consideration amounts of solid & liquid are found out by
lever rule.

Eutectic Systems :
There diagrams are obtained for two metals having complete solubility in the
liquid state & complete insolubility in the solid state e.g.- Pb-As, Bi-Cd, Th-Ti
& Au-Si

Fig.2.2.2.2: Phase diagram of eutectic system

In above diagram C(T1) &G(T2) are the melting temperature of A&B, the
metals respectively on adding B to A,or A to B the melting temperature is
lowered following the curves CE &GE respectively.These curves intersect at a
point E called the Eutectic point which represents the lowest temperature at
which the mixture of A&B will melt. The Liquidus of the diagram is CEG &
solidus is CDEFG. During cooling eutectic transformation occurs at the line
DF (xx‟) except at the points D&F. The composition indicated by point E is
eutectic composition & temperature. The cooling ofvarious alloys with
changes in microstructure.

Eutectoid transformation :
It is a solid state transformation in which one solid decomposes into two
different solids at constant temp during cooling.

Solid A→ Solid B+ Solid C

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

Peritectoid :
Solid A + Solid B → Solid C

Fig.2.2.2.3 shows phase diagram for

eutectoid alloy system. During the slow
cooling of alloy. –solid solution is
formed in the upper region of the
diagram. A eutectoid temperature is
reached at point E. This point is
eutectoid point. At E, the –solid solution
Fig.2.2.2.3: Eutectoid region of Fe -C
decomposes forming and solid phase diagram
solutions. Eutectoid transformation takes place at constant temperature. The
composition at point E is called eutectoid composition. The alloy composition
left to point E is hypo-eutectoid and towards tight is hyper-eutectoid.

2.3 Iron Carbon equilibrium diagram:

Fig.2.3: Iron-Iron carbide equilibrium diagram

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

2.3.1 Phases in Iron carbon diagram:

1. α-Ferrite :
Ferrite is an Interstitial solid solution of carbon in low temp B.C.C. -Iron.
It is almost a pure iron & the name ferrite comes from the latin word
ferum. The solubility of carbon in -iron at room temp is 0.002% and
increase with increasing temperature to about 0.025% at 727 oc. It is a
relatively soft & ductile phase. It can be extensively cold worked without
cracking. It is strongly ferromagnetic upto 768 c & becomes paramagnetic
at 768oc during heating. This temperature at which ferrite becomes
paramagnetic is called curie temperature.

2. -iron(Austenite) :
Austenite is an interstitial solid solution of F.C.C, -iron. The phase is
called austenite in honur Austin. Who was one of the first mettalographer.
It can dissolve up to 2.0% carbon at 1147oc. the phase is stable only
above 727oc. It is a soft,ductile,malleable& nonmagnetic phase.

3. ( -Ferrite) :
It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in high temperature BCC. It is
similar to -iron except its occurrence at high temperature.

4. Fe3c (cementite) :
It is an intermetallic compound of iron & carbon with fixed carbon content
of 6.67% by weight.cementite has a complex orthorhombic crystal
structure with 12 iron atoms & 4 carbon atoms in a unit cell. It is extremely
hard & brittle phase.

2.3.2 Critical Temperature :

The temperature at which the phase changes occur during heating & cooling
are called an critical temperature.

Critical temperature :
Ao : This denotes the temperature at which cementite changes from
ferromagnetic to paramagnetic character. This is indicated by dotted
line AB 210 c.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

A1 : This denotes the temperature at which pearlite transforms to Austenite.

This transformation occurs at a constant temperature of 727oc called
eutectoid and known as lower Critical temperature.

A2 : The temperature at which ferromagnetic ferrite becomes paramagnetic

at 768oc.

A3 : It is the temperature at which the last trace of free ferrite get‟s

dissolved to form 100% Austenite. It decreases from 910oc at 0% C to
727 c at 0.8% & the temperature is known as upper critical temperature
for ferrite.

Acm: It is the temperature at which last trace of free cementite gets dissolved
to form 100% Austenite & increase from 727 oc to 1147oc. This is also
known as upper critical temperature for cementite.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

Summary

 Equilibrium diagrams are drawn according to variation of phases of material with

respective time, temp & carbon percentage.

 Phase is part under study from which we can draw some conclusions

 Solid solution is a mixture of solute in a solvent.

 Solid solutions are formed by two ways ie. Interstitial solid solutions &
substitutional solid solutions.

 Ferrite, austenite, cementite are the parts of iron carbon diagram produced after
some temperature.

 Cementite is inertial compound of iron containing 6.67% carbon

 Pearlite is a mixture of ferrite & cementite

 Critical temp means at which phase change will occur while heating as well as in
cooling.

 Pig – iron is the principal raw material for all ferrite products like iron & steel.

 Plain carbon steel is a alloy of iron & carbon with perpendicular carbon
percentage

 Plain carbon steels are classified as low, medium & high

 Low carbon or mild steels are having 0.01 to 0.3%C

 Medium carbon steels are having 0.3 to o.6%C

 Highcarbon steels are having 0.6 to 1.5%C

 The equilibrium diagrams has same system as Isomorphous, Eutectic &

Eutectoid.

 Eutectoid systems are having exactly 0.8%C percentage.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Equilibrium Diagrams

Question Bank

1. Draw iron–iron carbide equilibrium diagram and label the temperature and
composition. (4-marks)

2. Give the classification of carbon steel. (2-marks)

3. How are alloy steels classified?(2-marks)

4. Write the properties & application of wrought iron. (4-marks)

5. Give advantag4es & disadvantages of alloy steel. (4-marks)

6. Define “pig iron” state types of pig iron with their properties. (4-marks)

7. Classify the steel. (2-marks)

8. What is pearlite (2-marks)

9. What is stainless steel? Give its properties. (4-marks)

10. What is an equilibrium diagram?. what its significance (4-marks)

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Chapter No.03
Heat Treatment of Steel

3.1 Introduction:

The heat treatment is a process of heating and cooling the material in

order to modify its internal structure.

Heat treatment is applied to any material for changing its physical,

mechanical or chemical properties. The change in the properties is because
of phase transformation in steel and phase transformation of Pearlite to
Austenite and transformation of Austenite to pearlite takes place in the
eutectoid region.

The objective of various heat treatments used for steels are as follows :
 To increase hardness, wear and abrasion resistance and cutting ability of
steels.
 To resoften the steel after it has been hardened by heat treatment or cold
working.
 To adjust its other mechanical, physical or chemical properties.
 To reduce or eliminate internal residual stresses.
 To decrease or increase the grain size of steel.
 To induce controlled residual stresses.
 To produce special microstructure to increase machinability or corrosion
resistance.
 To change the composition of the surface by diffusion of C, N, Si, etc.

3.2 Transformation of Steel on heating under equilibrium condition :

Transformation of pearlite to Austenite and transformation of Austenite
to pearlite is as discussed below

 Transformation of Pearlite to Austenite :

 The mixture of ferrite (α) and cementite (fe3c) is called as pearlite. The
Transformation of pearlite to Austenite occurs at lower critical temperature of
723 or 727
 This transformation takes place at the eutectoid point where percentage of
carbon is 0.8%.
 Below eutectoid point there is region of pearlite (α+fe 3c). When heating the
steel temperature increases to lower critical temperature.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

 Pearlite contains ferrite (α) and carbide particles when heating the steel
structural changes takes place and pearlite in the mixture changes to stable
austenite but still some amount of ferrite and carbide particles present in it.
 As the temperature increases further more ferrite & cementite dissolved into
austenite till upper critical temperature reaches.
 After reaching upper critical temperature the phase is of completely austenite
( ).

Transformation of Austenite to Pearlite :

 Pearlite formation starts by the nucleation of cementite plate at the grain
boundaries of homogeneous austenite and grow as platelets by edge wise
growth into the austenite matrix.

 During this growth, carbon from Austenite matrix diffuses towards its flat faces
as shown in fig.

Fig.3.2: Transformation of austenite to pearlite

 A homogeneous mixture of austenite is allowed to cool from upper critical

temperature to lower critical temperature phase, austenite changes to pearlite.

 Pearlite obtained at higher temperature is course pearlite and at lower

temperature is fine pearlite.

 If cooling rate is very slow such as annealing process, the cooling curve
passes through entire transformation area.

 When slow cooling is applied all the austenite will transform to pearlite.

3.3 Time Temperature transformation (T.T.T) Diagrams (Isothermal Diagram) :

 Depending on temperature of transformation, austenite may transform to
Pearlite, Bainite or Martensite. These diagrams indicate the phases
existing in steel at various temperature and time.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

They are useful in the heat treatment of steel with the help of these
diagram, one can choose proper cooling cycle to obtain the desired
transformation product so as to obtain the required properties in the
component.

T.T.T Diagram For Plain Carbon Steel :

Fig.3.3: TTT diagram of eutectoid steel

Fig.: The Complete Isothermal Transform Diagram for Plain Carbon steel:

Where, A = Austenite
B = Bainite
P = Pearlite
M= Martensite
 Figure shows T.T.T diagram for a plain carbon steel of eutectoid composition.
 Austenite is stable above Ac, temp i.e. 123 0C below this line austenite is
unstable i.e. It can transform into different phases such as pearlite, bainite or
martensite.
 The most important part of the curve is called the nose. The phase above
nose is pearlite structure consists of alternate layers of ferrite but in region just
above nose i.e. 525 , rapid transformation causes formation of fine pearlite.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Critical Cooling Rate:

Fig.3.3.1: Showing the critical cooling rate on TTT diagram

 Figure shows Isothermal Transformation (I.T) diagram for a eutectoid steel

test piece which has been rapidly cooled in a bath at a set temperature, held
for time and then water quenched.
 If the transformation is allowed to take place at a higher temperature then, as
above coarse pearlite is formed.
 If the test piece is cooled to a lower temperature in a bath a finer pearlitic
structure results.
 If the test piece is rapidly cooled to temperature below value Ms (start of
martensite formation) then new metastable phase is produced called
Martensite.
 Martensite is a supersaturated solid solution of carbon in ferrite. If test piece is
cooled rapidly at a temperature between 220 0C and 5250C a phase structure
between pearlite and martensite is formed. This is called Bainite.
Bainite :
 Bainite is constituent which is formed from austenite in a temperature range
below 5230C and above M.
 Bainite forms together with pearlite in steel which are cooled somewhat too
fast to form a complete pearlite structure.
 Bainite is like pearlite a mixture of ferrite and iron carbide but in a different
form.
 The bainite structure varries from featherlike pattern to pattern of lens Shaped
particles depending on temperature range of formation.
 Bainite is harder, stronger and tougher than ferrite pearlite structure at lower
temperature.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Martensite :

 Martensite is the hardest structure formed from austenite.

 Crystal structure is a stressed structure which is resistance to dislocation
movement it is therefore strong and relatively brittle.

 There are various types of martensite depending on the carbon content.

- For C 0.2%
The martensite is in the form of well-defined thin strips.
- For C =0.6 %
Plates of martensite are formed.
- For C =1.2 %
The martensite is in the form of arrays of well-defined plates.
 The Martensite phase initiates at a temperature Ms and is complete at a
temperature Mf. Ms varies from 5000C for C =0.1% to 2000C for C =1.2%

3.4 Heat Treatment :

 Heat treatment may be defined as an operation involving heating and cooling
of metal or alloy to modify its internal structure and to obtain desirable
properties.

Purpose of Heat Treatment :

 Improve Machinability.
 Modify the grain size.
 Improve ductility and toughness.
 Improve electrical and magnetic properties.
 Increase heat, wear and corrosion resistance of materials.
 Relieving internal stresses.
 Harden and strengthen metals.

3.4.1 Classification of Heat Treatment Processes :

Heat Treatment processes are classified as follows :
1. Annealing
2. Normalizing
3. Hardening
4. Tempering
5. Surface hardening

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Fig.3.4.1: Temperature ranges for Heat Treatment Processes

1. Annealing :
 Annealing is the heat treatment process in which metal is heated for
improving the properties of metal followed by cooling in the furnace.

 It is process of heating a metal which is in distorted structural state to a

temperature which will remove distortion & then cooling at slow rate.

Purpose :
 To relieve the internal stresses.
 To reduce hardness.
 To refine the grain size.
 To increase machinability.
 To make material homogeneous
 To improve mechanical, Physical, electrical and magnetic properties.

Application :
 Steels used in sheet & wire drawing.
 Casting of carbon and alloy steel
 High carbon tool steel.
 Ball bearing steel.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Types Of Annealing :
There are various methods of annealing processes are as follows :
a) Full annealing.
b) Isothermal annealing.
c) Spheroidizing annealing.
d) Process annealing.

a) Full annealing :
 Full annealing is also called as conventional annealing. It is method of
removal of residual stresses in hardened component by heating followed by
slow cooling.

 Full annealing is applicable to steel with % C= 0 to 2.11%.

 Applicable to low carbon steel, Medium carbon steel and high carbon steel.

 It involves heating of steel with carbon percentage 0 to 0.8% 30 -50 above

upper critical temperature and heating of steel with carbon percentage 0.8–
2.11%, 30 - 50 above lower critical temperature then allowing the steel to
cool slowly within the furnace.

 Due to heating process stresses will be relieved in the component but grain
size will increase. Therefore component will losses hardness but obtain
ductility.

Advantages:
i. Refines the grains.
ii. Removes strain.
iii. Improve formability.
iv. Improve Machinability.
v. Improve Ductility property.

Grain enlargement

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Gramin Polytechnic, Vishnupuri, Nanded 36
Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Fig.3.4.1.1: Heat treatment cycles of full annealing and isothermal annealing

b) Isothermal Annealing :
 In this process, component are slightly fast cooled from the usual austeniting
temperature of full annealing then cooled to room temperature in air.
 Isothermal annealing is applicable for medium carbon high carbon and alloy
steel to improve machinability. The Machinability of component is increase
due to formation spheroidised structure.

Advantages :
 It reduces annealing time especially for alloy steel which need very slow
cooling.
 It shows improved machinability, improve surface finish after machining.

c) Spherodizing Annealing :
 Spheroidise annealing is applicable to high carbon steel with carbon
percentage is 0.6-1.2 %.
 This is heat treatment process in which globules or rounded particles of
cementite are form in the matrix of ferrite. This types of structure is produced
by using above heat treatment process is known as speroidizing annealing.
 The process involves heating the steel just below the lower critical
temperature i.e. between 650 to 700 .
 The rounded or spherical grains offers uniform resistive force against
movement of tool bed with roll friction hence machinability will be easy.
Martensite cementite + ferrite
(globular form)
Advantages :
 Improve machinability.
 Obtain desired structure
 Improve surface finish during machining.

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Gramin Polytechnic, Vishnupuri, Nanded 37
Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

d) Process Annealing :
 Process annealing is a heat treatment process which is applicable to low
carbon steel and medium carbon steel with carbon percentage is 0-0.4 %.
 It is also called as subcritical annealing or interstate annealing.
 In this process, steel is heated below lower critical temperature between
500 to 700 followed by slow cooling i.e. air cooling.

 The process is applied to low carbon steel, cold rolled steel which is used in
wire drawing and deep drawing operation.

2. Normalising :
Purpose :
 Refine the grain size.
 Produce uniform structure.
 Reduces internal stresses.
 Produce harder and stronger steel than full annealing.
 Eliminate carbide network at grain boundaries of hypereutectoid steels.
 Improve properties of steel.

Process :
 Normalising is the heat treatment process applicable to steel with carbon
percentage 0 to 2.11 % i.e. applicable to low carbon, medium carbon & high
carbon steel
 Normalising involves heating of steel with carbon percentage 0 to 0.8% to
about 40 to 50 above its upper critical temperature.
 Heating of steel with carbon percentage 0.8 % to 2.11 % to about 40 to 50
above its upper critical temperature.
 In this process, pearlite is obtained in the ferrite matrix or cementite matrix by
heating steel to high temperature followed by atmospheric air cooling.
 Normalised steel phase is similar to hardened steel in case of strength but
ductility slightly higher than hardened steel.
 Normalising temperature range:
For hypereutectoid steel, 40 to 50 above Ac3 i.e. above upper critical
temperature.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Advantages :
 To refine the grain structure.
 To reduce grain segregation in casting & forging.
 To provide more uniform structure
 To Provide moderate hardening.

Applications :
 It is applicable to low carbon, medium carbon and high carbon steel.
 It is performed on rolled and cast steel to refine grain structure and to relieve
the stresses setup in previous operation.
 It can be used to improve microstructure in carbon steel.
 It is applied on weld structure to improve homogeneity and uniformity.
 It is applied as final heat treatment process on parts subjected to relatively
high stresses.
Differential between annealing and Normalizing :

Sr.
Annealing Normalizing
No.
1. It is heating process of steel to It is heating process of steel to
a temperature which remove a temperature about 40 to
distortion and cooling the 50 above its upper critical
component in the furnace. temperature and cooling the
component in the atmospheric
air.

2. Cooling rate is slow. Cooling rate is fast as

compared to annealing.
3. Internal stresses are least. Internal stresses are slightly
more.

4. Grain size distortion is more Grain size distortion is slightly

uniform. less uniform.

5. Pearlite obtained is coarse. Pearlite obtained is fine.

6. Less hardness Slightly more hardness.

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Gramin Polytechnic, Vishnupuri, Nanded 39
Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

3. Hardening :
 Hardening is the heat treatment process which is applicable to low carbon,
medium carbon and high carbon steel with carbon percentage is 0 to 2.11%.

 It is the heating process in which obtaining the hardness in steel component

or obtaining martensite phase followed rapid cooling process i.e. quenching.

Purpose :
 To harden the steel.
 To increase wear resistance.
 To increase cutting ability of steel.

4. Conventional Hardening :
 The conventional hardening process consist of heating the steel to above A3
temperature for hypereutectoid steel and above A 1 temperature for
hypereutectoid steel by 50 .

 During hardening process, outer envelope will undergo cooling immediately

compare with core of material.

 Outer envelope turns into martensite phase (hard) but core remains in
austenite phase (soft). Partial volume is converted into martensite.

 During hardening process, the outer envelope in contraction due to cooling

whereas core remains in expansion state hence, residual stresses will form on
the component due to this crack will form on surface.

 A hardened component possess more hardness on surface due to martensite

phase. Therefore difficult to perform mechanical operation to shape change
component.

Hardening Temperature Range :

For hypo eutectoid Steels :
30 to 50 above Ac3 (upper critical temperature).
For hypereutectoid Steels:
40 to 50 above Ac (Lower critical temperature).

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Gramin Polytechnic, Vishnupuri, Nanded 40
Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Degree of hardness produced in steel depends upon :

i. Composition of steel.
ii. Nature and properties of quenching medium.
iii. Quenching temperature.
iv. Size of the objective to be quenched.
v. Degree of agitation.
vi. Homogeneity of austenite.
vii. Rate of cooling.
viii. Surface condition of metal.

Quenching Medium:
 A quenching medium is media into which heated metal objects are plunged in
order to remove heat from the objects rapidly.

 The quenching medium must provide for a cooling rate above critical value to
prevent austenite decomposition in the pearlite.

 In the martensite transformation temperature range, cooling should be slower

to avoid high internal stresses, warping of hardened part and cracking.

Types of quenching media or cooling media:

i. Brine (cold water + 5 to 10% salt) salt may be sodium chloride, sodium
hydroxide or calcium chloride.
ii. Cold water.
iii. Water +soluble oil.
iv. Oil
v. Fused salt
vi. Air
vii. Water and oil are the most common quenching medium for hardening of
steels.
viii. Water gives a fast cooling rate at lower temperatures and oil gives a slow
cooling rate at higher temperature.

Quenching characteristics of coolants are controlled by the following factor:

i. Temperature of quenching medium.
ii. The heat of vaporization.
iii. The specific heat.
iv. Thermal conductivity of quenching medium
v. Viscosity
vi. Agitation

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Hardening defects:
i. Cracks after quenching.
ii. Change in dimensions or volume.
iii. Oxidation and decarburization.
iv. Appearance of soft spot.
v. Distortion and warpage.
vi. Reduction in mechanical properties.

5. Tempering:
Purpose:
i. To relieve internal stresses.
ii. To reduce the hardness.
iii. To eliminate retained austenite.
iv. Improve the toughness.
v. Improve ductility.

Process:

 Applicable to steel with % C= 0 to 0.4 % (Low carbon & medium carbon steel.
 The process consist of heating the hardened component to a temperature
between 100 and 700 (below A1) holding at this temperature for specific
period for 1-2 hours and cooling to room temperature, usually in air.
 After hardening heat treatment, steel contains martensite and retained
austenite.
 In some of steel like hypereutectoid steels and alloy steels, carbides are also
present. Martensite & austenite are not stable phases and try to transform to
more stable phases during heating.
 Depending on the transformation behaviour, tempering is classified in the
following types-
i. Low temperature tempering.
ii. Medium temperature tempering.
iii. High temperature tempering.

i. Low Temperature Tempering :

 During low temperature tempering hardened component is heated at
150 to 200 followed by air cooling to room temperature gives
“Troosite”.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

 Martensite decomposes and gives the troosite in low temperature

tempering process. This decomposition is almost complete at 200 .

 Due to this internal stresses are reduced also toughness and ductility get
increased.

ii. Medium Temperature Tempering :

 Medium temperature tempering is carried out in the temperature range
from 200 to 500 .

 Due to heating in this temperature range, cementite is formed and very

fine distribution of cementite particles is observed in the matrix of ferrite.

 With this treatment hardness and strength of steels decrease while

toughness & ductility increases.

 Medium temperature tempering is applied to object such as coil spring,

laminated springs, hammers, chisels etc.

iii. High Temperature Tempering :

 High temperature tempering is carried out in the temperature range from
500 to 700 .

 When hardened component is heated at 550 followed by air cooling to

room temperature then gives “sorbite structure”.

 Martensite (hardened) decomposes at 550 followed by air cooling to

gives, sorbite in high temperature tempering process.

 During this stage of tempering, cementite particles become coarse.

 In this tempering process, obtain high ductility and is used for component
such as connecting roads, shafts, gears etc.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

3.4.2 Variations of Properties of hardened steel with tempering Temperature :

 The decomposition of martensite into ferrite and cementite mixture takes
place in the tempering process which strongly influences the properties of
steel.

 The change in the properties of steel with the change in temperature is

explained above in low temperature, medium temperature and high
temperature tempering.

 Some special tempering processes are explained below:

1. Mar tempering (Mar quenching):

Fig. 3.4.2.1: Martempering hardening cycle

 In this process, the austenitized steel is cooled rapidly avoiding the nose of
I.T. diagram to a temperature between the nose and Ms, soaked at this
temperature for a sufficient time for the equalization of temperature but not
long enough to permit formation of bainite and turn cooled to room
temperature in air or oil.

 The component is heated followed by quenching at oil bath temperature of

150 . and again air cooled to room temperature then gives martensite phase.

 The process is applied on low alloy steel. Large section cannot be heat
treated by martempering because the time required to obtain temperature
uniformity exceeds the starts of transformation of austenite into bainite.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Advantages :
 It results in less distortion and warping.
 There is less possibility of quenching cracks appearing in the component.
2. Austempering:

Fig. 3.4.2.2: Austempering hardening cycle

 Austempering consist of cooling the austenitised steel with a rate exceeding the
critical cooling rate in a molten bath i.e. quenching at oil bath temperature of
723 or 727 between the nose of T.T.T diagram and Ms temperature.
i.e. in the bainite region, holding at this temperature for sufficient period for the
completion of bainite transformation and cooling to room temperature.
 The steel piece remains in the bath until the austenite is completely transformed
to bainite and then it is allowed to cool to room temperature.
Advantages :
 Uniform microstructure is obtained.
 High ductility and toughness.
 Less distortion and warping.

3. Patenting:

Fig. 3.4.2.3: Patenting heat treatment cycle

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Gramin Polytechnic, Vishnupuri, Nanded 45
Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

 Patenting process is very much similar to austempering except in the range of

temperature used for isothermal transformation.
 It consists of quenching an austenitized steel in molten bath maintained at
some constant temperature slightly above or below the nose of T.T.T diagram
holding at this temperature until the transformation is complete and cooling to
room temperature.
 It is used for plain carbon steels with carbon between 0.3 to 0.6 % and is
equally applicable to alloy steels.
Difference between Austempering Martempering :
Sr.
Austempering Martempering
No.
1. It is a isothermal quenching. It is Marquenching.

2. It is not hardening process. It is a type of a hardening process.

This process transform austenite into This process transform austenite into
3. bainite. martensite.

Very few alloy steels are subjected to The process is suitable for high
4. this treatment. hardenable steel.

5. Less distortion and warping Better elongation and hardness.

3.5 Surface Heat Treatment:
Need For Surface Heat Treatment :
 Improve corrosion resistance.
 Improve heat or wear resistance.
 To achieve hardness in low carbon steel.
 Rebuild worn or undersized parts.

Surface heat treatment

Surface hardening case hardening

Flame induction
Hardening hardening carburizing Nitriding Cyaniding

Solid Liquid Gas

Fig:3.5: Classification of surface heat treatment

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Gramin Polytechnic, Vishnupuri, Nanded 46
Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

A) Surface hardening :
Surface hardening is applicable to high carbon steel and is divided into two
types as follows-
a) Flame hardening.
b) Induction hardening.
a) Flame Hardening:

Fig.3.5.1: Typical Flame Hardening system.

 Flame hardening is a process of heating the surface layer of hardened steel to

above its upper critical temperature by means of oxyacetylene flame followed
by water spray quenching to transform austenite to martensite.

 Depth of hardened layer depends on the following parameter.

i. Distance between the gas flames and the component surface.

ii. Gas pressure and ratio.
iii. Rate of travel of flame head,
iv. Type, volume and application of quench.

By controlling above parameter the depth of hardened layer can be varied

from very small to a maximum of about 5mm.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

 Any type of hardenable steel or cast iron can be flame hardened but steels
having carbon between 0.40 to 0.70 % are most commonly used.

 flame hardened components are tempered at low temperature to relieve

internal residual stresses.

 The surface of component will be heated up to certain depth by using

oxyacetylene flame jet.

 By pouring quench medium on hot surface the depth up to which it has been
heated will be turn as hard by forming martensite phase.

 Flame hardening can be done in different ways such as-

i. Spot method or stationary.

ii. Progressive method.
iii. Spinning method.
iv. Progressive spinning method.

i. Spot or stationary method:

In this method, work piece and torch are stationary. A spot or local area of
the component is heated by one or more flames followed by quenching in
water.

ii. Progressive method:

In this method, heating and quenching devices (torch) are moved over the
component surface at a controlled rate. This techniques is also suitable for
hardening teeth of large gears.

iii. Spinning method:

In this method torch is stationary while the workpiece rotate. Flames are
held against a rotating workpiece and when heating is complete, part is
quenched by water spray. This method hardens circular parts such as
precision gears, pulleys, etc.

iv. Progressive Spinning method:

This method is a combination of progressive and spinning method. In this
method, torch moves over rotating workpiece. Workpieces is rotated and
flames are moved for heating followed by quenching by water spray.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Advantages:
i. Long shafts and rolls are hardened by progressive spinning method.
ii. Circular parts can be hardened
iii. Large machine parts can be surface hardened.
iv. The hardened zone is generally much deeper than that obtained by
carburizing it ranges from 3 to 6mm in depth.
v. Thinner cases can be obtained by increasing the speed of heating and
quenching.

Disadvantages:
i. It is difficult to produce hardened zone less than 1.5 mm in depth.
ii. Overheating can damage the component.

Application:
The following components are flame hardened-
i. Ways of lathes.
ii. Spindles
iii. Teeth of gear
iv. Worm
v. Shaft
vi. Pulleys

b) Induction hardening :
 This method is similar to flame
hardening only in this method
induction coil or heating coil is used.
 Here heating is done within thin
layer of surface metal by using high
frequency induced current. The
component is heated by means of
an inductor coil which consists of
one or several turns of water cooled
Fig.3.5.2: Induction hardening
copper tube.
 High frequency alternating current flowing through inductor generate
alternating magnetic field.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

 This electromagnetic field induces eddy current of same frequency in the

surface layers which rapidly heat the surface of component within period of
2 to 5 minutes.
 The depth of hardened layer can be controlled by controlling the frequency
of supply voltage.
 The range of frequency is from 1, 00,000 Hz & the hardened depths
obtained are from 0.5 to 6 mm.
 The high frequency induced current tend to travel at the surface of metal.
This is known as „Skin effects‟.
 After heating component, quenching the component in cold liquid to turn
the surface of hardened component turn into martensite.
 Steel with carbon content from 0.4 to 0.5 % are most suitable for induction
hardening.

Advantages:
i. Fast heating and no holding time leads to increase in production rate.
ii. No scaling and decarburization.
iii. Less distortion.
iv. Easy control over the depth of hardening by control of frequency of supply
voltage.

Disadvantage:
i. Possibility of cracking during quenching.
ii. Not suitable for complex and irregular shaped.
iii. Poor surface properties.

Application:
Camshaft, crankshaft, axle shafts, large gears, machine ways, large
dies & roll, various parts of automobiles etc.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Difference between flame hardening and Induction hardening :

Sr.
Flame Hardening Induction Hardening
No.
Plain and medium carbon
0.4 % to 0.7% carbon steels
1. steels are most suitable for
are hardened by this process.
this process.

In this oxyacetylene flame is In this, induction or heating

2. used to harden the coil is used to harden the
component. component.

Case depth depends upon

3 to 6 mm depth of hardened
3. frequency of supply voltage &
zone can be obtained.
heating time.

Gear teeth, lathe, guide ways Piston rods, crank shafts,

4. etc. can be hardened by this camshafts etc. can be
process. hardened by this process.

B) Case hardening:
 Case hardening process is applicable to low carbon steel only.
 Low carbon steels are tough but cannot be hardened high carbon steels can
be hardened but are not so tough, also they are very much likely to distort or
crack during hardening because a their poor hardenability & are difficult to
machine even before hardening.

 Medium carbon steels are intermediate in properties to those of low carbon

and high carbon steels & do not satisfy the requirement to the optimum level.

 Such problems are solved either by-

i. Increasing the carbon on the surface of low carbon or low carbon low alloy
steel.

ii. Introducing nitrogen in the surface of tough steel so as to produces hard

nitride case.

iii. Introducing carbon & nitrogen in the surface of tough steel & subsequently
heat treating to produced hard & wear resistance case.

iv. Hardening the surface without change of composition of surface, these

methods are discussed below

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

a. Carburizing:
The method of increasing carbon on the surface of steel is called
carburizing.

Fig. 3.5.3: Process of Carburizing

 It consists of heating the steel in the austenitic region i.e. at 900 & CO gas is
circulated in hot envelope continuously, CO gas will decompose into carbon &
oxygen.

 Carbon atom will penetrate into component whereas oxygen goes out.

 In the austenitic region, the solubility of carbon is more & hence carbon from
CO gas diffuses into the steel.

 Depending on the medium used for carburizing, it is classified into the

following types

i. Solid carburizing
ii. Liquid carburizing.
iii. Gas carburizing.

Advantages:
i. Rapid heat transfer.
ii. Low distortion.
iii. Uniform case depth & carbon content.
iv. Rapid absorption of carbon.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Uses:
In the case hardening of
 Fears
 Cam shafts
 Bearing

i. Solid Carburizing :
 It is also called as pack or Box carburizing.
 The component to be carburized are packed with a carbonaceous material in
steel or cast iron boxes & sealed with clay.

 If these boxes are not properly sealed , air comes in contact with
carbonaceous medium & medium simply burns without any carburizing

 The usual carbonaceous medium consists of hard wood, charcoal, coke and
an energizer. Such as Barium carbonate, sodium or Calcium carbonate.

 A typical composition consists of 53 to 55% charcoal, 30 to32% coke &

remaining carbonates of Ba, Ca and Na.

 These boxes are heated to some temperature in austenitic region & kept at
this temperature until the desired degree of penetration is obtained.

 Carburising occurs by the following reactions.

O2 (From the box) +C (From the medium) CO2 and

BaCO3 BaO + CO2

(Barium carbonate)

CO2 + C (From the medium) 2CO

2CO C + CO2
 CO is an active carburizing agent it tries to diffuse into steel. It reverts to
CO2 & C. This carbon is dissolved in austenite.
 At the usual temperature of carburizing (925-950 ), the case depth varies
from 1.0 mm to 2.5 mm for total carburizing time of 6 to 15 hours.

ii. Liquid Carburizing :

 In this method, carburizing is done by immersing the steel components in a
carbonaceous fused salt bath medium at a temperature in the austenitic
region.

 The bath is composed of sodium cyanide, sodium carbonate and sodium

chloride.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

 In the presence of oxygen, following reactions occurs in the bath

2 NaCN + O2 2NaCNO
3NaCNO NaCN + Na2CO3 + C + 2N
 In the presence of alkaline earth salts of Barium, Calcium or Strontium, the
excess of oxygen to bath is reduced & if operating temperature is kept high,
the formation of cyanate (Na CNO) is inhibited.

 Under these condition, the reaction proceeds as –

Ba CO3 + 2NaCN Ba(CN)2 + Na2CO3
Ba (CN)2 BaCN2 + C
(Barium Cyanamid)
 The temperature of liquid carburizing is 900 to 925 and case depth is from
0.1 to 0.5 mm obtained in a period of ½ to 1 hour.

Advantages:
 Rapid heat transfer.
 Uniform case depth.
 Low distortion.
 Rapid absorption of carbon & Nitrogen.
 Negligible surface oxidation or decarburization.

Disadvantages:
 Cyanide salts are highly poisonous when in contact with open wounds.

 Molten cyanide explodes on contact with water, so all work should be dried
before it is placed in the liquid bath.

Application:
 This method is suitable for mass production of thin cases in small and
medium size parts.

iii. Gas Carburizing :

 Here the component is heated in the austenitic region in the presence of
carbonaceous gas. Such as methane, ethane propane or butane diluted with
a carrier gas such as flue gas.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

 This process can be performed at lower temperature (900 to 925 ) and

case depth from 0.2 to 0.5 mm can be obtained in 1 to 2 hours at a
temperature of 900 .

 The gaseous atmosphere can be generated as follows-

A neutral carrier gas is first prepared by burning town gas with correct amount
of air to give complete combustion.

 The resulting combustion gases are cooled & passed over silica gel to remove
water vapours, CO2 is removed by passing over heated coke or charcoal at
1000oC by absorption in an organic solvent such as ethanolamine or
tetraming.

 The product thus left which is mainly CO, N2 and H2 is termed the carrier gas
& proportion of propane or butane or methane is added to it give the
necessary carburizing mixture.

 Gas carburizing required specially designed atmosphere-tight furnace capable

of maintaining a positive pressure of atmosphere to prevent the infiltration of
air.

 Furnace is provided with a fan to circulate the atmosphere throughout the

heating chamber.

Advantages:
 Labor costs are lower than in pack carburizing.
 Heating is more rapid & uniform than in pack carburizing.
 Carbon potential can be closely controlled.
 Less time is required than pack carburizing.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Disadvantages:
 The skilled personnel are required to maintain the necessary controls.

b. Nitriding :

Fig.3.5.4: Process of Nitriding

T = 500 to 550
Medium - Ammonia (NH3)
Case depth = 0.5 mm / 100 hour.

 Nitriding process consists of heating the steel in contact with a source of

atomic nitrogen at a temperature of about 550 .

 The atomic nitrogen diffuses into the steel & combines with iron and certain
alloying element present in the steel and forms “Nitrides.”

 The atomic nitrogen produced due to the dissociation of ammonia diffuses

into the steel.
2NH3 2N + 3H2

 Nitride steel possesses high corrosion resistance compare with low carbon
steel because Fe3N phase does not interact with atomic oxygen.

 Nitride steels are expensive because –

i. N2 atom cannot penetrate into Fe lattice easily due to large diameter of the
atom.
ii. N2 is inert atom cannot interact with iron easily.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Advantages:
 Nitride steel will possess high temperature sustainability due to high MP. Of
iron Nitride phase.
 Nitriding process increases the surface smoothness of component.
 Nitride component having high abrasive resistance.
 Nitride cases have higher hardness, than the carburized and hardened cases.

Disadvantages:
 Nitride cases are thin, usually less than 0.5 mm.
 Long cycle time.
 High cost of Nitriding process.

Application:
 Valve seats, Gears, Gauges, Bushing, Aircraft engine part, Aero-engine
cylinder, Crankpin & journals etc.

c. Cyaniding :

Fig.3.5.5: Process of Cyaniding

T= 750-850
Medium = CN Liquid
Case depth = 0.075 to 0.25 mm.

 In this process, both carbon & Nitrogen are diffused into surface of steel.
Therefore both phases are obtained i.e. Fe 3C and Fe3N.
 Cyanide (CN) is decompose into carbon and nitrogen as follows
2 CN 2C + N2

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 The case produced by cyaniding is higher in nitrogen and lower in carbon

contact
 Cyaniding is performed in a bath containing a higher percentage of sodium
cyanide.
 Depending on the medium used in this process, the process is also called as
liquid carbonitriding or gas carbonitriding.
 Cyanide possesses both properties of carburized and Nitride steel.

Advantages:
 In this process, both phases i.e. Fe 3C and Fe3N are obtained.
 Nitrogen and carbon diffusion increases the hardenability of surface steel.
Disadvantages:
 In this, cyanided case depth is less usually less than 0.25 mm thickness.

Application:
 Screws, Nuts and bolts, small gear, metals usually hardened by
cyaniding etc.

Difference between case hardening and surface hardening :

Sr.
Case Hardening Surface Hardening
No.
It is method of hardening surface Method of surface hardening
by changing the composition of without changing the
1.
surface with or without heat composition of surface.
treatment.
It includes a wide variety of
Case hardening is used to
techniques is used to improve
produce a high surface hardness
2. wear resistance of parts without
for wear resistance supported by
affecting the softer, tough interior
a tough, shock resistant core.
of the part.
Flame hardening, Induction
Carburizing, Nitriding, cyaniding
3. hardening is the surface
are the case hardening method.
hardening process.
It is applicable to low carbon It is applicable to high carbon
4.
steel only. steel only.
Application includes camshaft,
Application includes gears ball &
5. crankshaft, axle shafts, large
roller bearings and piston pin etc.
gear, machine ways etc.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Summary

 Heat treatment is nothing but Heating & cooling of material to obtain same
change in properties of material.

 TTT diagrams (Time Temperature Transformation) are nothing but relation

between time–temp & transformation with respective phase change & change
in properties.

 Annealing is the process of heating the metal above critical temp to remove
the stresses induced in the metal.

 Hardening is the process used to increase the hardness of metal by heating

the metal part above Austenitic temp & suddenly Quenching.

 Normalizing is the process of heating the metal above UCT & cooling it in an
air.

 Tempering is the process of heating stage wise to remove stresses & to

increase the toughness

 Martempering & Austempering is an example of interrupted Quenching.

 Surface hardening is the process of hardening of surface with the help of

flame or induction hardening.

 Other surface hardening i.e. case hardening process are to develop hard
surface by process like

- Carburizing
- Nitriding
- Cyaniding.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Heat Treatment of Steel

Question Bank

1. What is Heat Treatment? Give its objective (2 marks)

2. What is annealing? State its purpose & explain how full annealing is carried out.

(4 marks)

3. What is purpose of heat treatment? Classify heat treatment processes.

Name any two (4 marks)

4. Compare flame hardening & induction hardening (4 marks)

5. What is nitriding? What are its advantages & limitation? (4 marks)

6. Compare austempering & mar tempering (2 marks)

7. What is induction hardening state its application with merits &demerits (4 marks)

8. What is purpose of normalizing? Explain how it is carried out. (4 marks)

9. Differentiate between annealing & normalizing (2 marks)

10. What is carburizing? How pack carburizing is done? (4 marks)

11. Describe case hardening (4 marks)

12. write short note on flame hardening (4 marks)

13. state the principle, advantages & applications of tempering (4 marks)

14. What is hardening? state various factors affecting hardening (4 marks)

15. Explain mar tempering. (4 marks)

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Steels & Cast iron

Chapter No.04
Steels & Cast Iron

4.1 Classification of steels (plain carbon steels) :

Steel : steel is an alloy of iron and carbon in which the maximum of carbon is
1.5 %.In steel, carbon is present completely in the combined form higher
percentage of this carbon, harder and tougher is the steel.

Thus, steel can be said to be an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon
content to a maximum of 1.5 % these steels are called as plain carbon steel.

4.1.1 Broad classification of steels :

Various criterions for the classification are as follows

1. Amount of carbon
i. Low carbon steels
ii. Medium carbon steels
iii. High carbon steels

2. On Amount of alloying elements and carbon

i. Low alloy steels
ii. High alloy steel

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3. Basis of deoxidation
i. Rimmed steel
ii. Killed steel
iii. Semi killed steel

4. Basis of Grain Coarsening characteristics

i. Coarse grained
iv. Fine grained

5. Method of manufacturing :
i. Basic open hearth
ii. Electric furnace
iii. Basic oxygen process
iv. Acid open hearth

6. Depth of hardening
i. Non-hardenable steels
ii. Shallow hardening steels
iii. Deep hardening steels etc.

4.1.2 Plain carbon steel

A plain carbon steel (commonly termed as “carbon steel”) is a
malleable alloy of iron and carbon. Its carbon content usually ranges from
0.08 to 1.5% (with 2% as maximum) the carbon is distributed through the
mass of the metal not as elemental or free carbon, but as chemical compound
with iron known as cementite (Fe3C).

In addition to carbon, steels generally contain small amount of sulphur,

phosphorous, silicon and Mn. The properties of steel are dependent primarily
on the carbon content and to a large extent upon other elements.

There are classified as

i. Low carbon steels (0.008-0.30% c)
ii. Medium carbon steels (0.30-0.60% c)
iii. High carbon steels (0.60-2.00% c)

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Carbon has a strong influence on the properties of steels as the carbon

increases, hardness, T.S., fatigue resistance and hardenability increases, and
ductility, malleability, formability, toughness, machinability and weldability
decreases.

1. Low Carbon Steel:- (0.008-0.30% C)

Properties:
i. They are soft, ductile, malleable
ii. They are tough, machinable, weldable and non-hardenable by heat
treatment.
iii. They are good for cold working purpose and also good for fabrication
purpose
iv. They are cannot be hardened by heart treatment
v. It is also called as dead mild steel.
vi. Its meeting point is 1400 oc
vii. Ultimate compressive strength varies from 8 ton/cm2 to 12 ton/cm2

Application:
i. They are used for wires, nails, rivets, screws, panels, welding rods,
ship plates, boiler plates and tubes, fan blades, gears, values,
camshafts, crank shafts, connecting rods

ii. Steels with 0.15-0.30% carbon are widely used as structural steels and
finds application as building bars, grills, beams, angle etc.

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2. Medium carbon steel (0.30 to 0.60% c)

Properties:
i. The steels have intermediate properties to those of low carbon and
high carbon steels.
ii. They are medium hard, not so ductile and malleable
iii. They are medium tough, slightly difficult to machine.
iv. They require high cooling role for hardening and hardness produced is
not so high.
v. They are difficult to cold work and hence hot worked
vi. They are also called as machinery steels.

Application:
i. They are used for boats, axles, lock washers, forging dies, springs,
wires, wheel spokes.
ii. Used for hammers, rods, turbine rotors, crank pins cylinder liners,
railway rails and railway tyres.

3. High carbon steels (0.60 to 2.00% c)

Properties:
i. They are hard, wear resistant, brittle, difficult to machine.
ii. They are difficult to weld
iii. The hardness produced after hardening is high.
iv. They can be magnetized permanently.
v. It has less impact resistance.
vi. It is also called as „Tool Steel‟

Application:
i. They are used for forging dies, punches, hammers, springs, dips,
clutch discs, car bumpers, chisels, shear blades drills, leaf springs,
music wires, razor, knives.
ii. Reamers, metal cutting saws.

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4.2 Alloy Steel

Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum range given for
the content of alloying elements exceeds one or more of the following limits;

Mn 1.65%, Cu 0.60%, Si 0.60%

Alloy steels may be defined as „steels to which elements other than

carbon are added in sufficient amount to get improvement in properties‟. The
elements like Ni, Cr, Mn, W, Mo, V etc. are added to plain carbon steels in
certain amounts to increase the desired properties.

Properties:
i. To impact fine grain size to steel
ii. To strengthen the ferrite
iii. To improve case hardening
iv. To improve corrosion and fatigue resistance
v. To improve elasticity
vi. To harden, toughness and tensile strength
vii. To improve machinability and weldability
viii. Improve high or low temperature stability.
ix. Better wear resistance
x. Improved cutting ability.

4.2.1 Effect of individual alloying element on properties of steel :

The principle elements that are used in producing alloy steel. Include
nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese silicon and vanadium, cobalt,
copper and lead are also used as alloying elements.

1. Chromium :

Range 0.3% to 4%
a) It joins with carbon to form chromium carbide.
b) Improves wear, oxidation and scaling resistance and hardenability
c) Increase grain growth and reduces ductility.
d) These are liable to form surface markings, generally referred to as
chrome lines.

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2. Sulphur :
Range up to 0.5 %
a) Sulphur combines with iron and forms iron sulphide which is a hard and
brittle phase.
b) Residual impurity from production process weakens steel and
additional process are used to remove sulphur neutralized by the
presence of manganese.
c) Mn addition reduces brittleness and hot shortness.
d) Sometimes added to low carbon steels to improve machinability with
the accepted penalty of reduced strength
e) It reduces ducting and weldability.

3. Phosphorus

Range 0-0.05 %
a) Increase tensile strength and hardness
b) It increase the machinability
c) Residual element from production process (casting) results in
weakness in the steel.
d) It improves fluidity in cast iron.

4. Silicon
Range 0.2 to 3 %
a) 0.3 % silicon improves fluidity of casting steels without weakling effect
of phosphorous.
b) It dissolves in ferrite increasing strength, hardness and toughness
without loss of ductility.
c) It is strong de-oxidizer
d) Up to 5% of silicon is added to produce magnetically soft materials for
transformer.
e) It increases the permeability of steel and reduces by hysteresis losses.

5. Manganese

Range 0.3 % to 1.5 %

a) Reduces negative effect of sulphur i.e. sulphur embrittlement.
b) It is least expensive element it is generally added to all structural steels
for strengthening purpose.

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c) It increases hardenability of steel to a great extent but with quench

cracking
d) It increases strength and hardness and lowers ductility and weldability.

6. Nickel

Range 0.2 to 5%
a) It increases hardness, tensile strength and toughness without
decreasing ductility.
b) It is an austenite stabilizer; its addition lowers the critical temperature.
c) Increases corrosion and oxidation resistance
d) It increases impact resistance of steels at low temperature.
e) It reduces ductile brittle transition.

7. Tungsten

Range: small amount (about 0.20 to0.30)

a) It increases hardenability
b) It forms carbides and increases wear and abrasion resistance
c) It improves heat resistance
d) It refines the grain size.
e) It reduces the tendency of decarburization

8. Molybdenum
Range 0.3 to 5%
a) It promotes hardenability
b) It enhance corrosion resistance in stainless steel
c) It forms abrasion resistance particles
d) Useful in cutting tool materials.
e) It reduces temperature embrittlement

9. Vanadium
Range 0.5 to 1% and more
a) The resistance to grain coarsening is excellent
b) It promotes hardening.
c) It effectively improves the fatigue and creep resistance
d) It is also a strong deoxidizer

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10. Titanium
Range 0.2 to 0.75%
a) It is strong carbide former
b) It acts on a grain refiner
c) It prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steel during
long heating.
d) It reduces martensitic hardness.
e) Used in maraging steels to make them age hardening with resulting
high strength.

11. Cobalt
Range 8 to 10%
a) It enhances air hardening and reduces scaling
b) It is heat resistant.
c) It retends transformation of austenite.
d) It is also used for the manufacture of satellites.

12. Aluminum
a) It is powerful deoxidizer
b) It is a grain refiner and also inhibitor
c) It produces fine grain size products.

4.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of Alloy Steel

Advantages
1. It has less distortion and cracking
2. It has greater hardenability
3. Less grain growth
4. Greater stress relief at given hardness
5. High temperature strength
6. Higher elastic ratio and endurance strength
7. Better machinability and high hardness
8. Good fluidity to casting metals.
9. High heat resistant products.
10. Good corrosion and impact resistance.

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Disadvantages
1. Special handling required
2. Expensive
3. Retained austenite may form.
4. Temperature brittleness in certain grades

Free cutting steels :

These steels can be machined or cut with fast speeds because of their
high machinability and hence the name is free cutting steels.
Low carbon steel are soft and produce a continuous ribbon (curl)
during machining which gives extra resistance to the cutting tool also
produces rough surface with server heating a the tool any means by which
chip formation and breaking can be facilitated will improve machinability. For
steel, this is achieved by increasing the amount of sulphur, phosphorus and
manganese.
Phosphorous combines with iron and forms Fe3P which also helps in
chip formation. The maximum limit of sulphur and phosphorous in these steels
are 0.6 and 0.12% respectively and Mn addition up to 5 to 8% times that of
sulphur.
Sometimes in high carbon steels, they are difficult to machine because
of their high hardness and wear resistance. To increase their machinability,
lead is added up to max of 0.35%.

4.2.3 Tool Steels

Steel containing alloying elements which allow heat treatment to get
desirable properties such as strength hardness, toughness and wear
resistance can be referred as tool steel.

Classification of Tool Steels

1. Air hardening steels – Group „A‟
2. High carbon high chromium steels – Group „D‟
3. Hot-work tool steels – Group „H‟
4. Oil hardening cold work steels – Group „O‟
5. Shock resistance tool steels – Group „S‟
6. High speed tool steel – Group „T‟
7. Water hardening tool steels – Group „W‟

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High speed tool steel

These steels maintain high hardness up to a temperature of about 550ᵒ
c. So these steels can be used for cutting metals as high speeds. They have
wear resistance and cutting ability.

High speed steels are divided into two types, depending upon principle
allowing element

1. Tungsten high speed steels

These steels contain high amount of „W‟ with other elements such as Cr, V
and so, these are designed by T-series.

2. Molybdenum steels
A part of tungsten from group of W-high speed steels is substituted by
molybdenum and so these steels contain W, Cr, V and Co in addition to
Mo. This reduces cost though molybdenum tool steels are cheaper, they
are difficult to heat treatment, and these steels are known as M-series.

High speed steel is heat resistance steel having properties like high
hardness, good wear resistance and high complexion strength. The tools
operating at high speed are made of high speed steel; such steels are very
hard at high temperature.

These are resistant to wear, distortion and deformation to provide red

hardness elements like, Co, W, V and chromium are added in the steel, the
microstructure of high speed steel contains a network of martensitic crystals
surrounded by carbide.

18:4:1High speed steel:

This steel on an average, contain 18% tungsten 4% chromium and 1%
vanadium. It is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels; it is
widely used for drills, lathe planer and shaper tools, milling cutters, reamers,
broaches, threading dies, punches etc.

While an increase of vanadium to 0.2% produces 18:4:2 steels. Cobalt

is added in this steel to improve red hardness and cutting ability.

Properties
1. Retain hardness and cutting ability at temperature as high as 540ᵒc
2. Excellent red hardness
3. Good wear resistance

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4. Good shock resistance

5. Fair machinability.
6. Good non-deforming property.
7. Poor resistance and decarburization

High carbon high chromium cold work steels (HC HCr)

1. The steels having composition of 1 to 2 % C, 12 % Cr and W, Mo, V added
in small amount and which can be oil or air hardened is called as high
carbon high chromium cold work steel.

2. They belong to group „D‟ which has high wear resistance with deep
hardening properties.

3. They are widely used in drawing dies, blanking dies, forming dies, coining
dies, master gauges, cutting tools etc.

4. They have high dimensional stability.

5. They are difficult to machine.

Oil hardening non shrinkage steels (OHNS)

These are group „O‟ tool steels which contain high amount of carbon
with small addition of tungsten, manganese chromium and molybdenum
Composition of contains 0.9 to 1.2% C , 1% Mn, 0.5% Cr and W each and
0.25% Mo.

These are hardened by oil quenching they have lens dimensional

change (distortion) during heat treatment; hence they are called as oil
hardening non shrinkage steels

Properties:
1. They are less expensive, readily available
2. They have good machinability
3. They have good resistance to decarburization
4. They have good wear resistance.

Application:
Used for dies used in blanking, bending, shearing, coining, broaching and
knurling tools, gauges thread cutting tools, reamers, etc.

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4.2.4 Stainless steel :

As the name suggests, it is „STAIN‟ less means highly resistant to
corrosion and oxidation in environment and media.

The corrosion resistance and stainless is derived from the presence of

hydrous oxide film on the surface of alloy. This oxide film is very thin and
stable. It is continuous and impervious to further attack. The film is passive
and stops further reaction between the metal surface and the surrounding
medium the most important constituent and this film is chromium oxide Cr2O3,
which is obtained from the presence of chromium in the alloy.

1. Chromium
It gives passivity to ferrous alloys by formation of oxide film when present
more than 12% if oxide film is damaged, it is immediately repair or
reformed in oxidizing media.

2. Nickel
Addition of nickel to iron-chromium alloys improves ductility and impact
strength by stabilizing austenite phase corrosion resistance of stainless
steel increases with increases in nickel content about 20% of nickel is
added in it.

3. Molybdenum
Addition of molybdenum to stainless steels improves their resistance to
different acids like sulphuric acid and organic acid. It also increases
resistance to corrosion.

4. Manganese
About 1 to 2% manganese is added to all stainless steels it gives good
result for hot workability.

Properties
1. Wide range of strength and hardness
2. High ductility and formability
3. Good machinability
4. High corrosion resistance
5. Excellent surface finish.
6. Good creep resistance.

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4.2.4.1 Classification of stainless steel

Stainless steel is classified as follows

1. Austenitic stainless steel

 They possess austenitic structure at room temperature.
 They have greatest strength and scale resistance at high temperature.
 They are non-magnetic

Composition
C = 0.03 to 0.25 %
Cr = 16 to 26%
Si = 1 to 2%
Mn = 2 to 10%
Ni = 3.5 to 22% and in small amount phosphorous and sulphur

Application
 In aircraft engine parts.
 Heat exchangers in chemical industry.
 Tanks of food processing.
 Cooking utensils.
 Milk cans of dairy industry.
 Railway carts and transportation.
2. Ferritic stainless steel
 They possess ferritic structure at room temperature
 They are more corrosion resistant than martensitic stainless steel
 They are magnetic in nature.

Composition
C = 0.08 to 0.2 %
Cr = 11 to 27%
Si = 1%
Mn = 1 to 1.5%
Due to low carbon to chromium ratio, it prevents hardening by heat
treatment.

Application:
1. Lining of petrol industry
2. Heating elements or furnaces
3. Screws and fittings oil burner parts.

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3. Martensitic stainless steel

 They possess martensitic structure at room temperature.
 They have the best thermal conductivity of all stainless steel types.
 Due to high carbon to chromium ratio, I prevents hardening by heat
treatment can be done.

Composition
C = 0.15 to 1.2%
Cr = 11.5 to 18%
S = 1%
Mn = 1%

Application
They are used in pumps and value parts, turbine buckets surgical
instrument rules and types.

4.2.5 Spring steels:

Carbon- manganese spring steel

C = 0.45 to 0.65%
Si = 0.1 to 0.35%
Mn = 0.5 to 1.0%
These steels are quenched and temperature to give a brinell hardness of
about 350
They are widely used for laminated springs for railways and general purposes.

Hyper Eutectoid spring steel

C = 0.9 to 1.2%
Si= 0.30% maximum
Mn= 0.45 to 0.70%
These steels are oil quenched and tempered at a low temperature they are
used for volute helical spring.

Silicon manganese spring steels

C = 0.33 to 0.6%
Si= 1.5 to 2%
Mn= 0.6 to 1.0%
These steels are hardened and tempered to give a brinell hardness of about
450
They are used for the manufacturing of railways road springs generally.

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4.3 CAST-IRON
 Cast iron may be defined as „an alloy of iron and carbon containing more
than 2% carbon‟. Their carbon content is such as to cause some liquid of
eutectic composition (called ledeburite) to solidify. Therefore, the minimum
carbon content is about 2%, while the practical maximum is about 4.3%. In
addition to carbon, cast iron contains other elements such as silicon,
sulphur, phosphorous and manganese.

 Cast iron is pig iron remelted and thereby refined together with definite
amount of limestone, steel scrap and damaged castings (foundry returns)
in a cupola or other form of remelting furnace and poured into suitable
moulds of required shape.

 Because of their poor ductility and malleability they cannot be forged,

rolled, drawn or pressed into the desired shape, but are formed by melting
and casting with or without machining to get the required final shape and
size and hence the name cast irons.

 Cast irons are having following characteristics in general :

1. They are the cheapest among the commercial alloys. The raw
materials i.e. pig iron, cast iron scrap, steel scrap, iron ore, limestone,
coke etc. used in manufacturing of cast iron are relatively cheap.
2. They are easier to melt because of their low melting temperatures
(1150-12500C) as compared to steel.
3. They have excellent castability due to high fluidity of material and low
shrinkage during solidification.
4. By proper alloying good foundry control and suitable heat treatment,
the properties of any type of cast iron can be easily adjusted over a
wide and useful range.
5. They are brittle and their mechanical properties are inferior to steel.
6. Some of the cast irons have good machinability and damping capacity.
7. They have high hardness and resistance to wear and abrasion.

4.3.1 Classification of Cast Irons:

Cast irons are classified according to various criteria as given below :
(i) On the basis of furnaces used in their manufacturing :
(1) Cupola cast Iron
(2) Air furnace cast iron
(3) Electric furnace cast iron
(4) Duplex cast iron

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(ii) On the basis of composition and purity :

(1) Low carbon, low silicon cast iron.
(2) High carbon, low sulphur cast iron.
(3) Nickel alloy cast iron.

(iii) On the basis of microstructure and appearance of fracture :

(1) White cast iron
(2) Malleable cast iron
(3) Gray cast iron
(4) Nodular cast iron
(5) Mottled cast iron
(6) Chilled cast iron
(7) Alloy cast iron
(8) Mechanite cast iron.

4.3.2 Types of Cast Irons :

Following are various types of cast irons commonly used :

(a) White Cast Iron :

White cast iron contains carbon in the form of cementite. This is obtained
by rapid cooling. Due to the absence of graphite, metal has white colour. It
contains 1.75% to 2.3% carbon. The appearance of fractured of fractured
surface is white.

Properties:
 White cast iron is very hard and brittle.
 It is wear resistant and less ductile.
 Hardness varies from 400 to 600 B.H.N.
 It cannot be machined.
 Finishing to final size is done by grinding.

Applications:
 Used for manufacturing wrought iron.
 For manufacturing those component parts which require a hard and
abrasion resistant material.
 For producing malleable iron casting.
 For weaving plates, road roller surface.
 For pump lines, mill lines, grinding balls.
 For dies and extrusion nozzles.

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(b) Gray Cast Iron :

This type of cast iron is obtained by allowing the molten metal to cool and
solidify slowly. Grey cast iron contains 2.5 to 3.75% of carbon. The greater
part of carbon is in the form of flakes. The microstructure of grey cast iron
depends upon rate of cooling.

Properties:
 Grey cast iron is brittle and may be broken if a heavy hammer is used.
 The ultimate tensile strength varies from 120 N/mm2 TO 300 N/mm2.
 Hardness of grey cast iron varies from 150 to 240 B.H.N.
 Melting point is low.
 Good compressive strength.
 It is easily machinable.
 The graphite present, acts as a lubricant.

Applications:
 Used in machine tool structure.
 Used in gas or water pipes for underground purposes.
 Used in cylinder blocks and heads for I.C. engine.
 Used in frames for electric motors.
 Used in ingot moulds.
 Used in sanitary wares.
 Used in piston rings.
 Used in household appliances etc.

Fig.4.3.2.1 : Gray Cast Iron & White cast iron

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(c) Nodular Cast Iron :

It is also called spheroidal cast iron because the graphite is precipitated
not in the form of flakes but in the form of spheroids. This is high grade
cast iron. It is also called ductile cast iron.
Properties:
 It has very good casting properties as high fluidity and low melting point.
 It produces better machined surfaces.
 The tensile strength is 330 N/mm2.
 High strength and toughness.
 Good resistance to wear.
 Higher machinability than grey cast iron.
 It can be welded nicely.
 The value of modulus of elasticity is high.
Applications:
 Used in paper industries machinery.
 Used in internal combustion engines.
 Used in power transmission equipment.
 Used in farm implements and tractors.
 Used in earth moving machinery.
 Used in valves and fittings.
 Used in pumps and compressors.
 Used in construction machinery.

(d) Malleable Cast Iron :

Malleable cast iron is obtained from white cast iron by special annealing
process. This type of cast iron contains 2 to 3.6% carbon. The microstructure
of malleable cast iron contains graphite in pearlitic matrix. The graphite is
present in the form of small rounded nodules.

Properties:
 It is less brittle.
 Tensile strength of malleable cast iron is 180 N/mm2.
 Good wear resistance and vibration damping capacity.
 Hardness varies from 80 to 275 BHN.
 These cast irons show some ductility and toughness.

Applications:
 Used in automobile parts.

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 Used in sewing machine parts.

 Used in bicycle parts.
 Used in agricultural equipment‟s.
 Used in electrical line hardware.
 Used in universal joint yoke.
 Used in conveyor chain links.
 Used in suitable for small and medium size castings of high strength.

Fig.4.3.2.2: Malleable Cast Iron

(e) Alloy Cast Iron :

 Because the cast iron is supposed to be very hard, brittle, lacking in
tensile and transverse strength and weak to withstand shocks it is
alloyed with other metals to improve its properties. Amongst the
alloying metals, nickel is predominating alloying constituent whose
addition to the extent of 0.5 to 1.5% avoids the tendency of chilling or
hard spots.

 Two typical examples of alloy cast iron are : (i) Acicular, and (ii)
Spheroidal. Acicular cast iron has nickel and molybdenum as the
leading constituents and is employed for crankshafts. Spheroidal cast
iron has graphite content in spheroidal from, which is converted from
flaky form by alloying with a small amount of magnesium and cesium.
This change in graphite increases the tensile strength and produces a
tough metal which can undergo bending and twisting.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Steels & Cast iron

(f) Mottled Cast Iron :

Composition :
 Iron = 93.5%, Graphite = 1.75%, Combined carbon = 1.75%, remaining
are impurities.

Properties:
 Mixture of the two states, grey cast iron and white cast iron.
 Strength and hardness varies according to the ratio of free carbon to
combined carbon.
 Fewer tendencies to rust than grey variety.
 Fluidity is good.
 Hard and Brittle.

Applications :
 Used for manhole covers and pipes.

(g) Mechanite Cast Iron :

 In this type of cast iron, the metal is treated with calcium silicide. The
trade name is „MECHANITE‟. Calcium silicide acts as a graphitiser and
produces as fine graphite structure, giving a cast iron of excellent
mechanical properties. These properties are also due to careful control
of melting the iron and also the moulding of the casting.

 There are more than 26 types of mechanite metals available at

present. The broad classification of these is :
1. General engineering,
2. Heat resisting,
3. Wear resisting,
4. Corrosion resisting,
5. Nodular „S‟ type.
 All mechanite irons have high strength, toughness, ductility and easy
machinability. These irons are sort of a bridge between ordinary cast
iron and steel. The casting weight from 500 to 6000 kg. The metal s
close grained.

 Mechanite irons responds well to heat treatments. It can be hardened

wholly or on the surface. It can be toughened by suitable treatment.
The metal is very well suitable for machine tool casting.

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(h) Chilled Cast Iron :

 It is prepared by chilled casting techniques. It has high surface

hardness and abrasion resistance of a white iron case, backed by a
softer, less brittle grey iron core. The graphitizing tendency of the cast
iron is reduced either by decreasing the percentage of carbon and
silicon or by increasing the rate of cooling. Rapid solidification and
cooling produce a hard surface only to a depth of 1 to 2 mm.

 Sometimes a casting is chilled intentionally and sometimes it becomes

accidentally, Intentional chilling is carried out by using cast iron instead
of sand for phase positions of mould where hard surfaces are required.

 Chills are used on those castings where some parts are required to
have the hardness of white cast iron, while the remaining portion as
relatively soft and tough core of grey cast iron.

Differentiate between White Cast Iron and Grey Cast Iron

Sr. No. White Cast Iron Grey Cast Iron

It is an alloy of carbon It is an alloy of carbon and

1. Composition chemically bonded with silicon with iron.
iron as iron carbide.

When fractured, it shows When fractured, it gives gray

2. Appearance
bright white fracture. appearance.

Under normal condition it It has better machinability.

is brittle and non-
3. Properties machinable.
Hardness varies from 400 Hardness varies from 150 to 240
to 600 BHN. BHN.

These are used in weaving These are used in machine tool

plates pump lines, grinding structure, frames for electric
4. Applications
balls, dies etc. motors, cylinder blocks, heads
for I.C. engine etc.

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Flow chart for the Production of Malleable Cast Iron:

Ore from mine

Crushing and Rolling

Magnetic Separation

Coke Roasting Flux

Blast furnace

Pig Iron

Pig casting

Cupola

Controlled grades
Alloy iron casting
of iron

Grey cast White cast

iron iron

Adding small amount of Special Annealing

Magnesium or cerium to process
Molten grey cast iron

Malleable
Nodular or cast iron
spheroidal graphite
cast iron

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Effect of Sulphur, Silicon, Phosphorous and Manganese:

The impurities (such as silicon, phosphorus, sulphur and magnesium) effect in
the following ways:

1. Silicon :
(i) Increases the fluidity of metal.
(ii) Induces softness in the iron.
(iii) Reduces the melting point, but enhances the percentage content of
uncombined carbon.
(iv) Produces castings which are free from blow holes.

2. Phosphorus :
(i) Increases fluidity of metal
(ii) Gives rise to cold shortness (brittleness at ordinary temperature)

3. Sulphur :
(i) Encourages the formation of blow holes and makes the casting
unsound.
(ii) Exercises an injurious effect on the metal, therefore, its percentage
should be kept below 0.1%.
(iii) Causes red shortness (brittleness at high temperature).

4. Manganese :
(i) Increases hardness and brittleness.
(ii) Checks the bad effect of sulphur by forming MnS which is not injurious
in small quantity.

4.4 I.S. Specification of Materials

 There are very large numbers of different types of steels manufactured
and available in the market. They differ from one another in their :
1. Chemical composition
2. Properties and
3. Applications
Many attempts have been made to classify and designate these steels into
different groups. The most commonly used method known as :
1. AISI – American Iron and Steel Institute or
2. SAE – Society of Automotive Engineers
 The others are EN-English number series. (The British system of
designation)
 The Indian system is known as IS – Indian standard designation.

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 Designers and purchases have to specify their requirement according to

these designations. It is therefore necessary to understand these
designation systems.

4.4.1 Bureau of Indian Standards BIS, AISI/ SAE, British Standard B.S.
Specifications of Steels :
Indian standard designation (BIS):
 Indian standard code for designation of steel was adopted by the Indian
Standard Institution (ISI) in 1961. In 1974, this standard was revised in two
parts. As per IS : 1762 – 1974 steels have been classified on the basis of :
1. Mechanical properties (i.e. Part 1 – It covers the designation of steel
based on letter symbols.)
2. Chemical composition (i.e. Part 2 – it covers the designation of steel
based on numerals.)

Code designation on the basis of mechanical properties:

 It is based upon the tensile strength or yield strength. Symbol Fe is used to
designate minimum tensile strength and Fe to designate minimum yield
strength in N/mm2.
 It is followed by a special characteristics covering method of deoxidation,
steel quality, degree of purity, surface condition, weldability, heat treatment
and low and high temperature properties.

Designation of steels on the basis of chemical composition:

 It consists of a numerical figure indicating 100 times the average % of
carbon content. Letter C is used for plain carbon steels and letter T is used
for tool steels. Letter C or T is followed by a figure indicating 10 times the
average percent of manganese content.

 Symbols S, SE, Te, Pb, or P are used to indicate free cutting steels
followed by a figure indicating 100 times the percent content of the
respective element.

 Alloy steels are designated in the symbolic form on the basis of their alloy
content by first specifying the average content of carbon in 100 the of %,
followed by chemical symbols of the significant elements in the
descending order of % content, the nominal or average percentage of
each alloying element is indicated by an index number just after its
chemical symbol.

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Indian standard designation for plain carbon steel and cast iron :
According to Indian standard [IS: 1570 (Part III) – 1991], carbon and carbon-
manganese free cutting steels are designated in the following order:
1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.
2. Letter „C‟,
3. Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese, and
For example 10 C 4 means a carbon steel contains average 0.1% carbon and
average 0.4% manganese. Other examples are 20 C 8, 50 C 4, etc.

Plain carbon steel :

According to IS:1570 (part I) – 1993 carbon steels are designated by letters
Fe or FeE followed by the figure indicating minimum tensile strength for e.g.
Fe 310 means a steel having minimum tensile strength of 310 N/mm 2. FeE
250 means steel having yield strength of 250 N/mm2.

Gray cast iron :

According to IS:210-1993, the gray cast iron is designated by letters FG
followed by a figure indicating minimum tensile strength in N/mm 2, for e.g. FG
300 means gray cast iron with 300 MPa or N/mm 2 as minimum tensile
strength. Other examples are FG150, FG200, and FG400 etc.

Malleable cast iron:

According to IS : 14329-1995, white heart, black heart and pearlitic malleable
cast iron are designated by letters WN, BM, PM respectively followed by a
figure indicating minimum tensile strength in N/mm2, for e.g. WM 330 means
white heart cast iron with 300 MPa or N/mm2 as minimum tensile strength.
Other examples are BM 350, PM 500 etc.

Spheroidal Graphite iron or ductile iron:

According to IS: 1865-1991, Spheroidal Graphite cast iron is designated by
letters SG followed by a figure indicating minimum tensile strength in N/mm2
and the percentage elongation, for e.g. SG 450/10 means spheroidal graphite
cast iron with 450 MPa or N/mm2 as minimum tensile strength and 10%
elongation. Other examples are SG 310/15, SG500/14.

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Indian standard designation of low and medium alloy steels:

According to Indian standard [IS: 1762 (Part I)-1974], low and medium alloy
steels shall be designated in the following order:

1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage.

2. Chemical symbol, for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its
average percentage content multiplied by a factor as given below :

Element Multiplying factor

Cr, Co, Ni, Mn, Si, and W 4
Al, Be, V, Pb, Cu, Nb, Ti, Ta, Zr and Mo 10
P, S, and N 100

 For example 40 Cr 4 Mo 2 means alloy steel having average 0.4%

carbon(C), 1% chromium(Cr) and 0.2% molybdenum(Mo).

 Other examples are 40 Ni 6 Cr 4 Mo 2, 35 Mn 6 Mo 3, etc.

Note:
1. The figure after multiplying shall be rounded off to the nearest integer.
2. Symbol „Mn‟ for manganese shall be included in case manganese
content is equal to or greater than 1 per cent.

3. The chemical symbols and their figures shall be listed in the

designation n the order of decreasing content.

Indian standard designation of high alloy steels (stainless steel and hear
resisting steel):
According to Indian standard [IS: 1762 (Part I)-1974], the high alloy steels (i.e.
stainless steel and heat resisting steel) are designated in the following order:
1. Letter „X‟.
2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by a figure for its
average percentage content rounded off to the nearest integer.
4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to allow the de3sires
properties.
For examples, X 10 Cr 18 Ni 9 means allows steel with average carbon
0.10 per cent, chromium 18 per cent and nickel 9 per cent.

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Indian standard designation of high speed tool steel:

According to Indian standard [IS: 1762 (Part I)-1974], the high speed tool
steels are designated in the following order:
1. Letter „XT‟.
2. Figure indicating 100 times the percentage of carbon content.
3. Chemical symbol for alloying elements each followed by the figure for its
average percentage content rounded off to the nearest integer, and
4. Chemical symbol to indicate specially added element to attain the desired
properties.
For example, XT 75 W 18 Cr 4 V 1 means a tool steel with average carbon
content 0.75 percent, tungsten 18 percent, chromium 4 percent and
vanadium 1 percent.

Indian standard designation of free cutting steel:

According to Indian standard [IS: 1570 (Part III)-1979], carbon and carbon-
manganese free cutting steels are designated in the following order:

1. Figure indicating 100 times the average percentage of carbon.

2. Letter „C‟.
3. Figure indicating 10 times the average percentage of manganese, and
4. Symbol „S‟ followed by the figure indicating the 100 times the average
content of sulphur. If instead of sulphur, lead (Pb) is added to make the
steel free cutting, and then symbol „Pb‟, may be used.
Some typical examples with their compositions are as shown in Table
4.4.1.

Table 4.4.1: Indian standard codes for designation steels

Sr.
Designation Special characteristics and composition
No.
General purpose carbon steel with Average 0.2%
1 20 C 8
carbon and 0.8% manganese.
Standard steel with minimum tensile strength 770
2 Fe 770
N/mm 2

3 FeE 400 Standard steel with yield strength 400 N/mm 2

Killed steel with a minimum tensile strength 410

4 Fe 410 K
N/mm 2
Semi-killed steel with a minimum tensile strength
5 FeE 300 P 35
410 N/mm 2

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Minimum tensile strength of 470 N/mm 2 and

6 Fe 470 W
guaranteed fusion welding quality.
Rimming quality steel with no guarantee of minimum
7 Fe 00 R
tensile or yield strength.

8 40 C 8 Unalloyed steel, o.4% C and 0.8% Mn.

9 45 C 10 S 18 0.45% C, 1% Mn and 0.18% S

0.20% C, 1.2% Mn, 0.15% Pb, hardened and

10 20 C 12 Pb 15 T 14
tempered.

11 40 Cr 4 0.4% C, and 1% Cr

12 35 Mn 6 Mo 3 0.35% C, 1.5% Mn and 0.3% Mo

13 40 Cr 4 Mo 3 0.4% C, 1% Cr and 0.3 Mo

14 40 Cr 13 Mo 10 V 2 0.4% C, 3.3% Cr, 1% Mo and 0.2% V

15 40 Ni 6 Cr 4 Mo 2 0.4% C, 1.5% Ni, 1% Cr and 0.2% Mo

16 T 70 0.7% C Tool steel

17 10 T 4 0.1% C and 0.4% Mn Mould steel

18 T 15 Cr 3 0.15% C, 0.7% Cr

19 T 90 Mn 6 W Cr 2 0.9% C, 1.5% Mn, 0.5% W and 0.5% Cr

20 T 10 Cr 20 Mo 8 V 2 0.1% C, 5.0% Cr, 0.8% Mo and 0.2% V

21 X 10 Cr 18 Ni 9 0.10% C, 18% Cr and 9% Ni High-alloy steel

High alloy tool steel

22 X T 75 W 18 Cr 4 V 1
0.75% C, 18%W, 4% Cr and 1% V

4.4.2 Selection of Appropriate Steels and Cast Irons

 Selection of right material for different applications is a difficult task.
Number of factors is considered to make the proper selection. The
selection is largely depending upon following factors.
 Desired properties for specific application which suits the type of steel or
cast iron. For e.g. Corrosion, hardness, machinability etc.
 Suitability of steel or cast iron for working conditions.
 Reliability (safety and economic consequences of failure)
 Relative costs for material and fabrication.
 Availability of particular steel and cast iron when required.

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Above guidelines are general guidelines. Actual selection may differ as per
the specific requirement as the material selection is a critical task. It is
possible that number of alternatives is available to the engineer for the same
application. Following examples will show few of them.

Ferrous metals selection chart :

Name Composition Application

Girders, Plates, nuts and bolts,

Mild steel 0.15 to 0.30% carbon
camshafts.

Medium Metal ropes, wire, axles, crankshafts,

0.30% to 0.70 carbon
Carbon Steels garden tools, springs.

High Carbon Chisels, hammers, shear blades, drills,

0.70% to 1.40% carbon
Steel files, lathe tools, taps and dies.

Austenitic 18% chromium and 8%

Household utensils, Pipes, cutlery.
Stainless Steel nickel added.

Medium carbon,
High Speed
tungsten, chromium All types of Cutting tools
Steel
and vanadium.

Machine tool bodies, automobile

cylinder blocks, heads, flywheels,
Cast iron Gray cast iron
Agriculture equipment‟s, pipes and pipe
fittings.

Alloy steel Chrome nickel steels Axles and crankshafts.

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Summary

 Steel is an alloy of iron and iron carbide in which the maximum percentage of
carbon is 1.5%. The difference between cast iron and steel is the percentage of
carbon present.

 Steel can be said to be an alloy of iron and carbon with the carbon content to a
maximum of 1.5%.

 Steels with 0.01% to 0.3% are mild steels. Steels with 0.15 - 0.30% carbon are
widely used as structural steels. When amount of carbon varies from
0.05% - 0.15% then it is known as Dead Mild Steels.

 Steel having carbon percentage less than 0.1% is used for wires and oil pans,
steel having carbon from 0.1% to 0.15% is used for boiler plate and seamless
boiler tubes.

 In medium carbon steel the amount of carbon varies from 0.30% to 0.70%.

 High carbon steel is the steel in which carbon percentage varies from 0.70% to
1.5% these steels can be heat treated to improve the properties.

 Alloy steels may be defined as „steels to which elements other than carbon are
added in sufficient amount to get improvement in properties‟.

 commonly added elements are Al, B, Cr, up to 3.99%, Co, Mo, Ni, Ti, W, V, Mn,
Cu,. Each of these elements confers certain qualities upon the steels to which it
is added.

 Only high speed tool steel can withstand this heat without losing hardness.

 Tungsten provides toughness, wear resistance and cutting ability. Chromium

serves to increase the hardenability. Vanadium is for grain refinement. Cobalt is
added to impart additional red hardness.

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 The tool steels should be machinable and Grindable. Also during heat treatment,
the tendency for decarburization, oxidation and grain growth should be minimum.

 18: 4: 1: High speed steel on an average contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium

and 1% vanadium. It is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels.
It is widely used for drills, lathe, planer and shaper tools, milling cutters, reamers,
broaches, threading dies, punches etc.

 As the name suggests, it is „STAIN‟ less. They are highly resistant to corrosion
and oxidation in environment and media.

 The corrosion resistance of stainless is derived from the presence of hydrous

oxide film on the surface of alloy. This oxide film is very thin and stable.

 Cast iron may be defined as „an alloy of iron and carbon containing more than 2%
carbon‟. Their carbon content is such as to cause some liquid of eutectic
composition (called ledeburite) to solidify.

 Cast iron is pig iron remelted and thereby refined together with definite amount of
limestone, steel scrap and damaged casting (foundry returns) in a cupola or other
form of remelting furnace and poured into suitable moulds of required shape.

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Question Bank

1. State the types of cast iron give its classification. (4 marks)

2. What is stainless steel? State its properties. (4 marks)

3. Define tool steel. Explain what is meant by H.S. S. (4 marks)

4. Give application of high carbon steel. (4 marks)

5. Explain the effect of alloying elements on steel (4 marks)

6. What are alloy steels? State the purpose of addition of alloying element

(4 marks)

7. What is 18: 4: 1 tool steel? State its application. (4 marks)

8. Write its specification of 40 CrMo2. (S-10, S-11) (4 marks)

9. Give the IS specification for : (4 marks)

(i) Plain carbon steel
(ii) Gray cast iron (W-10)

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Non Ferrous Metals and Alloys

Chapter No.05
Non Ferrous Metals and Alloys

5.1 Introduction:
Non-ferrous metals are those which do not contain iron as a base. The chief
pure metals in the non-ferrous group are aluminium, copper, lead, tin and
zinc.

The non-ferrous alloys which have gained popularity and largely replaced
steels and cast iron in many engineering fields are the light alloys i.e. the
alloys of aluminium and magnesium due to their high strength-to-weight
characteristics and are, therefore used in automobile and aircraft industries.

5.1.1 Copper and its Alloys:

Copper and its alloys are most extensively used among non-ferrous metals
due to high electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance copper is extracted
from copper ores the chief one being pyrites.

It has reasonable tensile strength, controllable annealing properties and

general soldering and joining characteristics.

Alloyed copper is the form of brass and bronze is used extensively throughout
the mechanical engineering industry.

5.1.2 Properties of copper:

 It is relatively soft and is very malleable ductile, and flexible, yet very tough
and strong.
 It has high electrical conductivity.
 It has high thermal conductivity.
 It has non-magnetic with good reddish colour.
 It forms readily alloy with many other metals.
 It is corrosion resistant.
 It can be easily fabricated, welded, brazed, soldered and machined.
 Melting point of copper is around 1083ᵒc.

Application of copper :
 It is used for structural purposes.
 It is used for cooling utensils, kettles etc.

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 It is used for bus-bar, automobile radiators etc.

 It is used as water carrying pipes.
 Used as electrical conductors, heat conductor.
 It is used in wiring and contact for PC, TV, mobile phones, and in the
circuity.

5.1.3 Copper alloys :

Copper possesses a desirable combination of physical and mechanical
properties, it does not find many engineering application due to its poor
strength. Addition of alloying element such as zinc, tin, aluminium, nickel etc.
result in increase in strength of copper by method called ‘solid solution
hardening’.

a) Copper zinc alloys :

Brasses :
Brasses are the alloys of copper and zinc. This is basically a binary alloy
of copper with as much as 50% zinc.

Properties :
 The melting point of brass varies from 800ᵒc to 1000oc
 It is non-corrosive.
 Ductile and high tensile strength
 Non-magnetic.
 Soft with good fusibility.
 Can be easily electroplated with metal like nickel, chromium.
 Poor conductor of electricity.
 Easily soldered

Applications
Brasses are used in hydraulic fittings, bushes, bearing, pump lining and
utensils.
i. Muntz Metal :

Its composition is 60% copper and 40% zinc. The alloy becomes single
phase at about 700ᵒc, it can be readily hot worked, extruded or rolled in
the temperature range of 600ᵒc to 800oc

The machinability of muntz metal is improved by addition of 0.4 to 0.8%

lead, hence it is also called as leaded brass.

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Properties :
 This alloy becomes single phase at about 700ᵒc.
 It is reddish in colour.
 It can be readily hard worked or rolled in temperature range at
600ᵒc to 800ᵒc.
 It has tensile strength of 350 to 400 N/mm2
 It has high strength and hot workability.

Application
 It is used for utensils, being good conductor of heat.
 It is used for bolts, pump parts, condenser, tubes and similar
application.
 It is used for ship sheathing, perforated metal valve stems,
architectural work etc.
 It is used for making marine fitting, condenser heats, radiator cores,
springs, chains etc.

ii. Naval Brass (Tin brass) :

Addition of about 1% tin to muntz metal increases corrosion resistance
to marine environments and the brass is called naval brass or tobin
bronze.
Its composition is 60% copper, 39% zinc and up to 1 % tin.

Properties :
 It is excellent corrosion resistance
 It is tenacity is high.
 It has good working qualities.
 It has high tensile strength.

Application :
 It is mainly used for naval construction.
 It is used for welding rods and piston rods.
 It is used for propeller shaft.
 It is used for valve stem, pump impellers, nuts and bolts etc.

iii. Gliding metal or Gliding Brass

It contains up to 15% zn and rest Cu. It is cold rolled into sheets or
wires. It has varying colour from red to yellow based on percentage of
Zn.

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Uses :
 Used mainly for jewelry, decorative work.
 Used to manufacture coin, medals, and tokens and fuse caps.

b) Bronzes :
It is the alloy of copper and tin zinc may be present in a small amount
Properties
 Antifriction or bearing properties.
 Costlier than brasses.
 It is comparatively hard and it resists surface wear.
 It possesses superior mechanical properties and corrosion resistance
than brass.

Application
 It is used for making coins and medals
 It is used for springs, taps, marine pumps etc.
 It is used for heavy duty electrical switches, cam, bustrings.
 It is used for making bushes, cotter pins, clutch disks etc.

Following are the some form of bronzes.

i. Phosphorous bronze
ii. Silicon bronze
iii. Aluminium bronze
iv. Beryllium bronze

i. Phosphorous bronze
It is a bronze containing phosphorous. It contains 93.7% copper, 6% tin
and 0.3% phosphorous.

Some phosphorous bronze contains 86.7% copper, 12% tin and 0.3%
phosphorous.

Properties
 It possess high strength and toughness
 It has high corrosion resistance.
 It has low coefficient of friction.
 It is resistant to salt water corrosion
 It can be forged, drawn, and cold rolled and cast.

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Applications
 It is used for bearings for carrying heavy loads, worm wheels,
gears, springs.
 It is used for making bushes, cotter pins, clutch disks, springs, taps,
marine pumps etc.
 It is widely used in the foundry
 It is used for propeller blades.

ii. Silicon bronze :

There are copper alloys having 90 to 97% copper, 1 to 4% silicon and
up to 1% manganese with small amount of tin, zinc, iron and
aluminium.

Properties
 It has good corrosion resistance
 It has high strength
 It can be rolled, stamped and forged.
 Casting can be done with this alloy

Application
 They are used for marine construction.
 They are used in screws, belts, tubing, pumps etc.
 They are used in bolts, nuts, and rivets.
 They are used where high strength and good corrosion resistance
is required.

iii. Aluminum bronze :

Composition:
Copper = 88%
Aluminium = 8%
Iron = 3%
Tin = 0.5%
It is primarily copper aluminium alloy.

Properties:
 This alloy has a high strength
 It resist the corrosion
 Its meting point is about 1040ᵒc
 The commercial aluminium bronzes are practically non-magnetic,
but certain complex bronzes containing appreciable proportion of
iron are magnetic.

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Applications:
 It is used in making hot stamping although it is not easy to work in
this respect as brass or manganese.
 It is also used in massive work, bearing metal in locomotive.

iv. Beryllium bronze

It contains 2 to 3% of beryllium.

Properties
 It has a high yield point and high fatigue limit.
 It has excellent cold and hot resistance
 These alloys can also be heat treated
 It has brinell hardness 340.

Application
 It is used for springs, heavy duty electrical switches, cams and
bearings.
 Being non-sparking, it is utilized for making chisels and hammers
under conditions where spark might cause an explosion.

Gun metal
Its chemical composition is 88% copper, 10% tin and 2% zinc. It is known
as gun metal because previously it was used for making guns due to
properly of strength zinc is added to clean the metal and increase its
fluidity.

Properties
 Its tensile strength is about 250 N/mm2
 Its elongation is 20% and BHN 65
 It is very strong.
 It is resistance to corrosion by water and atmosphere
 It is not suitable for cold working operation.

Application
 It is used for manufacturing bushes and nuts.
 It is used for boiler fittings, glands
 It is used for gear wheels, pump cashing and marine fittings.
 They are used for bearings when lubrication is good at heavy loads.

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5.2 Aluminium & its alloy :

Aluminium is silvery white and about one third in weight as compared to steel
and copper. Its melting point is 660ᵒc. it has high electrical and thermal
conductivity. It has high corrosion resistance in water, industrial and marine
atmosphere.
In India they are chiefly available in Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu.
It has good machinability, formability, and workability and cast ability. Due to
its high reflectivity, it is used for reflectors, mirrors and telescope.

Aluminium alloys :
Aluminium and its alloy are divided into two broad classes, casting alloys and
wrought alloys. The letter is sub-divided into heat treatable and non-heat
treatable alloys and into various forms produced by mechanical working from
these categories few major types are given below.

1. Aluminium bronze
2. Duralumin
3. Y-alloy
4. Hindalium

1. Aluminium bronze :
Composition :
Copper = 88%
Aluminium = 8%
Iron = 3%
Tin = 0.5%
It is primarily copper aluminium alloy.

Properties:
 This alloy has a high strength
 It resist the corrosion
 Its meting point is about 1040ᵒc
 The commercial aluminium bronzes are practically non-magnetic, but
certain complex bronzes containing appreciable proportion of iron are
magnetic.

Applications:
 It is used in making hot stamping although it is not easy to work in this
respect as brass or manganese.
 It is also used in massive work, bearing metal in locomotive.

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2. Duralumin :
Composition :
4% copper, 0.6% manganese, 0.5% magnesium and 0.4% silicon with
small amounts of iron, remaining is aluminium.

Properties
 It has good casting and forging properties
 It has high tensile strength.
 It possesses high electrical conductivity
 It is light in weight and possesses high machinability.
 It is three times stronger than steel.
 It is shock resistant and fatigue resistance

Uses
 Due to high ductility and good electrical conductivity, it is used for
making cables and electrical wires.
 It is widely used for sheets, tubes, forgings, rivets, nuts and bolts.
 As the density is low and strength is high, so it is used in aeroplane
and automobiles.

3. Y - alloy :
Composition :
Copper- 4%
Nickel- 2%
Magnesium- 1.5% and
Remainder is aluminium.

Properties
 Its strength at 200ᵒc better than aluminium.
 It retains its high strength and hardness at high temperature.
 It can be easily cast and hot worked.
 Resistant to corrosion and fatigue.
 Withstands relatively high temperature.

Application
 Used for making pistons and cylinder heads.
 Castings of engine part.
 Piston and cylinder heads of IC engine.

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4. Hindalium
It is the alloy of aluminium, magnesium, manganese, chromium and silicon
etc.
It is manufactured as a rolled product mainly for anodized utensil
manufacture.

Properties:
 Strong and hard
 Cannot be easily scratched
 Can take fine finish
 Do not absorb much heat
 Can be easily cleaned
 Do not read with food acids
 Low cost

5.2.1 Bearing Materials :

Bearings are used to support moving shaft and spindles of machines. A good
bearing material should have following properties

Properties :
 Low coefficient of friction
 Resistance to wear
 High compressive strength of operating temperature.
 Plasticity to adjust the bearings to shaft and to distribute the load uniformly
 It should have sufficient melting point.
 It should have high thermal conductivity
 It should have good casting qualities
 It should have minimum shrinkage after casting.
 It should have non-corrosive properties.
 It should be economical in cost.

Common bearing materials and alloys are White metal :

It is copper, tin and antimony alloy, it is contains 8% antimony (Sn), 4%
copper (Cu) and remaining 88% tin. The combination of Pb, Sb and Sn has
very good antifriction properties.

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Copper-lead alloys :
Properties :
 They contain 20 to 40% lead.
 They are manufactured by powder metallurgy
 They are used as steel backed bearing produced by casting
 They are soft and ductile
 They are good corrosion resistant

Application of copper-lead alloy

Used in Automotive and Aeronautic application.

Silver bearing :
Properties
 They should have high strength
 They have high toughness and fatigue strength
 They are good corrosion resistant
 They have good bearing properties
 They have good anti-seizing properties

Application of silver bearing

For Heavy load condition, such as in Aircraft.

Copper – base bearing metals

 Copper base bearing metals include plain tin bronze (10-15 % tin) and
phosphor bronzes (10-13 % tin, 0.3-10% phosphorus)
 These alloys are very widely used for bearings when heavy loads are to be
carried.
 For many small bearings in standard sizes, sintered bronzes are often
used.
 These are usually of self-lubricating type, and are made by mixing copper
powder and tin powder in the proportion of a 90-10 bronze.
 Leaded bronzes are used in the manufacture of main bearing in aero
engine and for automobile and diesel crank shaft bearings.
 They have a very high wear resistance and good thermal conductivity
which helps in cooling them during operation.
 Brasses are sometimes used as low cost bearing materials.
 They are generally of low quality 60-40 type, containing up to 1% each of
aluminium, iron and manganese.

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5.2.3 Porous self-lubricating bearings:

 These bearings are produced by the powder metallurgy. These are made
from copper or tin base powders.
 Bearings made by this process are having 40 to 50% porosity these pores
are impregnated with oil under pressure. The oil from pores slowly comes
out and serves the purpose of lubrication.
 They do not require external lubrication therefore are called as self-
lubricating bearings.
 These bearings are widely used where external lubrication is not possible
e.g. textile, paper and food industry.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Non Ferrous Metals and Alloys

Summary

 Non-ferrous metals are those which do not content iron as a main constituent.

 Copper and its alloys are most extensively used among non-ferrous metals.

 Brasses are the alloys of copper and zinc.

 Naval brass or Tin brass is an alloy of copper, zinc and tin.

 Muntz metal is an alloy of copper and zinc.

 Bronzes are alloys of copper and tin.

 Silicon bronze is an alloy of copper, silicon and manganese.

 Aluminium bronze is an alloy of copper, aluminium, and iron tin.

 Duralumin is an alloy of aluminium, copper, manganese and magnesium.

 Gun metal is an alloy of copper, tin and zinc.

 Aluminium is a white meal produced by electrical processed from Al2O3.

 Y-alloy is an alloy of aluminium, copper, nickel and manganese.

 Hindalium is an alloy of aluminium, magnesium, manganese, chromium and

silicon.

 Magnelium is an alloy of aluminium, magnesium, copper, nickel and tin.

 Bearings are used to support moving shaft and spindles of machines.

 White metal is an alloy of copper, tin and antimony.

 Porous self-lubricating bearings are made from fine metallic powders by powder
metallurgy process.

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Question Bank

1. What is Y-alloy? State its uses. (2 marks)

2. State desired properties of bearing materials. (4 marks)

3. Give the chemical composition of gun metal. (2 marks)

4. What is copper? State its properties & applications. (2 marks)

5. Give the chemical composition of the following copper alloys : (4 marks)

i. Naval brass.
ii. Muntz metal.
iii. Gun metal.
iv. Bronzes.

6. Write short note on self-lubricating bearing. (4 marks)

7. State typical applications of topper and lead alloys.

8. What is white metal? State its applications. (4 marks)

9. Classify various aluminium alloys. What is the effect of alloying

elements on properties of aluminium? (4 marks)

10. Write the application of duralumin. (2 marks)

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Gramin Polytechnic, Vishnupuri, Nanded 105
Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Non Metallic Material

Chapter No.06
Non Metallic Material

6.1 Polymeric Material :

Definition :
 The word polymer is derived from two Greek words ‘poly’ and ‘meros.’
‘Poly’ means many or multiple and ‘meros’ mean unit or parts therefore,
polymer means a group of many units.
 The term polymer is defined as substance which is formed by combining a
number of monomers and monomers are joined together by using bonds
formed between carbon molecules.
 Polymer is formed through the process of polymerization. In this process,
monomer undergoes chemical reaction and monomer binds together to
form polymers.
 A broad definition of plastic is any nonmetallic material that can be molded
into desired shape.

Characteristics of polymer:
 Polymer consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms only
 Polymers are anti-corrosive in nature
 Polymers are good thermal and electrical insulator
 It has low strength
 It’s servicing temperature is 300 0c

6.1.1 Types of polymer:

Polymer can be classified as follows
a) Thermoplastic
b) Thermosetting
c) Rubbers (elastomers)

a) Thermoplastic polymer:
 Thermoplastics are the polymer which becomes soft when heated and
becomes hard on cooling.
 They can he easily deformed to the desired shape.

Properties:
 Thermoplastic polymer is recyclable in nature.
 They have low melting point 150 0 c

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 Shaping molding can be done during cooling.

 It is environmentally hazardous.
 It structure is linear i.e. -CH2-CH2-CH2-
 At room temperature, it is in solid state.
 By heating the polymer, it losses the strength & by cooling the polymer
it gains the strength.
 Some commercial plastics are polyethylene polyvinylchloride (PVC),
polystyrene, Teflon etc.

Application:
 Outer envelope of refrigerator, and washing machine.
 Helmets, automobile outer pats, water bottles
 Plastic bucket, liquid container, mug etc.

b) Thermosetting polymer :
Thermosetting are the polymer which become soft on the application of
heat & becomes hard by chemical change. They cannot be softened again
by chemical change.

Properties:
 Thermosetting polymers are non-recyclable in nature.
 Its servicing temperature is 300 0c
 Shaping can be done during heating
 By heating it gains the strength& by cooling there will be no change
 Structure is cyclic
 At room temperature it is in liquid state.
 Some important commercial examples are Phenolic, Amines,
Polyester, and Epoxies etc.

Applications:
For making all electric switches, plug, socket etc.

c) Rubber (Elastomer):
Rubber is defined as the polymer which turns as hard on beating but
hardness achieved is a function of temperature to which it is heated.

Properties:
 It is Non – recyclable in nature.
 It’s servicing temperature is up to 300 0c

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 Shaping is done during heating

 Structure is partially linear and partially cyclic
 At room temperature, it is in liquid state.
 By heating it gains the strength but by cooling there will be no change.
 In case of rubber, when it is heated at 50 0c, it turns into soft rubber but
when it is heated at 1500c, it turns into hard rubber.
 Therefore hardness achieved in case of rubber is dependent on
temperature.

Application :
Seals, Gasket, Car tubes, Car type, Thermal insulation, etc.

6.2 Thermoplastic and Thermosetting plastic materials :

6.2.1 Thermoplastic material :

Achieving strength by forming bond among the atoms in thermoplastic is
known as ‘Polymerisation’

Characteristics and uses of ABS, Acrylics, Nylons and Vinyl’s :

a) Acrylonitrile - Butadiene - Styrene (ABS) :
Characteristics:
 ABS plastics materials are copolymers of acrylonitrile butadiene and
styrene.
 ABS is resistant to acid and alkalis as well as to some organic solvents.
 They are hard and rigid.
 They are good insulators to heat
 They offer good impact resistance
 They have high strength and toughness.

Application:
 Automobile panel.
 Radiator grilles
 Telephones
 Refrigerator liners
 TV cabinets and cameras.

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b) Acrylics :
Characteristics :
Acrylics are a group of vinyl plastics of which the most widely used in
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). It is produced by the polymerization of
methyl methacrylate.
 It is a good electrical insulator.
 It has high resistance to weathering and sunlight
 It has low abrasion resistance
 It is tougher than glass & also it can easily be molded.
 It is much lighter than glass.

Applications :
 It can be used in the form of corrugated sheets for use in industrial
buildings.
 Lenses can be made from PMMA by molding from powder.
 Display outdoor signs, sinks, baths and sanitary wares etc.

c) Polyethylene (polyether) (PE) :

Characteristics :
 It is light in weight
 It is tough and flexible
 It has high electrical resistivity
 It has low density & is easily molded and machined.
 It has low strength and cannot absorb moisture.
 It has excellent resistance to corrosion
 It is cheap to produce, and finds a wide range of application.
 It has low coefficient of friction.

Application :
 It is used for bags, tubes, Battery part, containers, ice trays, packaging,
milk and water bottles, electrical insulation, etc.

d) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) :

Characteristics:
 It has low cost and widely used plastic
 They are resistant to acids, alkalis.
 They have low moisture absorption
 They are available in rigid and flexible types.
 They have good toughness, strength and abrasion resistance.
 They have excellent dielectric properties.

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Application:
 It is used for electric cables cover, credit card, car instrument panels,
flooring and ceiling panels etc.

e) Teflon (PTFE) : (Ploytetrafluoroethylene) :

Characteristics:
 It is type of thermoplastic called fluoro carbons
 It is an excellent electrical insulator
 It will withstand wide range of temperature.
 It has lowest coefficient of friction.
 It can resist attack by all solvents & corrosive chemicals.
 It difficult to coat on to other surface

Application:
 It is used for chemical pipes and valves bearing bushes, frying pans,
anticorrosive, seals, now-stick coating, etc.

f) Polyamides (PA) :
Characteristics :
 They are strong and tough,
 They are hard wearing material with a low coefficient of friction
 It absorb considerable amount of moisture which reduces strength
 Its softening temperature is relatively high so that it can be safely
heated in boiling water.
 Nylons have very good resistance to most organic solvent, oils and
fuels.
 They are durable & relatively high in cost.
 All nylon possesses good abrasion resistance.

Applications :
 It is used in the bearing, molded gears, cam valves, ropes, flexible
tubes etc.

6.2.2 Thermosetting plastics: Epoxides, Melamine’s and Bakelite’s:

Achieving strength in thermoplastic liquid during heating process in the form
of strong covalent bonds formed between adjoin molecule is called as cross
linking or Networking or Branching.

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a. Melamine formaldehyde (MF) :

Characteristics :
 It is also known as amino resin.
 They are expensive.
 They have excellent dielectric properties
 They are most resistant to water
 They absorb less moisture
 They are much harder than any other plastics
 It has good heat and stain resistance.

Application :
It is used in household application as cups and saucers, baths & different
kitchen utensils, paints, plywood glues, decorative laminate, domestic
table ware etc.

b. Polyesters :
Characteristics :
 They can be used from room temperature to 180 oc
 They have high resistance to heat & high electrical resistivity.
 They have excellent electrical properties
 These are the product of dibasic acids & polyhydric alcohols.
 They are available in rigid & flexible types.
 These are also available in saturated and unsaturated forms.

Applications :
 It is used in structure of small boats, wheelbarrows and car bodies.
 It is used in enamels and lacquers for automobiles, stoves,
refrigerators and washing machine.
 Helmets, fans, roof sheeting, car bodies, tanks, boat hulls etc.

c. Epoxy resins:
Characteristics:
 They are relatively expensive
 They have excellent chemical resistance
 They show superior strength and toughness.
 They have good electrical properties
 They have outstanding adhesion properties
 They have excellent combination of mechanical properties
 They are the product of eipichlorohydrin and polyhydroxy compound
referred as epoxies.

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Applications :
 They are used for manufacturing laminates, for casting & for potting of
electrical equipment.
 Adhesives, protective coatings and as an insulating material in
electrical application.

d. Silicons :
Characteristics :
 They are available as viscous oils, grease, plastics and rubbers.
 They have excellent electrical properties
 They are chemically inert but susceptible to attack by steam.
 Silicons are water repellent
 Mechanical strength is comparatively low
 All are virtually noncombustible and their properties remain constant
over wide temperature range
 Silicons are semi-organic compounds based on long chain molecules
in which carbon has been replaced by silicon and oxygen.
 They are relatively expensive.

Application :
 Widely used for waterproofing clothes, shoes and other articles etc.
 Silicon jelly is useful as moisture proof coating and sealing compound.

e. Phenol-formaldehyde (Bakelite) : (PF)

Characteristics :
 Bakelite is synthetic plastic
 It is unaffected by water
 It is unaffected by oil
 It possesses good electrical insulation properties
 It has excellent thermal stability up to 2500c
 It is not used for molding into small articles because it has no
toughness.
 It is almost inert chemically.

Application :
It used for motor housing, telephones, and handle knobs for door,
electrical parts etc.

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 Difference between Thermoplastics and Thermosetting plastics :

Sr.
Thermoplastics Thermosetting
No.
Achieving strength in the
Achieving strength by forming bond thermoplastic liquid during heating
1. among the atoms in thermoplastic is process in the form of strong
called polymerization. covalent bond among molecule is
called networking or cross linking.
They are formed by addition They are formed by condensation
2.
polymerization polymerization
They do not soften on heating but it
They soften on heating and harden
3. is hardened on beating & set
on cooling
permanently.
4. They are Recyclable They are non-recyclable
They are soluble in some organic They are insoluble in all organic
5.
solvent solvent
6. Structure is linear Structure is cyclic
By heating losses the strength & by By heating gain the strength & by
7.
cooling gain the strength cooling no change
Shaping or molding can be done Shaping or molding can be done
8.
during cooling during heating
9. They are soft, weak & less brittle They are hard, strong & more brittle
Used in the toys, Helmets, Hose Used for making electric switches,
10.
pope, bottles mug, etc. plug, socket camera parts etc.

6.3 Rubbers :
 Rubbers are highly elastic & resilient polymeric material, which find wide
applications in various field
Natural & synthetic rubbers are called elastomers.
 Natural rubber is a vegetable product which may be obtained from a
variety of plants.
 It has excellent flexure characteristics.
It is used in automobile tubes & tyros, raincoats, floor mats, protective
gloves, erasers etc.
 Foam rubber is mad by incorporating gas into latex & after that a process
of vulcanization.
 Sponge rubber is produced from dry natural or synthetic rubber into which
blowing agent such as sodium bicarbonate & fatty acid are injected.
 Synthetic rubbers are materials with rubber like qualities but they are not
as elastic as rubber.

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6.3.1 Properties and applications of Neoprene, Butadiene, Buna & silicons :

a. Neoprene (chloroprene) Rubber :
Properties :
 Neoprene is chemically and structurally similar to natural rubber & its
mechanical properties are also similar.
 It is resistant to oils, chemicals, sunlight, weathering, aging & ozone is
outstanding.
 It remains its properties to permeability by gases.
 It remains its properties at temperature up to 1200c & is one of the few
elastomers that do not support combustion.
 It is slightly inferior to natural rubber in most mechanical properties.
 Neoprene has superior resistance to compression set, particularly at
elevated temperature.
 It has excellent resistance to permeability by gases.

Application :
 It can be used for low voltage insulation but is relatively low in dielectric
strength.
 They are used for heavy duty conveyor belts, V-belts, hose covers,
footwear, brake diaphragms, motor mounts, rolls and gaskets.

b. Butadiene rubber (BR) :

Properties and application :
 Butadiene rubber is noted for its high resilience
 It has poor tensile strength & poor tear resistance, for which reason it is
seldom used on its own but generally blended with other elastomers.
 Their resistance to chemicals, sunlight and whether is poor.
 BR imparts good tread wear to tyres and has good low temperature
properties.
 It is generally used for vehicle tyres blended with natural rubber for
truck tyres & with SBR (Styrene-Butadiene-Rubber) for motor car tyres
 It is also used as shoe heels gaskets and belts.

c. Styrene Butadiene Rubber (SBR):Or Buna “s” or GR-S :

Properties and applications :
 These are elastomers
 These are copolymers of butadiene and styrene.

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 They have good physical properties,

 They are non-oil resistant and are generally poor in chemical
resistance
 They have excellent impact and abrasion resistance
 They are low in tensile strength, resilience, hysteresis than natural
rubber
 These are first widely used synthetics.
 They are used in auto tyres.

d. Acrylonitrile – Butadiene Rubber or Nitrile - Butadiene Rubber (NBR)

or Buna “N” :
Properties and application :
 These are the copolymers of acrylonitrile and butadiene
 Their properties can be changed by varying the ratio of an acrylonitrile
and butadiene.
 Nitrile groups are low in most mechanical properties.
 It has excellent resistance to oil and fuels at room as well as high
temperature
 Nitrile rubbers are relatively expensive and is used for sealing
application
 It is also used for hoses, conveyor belts and cable sheathing washing
machine parts etc.

e. Silicon Rubber :
Properties and applications :
 These are hydrocarbon
 They have poor mechanical strength it has high dimensional & high
thermal stability
 It has good electrical properties
 It is anti-adhesive in nature
 It is low toxic
 It is chemical inert
 It is used as a carpet-backing material & in some adhesive
 It is also used for seals, gaskets, tubing for medical and food use etc.

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6.4 Properties and application of other Engineering materials :

a. Ceramics :
A ceramic is a combination of one or more metals with non-metallic
elements. All metal oxides, carbides, nitrides, borides are considered as
ceramics.

Properties :
 It has high melting temperature
 I has low density
 They are having high strength, stiffness and hardness.
 It is highly wear resistance and corrosion resistance
 It is good insulator of electricity
 It is chemically inert.
 These are brittle in nature.

Applications :
 For manufacturing of tiles fitted in bathroom, wash basin pot etc.
 Ceramic fibers such as graphite & aluminum oxide with their extremely
high stiffness have led to the production of fiber-reinforced composites.

b. Glass wool :
Properties :
 They have very high tensile strength.
 They may be bonded with thermosetting resin, compressed to the
desired density & curved while in the compressed state.
 Fiber glass wool provides excellent insulation against heat and cold.
 They can be performed to hold their shape without use of special
surface covering.
 It is a type of fiberglass reinforced composites.

Applications :
 It is used for the insulation against heat and cold.
 It is widely used in the exterior walls and in the ceilings of homes and
other buildings
 It is used in electrical industry to insulate wires and cables.
 It is used in the furnace, ovens water-heaters, refrigerator & freezers

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6.4.1 Introduction to composite materials :

Composite materials are combination of two or more different materials
combined together to achieve certain properties. Thus in the Glass Reinforced
polymer known generally as fiberglass large numbers of short, strong and stiff
fibers of glass are randomly dispersed in a weaker but tougher matrix of
thermoset resin.

Properties of composite materials :

 It has high stiffness, high specific strength.
 It has low density.
 Good impact resistance and high corrosion resistance.
 It has resistance to oxidation, electrical and thermal conductivity
 It has elevated temperature strength.

Applications :
 Composites are used in aerospace, under water, and transport
applications.

Types of composite :
a. Laminated composite
b. Reinforced composite
a. Laminated composite :
It consists of two or more layers of different materials bonded physically to
each other. These layers impart corrosion resistance, electrical and
magnetic properties and aesthetic purpose at the surface of base
materials.
They are manufactured by rolling extrusion, casting or joining processes
cladded aluminium alloy (Alcad) is a typical example of laminated
composites.
Laminated composites are used as roofing material wall panels, door and
window, frames, thermostats etc.

b. Reinforced composite :
These composite have particles or fibers embedded in matrix. Following
are the few examples.
i) Fiber Reinforced plastics :
It is also called as polymer matrix composite. These composite having
different plastics like epoxy, polyester, as a matrix in which fibers of
glass, cotton, boron etc. are reinforced.
These fibers may be continuous or discontinuous. The plastic material
has strength, toughness and corrosion resistance while fibers are
strong, chemically inert and easy to process.

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ii) Metal matrix fiber composites :

Silicon carbide, boron or graphite fibers embedded in soft & ductile
metals as aluminum, magnesium, and copper are from metal matrix
composite group. They can be used at relatively high temperatures
than plastic composite

They have good corrosion resistance high temperature creep & rupture
property excellent high temperature rupture properties & impact
strength.

Their major application area is marine and aerospace component.

iii) Ceramic matrix composites :

Used in very high temperature environments, these materials use a
ceramic as the matrix & reinforce it with short fibers or whiskers such
as those made from silicon carbide and boron nitride.

Fiber reinforced composites :

In many application, like in aircraft parts, there is need for high strength
per unit weight. This can be achieved by composites consisting of a
low-density matrix reinforced with stiff fibers.

The strength depends on the fiber length and its orientation with
respect to the stress direction.

The efficiency of load transfer between matrix and fiber depends on the
interfacial bond.

Advantages of composite :
 It has higher strength and stiffness combined with lightness.
 Composite materials are very durable
 They provide design flexibility
 Composites can be molded into complex shapes.
 It has elevated temperature strength and high fracture toughness.

Disadvantages of composite :
 The downside of composite is usually the cast. Although
manufacturing processes are often more efficient when composites
are used, the raw materials are expensive.

 Composites will never totally replace traditional materials like steel,

but in many cases they are just what we need.

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iv) Cermets :
 Cermets are the mixture of ceramics and metals.
 They are manufactured from the powders of ceramics and metals
by powder metallurgy. Cermet is a short form of ceramic plus metal.
 Ceramics have excellent high temperature strength and hardness
whereas metals have good shock resisting ability.
 Ceramic particles are bonded by metal particles and hence the
properties of cermets depend upon the type of ceramic, type and
amount of metallic binder & other powder metallurgical parameters.

Applications :
 Cermets are used in the manufacture of resistors, capacitors &
other electronic components which may experience high
temperature
 It is used in the spacecraft shielding as they resist high velocity
impacts of micrometer roids & orbital debris much more effectively
than more traditional spacecraft material such as aluminum & other
metals.
 The ceramic-to-metal seal is required to isolate the electrical
section of turbine–driven generators designed to operate in
corrosive liquid-metal vapors
 It is used in the conjunction with metal parts as friction material for
brakes and clutches.
 Cermets are also used in machining on cutting tools.
 It is used as spinning tools for hot metals, hot forging and other
similar high temperature application.
 It is used for the manufacturing of spark plug.

v) Thermocole :
Thermocole is the trade name of expandable polystyrene which was
first produced by USA during Second World War, also since 1956 and
a number of factories in Delhi and Bombay are producing it.

Properties :
 Odorless
 Snow white color
 Chemically stable and fungus resistant
 It is very light
 It has air trapped in its pore.
 Its density is 10 to 25 kg/m3.
 Resistant to salts, acids & alkalis
 It is good heat insulator up to 200 0c

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Sizes :
Thermocole sheets are available in the following sizes, 10, 12.5, 20,
25, 37.5 and 50 mm thickness.

Uses :
 As heat insulation
 As a stationary items
 For decoration purposes
 As molded packing for T.V, air heater, V.C.R. and other electrical &
electronics items - to protect these items from shock.

6.4.2 Nano – Materials – Nature, Properties and Application :

Nano scale materials are defined as set of substance where at least one
dimension is less than approximately 100 nanometers. A nanometer is one
millionth of a millimeter – approximately 100,000 times smaller than the
diameter of human hair. Nano materials are extremely small size which is 100
nanometers or less.
Nano materials ate of interest because at this scale unique optical, magnetic,
electrical and other properties emerge. These emergent properties have the
potential for great impacts in electronics, medicine and other fields.
According to Siegel, nanostructure materials are classified as zero
dimensional, one dimensional, two dimensional, three dimensional structures.

Properties :
Mechanical properties :
The large amount of grain boundaries in bulk materials made of nanoparticles
allows extended grain boundary sliding leading to high plasticity.

Catalytic properties :
Due to their large surface nanoparticles made of transition element oxides
exhibit interesting catalytic properties.

Magnetic properties :
The energy of magnetic anisotropy may be that small that the vector of
magnetization fluctuates thermally, this is called super paramagnetism.

Optical properties :
Gold nanoparticles in glass lead to red or orange coloration, semiconducting
nanoparticles & some oxide-polymer Nano composites exhibit fluorescence
showing blue shift with decreasing particle size.

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Applications :
 Nanoparticles having wide range of application in the field of electronics,
fuel cells, batteries, agriculture, food industry, and medicines etc.
 Nanostructure metal oxide finds application for rechargeable batteries for
cars or consumer goods.

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Summary

 A polymer is made of thousands of monomers joined together.

 Organic materials are those materials, which are derived from carbon and consist
of carbon.
 Thermoplastic materials are those which soften on the application of heat with or
without pressure but they require cooling to set them to shape.
 Thermosetting polymers become soft during their first heating and become
permanently set.
 Acrylonitrile Butadiene styrene (ABS) plastic materials are copolymers of
acrylonitrile, butadiene and styrene.
 Acrylics are polymers of methyl methacrylate having trade name Perspex.
 The general name of linear polyamides is nylon.
 The vinyl chlorides are formed from hydrochloride acid, limestone and natural gas
or coal.
 Epoxides are obtained by condensation polymerization of epichlorohydrin and
polyhydroxy compound.
 Melamine plastics are obtained by condensation of melamine with formaldehyde.
 Phenol formaldehyde is made by condensation polymerization of phenol
formaldehyde in an acid or alkaline medium.
 Rubbers are highly elastic and resilient polymeric materials, which find wide
applications in various fields.
 Neoprene is chemically and structurally similar to natural rubber and its
mechanical properties are also similar.
 Silicones belong to the unique class of polymers which is not based on carbon
element but on silicon.
 Ceramic materials are defined as ‘those containing phases that are compounds
of metallic and non-metallic elements’.
 Glass is any substance or mixture of substances that has solidified from the liquid
state without crystallization.
 Composite materials are combinations of two or more different materials.
 Laminated composites consist of two or more layers of different materials bonded
physically to each other.
 Reinforced composites have particles or fibers embedded in matrix.

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Question Bank

1. State the general properties of plastics? (2 marks)

2. Differentiate between thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics? (4 marks)
3. Define composite, state properties & applications of composite? (4 marks)
4. Write down characteristics of thermoplastics? (2 marks)
5. Give two properties & application of, (2 marks)
i) ABS ii) Neoprene

6. What is thermosetting plastic? State its properties. (4 marks)

7. What is ceramics? State its properties & applications? (4 marks)
8. Define acrylics. State their properties & uses? (4 marks)
9. Explain laminated composite & reinforced composite? (4 marks)
10. State the properties of rubber & state different types of rubber (4 marks)

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Powder Metallurgy & Non-destructiveTesting

Chapter No.07

Powder Metallurgy & Nondestructive Testing

7.1 Powder Metallurgy :

Powder metallurgy is a branch of metallurgy which deals with the production
of metals and non-metal powders and subsequently manufacture of
components by using these powders.
Powder metallurgy components are manufactured by mixing of metal or metal
and non-metal powders, compacting with simultaneous or subsequent heating
at elevated temperature using controlled atmosphere to develop metal or
metal like component with satisfactory strength and density.
These components have unique and wide range of properties which satisfy
the needs of modern society in the day to day life and find applications in
several fields such as automotive, defence, high temperature, aerospace,
atomic energy.

7.1.1 Advantages of Powder Metallurgy :

Metal plus metal components can be manufactured by powder metallurgy
components of any desired composition can be manufactured.
 Metal plus non-metal components can be manufactured which are quite
impossible to manufacture by the usual methods.
 Controlled porosity can be obtained in the components. This is essential
for certain applications like liquid and gas filters, self-lubricating bearings
and insulating bricks.
 It is possible to produce components with properties similar to the parent
metals.
 Production of refractory metals like W, Mo, Ti, Th etc. is possible without
melting eg. Manufacturing of ductile tungsten in wire from for incandescent
lamp filaments.
 Component from metals which are completely insoluble in the liquid state
can be manufactured with uniform distribution of one metal into the other.
 Manufacture of cemented carbide cutting too is only possible by powder
metallurgy.
 Composite and dispersion hardened materials can be manufactured.
 Powder metallurgical parts may welded brazed, mechanical, heat treated,
plated or inpregnated with lubricants or other materials.

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 Close control over the dimensions of the finished component can easily be
obtained.
 Highly qualified or skilled personal is not required for plant operation and
maintenance.
 Fast production of simple shaped component is possible due to lesser
numbers of steps involved in Powder metallurgy.
 No machining or minimum machining is required and hence the scrap is
minimum. This gives yield of over 99%.

Limitations of Powder Metallurgy :

 Most of the powders used in powder metallurgy are fine and fine powder of
some of the metals like Mg, Al, Zr, Ti, etc. are likely to explode and cause
in contact with air.
 It is very difficult to produce high purity powder and also it is expensive to
maintain purity.
 Large sized components cannot be manufactured because of limited
capacity of process available for compaction.
 Complex shaped parts can be manufactured with ease by powder
metallurgy.
 Due to porosity the specified mechanical properties are difficult to obtain.
 Components of theoretical density cannot be produced.
 Alloy powder such as stainless steel, brass, bronze are difficult to produce
as simple method is not available.

Applications of Powder Metallurgy :

1. Automotive Applications :
 In motor car industry, porous bearings are used for starters, wipers,
sliding doors, dynamos, clutches and breakes of cars, buses, trucks
and tractors,
 Sintered gears are widely used in cars and trucks.
 Electrical contacts, crank shaft drive, piston rings, connecting rods and
brake lining are other powder metallurgy parts for the automotive
applications.
 Sintered friction materials are used for breakes in cars trucks, aircrafts
and similar applications.

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2. Defence application :
 Metal powders play an important role in military and national defence
system. These powders find use in rockets, missiles, cartridge cases,
bullets and militry pyrotechnics such as tracers‟ incendiaries etc.

3. High Temperature Applications :

 Refractory metals and refractory metal carbicks find applications in
high temperature service.
 Components made of W, Mo and Ta by powder metallurgy are widely
used in the electric light bulbs, fluorescent tubes, radio valves, mercury
arc rectifiers and x-ray tubes in the form of filament cathode, anode,
screen and control grids.
 Refractory metal, carbides are used for dies, rolls, cutting tools etc. at
high temperature.
 Production of super alloys is also possible by powder metallurgy.

4. Aerospace Application :
 Metal powder plays an important role in rockets, missiles satellite and
space vehicles. Metal powder of Be, Al, Mg and Zr are used as solid
fuels in rockets and missiles.
 Tungsten parts with uniform distribution of porosity are used in plasma
jet engines and ion engines which are operated at about 18000C.
 Bronze bearing, filters, ferrite cores for transformers and inductor coils
Alnico Magnetic materials in communication systems are used in
various space satellites and vehicles.

5. Atomic Energy Applications :

 Composite materials are applied in various fuel elements and control
rod systems Disperssion strengthened materials are used in atomic
reactors, magneto-hydrodynamic generators, high temperature gas
turbines and computers.

6. Other Applications :
 Parts in clocks and timing devices, typewriters, adding machines,
calculators, permanent magnets and laminated bimetallic strips.
 The manufactures of some of the components such as sintered porous
bearings, cemented carbides, refractory.

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7.1.2 Processes of Powder Metallurgy :

 Powder metallurgy is a forming and fabrication technique consisting of
these major processing stages.
 The primary material is physically powdered, divided into many small
individual particles.
 Then powder is injected into mould or passed through a die to produce a
weakly cohesive structure. Very near the dimensions of the objects
ultimately to be manufactured.
 Finally, the end part is formed by applying pressure, high temperature,
long setting time.
 It is essential to study the various steps in the manufacture of component
by powder metallurgy to understand and realise the advantages and
limitations of process.

These steps are as below :

a. Powder production
b. Blending or mixing
c. Compacting i.e. pressing
d. Sintering
e. Infilteration
f. Impregnation or sizing

a. Powder Production :
In the majority of powders, the size of particles varries several micron
to 0.5mm. Various methods are used for producing powder of this size.
The most common methods are machining electrolysis, milling etc.

1. Machining : This method is mainly used to produce fillings

turnings, chips etc. These can be pulverized by crushing and
milling. Very coarse and bulky powders are obtained by this
process. In this process irregular shaped particles are produced.

2. Crushing : This method is used for disintegration of oxides and

brittle materials various crushing instrument such as stamps,
hammers, jaw crushers etc. are used. The powder produced by this
method is of angular shape for brittle material and of flaky shape for
ductile materials. Titanium, Zirconium vanadium etc. can be
powdered by this method.

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3. Atmoziation :

Fig.7.1.2.1: Atomization for powder manufacturing

 The principle of this method consists of disintegration of a

stream of molten metal into the fine particles mechanically by
using jet of compressed air inert gas or water.

 Because of its various advantages, this method has wide

applications. This is mostly used for powdering of the metals
such as tin, lead, zinc and aluminium which have low melting
points.

 Atomised products are generally sphere-shaped partcles. By

varying temperature of the metal, pressure and temperature of
the atomizing gas, rate of flow of metal through orific and nozzle
decide the particles size, shape and distribution.

 It is a very flexible method, but not suitable for the refractory

metals.

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b. Blending or Mixing :
 Powders of metals. Or metals and nonmetals are carefully blended
to obtain uniform and homogeneous mixture. This is essential for
obtaining the desired properties in the component after sintering.
 During blending, lubricants are usually added to reduce the friction
between the die wall and punches to obtain better uniformity of
density distribution in cold compact.
 The removal of lubricant is essential during or prior to sintering of
the compact because they may adversely affect the mechanical
properties.
 Various types of blenders or mixers are available to suit the
particular requirements of the components to be produced.

c. Compacting (Pressing) :

Fig.7.1.2.2: Steps in cold compaction

 Compaction in metal dies in one of the most important method for

shaping of metal powders.
 The powder mix is fed into the die cavity through a hopper and feed
shoe is oscillated to assist powder flow.
 The volume of powder controlled by adjusting the position of the
bottom punch in the die cavity.
 When the die has been evenly filled with powder. The upper surface
is leveled by a sweep of the feed shoe and top punch is pushed into
die cavity.

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 The pressure is then applied on any one punch or simultaneously

on both the punches to compact the powder.
 After maximum compression, upper punch is removed and the
compact is ejected by raising the lower punch, leaving it free for the
next similar operation.
 The powder mass acquires its shape and sufficient strength to
withstand ejection and handling.
 The density of compact depends on the pressure applied. Pressure
can be applied by mechanical or hydraulic presses.

d. Sintering :
 Sintering is carried out to increase strength and hardness of green
compact and consist of heating compact to some temperature
under controlled conditions with or without pressure for a definite
time.

Fig.7.1.2.3: Steps in sintering process

 Sintering process is concerned with –

1. Diffusion :
This takes place especially on the surface of particles as the
temperature rises.

2. Densification :
This decreases the porosity present in the green compact and
increases the particle contact area. Due to this, the compact
size decreases.

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This decrease may not occur uniformly because of variations in

the density of compact and hence this leads to distortion of
component.

3. Recystallization and grain Growth :

This occurs between the particles at the contact area, leading to
a structure similar to original one.
 The main driving force for sintering is decrease in free
energy due to decrease of surface area.
 Depending on the temperature of sintering, Sintering process
is classified as solid phase, sintering or liquid phase
sintering.
 The most common method is solid phase sintering in which
green compact are heated usually above recrystallization
temperatures of low melting metal.

 The liquid phase sintering is carried out above melting point

of one of alloy constituent or above melting print of an alloy
formed during sintering.

e. Infilteration :
 An operation in which the pores of PM part are filled with molten
metal with lower melting point capillary action draws the filter into
the pores.
 Relatively nonporous and more uniform density, as well as
improved toughness and strength.
 The pores of sintered parts are filled with some low melting point
metal with result that parts hardness and tensile strength are
improved.
 A slug of metal to be impregnated kept in close contact with
sintered component and together they are heated to melting print of
slug.
 The molten metal infiltrates pores by capillary action. When process
is complete, the component has greater density and strength.
 Copper is often used for infiltration of iron base PM components
lead has also been used for infiltration of components like bushes
for which lower frictional characteristics are needed.

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f. Impregnation or Sizing :
 The sintered component may have
slightly different size desired one due to
distortions occuring during the sintering
process.
 The size rectification is done by placing
the component in master die and
applying pressure, this is called sizing.

 Due to this, the interconnected porosity

is likely to get closed and filing of these
pores with oil or some other metal will
Fig.7.1.2.4: Sizing or
not be possible. Coining

 Therefore if component is to be impregnated sizing should be

avoided. However, the close dimensional tolerances can be
obtained by machining prior to impregnation.

7.1.3 Application of Powder Metallurgy for Tungsten Carbide tip Tools and
Porous Bearing :

Tugsten Carbide Tip Tools :

 Tungsten carbide tools also called as sintered or cemented carbide tools.
Basically these are hard carbide of tungsten (W), Titanium (Ti) and
Tantalum (Ta) held together with cobalt (Co) binder. They are produced by
powder metallurgy.

 The process consists of mixing of tungsten carbide and cobalt powder in

suitable proportion in ball mill. It is followed by pressing into desired shape.

 Then product is presintered formed and final sintered to complete the

process.

 Special properties of these tools are higher compressive strength, high red
hardness and wear resistance.

 These are superior to high speed steel in respect of cutting speed and
feed because of high cost, only tips are made of these materials and
brazed to shank of ordinary steel.

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Porous Bearings :
 Porous or self-lubricated bearing are the product of powder metallurgy.
These bearings are made from bronze, copper, tin and iron by powder
metallurgy. These bearings have 30 to 40% interconnected porosity.
 Pores may be as small as 0.002mm diameter. After sintering, these
bearings are subjected to oil impregnation to fill the oil into the pores.
 During the operation, the oil forms lubricating film on the working surface.
Because of bearings are also referred as self-lubricated bearings. These
are used in food and textile industry.

7.2 Non Destructive Testing :

Non-destructive testing (NDT) is one of the important methods used for
evaluation and quality control of metal components. Usually these tests do not
directly measure the mechanical. Properties such as tensile strength or
hardness but they are used to locate the defects or flaws in the component.

During testing, the metal component does not get damaged. Therefore, these
methods are called non-destructive testing methods.

7.2.1 Importance of Non-destructive Testing (NDT) :

 Higher accuracy, reliability and repeatability in test results can be
obtained.

 Permanent records of testing can be made during testing.

 The same component can be used for various tests as it does not get
damaged.

 Rapid inspection of each and every component is possible.

 Testing on shop floor is possible because portable equipment are used.

This controls the quality of further production.

 The defective part can be segregated in early stages of manufacturing.

This saves time and production cost.

 Non-destructive testing (NDT) methods can be automated to lower their

cost.

 It is very difficult to weld or mold a solid object that has no risk of breaking
in service, so testing at manufacture and during use is often essential.

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Difference between Destructive and Non-destructive testing :

Sr.
Destructive Testing Non-Destructive Testing
No.
A method of examining the It is a method of detecting internal
01 workpiece by impairing its future flaw without breaking them.
used is called destructive testing.

The same component can not be The same component can be used
02 used for various tests as it gets for various tests.
damaged.
These tests can provide direct Do not provide direct measurement
03 measurement of mechanical of mechanical properties.
properties.

Cost of inspection is less for small It can be automated to lower their

04 batch. cost for mass production.

7.2.2 Non-Destructive Testing Methods :

Various non-destructive testing methods are as follows :

a. Radiography (X-ray and gamma ray test)
b. Ultrasonic inspection
c. Dye penetrant test
d. Magnaflux test

a. Radiography :
The use of x-ray and gamma ray radiography in inspecting castings for
such defects as blow holes, cracks, shrinkage cavities and slag inclusion
is of primary metallurgical interest to a foundry man.

Principle :
Radiography technique is based upon exposing the components to short
warelength radiations in the form of x-rays or gamma rays from a suitable
source such as x-ray tube or cobalt-60.

 The characterstics feature of x-ray or gamma rays which makes them

to work is their Powder to penetrate matters opaque to light.
 X-rays operating at 400,000 volts can inspect steel castings having
thickness up to 62mm.
 Gamma rays given off by radium and radioactive isotopes such as
Cobalt-60, Iridium-192, can penetrate and thus inspect casting of
bigger thickness than examined by x-rays.

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i. X-ray radiography procedure :

Fig.7.2.2.1 : Production of radiograph

 This is used for detecting defects in the components

manufactured by casting, welding, forging.
 The component to be examined is exposed to radiations of short
wavelength such as x-rays of wavelength 0.2 to 5 A 0.
 These radiations penetrate through the component and they are
absorbed by the material. The penetrating ability of these
radiations depends on their wavelength and the absorbing
Powder of the material.
 When these rays pass through the material of non-uniform
structure containing detects such as cavities or cracks variable
density. The rays passing through a less dense region of the
object are absorbed to smaller extent than the rays passing
through the adjacent sound materials.
 The amount of radiation emerging for the opposite side of
material can be recorded and from the observed variation
defects can be detected.
 The recording is usually done by placing a film sensitive to
radiation in a cassete at the end of the object.

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 After development of film, it shows a picture of light and dark

areas, and it representing the region of material of low density
such as holes, porosity cracks etc.
 This film is called an exograph when produced by x-rays and
gamma – graph when produced by “V-rays” (gamma rays) and
both of them are called radiograph.

Application:
 For delection of internal defects of porosity, cracks, lack of
fusion in weldment etc,
- For thickness, measurement of rolled or extraded parts.
- For measurement of geometry variation in component.

ii. Gamma x-ray Radiography :

 Gamma rays are used for detecting defects in Casting thicker
than those inspected by x-rays.
 Gamma rays are more satisfactory than x-rays for examining
object of varying thickness. Whereas x-rays provide better
results for castings of uniform thickness.
 X-rays are better than gamma rays for detecting small defects in
casting suctions less than about 50mm.
 X-rays method is much more rapid than gamma – ray method
because unlike gamma rays method it requires seconds or
minutes instead of hours.
 Unlike x-ray method gamma ray technique can inspect a
numbers of casting at one time.
 Gamma rays equipment being small processes better portability
and convenience of use for certain field inspections.

Application :
 Gamma radiations, a product of radioactive decay, are
extensively used in testing of castings and welded objects.
 Unlike x-rays, gamma rays from its source are emitted in all
directions, therefore a number of separate castings having
cassette containing film, fastered to back of each casting, are
disposed in circle around the source placed in central position.
 Many castings can be rediographed simultenously and overnight
exposures may be takes without continuous supervision.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Powder Metallurgy & Non-destructiveTesting

b. Ultrasonic Inspection or Ultrasonic Crack Detection :

Fig.7.2.2.2: Detection of defects by ultrasonic waves

The principle of ultrasonic testing involves a measure of the time required

by ultrasonic vibrations to penetrate the material of interest, reflect from
opposite side or fromn an internal discontinuity and return to point where
the waves were first introduced.

The behaviour of waves through such a cycle of travel with regard to time
is appropriately recorded on a cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) screen.

Principle of Operation :
 Ultrasonic waves are usually generated by piezoelectric effect which
converts electrical energy to mechanical energy. A quartz crystal is
used for the purpose.
 When a high frequency alternating electric current is impressed across
faces of the quartz crystal, the crystal will expand during first half of the
cycle and contract when electric field is reversed and mechanical
viabrations are produced in the crystal.
 The surface of casting to be inspected by ultrasonic is made fairly
smooth either by machining or otherwise so that ultrasonic waves can
be efficiently transmitted from the probe into the casting and even small
defects can be detected properly.
 Ultrasonic inspection employs separate probes one for transmitting the
waves and other to receive them after passage through the casting.
 Ultrasonic waves are transmitted as series of intermittent pulses, the
same crystal may be employed both as transmitter and receiver.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Powder Metallurgy & Non-destructiveTesting

 Before transmitting ultrasonic waves an oil film is provided between the

probes and casting surface, this ensures proper contact between them
and better transmission of waves from the probe into surface of object
to be tested.
 For operation ultrasonic wave is introduced into metal and time interval
between transmission of outgoing and receptions of the incoming
signals are measured with cathode ray oscilloscope.
 The time base of CRO is so adjusted that the full width of trace
represents section being examined.
 To start with, us the wave is sent from transmitter probe, it strikes
upper surface of casting and makes a sharp (peak) or pip (echo) at the
left hand side of CRO screen.
 If casting is sound, this wave will strike the bottom surface of casting,
get reflected & indicated by pip towards right hand end of CRO screen.
 In case defects exists between the top & bottom casting surfaces, most
of the beam striking this defects will get reflected from the defect, reach
the receiver probe and indicate a pip (echo) on CRO screen before pip
given by the wave striking the far end of the casting and returning.
 The distance of the defect from surface where transmitter probe is
applied, can be determined with the help of time distance scale in the
form of square wave constantly shown on oscilloscope. The distance
scale may be changed as per convenience and one cycle of square
wave may indicate 1cm or 25cm etc.
 There are two types of ultrasonic inspection methods –
1. Pulse – echo method.
2. Transmission method

Advantages :
 Better accuracy and reliability.
 Due to its high sensitivity, fine flaws can be detected.
 The equipment is portable and easy to handle.
 Ultrasonic waves have a superior penetrating Powder. This allows
better detection of flaws situated deep in the metal.
 The output can be processed by a computer which improves result
reliability.

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Limitations :
 As it is operated manually, a careful attention is required.
 Irregular shaped & rough parts are very difficult to examine.
 Sub – surface discontinuities are not easy to detect.
 Couplants are needed.
 For setting up the procedure and to standardize the equipment, highly
skillled operators are required.

Applications :
 Used for defect detection and thickness measurement.
 Inspection of large casting and forging, for internal soundness before
carrying out expensive machining operation.

c. Dye Penetrant Test :

Dye penetrant test is also known as liquid penetrant examination. Invisible
cracks, porosity, and other defects on the surface of components can be
easily detected by this technique. The component may be of any material
like ferrous. Non-ferrous, plastic, glass or ceramic.

Major steps of dye penetrant test :

1. Pre – cleaning : The test surface is cleaned to remove any dirt, paint,
oil, grease or any loose scale etc.
2. Applicant of penetrant : The penetrant is then applied to surface of
the item being tested. The dye is allowed time to soak into any flaws.
The soak time mainly depends upon the material being testing and
type of flaws sought.
3. Excess Penetrant Removal : The excess penetrant is then removed
from the surface. It is important to not spray the solvent remover on the
test surface directly because this can remove the penetrant from the
flaws.
4. Application of Developer : After removal of excess penetrant, a white
developer is sprayed in a thin, even coating on surface. This is to draw
any dye which has entered defects to surface, a process similar to
action of blotting paper. Any colored strains indicate positions and
types of defects on the surface under inspection.

The penetrant are usually red, purple or sometime orange, to give good
contrast against the white developer used in the process.

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5. Inspection : The inspection of test surface is carried out immediately

after application of developer 15 minutes after the immediate
inspection.

6. Post Cleaning : After the inspection and recording of defects if found,

the test surface should be cleaned.

Fig.7.2.2.3: Dye penetration or LPT method

Advantages :
 It is very simple to utilize and control.
 It does not require any machine.
 Fast interpretation of results is possible.
 The cost is relatively very less.
 The results do not require any electric display or calculation.
 Its sensitivity is greater than that of magnetic particle testing.

Limitations :
 Surface films as coatings, scale may confuse the results.
 Only surface defects can be detected.
 Cleaning is must before and after the test to avoid rusting.
 It should not be used for powder metallurgical parts as their inherent
porosity makes difficulty in interpretation.

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Applications :
 Used for surface detection of forgings, castings, weldment etc.
 Useful for non-ferrous metal products and on non porous, non metallic
materials such as ceramics, plastics and glass.

d. Magnaflux Test :
This is one of the important NDT methods used for detection of surface
and sub – surface defects in magnetic materials.

Principle :
This works on the theory of induced magnetism. When metallic part is
megnetized, magnetic flux flows in it. This flux gets disturbed due to
presence of defects such as crack. The flux leaks out at crack. This
leakage can be detected by spraying fine iron powder on the surface as
iron powder gets accumulated at the leakage flux. A magnetic probe can
also be used to sense flux leakage.

Fig.7.2.2.4(a) : Principle of a magnaflux method

Methods of Magnetization :
a. Cirucular magnetization
b. Longitudinal magnetization
c. Continuous method
d. Residual method
e. A.C. magnetization and D.C. magnetization.

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a. Cirucular magnetization :

Fig.7.2.2.4(b) : Principle of a magnaflux method

When an electric current passes through a straight conductor a circular

magnetic field forms around it. In this type, the magnetic lines are at
right angles to the direction of current. This types of magnetization
defects the defects which are perpendicular to magnetic field i.e.
defects in longitudinal direction.

b. Longitudinal Magnetization:
In this method, the conductor is wound to produce a coil and an electric
current is passed through it. This produces magnetic field in the
longitudinal direction. This type of magnetization defects cracks which
are in a circular direction.

Fig.7.2.2.4(c) : Principle of a magnaflux method

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c. Continous Method :
In this, current inducing the magnetic flux in the workpiece to be
inspected is allowed to flow while powder is applied. The castings is
placed between two contacts of solid copper clamps. The indueced
magnetic field runs in the tranverse direction. Producing condition
favourable to detection of longitudinal disposed cracks.

This method the much more sensitive than the residual method and
especially for steels having low magnetic retentivity only continuous
method is used.

d. Residual Method :
This method relies upon the residual magnetism in the casting. Casting
may magnetized by any method but magnetizing source is removed
first and then magnetic particles are applied over the casting.

e. A.C. and D.C. Magnetization :

A.C. magnetization is prefered for maximum surface sensitivity and
offers special operating advantages including straight forward
demagnetization after testing whereas D.C. appears to permit the
detection of defects lying more deeply in the casting.

Application :
 This method of inspection is used on magnetic ferrous castings for
defecting invisible surface or slightly subsurface defects.

 Deeper subsurface defects are not satisfactorily detected because the

influence of the distorted lines of magnetic flux on the magnetic
particles spread over the casting surface becomes weaker with
distance, so that sensitivity falls away rapidly with the depth.

 The defects commonly revealed by magnetic particle inspection are

quenching cracks, thermal cracks, seams, laps, grinding cracks,
overlaps non-metallic inclusion, fatigue cracks, hot tears etc.

Fluorescent – Penetrant Inspection :

This method is almost similar to dye – penetrant test. This can also be
used for testing any type of material for detecting surface flaws. A dye
zyglo, containing particles which emits light with ultraviolet radiation is
used (zyglo is registered trade name of this dye).

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Once applied on surface, zyglo penetrant is drawn into the surface

defects. The excess zyglo is removed by washing the component in water.
Developer is then applied on the surface so that zyglo from flaw is drawn
out on the surface.

The part is then inspected under ultraviolet light. The cracks and other
flaws are revealed by flourescence at these sites.

Comparison among Various Non – Destructive Testing Technique :

Technique Capabilities Limitation

Radiography
Subsurface A smallest defect detectable is 2% of
(X–ray and
flaws thickness radiation protection needed.
Gamma ray)

No subsurface flaws not for porous

Dye Penetrant Surface flaws
materials.

Subsurface
Ultrasonics Material must be good conductor of sound.
flaws

Magnetic Surface & near Limited subsurface capability; only for

particle surface flaws. feromagnetic materials.

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) Powder Metallurgy & Non-destructiveTesting

Summary

 Powder metallurgy may be defined as „the process of manufacturing the

components from metal powders by compacting and sintering‟.

 The various methods used to manufacture the powder are machining, crushing,
milling, graining and atomization.

 Blending or mixing is an operation of mixing of different powders of the same

compositions.

 Powder compacting is the process of making metal powder compact and of

desired shape.

 Sintering process is used to improve strength and hardness of green compact.

 Infiltration provides increased strength, hardness and density not obtainable by

straight sintering.

 Not-destructive testing (NDT) as the name indicates does not damage or reduce
the service life of a component.

 Following are some of the commonly used NDT methods:

1) Visual testing.

2) Magnetic particle testing.

3) Liquid or die penetrant testing.

4) Eddy current testing.

5) Ultrasonic testing.

6) Radiographic testing.

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Question Bank

1. State the advantages & limitations of powder metallurgy? (4 marks)

2. Compare nondestructive testing? (4 marks)

3. What is blending? How it is to be achieved? (4 marks)

4. Describe any one powder making process? (4 marks)

5. Explain magnaflux test write the principle involved? (4 marks)

6. Explain dye penetration test crack detection? (4 marks)

7. What is sintering? Write down steps involved in sintering? (4 marks)

8. Explain X-ray radiography nondestructive testing method? (4 marks)

9. What is NDT? Give applications of NDT? (4marks)

10. Explain procedure for ultrasonic crack detection with neat sketch? (4 marks)

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) MSBTE (Summer 2015) Question Paper

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) MSBTE (Summer 2015) Question Paper

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) MSBTE (Summer 2015) Question Paper

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Mechanical Engineering Materials (17303) MSBTE (Summer 2015) Model Answer

MSBTE Examination (Summer-2015)

Model Answer
Subject Title : Mechanical Engineering Materials Subject Code : 17303

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