Cell

2nd Part : Cytoplasm

 Cytoskeleton

 Cell Organelles

3rd Part : Structure and Function of Nucleus

 Within the cell membrane, a cell is filled with
cytoplasm. Cytoplasm is a jelly-like material that
contains dissolved molecular bulding blocks –such
as protein, nucleic acid, minerals, and ions
(Cytosol) and Organelles. It consists mostly of
water that is necessary for maintaining cell
structure. Water is an essential component for life.
However. Many biochemical reactions occurs in
cytoplasm.
 Each eukaryotic cell has a cytoskeleton which is a flexible network of proteins that provide
structural support for the cell. It is made up of small proteins subunits that form fibers
 The cytoskeleton is a structure that helps cells maintain
their shape and internal organization, and it also provides
mechanical support that enables cells to carry out essential
functions like division and movement.
the skeleton of a cell

Cells need a (cyto)skeleton

Components of the Cytoskeleton
There are 3 main types of fibers make up the cytoskeleton allow it to serve a wide range
of functions.
1. Microfilaments
2. Microtubules
3. Intermediate filaments
What is the main function of
Microfilaments?

 Microfilaments assist with cell movement and

are made of a protein called actin. Actin
works with another protein called myosin to
produce muscle movements, cell division, and
cytoplasmic streaming. Microfilaments keep
organelles in place within the cell
 Microtubules, the thickest fibers, are hollow
tubes about 25 microns in diameter.
 Microtubule fibers are constructed of the
globular protein, tubulin, and they grow or
shrink as more tubulin molecules are added or
removed.
 They move chromosomes during cell division.
When cells divide, microtubules form fibers that
pull half of the DNA into the each new cell.
 act as tracks for the movement of organelles.
centrioles
 Intermediate filaments,
 Gives a cell its strength(power).
They reinforce cell shape and fix organelle location.
Structure of Cytoplasm
It has two main parts
*Cytosol (Nonliving components of
the cytoplasm)

*Organelles (living components of the

cytoplasm)
Cytosol
-Most of the cytosol is composed of water.The
amount however varies according to the type
of cell.for example human cell which is
composed of only 65 %water.
-Cytosol also contains both organic and inorganic
molecules. Organic molecules constitute 90 %
of the structural components of the cytosol
(protein, carbohytrate, lipit, enzymeswhereas
inorganic molecules constitute only 10% of it.
-It is a gelatinous substance..
 Na,ca, K, P, Mg and Fe are the vital inorganic
molecules found in the cytosol and are
involved in the following functions:
 They participate in the structure of some
molecules.
 Mg for instance is present in chlorophyll.
 Fe is present in homoglobin.
 They function as regulatory elements in the
structure of enzyme and vitamines.
ORGANELLES

- They comprise the essential

machinery that perform all cell
activities.

- They are specialized to perform a

variety of specific functions
ORGANELLES
•Ribosome Golgi Body

•Endoplasmic reticulum Lysosome

•Mitochondria Centriole

•Vacuole Plastids
Endoplasmic reticulum
 Is an interconnected network of thin, folded
membranes.
 The ER is system of membranous tubules and
canals or channels.
 The membranes of the ER are similar in
structure to the cell membrane and nuclear
membrane.
 These canals generally form a continuous
network throughout the cytoplasm.
 The canals of the ER serve as transport of
materials within cells .Espacialy transport of
protein molecules synthesized by the ribosomes
to the Golgi apparatus.
 It is located between plasma membrane and
nuclear membrane.
ER is categorized into two
groups according to its structure
1- Rough ER 2-Smooth ER.
Rough ER
 In Rough ER, the outer surfaces of the
membranes are lined with tiny particles
called ribosomes. The ribosomes give the
membrane a granular appearance.
 It provides distribution of synthesized
substances such as protein.
 Proteins synthesized at the ribosome pass
via the channels of the ER to the Golgi
apparatus where they are capsulated and
secreted.
Smooth ER
 On smooth ER there are no ribosomes.

 Smooth ER is plays a role in the synthesis

and metabolism of lipids.

 It is generally found in the liver, testis,

ovaries and stomach
The Golgi Apparatus
 It consist of a stack of membranes forming flattened
sacs and small vesicles.

 Golgi bodies serve as processing, packaging protein

and lipid and storage centers for secretory products
of the cell.

 May also chemically modify the proteins by attaching

carbohydrates or lipids to them
 Finally, the modified and tagged proteins are packaged into
vesicles that bud from the opposite face of the Golgi. While
some of these vesicles, transport vesicles, deposit their
contents into other parts of the cell where they will be used,
others, secretory vesicles, fuse with the plasma membrane
and release their contents outside the cell.
Lysosomes
 Lysosomes are small, saclike structures
surrounded by a single membrane.
 Lysosomes are membrane bound vesicles
formed from the golgi apparatus . They
contain a strong digestive or hydrolytic
enzymes that functions as intracellular
digestive systems
 They are found in most animal cells
In multicellular organisms, lysosomes serve
several different functions

 They break down worn-out cell organelles.

 They are present in white blood cells,
which ingest disease-causing bacteria by
phagocytosis. The lysosomes within the
white cells break down the bacteria.
 Lysosomes play an important role in the
fertilisation an ovum by a sperm cell.
 Ribosomes
 They are the sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
 They are found both free in cytoplasm and lining
the membranes of the ER.
 with no Membranes

 Ribosomes contain rRNA and protein.

 A ribosome is composed of two subunits that combine
to carry out protein synthesis
Location of ribosome
 free in the cytoplasm (of all cells,
prokaryotic and eukaryotic alike)
 attach to the endoplasmic reticulum
 attach to nuclear envelope
 are in the nucleoli
 are in mitochondria
 are in chloroplasts
Mitochondria
 Double unit membrane
 The outer membrane is smooth but inner membrane
is folded into the matrix to form cristae.
 The cristae of the mitochondria provide a large
surface area on which many biochemical reactions
occur.
 ATP synthesized by enzymes on cristae from energy
extracted from organic compounds
 Space between cristae called the matrix
 contains ribosomes minerals, water, proteins and
small, circular DNA (mitochondrial DNA)
 Mitochondrial DNA is circular and can
replicate itself, thus a mitochondria can
regulate and perform its own metabolic
activities.(Reproduce independently of cell
and live for 10 days )

 Active cells, such as muscle cells, which

use much energy, contain large number of
mitachondria.Therefore this organelle is
often called powerhouse of the cell.
Centrioles
 Found only in animal cells.
 Each centrioles consist of a ring of nine
groups of three microtubulus.
 Centrioles are involved in cell division in
animal cell.
 Centrioles produce spindle fibers during
the cell division
 They are also found in the motile cells of
algae, fungi and higher plants.
What is a Nucleus?
 The nucleus (plural, nuclei) houses the cell’s genetic material, or DNA, and is also
the site of synthesis for ribosomes

 The nucleus is a pivotal organelle responsible for regulating almost all forms of
-administrative center of the cell-* it is
cellular activities
responsible for coordinating many of the important cellular
activities such as protein synthesis, cell division, growth and
a host of other important functions*. Mostly, every type of cell that
exists is categorized on the basis of the absence or presence of the nucleus within
its cell (categorized either as a prokaryotic or eukaryotic cell.)
Nucleus Structure
Structure: It has a double-layered membrane.
It has large pores through which materials
transport
Nucleus Structure
Nucleus Structure
1-The chromatin: The DNA is organized in the
nucleus to form chromatin. The chromatin also
contains proteins, the main proteins being
histones. The chromatin further condenses to
form the chromosomes. The human cell has 23
pairs of chromosomes.
Chromosomes and DNA
 Now that we have a sense of the structure of the nucleus, let’s have a
closer look at the genetic information stored inside it: the DNA. Most of
an organism’s DNA is organized into one or more chromosomes, each
of which is a very long string or loop of DNA. A single chromosome can
carry many different genes,
 In prokaryotes, DNA is typically organized into a single circular
chromosome (a loop). In eukaryotes, on the other hand, chromosomes
are linear structures (strings). Every eukaryotic species has a specific
number of chromosomes in the nuclei of its body’s cells. For example,
a typical human body cell would have 46chromosomes, while a
comparable fruit fly cell w6ould have 8.
 Chromosomes are only visible as distinct structures when the cell is
getting ready to divide.
Nucleus Structure
• 2--The nuclear envelope: The nucleus is bound by a double membrane
layer that forms the capsule or the envelope. The two layers of this
envelope stay separated from each other by a space known as the
perinuclear space. The nuclear envelope separates the inner contents of
the nucleus from the rest of the cell. The outer layer of the nuclear
envelope is rough because of the presence of ribosomes on its surface.
The outer membrane may be continuous with other organelles, such as the
Golgi apparatus and the endoplasmic reticulum. The nuclear membrane
has tiny gaps called pores. These pores allow the selective passage of
substances between the nucleus and the cytoplasm (the matrix containing
various organelles in the cell).
Nucleus Structure

 3-The nucleoplasm: a gel-like substance

called nucleoplasm that is also called the
karyoplasm or the nuclear sap. It is a
semi-solid, granular substance that
contains many proteins.
Nucleolus
• 4-The nucleolus is a well-defined spherical structure
within the nucleus. It is the site for the synthesis and
assembly of the ribosomes. The ribosomes act as the
site of protein synthesis within the cell.
Structure Of Nucleus

 Typically, it is the most evident organelle in the cell.

 The nucleus is completely bound by membranes.
 It is engirdled by a structure referred to as the nuclear envelope.
 The membrane distinguishes the cytoplasm from the contents of the
nucleus
 The cell’s chromosomes are also confined within it.
 DNA is present in the Chromosomes, and they provide the genetic
information required for the creation of different cell components in
addition to the reproduction of life.
Nucleus Function
 Following are the important nucleus function:

 It coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism,

protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).

 The nucleus has been clearly explained as a membrane-bound structure that

comprises the genetic material of a cell.
 it stores the cell's hereditary material, or DNA
 It is not just a storage compartment for DNA, but also happens to be the home of
some important cellular processes. First and foremost, it is possible to duplicate one’s
DNA in the nucleus. This process has been named DNA Replication and produces an
identical copy of the DNA.
 Producing two identical copies of the body or host is the first step in cell division,
where every new cell will get its own set of instructions.
 Secondly, the nucleus is the site of transcription. Transcription creates different types
of RNA from DNA. Transcription would be a lot like creating copies of individual pages
of the human body’s instructions which may be moved out and read by the rest of
the cell.
 The central rule of biology states that DNA is copied into RNA, and then proteins.