LESSON 1: GROUP STRUCTURE Proscriptive Norm - A consensual standard that

identifies prohibited, negatively sanctioned behaviors.

Definition: Descriptive Norm - A consensual standard that
- The underlying pattern of roles, norms, and describes how typically act, feel, and think in a given
networks of relations among members that define situation.
and organize the group. Injunctive Norm - An evaluative consensual standard
- An integrated organizational pattern that reflects that describes how people should act, feel, and think
the totality of the separate parts that inhere in each in a given situation rather than how people do act, feel,
individual. and think in that situation.

Nature of Group Structure Characteristics and Varieties of Norms

·An integrated organizational pattern reflects the
totality of the separate parts that adhere in each Common Features Description
individual group member
Descriptive Describes how most members act,
feel, and think
·Differentiation: the basis for the formation of group
structure: Consensual Shared among members, rather than
- some persons talk more than others personal, individual-level beliefs
- some exert more influence than others Injunctive Define which behaviors are
- some are generally more active than others considered “bad” or wrong and
- some appear to elicit greater respect from other group which are “good” or acceptable
members Prescriptive Set the standards for expected
behavior, what should be done
·Each group member occupies a position in the group,
Proscriptive Identify behaviors that should not be
and the pattern of relationship among the positions in performed
the group constitutes a group structure
Informal Describe the unwritten rules of
conduct in the group
·Position: the total characterization of differentiated
parts associated with and individual group member. Implicit Often so taken for granted that
Each position is evaluated by members of the group, members follow them
automatically
in terms of prestige, importance or value to the group.
This evaluation is referred to as social status. Self-gathering Emerge as members reach a
consensus through reciprocal
members
·The set of expected behaviors associated with a
position within the group constitutes the role. Stable Once they develop, resistant to
change and passed from current
NORMS members to new members
- rules of conduct that each group establishes
- emergent, consensual standards that regulates the ROLES
group members’ behaviors. - Roles in a group are similar in some respects to roles in
- Emergent: develop gradually during the course of a play.
interaction among members—in some cases through - Similarly, roles in group structure behavior by dictating
deliberation and choice but often only gradually as the part that members take as they interact.
members’ actions align.
- Consensual: Norms are shared rules of action. Norms Role Differentiation
are social standards that are accepted by a - accompanied by the gradual decrease in the scope of
substantial portion of the group these roles as each one becomes more narrowly defined
and specialized.
Types of Norms
Prescriptive Norm- A consensual standard that
identifies preferable, positively sanctioned behaviors. Types of Roles
· Task Role: Any position in a group occupied by a · Role Fit: the degree of congruence between the
member who performs behaviors that promote demands of a specific role and the attitudes, values,
completion of tasks and activities, such as initiating skills, and other characteristics of the individual who
structure, providing task-related feedback, and setting occupies the role
goals.
· Relationship Role: Any position in a group occupied Status Differentiation
by a member who performs behaviors that improve the - The gradual rise of some group members to positions of
nature and quality of interpersonal relations among greater authority, accompanied by decreases in the
members, such as showing concern for the feelings of authority exercised by other members.
others, reducing conflict, and enhancing feelings of - It is rare that all members in a group enjoy equal
satisfaction and trust in the group. amounts of authority.
- Certain individuals acquire authority by laying claim to a
Role Stress position of greater status and by having their claim
- Roles influence group members’ happiness and well- accepted by the other members of the group.
being in significant ways.
- By taking on a role in a group, individuals secure their Status Networks
connection to their fellow members, building - Most groups develop a stable patterns of variations in
interdependence that is essential for group cohesion authority and power through the process of status
and productivity. differentiation
- Some roles are more satisfy, whereas some are not. - In some instances, people compete with one another for
- The demands of a role can be stressful for the status in groups, the resulting peeking order determines
occupants of that role. who is dominant and who is submissive.
- Group members’ perception of one another also
Role Ambiguity determine status.
·Unclear expectations about behaviors to be performed
by an individual occupying a particular position within the EXPECTATION-STATES THEORY
group - proponent: Joseph Berger and others
· This is caused by: - An explanation on status differentiation in groups which
- lack of clarity in the role itself assumes that group members allocate status to group
- a lack of consensus members judged to be competent at the task at hand
- individual role taker’s uncertainty with regard to the and to group members who have qualities that the
types of behaviors expected by other. members think are indicators of competence and
potential.
Role Conflict - Specific status characteristics: Task-specific
· Uncertainty caused by inconsistent or discordant behavioral and personal characteristics the people
expectations associated with one’s role in the group. consider when estimating the relative competency,
· Inter-role Conflict ability, and social value of themselves and others.
- Occurs when individuals occupy multiple roles within - Diffuse status characteristics: General personal
a group and the expectations and behaviors qualities such as age, race, and ethnicity that people
associated with one of their roles are not consistent consider when estimating the relative competency,
with the expectations and behaviors associated with ability, and social value of themselves and others.
another of their roles
- Occurs when behaviors that make up a single role Status Generalization
are incongruous, often resulting from - The tendency for individuals to have achieved or been
inconsistent expectations on the part of the person ascribed authority, respect and prestige in one context
who occupies the role and other members of the to enjoy relatively higher status in other, unrelated
group context.
· Person-role Conflict: The behaviors associated with - Group members let status (diffuse status) characteristics
a particular role are completely congruent with the influence their expectations, even though these
basic values, attitudes, personality needs, or characteristics may be irrelevant in the given situation.
preferences of the person who must enact the role.
Role and Well-being Solo Status
- Causes minority members to feel that the other group -The leaders has a clear idea of what he wants to do-
members are categorizing them according to their professionally and personally – and the strength to
social group rather than as co-member. persist in the face of setbacks, even failure.
- In consequence, they are less likely to identify the group.
· Passion
ATTRACTION NETWORKS -The underlying passion for the passion of life,
➢ Patterns of liking/disliking, acceptance/rejection, and combined with a very particular passion for a vocation,
inclusion/exclusion among members of a group profession and course of action.
➢ Also known as sociometric structure
➢ Develops through a sociometric differentiation · Integrity
process that orders group members from least liked to -Know yourself is the key word
most liked. -The leader never lies to himself, especially about
➢ Attraction relations tend to be reciprocal and himself, knows his flaws as well as his assets and deals
transitive, and clusters or coalitions often exist within directly to it.
the group that are higher in homophily than the group as
a whole. · Maturity
➢ As Heider’s balance theory suggests, sociometric -It is important for a leader to be mature, for he needs to
structures also tend to reach a state of equilibrium in have experience and grown through that experience
which likes and dislikes are balanced within the group. -He is capable of learning to be dedicated, observant,
➢ Sociometric differentiation generally favors never servile and always truthful, then he can encourage
individuals who possess socially attractive qualities, others.
such as cooperativeness of physical appeal
➢ But social standing also depends on the degree to · Trust
which the individual’s attributes match the qualities -It is not as much as an ingredient of leadership, as it is
valued by the group (person-group fit) a product of leadership
-It is a quality that cannot be acquired, but it is earned.
LESSON 2: LEADERSHIP
· Curiosity and Daring
Definitions: -The leader wonders about everything, wants to learn
·Leadership is the process of inducing a subordinate to as much as he can, is willing to take risks, experiment
behave in a desired manner (Donnelly) and try new things.
·Leadership is one form of dominance, in which the -He does not worry about failure, but embraces errors,
followers more or less willingly to accept direction and knowing he will learn from them.
control by another person (Kuhn)
·Leadership is the process providing direction, · A Leader is Like a Preacher
energizing others and attaining their commitment to the -He has the capacity to convince others, through his
leaders cause eloquence, through his communication skills.
·Warren Bennics gave the following characteristics of -He ought to be one who is able to relate well with
leadership sincerity.
- Provide direction and meaning to the people they
leading Leadership Style
- Favor action and risk taking 1. Autocratic Leadership (Authoritarian)
- Generate trust Power is centralized and decision-making is assumed
- Purveyor of hope by the leader. The leader determines the policy of the
group.

2. Democratic Leadership (Participative)

Decentralized authority, consults followers, decisions
are not one-sided or unilateral. Leader asks members to
express their ideas and to give suggestions. People-
Understanding the Basics of Leadership oriented
· Giving Vision
3. Laissez Faire/ Free-Rein Leadership Ineffective Leadership
Avoid power and responsibilities ·Indifference – cool; detached; habitually present
·Conflicts – unresolved; avoidance of responsibility
Leadership SKills ·Rejection – refuses to accept ideas; narrow-minded
1. Technical Skill: Refers to person’s knowledge and ·Anxiety– manifests emotional instability, indecisiveness
ability on any type of process technique and pessimistic outlook
2. Human Skill: Ability to work and interact effectively ·Self-centeredness– self-righteousness; using
with people extensive vocabulary and technical jargon
3. Conceptual Skill: Ability to comprehend fully in terms ·Hostility– demonstrates a contempt for leadership;
of models, abstract relationship and theoretical hypercritical of group work
framework
LESSON 3: PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION
Difference Between Leaders and Managers MAKING
Leaders are not managers:
DISCUSSION: occurs when two or more persons
purposely interact or communicate with each other
Managers Leaders directly or orally.
Administers Innovates
Two purposes of discussion are:
Copy Original 1. For problem solving and decision making
2. For clarification and better understanding of issues
Maintains Develops
PROBLEM SOLVING: is a process of determining
Focuses on systems Focuses on people
appropriate solution to the situation
and structures

Ask “How & when?” As “What and why?” DECISION MAKING: refers to the process of choosing
various alternatives in resolving the problem.
Accepts status quo His own person
TYPES OF GROUP DISCUSSION
Relies on control Inspires trust
A. Closed Group Discussion
1. Study group – members discuss topics of mutual
Functions of Leaders interest
1. The Leader as an Executive 2. Workshop – study group that meets regularly or at
2. The Leaders as a Planner regular intervals over a period of time at a definite place
3. The Leader as a Policy Maker 3. Staff meeting – the head of any complex organization
4. The Leader as Expert
5. The Leader as Controller of Internal Relations may call his staff members to deliberate on important
6. The Leader as Surveyor of Rewards and Punishment facts or issues
7. The Leader as Arbitrator and Mediator 4. Briefing session – information is needed by a group
8. The Leader as an Exemplar whose members are ready to undertake a common task.
9. The Leader as a Symbol of the Group 5. Round table – a common problem deliberated,
[Link] Leader as a Substitute for Individual “round a table” for purpose of learning and sharing ideas
Responsibility
from each other.
Effective Leadership
·Initiating – task motivated or goal directed B. Public Group Discussion
·Regulating – control rewards and punishment, ability to 1. Panel – a small group of experts or well-trained
minimize conflict persons of authority in their own field tackle problems for
·Information – giving shows high-quality decisions; the benefit of an audience
receiving monitor communication reduces goal ambiguity
·Supporting – gives mutual trust; warm and 2. Dialogue – has two communicating participants in
affectionate; coordinate activities which one of them has a problem and must be the
·Evaluating – willingness to make changes; flexible center of discussion.
3. Symposium – each participants delivers a relatively
short speech which can be interrupted from time to time · Nominal group technique
to answer questions and give his views or explain certain - indirect voting; only facilitator and group
aspect of the problem presented members will vote through secret ballots.

STEPS IN PROBLEM-SOLVING AND DECISION-

MAKING

1. Awareness of the problem

- Gather important facts and advance tentative
solution to the problem.
- Talk to people who know about the problem

2. Generate alternative
- Make options
- Estimate the possibility of good points of each
solution
- Determine possible consequences of each
alternative in terms of value, importance and
interest

3. Make hierarchical plan

- Make priority of possible solutions

4. Implement your plans and test your decision

or check or review the plan

FACTORS AFFECTING POOR DECISION-MAKING

· Confused responsibility, lack of coordination and
indecision
· Inadequate data: lack of preparation and
reinforcement to gather facts accurately
· Time limits: failure to set target dates, conflicts of time
management
· Poor management atmosphere: threat or fear to
make decision and be unpopular

STEPS USED IN DECISION-MAKING

· Consensus
- free open exchange of ideas and active
participation, there must be commitment to listen
actively; substitute us, ours instead I or mine

· Brainstorming
- free wheeling discussion, relevant or irrelevant;
ask what and why but no criticism

· Multivoting
- ask participants to vote on the issue wherein
majority rules