UNIT 1 Summary:

*Describe 6 basic observations that have been made about language acquisition:
1) All children acquire the language to which they are exposed- whatever language is the most
dominant the child will learn.
2) All children go through the same stages of development within the first 12-18 months and achieve
linguistic competence at approximately the same age- irrespective of what language they are learning
or where they live, this suggests that all children are equipped with the same acquisition mechanisms.
3) Children acquire language at a time they are intellectually immature.- they can construct sentences
but not count or do simple addition sums.
4) Children acquire language fairly effortlessly and in a short period of time.- caretakers don’t sit
down and teach a child word for word and grammar.
5) Children acquire language without being taught explicitly.
6) Children who have been isolated from human contact do not acquire language.

*Identify and briefly discuss some of the theories that have been considered to explain language
acquisition
-The innateness hypothesis suggests that the ability to learn language is an innate or inborn human
ability in the same way that walking is
-Children are born with Universal Grammar (UG) which is a mental blueprint of linguistic rules and
principles that are common to all languages.- the UG allows children to recognise a finite set of basic
rules that can be used to produce an infinite number of possible sentences. Aspects common to all
languages are already present in the mind at birth
-The critical period hypothesis suggests that a child’s ability to learn their first language effectively
ends at the onset of adolescence because of the physiological changes in the brain at this time

*Identify the conditions under which language acquisition does not happen
- Environmental Factors: A lack of exposure to a rich language environment, including limited
interaction with caregivers or peers, can hinder language development.
Cognitive Factors: Some children may have cognitive challenges that affect language acquisition,
such as developmental delays or disorders like autism.
Socioeconomic Status: Children from lower socioeconomic backgrounds may have reduced access to
resources and educational opportunities that support language development.
Health Issues: Hearing impairments or other health issues can impede a child's ability to acquire
language.
Parental Inconsistency: Inconsistent or inadequate language input from caregivers can slow language
acquisition.

*The caretaker plays an important role in language acquisition

- The primary caregivers play a pivotal role in guiding the child’s language development. They set the
framework for baby to learn in, creating space for moments to connect. They notice when the child is
alert and wants to interact, they stop when baby has had enough and use simple language in
conversations so baby can learn the basic sounds and patterns of their native language. They use
caretaker speech to help communicate effectively with babies, Learning that conversations involve
two or more participants taking turns to speak is a major step in a child’s language journey. Caregivers
teach babies to take turns by acting as if they expect baby to respond to what they’ve just said, and
they build trust by establishing rituals around feeding, sleeping and playtime are also important for a
newborn baby’s later language development. These predictable events create a kind of script or
language ‘map’ that baby learns, and from here can start to notice patterns in the words and phrases
the caregivers are using in and around each routine.

*Linguistic features of caretaker speech

-exageratted intonation
-slow speech rate
-frequent pauses
-short sentences
-clear pronunciation
-frequent repetition
-Many questions are used

*Definitions
-Developmental psycholinguistics: The study of language acquisition in children
-language acquisition- the 1st, second or even third language that a child of pre-adolescent age learns
unconsciously and informally
-language learning- the more conscious learning of children or adults when they attempt to learn an
additional language.
-first language- your mother tongue- the language that you learnt first
-nature-nurture debate: the debate between how much of language acquisition depends on
environmental external factors and how much is innate or inborn
Critical period hypothesis- suggests that a child’s ability to learn their first language effectively ends
at the onset of adolescence because of the physiological changes in the brain at this time
Caretaker speech- high pitched or singy voice that caretakers take on when addressing babies and pre-
adolescent children.
UNTI 2-SUMMARY
1) Name and describe the various stages of language acquisition:
*The pre-linguistic stage (0-6 months)
As the name suggests, pre-linguistic is before language. An infant may make their first noises
such as crying, cooing, coughing, etc during this stage. Usually, these early noises are an
unconscious reaction to the surroundings and different feelings like hunger, discomfort, or well-
being. These early vocalisations are not intentional attempts to communicate meaning, even yet
they can be considered the precursors of verbal communication. The crying stage and the cooing
stage, which begin when the kid is around two months old and involve the production of soft,
gurgling noises that resemble vowels, are both included in the prelinguistic stage. Throughout
the first two months, NOTHING OF LINGUISTIC INTEREST HAPPENS. DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN COOING AND BABBLING Baby cooing refers to single-vowel sounds, such as
“ooh” and “aah,” whereas babbling includes consonant sounds, like “muh-muh” and “bah-bah.
*Babbling (6-12 months)
Babbling, a stage of development in children, begins around 6 months old. It's spontaneous and
universal, despite cultural and linguistic differences. Babbling occurs when children start
exploring their vocal abilities, altering pitch and volume, and repeating sequences of consonants
and vowels like baba or dadada. Babbling in early childhood is not intentional or communicative,
with similar sounds produced in all children regardless of language. Deaf babies coo and babble
similarly to hearing babies, suggesting babbling emergence relies on internal biological factors
rather than external factors like linguistic input and encouragement from caretakers. From the
ninth month, children's babbling becomes more varied, with consonants and vowels not repeated
and sounds vary in syllables e.g. adouadaa etc They learn to imitate sentences' stress and
intonation patterns, suppressing non-language sounds. E.g. Xhosa babies will continue to use the
click sounds that occur in Xhosa and suppress sounds like ‘th’ that are not used in Xhosa.
*The one-word stage (12-18 months)
The beginning month varies from child to child. In this stage, children learn that sounds and
strings of sounds can have meanings and can be used for communication. The emergence of the
child's first words is an important milestone. From this point on, the child starts using language to
communicate intentionally and purposefully, although babbling may continue for a while after the
emergence of first words. Children typically comprehend more words than they produce, with a
new word being understood three months before they begin using it. One word sentences are
HOLOPHRASES.

*The two-word stage (18 months-2 years)

During the second year, children begin to form simple sentences by combining two words.
*The multiple-word stage (telegraphic speech)
Children's first multiple-word utterances, often referred to as telegraphic speech, are formed when
they begin to combine words into two-word, three-word, or even longer sentences. Early
children's speech resembles a telegram, with function words omitted. These utterances carry the
main message and while they omit the function words that serve a grammatical purpose, they can
still be understood because the missing words are usually predictable from the context. At this
stage, children begin to ask and answer questions, learn to recognize rising intonation associated
with questions, and respond to questions, although initial responses may not be appropriate.
2) Explain how children learn to match words with their meanings
*During the one-word stage children learn to match words with their meanings. A child has to be
able to associate a label—a group of sounds, a word—to a referent i.e. objects or events in the
world and then be able to generalise this label to all other objects or events in the real world. For
instance, the child learns to identify all comparable animals as a dog, regardless of their size,
shape, or colour, or whether they are actual dogs, toy dogs, images of dogs, etc., after initially
associating the string d-o-g with a particular dog.

If a child learns a word correctly, there will be a MATCH between the child’s meaning and the
adult meaning. For example, the child will use the word apple in the same way as an adult- to
refer to all kinds of apples, to real apples as well as to pictures of apples.

However, children often make mistakes, using words in ways that differ from the ways adults use
words, e.g. the child may use the word apple to refer to oranges instead of apples. In this case,
there is a MISMATCH between the child’s use of a word and the adult’s use of the word.

Another common mistake is OVEREXTENSION, where the child uses a word in a wider sense
than in adult language, e.g. the word apple may be used to refer to all kinds of roundish looking
fruit like apples, pears, peaches, apricots and mangoes.

UNDEREXTENSION is when the range of referents for a word is narrower than in adult
language, e.g. the word apple may initially refer only to red apples but not to green or yellow
apples.

3) Explain how children learn the grammatical rules of their language

Overgeneralization happens when kids apply rules are applied too broadly. For instance, kids
start adding the suffix "s" to things, such as foots, oxes, sheeps, etc., after realising that the word
"dogs" is the plural of dog. Additionally, the prefixes untake and unmake denote the beginning of
verbs that signify undoing an activity. The grammar in these words is incorrect. Regardless of the
language they are learning, children everywhere employ the same tactic: overgeneralization.
Children acquire these words later in the multiple-word stage and start to construct coherent
sentences.
Speaking primarily about oneself rather than the audience is known as egocentric speech. When
occupied with other activities, children often talk to themselves; even in their early conversations
with carers and classmates, they will have more egocentric speech.
4) Identify and illustrate types of errors made by young children
 Identified above- . For instance, kids start adding the suffix "s" to things, such as foots,
oxes, sheeps, etc., after realising that the word "dogs" is the plural of dog. Additionally,
the prefixes untake and unmake denote the beginning of verbs that signify undoing an
activity, leaving out function words by saying “Mummy want juice.” Overextension,
underextension, mismatch.
5) Explain how children’s conversational skills develop
Children's conversational skills develop gradually over time through biological maturation, social
interaction, and language exposure. Key stages include preverbal communication, first words,
vocabulary expansion, grammar development, turn-taking skills, pragmatic skills, narrative skills,
metalinguistic awareness, and cultural and contextual factors. Preverbal cues, such as crying,
cooing, and gestures, lay the foundation for later language development. Children typically
produce their first words around 12-18 months, gradually acquiring a larger vocabulary through
exposure to spoken language. They learn grammar and syntax rules through social interactions,
and develop turn-taking and topic maintenance skills. Pragmatic skills involve using language
effectively in social contexts, and narrative skills involve sequencing events, describing
characters, and conveying ideas and emotions.
6) Explain the following words/phrases:
 Prelinguistic stage: the first stage of language development where the child produces
cooing and crying sounds as a way to express their selves.
 Babbling
 One-word stage
 Two-word stage
 Multiple-word stage
 Holophrase
 Telegraphic speech
 Match
 Mismatch
 Overextension
 Under extension
 Egocentric speech

Summary of unit 3:

 Explain why it is important to study second language acquisition- to gain a better

understanding of L2 acquisition process and find out ways to make learning a second
language easier
 Describe some basic observations that have been made about second language acquisition-
1) A second language seems to be learnt quicker and successfully when learners get to
practise their language in natural communicative settings and hear the lamguage spoken
around them.
2) Instructed L2 learning can demotivate learners and isn’t the best form of language L2
acquisition
3) While at first it seems that older people can learn L2’s quicker, in the long run children
surpass adults
4) You may never be 100% fluent in your L2 and you can learn to speak an L2 without the
accent
 Describe alternative methods of second language acquisition- self study, teacher guided
i.e.instructed learning, exposure without teacher i.e. naturalistic setting
 Discuss the effect of age on second language acquisition;
 Describe and illustrate the individual and environmental factors influencing the success of L2
learning
 Discuss some of Stephen Krashen’s theoretical contributions to the field and their practical
implications for second language teachers;
 Explain the following:

INSTRUMENTAL MOTIVATION: Instrumental motivation refers to a type of motivation for

second language learning that is driven by practical or utilitarian goals rather than intrinsic
interest in the language itself. In other words, individuals are instrumentally motivated to
learn a second language because they believe it will help them achieve specific practical
objectives or fulfill external needs.
Integrative motivation: Integrative motivation is a type of motivation for second language
learning that is characterized by a positive attitude toward the target language and its
speakers, along with a desire to integrate into the culture associated with the language.
Integrative motivation is contrasted with instrumental motivation, which is driven by practical
or utilitarian goals.

The field of second language acquisition studies the human ability to learn additional
languages after the first language has already been acquired. This means that we focus on
learning L2 in late childhood, adolescence or adulthood.
We will look at the differences between the way in which children and adults learn an L2, the
influence of the L1 on the L2 or L3 learning process, and the conditions that create the
optimal L2 learning environment.

Naturalistic L2 learning occurs when adults or children acquire a second language in casual,
daily situations from listening to others speak it around them and without the need for formal
study. When migrating to a new country, for instance, a youngster will take up an L2 in this
fashion, and the same is true for an adult trying to learn a language via conversation on a daily
basis without the use of grammatical rules, dictionaries, or self-study guides.
Spoken learners need to be understood in the L2, and as a result, their L2 competency
increases with practice, despite the fact that their early attempts at communication may be
quite simplistic and riddled with mistakes. Naturalistic second language acquisition is similar
to first language acquisition in that learners create their own grammar by concentrating on
patterns in the language they hear in everyday interactions. In contrast to L1 acquisition,
learners of any age can engage in realistic L2 learning.

Instructed L2 learning, which consist of formal study at school or in other language

programmes, is in contrast to naturalistic L2 acquisition. There are provided textbooks with
condensed rules and terminology. Language instructors might guide the learning process by,
for example, teaching simpler or more common constructions first.

Child learner in a naturalistic setting Classroom setting or instructed learner

Less error correction as native speakers Learners interact with only one native
are focused on the meaning as opposed to speaker
correct grammar
Learners errors are corrected frequently
Learn from a variety of sources
( convos, music, books, adverts in papers)
Focus is on a limited range of language
Whole language is presented at once-
speakers may simplify their language to Language is presented one piece at a
non-native speakers, but that’s it time, and it is gone over step by step

Learners interact with a variety of native Input is modified so it is simple for

speakers and are therefore exposed to a learner
wider variety of pronunciation and vocab,
as well as registers Time is set aside for fluency and
accuracy practice

When students are given the chance to practise their language in authentic conversational contexts and
are exposed to spoken language in their environment, they appear to pick up second languages
most rapidly and effectively. Naturally, in L1 or naturalistic L2 learning contexts, there are more
possibilities to hear and practise the language than in instructed L2 learning, where exposure is
frequently restricted to vocabulary lists, classroom exercises, and scripted conversations.
However, language teachers who follow the communicative method aim to expand on as many real-
world chances as they can for students to use L2. For instance, they may assign a lot of oral work in
pairs and employ a range of real-world language samples that will pique students' interest, such as TV
programmes, popular magazine adverts, etc
A foreign language is one that is taught but is not commonly spoken in the community e.g. French or
Swahili in SA. Because it takes place outside of the social environment in which the language is
spoken, this language acquisition is virtually always GUIDED.
In contrast, a second language is one that is learned in the real social environment in which it is
spoken, such as English in South Africa or Venda in SA.
A heritage language is one that is not used by the general public but is spoken at home or in cultural
or religious contexts by a specific community e.g. in SA would be Greek and Arabic. The process of
acquiring this language might entail naturalistic exposure or instructed learning from someone who is
familiar with the language culturally but did not grow up speaking it.
The term secondary language acquisition is used in a broad sense, to refer to the learning of any
additional language- whether it is second, foreign or heritage.
Determining the ideal age for second language acquisition is among the most significant research
topics in SLA. When it comes to SLA, the critical period theory does not apply is more difficult to
answer. Contrasting results are common because different researchers emphasise different aspects of
learning, such as the pace of learning or the ultimate proficiency.
Research shows that the younger you arrive in a new country and start to learn an L2, the more likely
it is that you will be proficient, and you will be similar to someone who speaks the L2 as a mother
tongue.
*ALTHOUGH THERE IS A CHANGE FROM AN INFORMAL UNCONSCIOUS LEARNING
PROCESS IN THE EARLY YEARS TO A FORMAL CONSCIOUS LEARNING PROCESS
(AFTER CRITICAL PERIOD) AND IT MAKES LANGUAGE LEARNING LESS
SPONTANTEOUS, IT DOES NOT SIGNAL THE END OF LANGUAGE LEARNING, IT IS
SIMPLY A CHANGE IN THE WAY IN WHICH LANGAUGE IS LEARNED*
There are significant differences between the processes involved in learning a first and second
language. A person learning a second language could never reach the same level of ability as a native
speaker, but someone speaking their first language is typically able to speak it with natural fluency.
Second, unlike L1 learners, L2 learners do not need to start from zero when learning grammar and
vocabulary because they already possess these skills from learning L1.
The learner's approach to and comprehension of L2 are likely to be influenced by their familiarity
with L1.
While both L2 and L1 learners recreate the language they are learning, it is reasonable to assume that
their methods will be different. Youngsters who are learning a second language are typically older
than L1 learners; they have also had prior language exposure and are farther advanced in their
cognitive development. The precise tactics of the creative-constructive process in L2 acquisition
should change slightly from those of the L1 acquisition process due to the combination of these
elements.
As an L2 learner's proficiency increases, they progress through phases, eventually reaching a final
state where they can distinguish between their L2 and native speaker's grammar. This process ends
when the learner can use their L2 flawlessly, resembling a native speaker. However, the final state
may differ due to limited vocabulary, grammatical mistakes, or poor pronunciation.

Child language learners of L1 or L2 Adult language learners of L2

Other speakers tend to be accommodating and Other speakers are less supportive.
supportive.

Biological advantage of youth Biological disadvantage of age

Simple and non-vital communicative needs Complex and vital communicative needs

Shorter language learning period, usually

resulting in non-fluent command of L2
Protracted language learning period of at least
10 years to gain L1 fluency

No pre existing language or sociocultural norms

that could influence acquisition Pre-existing language or sociocultural norms
that could influence acquisition

 L2 learners do not need to start from zero when learning grammar and vocabulary because
they already possess these skills from learning L1, their knowledge of L1 influences the way
they approach L2- THIS PHENOMENOM IS KNOWN AS TRANSFER
 A bilingual that uses aspects from one language—typically L1—while utilising another—
typically L2—is said to be transferring.
 Transfer can affect pronunciation, word choice or sentence structure and can occur to varying
degrees.
 It has both positive and negative effects on L2 learning
 Positive: aspects of the L2 that are the same in the L1 will be learnt more easily (they don’t
have to be learnt from scratch) e.g. In Afrikaans, saying “ Ek is twintig jaar oud” translates
directly to “I am 20 years old”
 Negative: aspects in L2 that are different in L1 will be difficult to learn e.g. In Afrikaans,
time is told differently than it is in English, as well as naming numbers – twenty six is “ses
and twintig” the 6 comes first!
 The sound systems of the 2 languages are likely to differ- learners may have difficulty with
sounds or distinctions that are not found in their L1. A non-native accent is thus an example of
transfer
 Grammatical cross-linguistic transfer can also occur, impacting L2 syntactic elements such as
word order, pronouns, prepositions, and other aspects. In Afrikaans, for instance, the verb
comes last in a phrase and is followed by the object in a sentence with a subject-object word
order. English, however, uses an SVO (subject, verb, object) word order.
 Example of the above: Petrus het ‘n boek gekoop- ‘Petrus has a book bought’ (SOV)
 Petrus bought a book (SVO)
 The motivation to learn the language is a crucial component of effective second language
acquisition.
 The reasons for learning L2/3 can be broadly categorised into two groups: integrative
reasons, where learning the language is done because the learner has a positive interest in the
L2 culture and hopes to participate in it, and instrumental reasons, where learning the
language is done because it can offer benefits, opportunities, and practical advantages.
 Positive perceptions of L2 speakers as a whole, a lack of ethnocentrism, and a desire to
communicate with L2 speakers are all components of an integrative motive.
 Learner’s attitude towards learning, the language teacher and the people who speak the
language will affect their motivation. The ideal L2 classroom should be a relaxed
environment, where learners are encouraged to talk freely and where mistakes are not viewed
negatively or constantly corrected.
 Krashen proposed the acquisition-learning hypothesis, saying that acquisition and learning
were separate, and only acquisition was necessary for improving language skills. According
to him, language does not require extensive use of grammatical rules or tedious drill.
 Krashen suggests that L2 can be subconsciously acquired by both adults and children through
meaningful interaction in language-natural communication, prioritizing message conveying
and understanding.
 This led to the input hypothesis, which stated that learners progress in L2 learning when they
receive comprehensible input, i.e. messages that can be understood and that they want to
know
 Comprehensible language is most effective when the learner is exposed to language input
slightly above their current level of understanding.
 Krashen's research suggests a'silent period' for beginner learners, allowing them to hear and
read L2, but delay oral practice until familiarity with the language.- mirrors L1 language
acquisition.
 Lately, he stresses the importance of free voluntary reading- students read L2 books,
newspapers, magazines, or comics of their choice without having to do a summary or answer
comprehension questions.

UNIT 4- LANGUAGE VARIATION

SUMMARY:
 Discuss ways in which language variation reflects regional and social variation
 Distinguish between dialects and languages;
 Reflect objectively on the social value attached to particular language varieties;
 Explain the following terms

Language and society are interconnected, and everyone must possess linguistic and
communicative competence to contribute to society. Group standards dictate language usage, and
understanding vocabulary and grammar is crucial for effective communication. By using
language, we express our ideas and identities.
Sociolinguistics is the area of linguistics that studies language variation within a society. We
concentrate on this particular language variation. According to sociolinguistics, language serves
as a tool for communication as well as a means of expressing a speaker's identity, affiliations, and
relationship with the hearer within a specific context. Therefore, sociolinguistics focuses on the
various language varieties that coexist side by side in a community and may or may not be
associated with distinct social values. Languages can differ systematically in a number of ways,
such as based on physical separation or origin (e.g., South African English versus American
English) or based on demographic characteristics like age, gender, ethnicity, or social class.
Some important assumptions of sociolinguistics are the following:
 There is a direct relationship between language and society.
 We can deepen our understanding of the nature and structure of language by considering
the context in which it functions.
 Patterns found in one community are likely to occur in other communities under similar
circumstances. For example, we would expect that if groups of urban youths in Chicago
use a particular type of language, similar social groups, for example, in Soweto, will use a
comparable type of slang.
Sociolinguists employ a variety of techniques to study the interaction between language and
society, including census data, surveys, interviews, recording and analysing natural
conversations, and conducting experiments in which participants are asked to produce
specific forms. A key component of sociolinguistic research is fieldwork, and sociolinguistics
researchers frequently live in the community they are studying, record natural speech in a
variety of settings, and try to explain the observed linguistic variation. Asking listeners to
assess speaker recordings is another method to explore the assumptions we have about people
based solely on their speech patterns.
In the real world, this type of attitude data is useful because it can affect one's chances of
being hired or even found guilty by a jury.
Everybody speaks in a unique way that is specific to them. Because of their common word
choices, pronunciations, and phrasings, you can easily identify the voices of your family
members and closest friends. Without being told who is speaking, you can probably even
identify some people when they speak on the phone. Idiolects are the name for this
common personal language variety.
A dialect is a type of language that is exclusive to a certain region and is characterised
by unique word choices, pronunciations, and use patterns. THE WAY IN WHICH WE
SPEAK THUS REFLECTS THE AREA IN WHICH WE GREW UP. If the same language
gets spoken in different ways by different groups of people= dialect
For linguists, all language varieties are equally suitable to serve the communicative purposes
of their speakers and a dialect is simply any regional language variety. THERE ARE NO
SCIENTIFIC GROUNDS ON WHICH ONE CAN STATE THAT ONE LANGUAGE IS
‘BETTER’ THAN ANY OTHER.
society often assigns social values to different language variants. People who speak the
language variety used by the educated elite, for instance, are seen by others as "well-
educated" and "likely to succeed in life." This variety of language is also considered
prestigious. This is known as the standard language, used in formal settings and writing.
This is the language taught in schools, and it comes with grammar manuals and dictionaries
that specify "correct" usage. It is frequently employed for more extensive communication in
industry, government, and the mass media.
Linguists take the descriptive approach (describing the various language varieties) as
opposed to the prescriptive one (tell people how they should speak).
DIFFERENT DIALECTS OF A LANGUAGE MUST BE MUTUALLY INTELLIGIBLE.
I.E THE SPEAKERS OF THE VARIETIES MUST BE ABLE TO UNDERSTAND EACH
OTHER. Speakers of Xhosa varieties can understand each other, this makes their varieties
dialects. Monolingual Xhosa and Sesotho speakers, for example, will not understand each
other- Xhosa and Sesotho are therefore not dialects and thus classified as different languages.
British, American, and South African English are distinct dialects of English, each associated
with a specific region. Mutual intelligibility (mutual understanding) between speakers helps
determine if these varieties are separate dialects or languages. But, variations of English,
including South African English, Jamaican English, and Scottish English, exhibit significant
vocabulary and pronunciation differences, showing that even dialects can be mutually
unintelligible.
Historical and political factors must be taken into account- 2 varieties will usually be
identified as distinct languages if they are associated with politically or historically distinct
groups.
We refer to distinct accents rather than different dialects when the sole distinction between
two dialects of the same language is how words are spoken. Accents are similar to dialects in
that they can often tell us where someone comes from, their age, gender, level of education,
social class etc.
Accent variation is most often noticeable in the vowels, I-sounds and r-sounds of a language.
As soon as varieties differ in terms of the words and grammar, they constitute different
dialects. E.G. “I threw him with a stone” “I threw a stone at him” = different grammar, diff
dialects. Saying chips vs fries= different dialects.
A sociolect is a linguistic variant connected to a certain socioeconomic class or ethnic
group within society. E.g. the working class (those with unskilled jobs) may use a different
sociolect from the middle class (educated people with professional careers).
Each sociolect has certain typical features such as its own vocabulary, different
pronunciations of some words or small differences in the word order or grammar- adult
speakers are able to judge to which social class someone belongs to by recognising certain
markers.
The political history of SA has meant that there are also distinct ethnolects i.e. sociolects
associated with racial or ethnic groupings.
Those in the same profession may develop sociolects/distinctive speech patterns. Jargon is
the specialised vocabulary in an occupation.
Slang is the specialised vocabulary associated with small, close-knit subcultures that
share knowledge and interests- it is a language style that is usually short-lived, localised and
is spoken more than written in informal situations.
UNIT 5
SUMMARY:
1) Distinguish between different kinds of bi/multilinguals
2) Describe and explain what factors are involved in choosing to speak a particular language
in a particular situation
3) Describe and give examples of how multilingualism may affect social interaction
4) Explain the following important terms in your own words
Bilingualism/multilingualism= the use of two or more languages.
Societal bilingualism= happens in a community when there are two or more languages
spoken.
Individual bilingualism= a person’s ability to use two or more languages as a means of
communication in most situations, and to switch from one language to the other if necessary.
Naturally, people's levels of bilingualism differ from one another. While most bilinguals
actually tend to be more fluent or feel more at home in one language than the other, some are
roughly equally proficient in both. The cultures of the two languages may or may not be
known to bilinguals.
Early bilinguals= learn the L2 before starting school (before age 7)- they typically acquire
the L2 in a similar way to their first language, naturalistic (i.e by hearing it spoken around
them) they usually reach a high degree of proficiency in the L2
Late bilinguals= learn L2 as a teenager or adult (i.e. after age 13)- typically learn L2 in a
more formal way (instructed L2 learning) and may not have the opportunity to practise the
language outside the classroom.
*LEARN L2 BETWEEN 7 AND 13 YEARS = CHARACTERISTICS OF EARLY AND
LATE BILINGUALS*
Additive bilingualism= a situation in which the L2 is added to the L1 and a monolingual
speaker thus becomes bilingual. It is a positive phenomenon, occurring when the L2
complements and supplements L1. Occurs in societies where both languages are positively
valued and supported by the environment.
Subtractive bilingualism= the L2 is learned at the expense of the L1 i.e the speaker becomes
less fluent in L1 as they become more fluent in L2- The L1 is usually a minority language and
this phenomenon usually happens to immigrants.
One-person one-language policy= in bilingual families, where each parent speaks a different
language to the child.- works well, kids usually develop fluency in both languages- promotes
bilingualism in small children.
Code- A dialect, style, etc- people need to choose which code to use in different situations-
your choice of code reflects how you want to appear to others, and how others view you.
In response to the person or people they are speaking to, speakers frequently modify their
delivery of their words. Speakers typically choose a language or dialect that appears to fit the
needs of the person they are speaking to. Convergence is the term used for this.
When someone modifies their speech patterns to match those of their conversation partner—
for instance, by matching up on pronunciation, pause length, slang, or intimacy—this is
known as conversational convergence.
When we like someone or feel attracted to them, when we seek their social acceptance, or
when we are attempting to improve mutual understanding and communication effectiveness,
we are more likely to employ convergence.
Convergent strategies include answering in the language that you are addressed in, attempting
to pronounce the language as native speakers do, choosing a language variety that is similar to
your conversation partner's, and altering your speech rate or accent to be understood. When
someone who speaks Afrikaans as their first language realises that the person they are
speaking to is not proficient in the language or is having difficulty understanding or
expressing themselves, they may perform convergence by switching from Afrikaans to
English. Another example of convergent conduct is cutting back on in-group slang while
speaking to an elderly person who might not be familiar with particular slang terms.
But occasionally a speaker might not even try to match his or her speech to that of the other
person, choosing instead to purposefully diverge as much as possible from the other person in
the conversation. In this instance, the speaker is attempting to disassociate himself from his
discussion partner by demonstrating that they do not share the same sociolinguistic group
through the use of divergence.
Both divergence and convergence are imaginative speech choices made by people to express
how they are feeling in a certain circumstance at a specific moment.
Choosing a different language or dialect from the one in which you were addressed or
speaking at a regular speech pace even when your conversation partner is not fluent in the
language are examples of divergent techniques in conversation. In a given culture, the
dominant group usually takes it for granted that members of the subordinate group would
adapt to the dominant variation of language and speak it without trying to converge.
*Language plays a symbolic role in our lives and code choice is an important way of
signalling group relations and group boundaries, of asserting certain rights, and of expressing
or rejecting solidarity.
Codeswitching is the use of two or more language varieties in the same conversation.
Bilinguals frequently use code-switching to demonstrate their shared identity. When
conversing in both of their shared languages, speakers show unity and acknowledge that they
share two languages. By alternating between the two languages, they show that they
understand and are a part of the multilingual speaking community, which is fluent in two
distinct languages and cultures.
Bilinguals commonly transition between codes in casual situations, which might be related to
a shift in the subject of discussion. Though most issues may be discussed
in any code, some codes are more suited for addressing some themes than others because they
represent particular societal ideals.
A person may switch codes when discussing a given issue because they are either not fluent i
n the language or because they have experiences related to the topic.
Codeswitching may even involve a change of code within a single sentence and without an
associated topic change. While a speaker is speaking in language Y, words and phrases from
language X are injected.
It's critical to understand that codeswitching is a common interactional strategy used by
bilinguals and is not indicative of language deterioration or laziness. Codeswitching is
frequently a deliberate tactic intended to convey a shift in topic, indicate a dual identities, or
show solidarity. While codeswitching may be frowned upon in certain communities, it is not
in South Africa, where newspaper headlines frequently contain two distinct languages, and
our national song is multilingual.
Code-switching allows bilingual communities to use additional resources (L1, L2, or mixed
codes) to produce certain stylistic effects or demonstrate solidarity. It is a common and
frequently required aspect of social interaction among bilinguals.
A term that is borrowed is one that is added to the grammatical structure of another language.
E.g. word ‘sombrero’ in English is borrowed from Spanish
This is how a language often adjusts to changing conditions, stays dynamic, and assures its
long-term survival.- it happens when several cultures coexist and begin to affect one another.
Unit 6: Bilingual and multilingual societies
SUMMARY
1) Describe ways in which languages can coexist in various societies
2) Identify the various factors to be considered when doing language planning
3) Identify advantages and disadvantages of national and educational language policy
4) Explain the following in your own words:

*The term ‘multilingual’ includes bilingual societies where two languages are used but
also multilingual societies where more than two languages exist side by side.

The multilingual landscapes of the twenty-first century are the result of several
historical and political events, such as immigration, migration, colonisation, and
warfare.
Citation "Knowledge of local and global/international languages is necessary in order to
gain access to a society of information, for the exchange of goods and to be able to
communicate with the people in our immediate social space and beyond".

There will always be minority languages and dominant languages in a multilingual

society. Even while the quantity of speakers might be important, economic and political
power ultimately decide dominance.
E.G.- The apartheid government enforced bilingualism in English and Afrikaans, reducing
minority language groups to minority status. This pressure hindered social and economic
progress for minority speakers, while dominant language speakers remained monolingual.

It is more common for dominant languages to be used for access to written materials, government
services, healthcare, education, and employment than minority languages.
More languages are often used by residents of metropolitan regions than those in rural ones. One
explanation for this is that individuals from various linguistic and cultural backgrounds are more
likely to live in metropolitan areas, making multilingualism more crucial since people need to be able
to communicate socially and professionally in both the majority and minority languages.
Linguistically, rural regions are typically more homogeneous. Because extra languages may be
learned at school and utilised as a medium of instruction or studied as subjects, people with formal
educations tend to be more multilingual than people without formal educations. Minority speakers, for
instance, would normally have to pick up the classroom or official language.

3 forms of societal bilingualism

Territorial monolingualism – a single language is spoken and used within a specific geographic area
or territory- the population in the area predominantly speaks and uses only one language. One society
speaks one language, and the other speaks the other language.
Territorial multilingualism- multiple languages are spoken and used within a specific geographic
area or territory- the population in the area speaks and uses more than one language. Two or more
languages are used side by side
One bilingual group and one monolingual group- The bilingual group is usually the minority group
forced to learn the dominant language to function in the society. The monolingual group speaks only
the dominant language and has no need to become bilingual.
Diglossia- a situation in which two CLOSELY RELATED languages or varieties (or two varieties of
the same language) are used under different conditions within a community, often by the same
speakers. Each language has a specific function and competent speakers need to know when to use
each variety- in some bilingual societies, the roles of the two languages differ.
Typically, a community chooses one variety for more private or intimate domains, like those with
family, friends, and neighbours, and a different variety for more formal domains, like those with the
government, the educational system, the workplace, etc.
The high language is utilised in official or more public settings, whilst the low language is chosen for
more intimate or casual settings.
*Religious observances and everyday transactions such as buying goods and requesting information
may be carried out in either variety depending on the particular variety.
Most intimate family
Friendship
Neighbourhood transactions
Education
Religion
Most formal employment
Usually L or low language is the mother tongue of the diglossic community, while H or high language
is a standard language formally acquired as school. Certain sections may only know L and therefore
be barred from participating in higher education, politics and business- IN THIS WAY SOCIAL
INEQUALITIES MAY BE PERPETUATED IN THE COMMUNITY.
Governments in multilingual societies must select a national language for communication, promote it,
and support it (e.g. by making it a compulsory subject in school) while ensuring minority languages
are included.- this must be taken into account when language planning.
Language planning is the term used to describe government policy pertaining to the usage of
different languages within a nation.
This planning alludes to intentional top-down initiatives to address linguistic issues in a certain
sociopolitical setting.
* Making sure every citizen can fully engage in the political and economic systems of the nation
should be the minimum goal of language planning.
* Language planners should consider national ( which examines how nations use language for
commerce) and grassroots language usage ( which examines how individuals use language in their
daily lives) for practical language plans. Successful strategies can influence everyday language usage,
but effective policy must be financially sustainable, equitable, and community endorsed. Language
planning is a political process involving public decisions about language use, status, and development,
impacting society, economy, education, and politics.
Successful language planning needs to take into account the ffg factors:
*demographic factors- The number of languages, the number of speakers of each language, and the
geographic distribution of those languages are examples of demographic factors.
*linguistic elements, such as similarities between languages, For instance, speakers of the Nguni
languages in South Africa—Zulu, Xhosa, and Ndebele, for instance—have minimal trouble
understanding one another.
*Financial factors such as the sum of money required to produce new textbooks, retrain teachers,
broadcast local language programming, provide adult second language classes, translate paperwork,
supply interpreters, and support effective government operations.
*Psychological factors, such as how individuals feel about different languages.
*Religion factors. Sometimes, governments choose a language that is strongly linked to a certain
religion in an effort to encourage its expansion.
*Political factors. Governments may, for instance, choose to designate one official language in an
effort to unite the country or they may even use language policy to marginalise some segments of the
populace.
The 4 stages of language planning:
1) Fact-finding- info is gathered of the no. of speakers and their distribution and on whether
standard, written forms of each language exist.
2) Deciding on goals and strategies- actual language planning takes place, policies are made
about which lang. will be the official languages and how minority languages will be provided
for.
3) Implementing policies- laws are passed, teaches are trained and textbooks are published.
4) Evaluating how policies are operating in practice- policies are assessed and the success of the
process is evaluated.

Importance of language planning- Responsible, efficient language planning with

community support can maximise educational and economic progress, empower individuals
and groups, unite nations, and reduce political tensions.

An official language is one that has been designated by the government as the standard language for
usage. Along with being the language of the mass media, trade and industry, road signs, etc., this
language is usually also the medium of teaching in schools. Chosen for practical reasons usually.
A widely spoken language can help to unite different groups within a country into one nation. This is
called a national language. It enables everyone to feel like citizens of that country. May be chosen
for more political or ideological reasons- to function as a national symbol.
Having only one official language disadvantages everyone, especially those who don’t speak it as
their first language. In apartheid South Africa, Afrikaans and English were used, favouring white,
Indian, and coloured communities while disadvantaging the black majority. English-speaking children
excelled academically, gaining admission to institutions and higher-paying jobs, establishing a new
social class and sustaining societal injustices.- IN THIS CASE LANGUAGE SERVES TO
MAINTAIN SOCIAL INEQUALITIES.

Bilingual education- any form of education in which the mother tongue is not the medium of
instruction.
Types of bilingual education
Submersion programmes: a type of subtractive bilingualism in which learning the L2 comes at the
price of learning the L1. The language that has the most status in the community, or the dominant
language, is used for instruction. Minority language speakers in schools do not receive any guidance
or assistance in their first language (L1), and linguistic diversity is not acknowledged.
Immersive programmes: Encourage monolingual speakers to become bilingual by adding the L2 to
their L1. This is known as additive bilingualism. From the very first year of school, children are
taught in the second language (L2). The L1 is still maintained and can be taught as a separate subject
or to aid in the clarification of topics.
Transitional programmes: Additive bilingualism. For those who speak minority languages, teaching
is first provided in the mother tongue to help close the gap between home and school before moving
on to the majority language. In SA, this is a typical model. Mother tongue instruction is still offered as
a subject in schools.
Dual-language programmes: Additive bilingualism .utilises both majority and minority languages in
the classroom. In some sense, the two languages are distinct. in order for various teachers to use each
language, or at different periods of the day, etc. A 'one language-one subject' strategy is another
possibility. In this approach, some substantive subjects—like arithmetic in English and life skills in
Sesotho—are taught exclusively in one language.
Unit 7 Summary
1) Explain how printed signs can illustrate language preferences in a particular community
• The visible languages that mark a certain public space, such as street names, road signs,
billboards advertising, and store signs, comprise the linguistic landscape. These include both signs
posted public authorities like government and municipalities, and private signs issues by individuals
and businesses.

 Analysis of the linguistic landscape is a new focus area within linguistics. It has the ability to
capture subtle aspects of the relationships between the various languages in a multilingual
society. For example, which languages and writing systems are used? Are the signs
monolingual or multilingual? In which order do the various languages appear?
 Language choice on printed signs reflects the community's linguistic diversity and
preferences, with the dominant languages or languages of significant cultural or linguistic
minorities often used. Official language policies may dictate the presence or absence of
certain languages on signs. Signs can convey cultural identity and heritage, preserving and
promoting it. Accessibility and inclusivity can be affected by the language used, especially for
those with limited proficiency or linguistic minority groups. Language choices can also reflect
social and political dynamics, such as linguistic rights, cultural autonomy, or political
resistance in linguistically diverse regions.
2) Explain the relationship between language shift and language death
 Multilingualism in society declines if one language is deemed adequate in all circumstances.
This may result in a language shift or in language death, which is the total extinction of a
language.
 Language shift happens when a bilingual community starts using a new language in contexts
where it was previously spoken in another language. It is the shift from using one language
regularly to another. There is thus a replacing language (the dominant language) and a
language which is being replaced (the minority language). An increasing number of
individuals start using the dominant language in places where the minority language was
previously utilised.
3) Identify factors contributing to language shift and language death
 Language shifts are frequently caused by speaker movement, political shifts in borders or the
ruling class, or the practical need of learning the dominant language in order to get
employment and education.
A language's survival or extinction depends on a variety of factors, such as its social and
economic context, the number of speakers, and their geographic distribution. In certain
situations, similar social pressures or changes result in a shift, but not in others.
 An attitude change on the part of the speakers towards their language appears to be a
necessary precondition for language loss. A language is a symbol of group identity and can be
a source of pride and communal feeling. However, if the wider community does not value a
particular language, then under some circumstances even mother-tongue speakers will cease
to evaluate it positively and may use the language less and less.
 Minority languages are the best candidates for language shift as linguistic minorities are often
socially, politically and economically disadvantaged and may look to dominant languages for
jobs, social standing and political power.

4) Describe some basic observations that have been made about dying languages
 Languages with more than 100 000 speakers tend to be safe from language death. But not all
small languages are at risk and not all large languages are safe.
 Some languages thought to be dead like Latin for eg. Have simply just given rise to several
modern languages like French, Spanish- parent lang i.e latin changes but doesn’t die.
 Language death can either occur rapidly (sudden death) or gradually (gradual death)- this
distinction can be blurred at times because it’s sometimes hard ti pinpoint the absolute end of
a language.
 Sudden death occurs when an entire community is killed and their language therefire dies
with them. In cases of genocide, the lang disappears too rapidly for any changes to occur.
 In most cases, a gradual death occurs- with the no. of speakers reducing over a period of time.
 In cases of gradual death, patterns of language us will differ according to the age of the
speaker. Dying languages often display a range of abilities across speakers. Older members of
the community may be fluent speakers of the language while young children do not acquire
the language at all. In between those two extremes are semi-speakers who may understand the
language fairly well. but speak it imperfectly, with many mistakes and limited vocabulary.
 We may also find people who once spoke the language fluently but have lost much of their
earlier ability due to a lack of practice. These are rememberers.

5) Identify ways in which languages can be revived and maintained.

 The first step is to ensure that the community survives and can maintain its way of life and its
traditional culture.
 Languages which are given official status by the government and used in schools are unlikely
to be lost.
 Language maintenance is usually most successful when it begins in the community itself
through voluntary efforts. Even minority languages usually survive if there are influential
figures such as intellectuals, politicians, writers or religious leaders.
6) Explain the following terms in your own words:
 Linguistic landscape
 Language shift (partial and total)
 Language death (sudden and gradual)
 Semispeakers
 Language maintenance
 Rememberers

Partial shift in language: speakers of 1 language start using another language in certain
situations while retaining their own language in other situations. E.g using the dominant
language at work and shifting to the minority language at home.
Total shift: If they switch to using the other language in all circumstances (may happen over a
number of generations) and stop using their original language completely- this can result in
language death if the replaced language is not spoken elsewhere. In other cases of total shift
the minority language does not die out completely.

Study unit 8 notes

Linguistic differences serve two purposes: they sustain different group identities by highlighting the
contrasts between groups and strengthening the unity and solidarity among group members.
Our competence in a language comprises various layers or components that contribute to our overall
ability to understand, speak, read, and write in that language. These layers encompass different
aspects of language proficiency and are interconnected. Here are the key layers that make up our
competence in a language:

Phonological Layer: This layer involves knowledge of the sounds (phonemes) of the language,
including pronunciation rules, stress patterns, and intonation. It encompasses our ability to recognize,
produce, and differentiate between the sounds of the language.
Morphological Layer: The morphological layer involves knowledge of word structure and formation,
including prefixes, suffixes, roots, and grammatical markers. It encompasses our understanding of
how words are constructed and modified to convey meaning and grammatical relationships.
Syntactic Layer: This layer pertains to knowledge of sentence structure and grammar, including word
order, sentence patterns, and syntactic rules. It encompasses our ability to form grammatically correct
sentences and understand the relationships between words within a sentence.
Semantic Layer: The semantic layer involves knowledge of meaning and vocabulary, including the
meanings of words, phrases, and idiomatic expressions. It encompasses our ability to comprehend and
produce meaningful language and to interpret nuances of meaning in different contexts.
Pragmatic Layer: The pragmatic layer pertains to knowledge of language use in social and cultural
contexts, including politeness conventions, speech acts, and communicative strategies. It encompasses
our understanding of how language is used to achieve social goals, convey intentions, and negotiate
meaning in interaction.
Discourse Layer: The discourse layer involves knowledge of discourse structure and organization,
including coherence, cohesion, and rhetorical patterns. It encompasses our ability to comprehend and
produce longer stretches of connected language, such as conversations, narratives, and written texts.
Sociolinguistic Layer: The sociolinguistic layer pertains to knowledge of language variation and
sociocultural factors that influence language use, including dialects, registers, and sociocultural
norms. It encompasses our understanding of how language varies according to factors such as region,
social class, age, gender, and context.
Metalinguistic Layer: The metalinguistic layer involves metacognitive awareness and knowledge
about language itself, including language learning strategies, language awareness, and reflection on
language use. It encompasses our ability to monitor and regulate our language production and
comprehension, as well as to analyze and reflect on linguistic features and structures.
Culture refers to the learned human conduct passed down through generations, including language,
beliefs, traditions, and artificial items. It also includes communicative competence, which is the
understanding of socially acceptable speech patterns acquired in early life. Community expectations
vary, with some things not being addressed or spoken.
We refer to the interaction between individuals with various cultures and L1s as cross-cultural
communication. They may not be aware of the conversational norms of the other culture, even though
both are communicatively competent in terms of their own culture's customs and etiquette.
When an L2 speaker, for example, ignores any unwritten ground rules during a discussion, they run
the risk of being viewed as odd or disrespectful and of being negatively stereotyped.

 Politeness: The dos and don'ts of social interaction—that is, the regulations and modes of
expression of politeness—are a significant area where cultures diverge. Being polite is a way
to defuse tension and indicate the power imbalance and social distance between speakers.
Being courteous is especially crucial in such situations as we are forcing our will on other
people. Examples include asking for something, saying sorry, expressing gratitude, or lodging
a complaint. The nonverbal components of etiquette are just as significant. Examples include
whether we look up or down, shake hands, kiss, or avoid making physical contact, smile, etc.
 Greetings and forms of address: An important aspect of politeness that differs from culture to
culture is the names or titles we use when speaking or writing to people, eg. Dr, Miss, Ms, etc.
These names or titles are known as forms of address. In order to address someone in an
acceptable manner a speaker needs to take into account information relating to age, sex and
status of the person they are addressing as well as the situation. Forms of address differ cross-
culturally, for example, Americans tend to feel uncomfortable with titles, so superiors tend to
use informal forms of address such as first names and nicknames. In Japan however, even
fairly close friends are likely to address each other using surnames, and names are not used in
greetings. (Also SA and Germay e.g.)

Taboo: Another interesting way in which speech communities vary is with respect to the
topics which are considered appropriate in conversation. Topics which are generally avoided
are known as taboo subjects, and can vary from sex, disease and death to bodily functions and
religion. Ignorance of these conventions can cause acute problems or embarrassment for an
outsider.
A similar phenomenon is the use of euphemisms or words or phrases used to talk about
unpleasant or embarrassing subjects in a roundabout but more polite way.

Gender and language use: The feminism movement heightened interest in gender-based
language differences, with Robin Lakoff's article highlighting gender influences on
conversational style, pronunciation, and vocabulary choice. However, these differences may
not apply to all individuals or non-English languages. Men's voices are physically deeper or
lower in pitch than women's, making this the most noticeable physical difference between the
sexes. The distinctions between male and female voices are accentuated by acquired speech
production patterns in addition to physical variations. Women tend to modulate the pitch of
their voices more than males do, for instance, which results in a wider variety of intonation in
their speech.
Men and women may speak words differently and choose distinct terms in various
civilizations. Compared to males, women are often more courteous and use more euphemisms
and fewer profanity terms. Adjectives like wonderful, divine, and cute, as well as 'feminine'
intensifiers like so and so, are infrequently used by men. It's also said that women have a
much larger vocabulary for describing colours than men.
Women of all classes tend to employ a more conventional version of the language than males
of the same class, which is another way that men and women speak differently.
Gender also affects the conversational tenor of our interactions with others—that is, the things
we say, the ways in which we say them, and when. For instance, women are often more active
listeners than males, asking questions, expressing agreement, and providing a lot of verbal
and nonverbal input during conversations.
Additionally, women speak with less emphasis (force, demanding). Women like to ask
questions or make recommendations, but males tend to give more straight orders or
imperatives.
In addition, women appear to be more concerned than males about their discussion partners
and how to respect others' interests and rights.
In a group situation, women often encourage others to speak out so that everyone has equal
opportunity to speak out.

Consequences of gendered language: Women's marginality and powerlessness are evident in

their speech and representation, with 'appropriate' speech avoiding strong emotions and
favouring uncertainty, and requiring euphemism for sexual aspects. Women's marginality and
powerlessness are evident in their speech and representation, with 'appropriate' speech
avoiding strong emotions and favouring uncertainty, and requiring euphemism for sexual
aspects. Another obvious consequence is that patterns of interaction may differ and thus lead
to misunderstandings between men and women. One difference can be that when women are
listening, they make active listener sounds but those sounds don't necessarily mean they agree
with that speaker. While men only make sounds when they agree with what someone is
saying.

Unit 8 summary
1) Discuss the relationship between language and culture
 Languages sustain different group identities by highlighting the contrasts between groups and
strengthening the unity and solidarity among group members.
 Conversational style: what we say and how we say it

Study unit 9 notes

Sign language: Sign languages are naturally-occurring languages that emerged out of the
necessity for Deaf populations to communicate with one another. They are created with the hands,
face, and upper body and are processed visually (through our sense of sight) as visual-gestural
languages. They are therefore distinct from spoken languages, which are generated by the mouth,
tongue, and vocal cords and are naturally processed (by means of our sense of hearing).
Universal sign language does not exist. The spoken language that is most common in the area is
unrelated to sign languages.
It is important to distinguish between pidgin sign language, which is a rudimentary signing
system that developed out of necessity when Deaf and hearing people needed to interact, and
natural sign language, which is used by Deaf people to communicate with each other. Pidgin sign
languages are very reduced versions of spoken languages that leave out grammatical details.
Pidgin signed English might for example translate the sentence The man has bought a dog using
only the three signs ‘man’, ‘buy’ and ‘dog’.
The manual sign code, an artificially created system intended to enable the transmission of a
certain spoken language through signs, is the third form of sign language. Therefore, a manual
sign code for English would follow the word order of English by substituting a similar sign from a
natural sign language for each English word, including grammatical terms. The outcome is a
word-for-word translation of English that is used to facilitate communication between hearing and
Deaf individuals rather than a natural sign language. In American classrooms, manual sign codes
such as Linguistics of Visual English (LOVE) and Seeing Essential English (SEE-I) are utilised.
Manual sign codes lack many of the characteristics that make natural sign languages clear and
effective means of communication since they are artificial languages.
Comparing signed and spoken languages: Similar to how sentences are composed of a series of
words, signs are composed of a series of motions and holds. As is well known, gestures vary
greatly among cultural groups. Similarly, handforms used in one sign language could be
considered culturally inappropriate in other sign languages.
Sign languages have five basic articulatory features:

 Handshape or handform, for e.g.

 Movement,
 Location (where is the sign made relative to the body),
 Palm orientation (whether the palm is facing up, down, left, right etc.),and
 Non-manual signals such as facial expressions.

ALL THESE FEATURES OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY.

Signs can be contrasted with each other by changing any one of these features. For example,
the signs for WANT and HAPPY are shown below. They are produced using the same flat
handshape, but the movement differs. In WANT, the hand is moved downwards in front of the
day, while in the case of HAPPY the movement is circular.
Numerous linguistic signals are conveyed non-manually through posture adjustments or facial
expressions. For example, one could drop their eyebrows, frown, tilt their head forward, and
elevate their head slightly when asking a question that doesn't have a yes-or-no response. The
entire phrase is delivered with this expression on your face. while asking a question that
demands a "yes" or "no," one raises their eyebrows; while a negative statement, one shakes
their head and furrows their brow. Speakers can communicate a whole distinct message by
altering the facial expression linked to a symbol.
The signs used in sign language are far less arbitrary than spoken language terms. Sign
language occasionally mimics or reflects the meaning of the sign to some extent, even if the
meaning of spoken words cannot be inferred from their form or shape. These non-arbitrary
signals are referred to as iconic.
The ASL sign for bird is an iconic sign, consisting of an upward- pointing gesture with
the hand touching the nose, representing the bird’s beak, while the sign for me is a
finger pointing towards the signer.
In contrast to the above e.g., spoken languages use arbitrary (non iconic) strings of sounds
which have no natural association with the concepts they represent. E.G. saying goodbye
when someone is leaving is not naturally associated with the concept of saying farewell.
Although onomatopoeia is a small example of words that mimic the sounds the represent.
Even while sign languages are less arbitrary than spoken languages, they are nevertheless too
arbitrary for non-native speakers of the language to understand. The overall image to people
who are not familiar with sign language is an unintelligible swirl of random signals. However,
you may identify one or two signs when you see an interpreter translate the news into sign
language due of its non-arbitrary reflection.

Language acquisition in Deaf children

Due to the lack of auditory information, Deaf children's language development differs
noticeably from that of hearing children. For instance, Deaf children's vocalisations during the
babbling stage (beginning at around 6 months) are erratic and non-repetitive, unlike hearing
babies' utterances, which mirror the intonation patterns of adult phrases. Nevertheless, deaf
newborns exposed to sign languages will 'babble' mechanically, generating a limited
repertoire of repeated hand movements. The hand gestures of hearing children, on the other
hand, are characterised by haphazard finger and fist movements that lack regular repetition.
According to this research, people are predisposed to communicate and are able to recognise
and react to social cues in their surroundings. These signals are mostly verbal for hearing
babies and manual for Deaf newborns who have been exposed to sign language. In other
aspects, Deaf and hearing children go through relatively comparable phases in their language
development, however the first indications come about 6 months, which is a little earlier than
the first words. This might be because the hands' muscular development and coordination
precedes that of the vocal organs, or it could be because some signals are simpler to recall
since they are less arbitrary than words.
Children of Deaf signing parents acquire sign language in much the same way hearing
children acquire their mother tongues- they babble manually then progress to single signs
similar to the single words in the holographic stage and then begin to combine signs. There is
also a telegraphic stage in which grammatical signs are omitted. Grammatical or function
signs appear at around the same age for deaf children as function words in spoken languages.
According to this research, people are predisposed to communicate and are able to recognise
and react to social cues in their surroundings. These signals are mostly verbal for hearing
babies and manual for Deaf newborns who have been exposed to sign language. In other
aspects, Deaf and hearing children go through relatively comparable phases in their language
development, however the first indications come about 6 months, which is a little earlier than
the first words. This might be because the hands' muscular development and coordination
precedes that of the vocal organs, or it could be because some signals are simpler to recall
since they are less arbitrary than words.
In contrast to other speech groups, the Deaf community is not limited to a specific geographic
region; instead, they are a part of society at large and frequently reside in hearing households.
Due to a lack of sign language at home, the majority of deaf children with hearing parents do
not learn sign language as their first language. Because they are unable to mimic sounds in
their surroundings and receive no feedback on the noises they make, they struggle greatly to
acquire a spoken language. Many students pick up sign language from their classmates at
school, which causes issues related to delayed language development.
In the same way that hearing children learn their mother tongue, deaf children of deaf parents
naturally pick up sign language at an early age. Prior to becoming competent signers, they
begin by employing single signs, then telegraphically mix signals, and then pick up
grammatical or function signs.
Even after it was outlawed in schools in1880, students continued to communicate informally
using sign language.
Many schools have chosen to use oralism, in which teachers ask students to lipread while
using community language with an exaggerated pronunciation. Even for individuals who lose
their hearing after learning to speak, lipreading can be challenging; for those who are born
deaf, it is nearly impossible.
In many schools, cued speech is utilised as an additional technique to help kids lipread. In this
approach, the speaker indicates what the vocal organs are doing via hand gestures. For
instance, hand gestures such as the ones below are used to distinguish between sounds such as
"t," "d," and "I," which appear to be quite similar when spoken or lipread.

Total communication is a third alternative for instruction in which teachers converse and
utilise a manual sign language simultaneously. They cannot employ lip and face emotions as
essential components of the sign, as they would in natural sign languages, because they are
speaking.
Naturally, Deaf people tend to dislike or reject all three of these approaches—oralism, cued
speech, and complete communication—because they rely more on spoken language than on
natural sign language. Many believe that these approaches downplay the Deaf community's
status as a minority group in terms of language and culture. Which of these approaches works
best in the classroom is still up for debate. Systems that use signing are superior to oral-only
methods.
A 4th possibility is dual-medium education for Deaf children, with the local sign language as
the medium of instruction and literacy provided in the written form of the spoken language of
the region.