INDIAN SOCIETY

Lavkush Pandey
MA: Political Science
[email protected]
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INDIAN SOCIETY

Structure:
o Sections: women, Old age, Youth, SC/ST, PWD, etc.
o Institution: Family, Caste, Marriage, Media, Education and Religion.
o Culture: Homogenization, Hybridization and Revival of local culture.

Multiculturalism: It refers to cultural diversity where there is peaceful co-existence among different cultures
of the society. People have a tendency to retain, celebrate and transmit their culture from one generation to
another. There are two schools of thought on multiculturalism.
 Melting pot: People of different cultures melt together deserting their individual cultures and getting
fully assimilated in the predominant society.
 Salad bowl: It describes a heterogeneous society where different cultures are brought together as the
ingredient of the salad. However, the individual flavour of every culture is retained.

Social empowerment: It refers to the autonomy in decision making and confidence to bring about changes
in the structure of society which has kept them marginalized over the years. In the absence of social
empowerment, no amount of political and economic empowerment will give the desired results.

Andre Beteille: Law determines the direction in which society should move. However, it is the culture that
determines the direction in which society actually moves.

Society: The network of social relationships based on the pattern of interaction among the individual
members is referred as society. Based on the four basic attributes, Indian society can be considered an
amalgamation of multiple societies.

o Basic attributes of Indian Society: Definition of Territory, Progeny, Indian culture and Independence.

o Impact of British Rule on Indian Society ‘Salient Features of Indian Society: Joint Family, Caste
system, Patriarchy and Diversity.

Impact of British rule on Indian society:

Tradition Forces of Change Modern
o Ascriptive Social change Social order o Achievement
status. o English language. o Industrialization orientation.
o Hierarchy. o secular Education. o Urbanization o Egalitarianism.
o Strong religious o Printing Technology. o New indicators of social o Rationality.
orientation. o Transport and status  Emergence of o Individualism.
o Collectivism. communication  new Elite class o Universalism
o Particularism. dissemination of the
idea.

Ascriptive: The status that we acquire by birth.

Achievement orientation: The status that you have acquired in society is based on your social, political, and
economic achievements.

Particularism: It can be Characterised as "you show me the man, I show you the rule". Circumstances dictate
how ideas and practices are applied. Some people are more equal than others.

Universalism: Everyone is equal and treated the same that is ideas and practices can be applied everywhere
without modification

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Modernisation versus Westernisation: Westernization refers to the blind imitation of the culture of the
west whereas modernization refers to the progressive transformation of social, political, economic, and
attitudinal aspects of life. The scope of Westernisation is limited to speech, clothing, food habits, music
preferences, etc. whereas modernization is a fundamental concept that aims to bring about changes in values,
behaviour, infrastructure, etc. For example, industrialization, urbanization, modern education system
Westernization is an elite concept limited to the middle and upper class whereas modernization is a mass
affair that penetrates every section of society

Joint family: It is defined as a social group that consists of people united by the ties of blood, marriage, and
adoption. It extends for two or more generation. According to GP Murdock, the family performs the following
functions: Common residence, Economic cooperation, Sexual gratification and Reproduction.

Types of the family:

On the basis of marriage:
 Monogamy:
o Straight monogamy: Having one partner all throughout the life.
o Serial monogamy: At a time, one partner.
 Polygamy:
o Polygyny: One husband having more than one wife. Example – Islam.
o Polyandry: One wife having more than one Husband. Example- Tribe – Khasa and Toda.
On the basis of residence:
 Patrilocal: After marriage women go to their husband's house.
 Matrilocal: women staying in their own house. For example, Garo, Khasi, Nayars.
 Neolocal: Both husband and wife moving to some third place Because of Globalisation, we are moving
from Patrilocal families to neolocal families.

Globalisation has impacted family:

 Straight  Serial Monogamy.
 PatrilocalNeo-local.

On the basis Ancestry:

 Patrilineal: tracing descent from father to son, grandson and so on.
 Matrilineal: The term used when descent is traced through the mother.

Patrilineality and Patrilocality: According to Economic Survey, 2017-18 are important factors responsible
for the decline in Child sex ratio.

Impact of globalization on Joint Family:

Globalisation  New Value System  Secularisation  The decline in the social significance of the religion
No longer marriage is viewed as sacred by some Divorce and separation are no longer a stigmatic issue.

Composition:
Features of typical Indian Joint family:
o Patrilineal.
o Patrilocal.
o Centralized authority.
o Common residence.
o Commensality- It means inter-dining that is having food together
o Common sharing of property.
o Blood relations are more important than marital relation.
o Age and sex are the main ordering principle of the family hierarchy.

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Functions and dysfunctions of the Joint Family:
Functions Dysfunctions
1. Primary Socialisation 1. High Fertility rate
2. Agency of social control 2. Lack of Privacy
3. Agency of Social insurance 3. Low status of women
4. Economic cooperation 4. Decline in standard of living
5. Source of Identity/status for individual 5. Reproduction of social labour
7. Ghettoization (us versus them)
8. Arena of contradiction and conflict

Primary Socialisation: Early induction of the child into the culture of the society. Due to the disintegration
of JF, the moral fabric of society is declining.

Agency of social control: A joint Family helps in ensuring conformity and prevents deviant activities. Hence,
we can say one of the reasons for the increase in Juvenile crimes is the disintegration of JF.

Agency of Social Insurance: From each according to their ability and to each according to their need. With
the disintegration of JF, the vulnerability of old people with disability, and single women has increased.

Economic Cooperation: It prevents the fragmentation of assets and it secures the economy of expenditure

Source of identity or status for the individual: Values, attitude, and behaviour constitute the identity of
an individual, and individuals are dependent on their family for their identity. (In a joint family, since
everyone is taken care of. Hence, the fertility rate is often high).

Self-Alienation: Detachment from one's own self as people are supposed to behave according to the expected
norms rather than their true self which over a period of time can be psychologically damaging.

Ghettoization: The ghetto is an area that is populated largely by members of a particular community.
Ghettoization is the process that leads to it. It can be on the basis of social-cultural and economic reasons.

Reproduction of Social labour: We have been socialized to conform to the authority hence we create a
workforce that is a social fit. (Marxist perspective).

Arena of contradiction and conflict: Because of the value system given by the family is not in sync with the
value system which is prevailing in current society.

Life-Cycle of a joint Family:

Disintegration(JF-->NF):
o Migration:
o Push Factor: Agriculture distress, Population Pressure is increasing, Fragmentation of Landholdings
and Lack of basic infrastructure.
o Pull factor: Industry, Globalization, Urbanization, Better status of women and Better standard of
living.

Reintegration: Chain migration + high cost of living. Child rearing in a dual-career family (Both husband
and wife are working). JF ethics+ functional jointness is still retained. Industrialization provides an economic
basis for sustenance. Feeling of nativism. High cost of living-->Counter migration. Lack of alternative
employment opportunities.

To evade land ceiling restrictions people resorted to the theoretical partition which sowed the seeds of
separate living. Due to the emergence of legal provisions related to the labour market, the financial
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dependence on the family was declining. Hence led to the disintegration of JF. To resolve the debate that
despite residential disintegration function jointness is still retained due to the performance of physical and
financial obligations. Also, Joint family ethics which is participation in rituals, ceremonies, festivals, etc is still
happening. Hence, a new concept was introduced known as Household. It is characterized by two features -
Common Residence and Common Kitchen. Hence, we can conclude that it is the joint household that is getting
disintegrated and not the JF.

Emergent form of Family:

o Nuclear Families with extended ties.
o Single parent household: Reasons for single parenting are the provision of adoption for single people.
Divorce and separation is no longer a stigmatic issue. Women empowerment has resulted in a more
independent existence for women. The Western Value system has resulted in children being born out of
wedlock.
o Female-headed household: Reasons for female-headed household are Women empowerment Male-
specific migration. The feminisation of old age. Government schemes.
o Co-habitation/living in.
o Dual- Career family: Both husband and wife are working.
o Conjugal-symmetrical family: Both husband and wife have the same bargaining power in a marital
relation.

Impact of globalisation:
 The disintegration of joint family: Initially, the family was both units of production and consumption,
however, Globalization has resulted in Industrialization which is a factory system of production and
hence family is reduced to the unit of consumption only. Democratic relations.
 The disintegration of joint household and not family: The family was the source of knowledge skills.
However, With globalisation--->Diverse job opportunities--->Specialised institution of knowledge---
>Spouse selection. Status of women is improving.
 Emergent forms of family: Primary Socialisation--->Agency of social control. Ties with extended kins
are improving (for example, Social media).

Caste system: It is defined as the system of Social stratification consisting of hierarchically arranged closed,
endogamous strata (marrying within the same caste), where membership is ascriptive, contact is restricted
and mobility is theoretically impossible.

Models of the Caste system:

Varna (Book view): Sourced from scriptures, texts, etc. Different theories are Divine origin theory,
Charismatic endowment theory and Racial theory.
Jati (Field view): Contextual perspective. Within caste there exist sub caste. Based on the principle of purity
and pollution: Hierarchy, Separation of contact and Occupational division of labour.

Features of Caste System(CS): Innate nature, Hierarchy, Endogamy, Commensality, Occupational division
of labour - Occupation is predetermined by birth and every caste is supposed to treat their occupation as a
religious duty, Disability and privileges, Caste Councils - The objective is to maintain the unity of caste and
secure uniformity of rules.

Transformation of Caste System:

Tradition: Hierarchy, Separation of contact and Occupational division of labour.
Forces of change: Industrialisation, Urbanisation (Heterogeneity and anonymity gave rise to a secular
pattern of living). and Modern Value system(Rationality).

Contemporary Reality: With industrialisation, there was an Emergence of caste neutral job opportunities
which has challenged the occupational division of labour.

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Role of state: Because of reservation, people belonging to a lower caste in the traditional caste hierarchy
were able to get access to higher education, government jobs, and political power. Hence, were able to
improve their status in society. They are attaining mobility on secular indicators. Since the benefits of
reservation are not equally reaped by all, it has resulted in the emergence of class within the caste.

With the emergence of land reforms there emerged the section that irrespective of their status in the
traditional caste hierarchy became socially dominant because of land ownership, numerical strength and
political power. With the emergence of the Mandal Commission, there is an alteration in the caste structure
where there is horizontal competition for backwardness without any stigma instead of a vertical
arrangement of caste with a stigma. Abolition of untouchability.

Role of caste in politics:

Pre-independence: Christian Missionaries were spreading the message of the Christianity as a reformatory
movement against the caste system. English language + secular education led to the emergence of educated
elites who wanted to eradicate/reform the caste system.

Post-independence:
Phase-I: The power struggle between the entrenched caste and the ascendant caste.
 Entrenched caste: It is preferred with respect to the upper caste who have reaped the early benefits of
the opportunities offered by the Britishers as a result their position got consolidated in every aspect of
life.
 Ascendant caste: It is with respect to that section that due to various opportunities in the post-
independence period was gaining prominence in the social set-up

Phase-II: The second phase was characterised by factionalism and fragmentation among entrenched and
ascendant caste along with the formation of multiple caste alliances where lower caste was brought into the
fold to support faction.

Phase-III: English language, Caste neutral jobs, Multi caste alliances---> Caste identities will cease to exist--
> Casteization of politics---> Caste based political party.

The politicisation of caste is referred to as when political parties mobilise the people on caste lines to
strengthen their vote bank

Caste marginalisation: According to Amit Thorat and Omkar Joshi, 27% of the population still practice
untouchability (that is based on purity and pollution). According to Satish Deshpande, Ghettoization or
serving tea in separate utensils, etc is cited as an example that how untouchability is still being practiced
despite its abolition under article 17 of the Constitution. According to NFHS- Report 3, only 11% of the
marriages are inter-caste.

The emergence of caste-based matrimonial sites. There is the existence of caste-based economic associations,
for example, the Dalit Indian Chamber of Commerce and industry, the National Schedule Caste Finance and
development corporation. Educational associations on the basis of caste. For example, Vaishya Education
Society, Dalit Sahitya and International Dalit Solidarity Network, etc. A political association such as BSP.

Lower caste----> Limited access to education--> Limited access to skill development-----> Slums---> Informal
jobs---> low wages.

Despite 2013 act, Prohibition of employment of Manual Scavengers, manual scavenging is still persisting in
India. According to Bezwada Wilson, 472 deaths in the period (2016-2020) happened due to manual
scavenging.

Contemporary issues:
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Reservation system: It is a form of affirmative action whereby a certain percentage of seeds are reserved
for socially and educationally backward communities. Rationale is to provide equality of opportunity, to
correct the historical injustice and to give effect to the redistributive agenda of the state.

Arguments in Favour: Meritocracy is meaningless without equality of opportunity. It is the political

necessity in a democracy country to give representation to all sections of the society. It provides the
opportunity for social mobility. IT also helps in correcting the stereotypes. It will help in ensuring diversity in
higher education and equality in the workplace. It will help in the emancipation of the vulnerable sections. It
helps in reducing the gap between the haves and have nots. It helps in preventing social strife and promotes
national cohesion. It helps in ensuring inclusive development/ promote social inclusion.

Arguments Against: Merit is getting compromised and it is believed by many that administrative efficiency
also gets challenged. It further aggravates the social divide in the society. The class within caste has resulted
into the emergence of intra-caste conflicts (since the benefits of the reservation are not reaped by all). It has
further strengthened the caste consciousness. It reinforces stereotypes.

The achievement of the marginalized section is discredited by labelling it as a result of reservation. It has
been reduced to the status of a political tool to achieve the vested interest of the politicians. Many believe that
reservation has become the medium of reverse discrimination (Discrimination against members of the
dominant group in the favour of minority or the vulnerable sections). It also creates a situation for brain
drain.

The way forward: New yardsticks need to be developed to determine backwardness. For example, NALSA
judgment, 2014---> transgender's reservation under OBS status. De-reservation on the basis of Social
mapping. Complete overhauling of the education system. For example, widening the ambit of RTE to include
secondary education, bringing public education at par with private education. (ensuring quality). We need
to develop alternatives, for example, Agriculture can be made more lucrative to reduce the dependence on
government jobs. We can also promote the culture of self-employment that is transform the youth from being
a job seeker to a job giver. Perception management is the need of the hour. For example, Reservation is the
means not an end.

Economic growth potential created due to the expansion in the working-age population is referred to as a
Demographic Dividend.

Dalit Capitalism: When capitalism is seen as a solution to ensure emancipation and empowerment of Dalits.

Is Dalit capitalism a solution for all Dalit problems in India: Dalit capitalism creates the opportunity for
economic empowerment of Dalits. It promotes the culture of self-employment among Dalits. It helps in
transforming them from job seekers to job givers. Even the government is taking steps to promote Dalit
Capitalism for example, Stand up India, etc. However, it is only a necessary condition to ensure their
empowerment but not sufficient. It doesn't help in changing the social mindset of society. It might happen
that Dalit entrepreneurs are subjected to various challenges and the political, administrative, economic, and
social levels. Capitalism per se is an exploitative system and promotes inequality. Hence, only the elite section
within the Dalit community might be able to reap the benefits. Dalit Capitalism still lacks in uplifting the
poorest of the poor. Since it does not focus on the issues of violence, self-respect, social exclusion, etc. Due to
a lack of good skills and qualitative education, they might not be able to reap the true benefits of Dalit
capitalism.

Violence against Dalits: NCRB says, that in 2020, there were 50,290 cases registered w.r.t. Violence against
Dalits. This is a 9.4% increase from the previous year. The notions of purity and pollution are still ingrained
in society.

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Reasons for violence against Dalits: Lack of judicial implementation of the existing provisions. Lack of
awareness among the lower caste people regarding the availability of legal safeguards. Lack of reporting
due to fear of retaliation. Underestimation of data due to resistance on the part of officials to file the
complaint. Many times, the community treats discrimination as a part of their fate and hence does not
question it. Disenchantment with the justice delivery system due to the delays. Systemic issues, that is justice
delayed is justice denied. Many people do not pursue the cases as it is psychologically, socially, economically,
and mentally stressful.

Sanskirtization: When lower castes emulate the culture of the upper caste to improve their status in society,
it is referred to as Sanskirtization. According to Gail Omvedt, the upper caste tries to stop this process of
Sanskirtization, which may result in violence against Dalits. The increased status of lower caste people w.r.t
the secular indicators creates a feeling of relative deprivation among the privileged caste since it is acting as
a threat to their hegemony, which creates grounds for violence against Dalits.

Zero-Sum Game Theory: Manipulation of people on the basis of the perspective that the resources are
constant and if one community is flourishing it is at the cost of others. Misuse of social media by some fringe
elements to create a hostile environment. In certain situations, lower caste people are dependent on the
privileged caste for their livelihood, hence, they refrain from reporting. Lack of adequate representation for
lower caste people in law enforcement agencies. Due to the emergence of class within the caste, has resulted
in the dilution of the collective identity of lower caste groups, which might have impacted their ability to
assert themselves. In the backdrop of COVID, due to economic hardships, and a rise in unemployment, has
aggravated the struggle for scarce resources, which has created the potential for conflict based on social
identities.

Women Issues:

Gender: Socially constructed aspects of differences between men and women.

Impact of gender stereotyping on the social position of women:

Gender Stereotyping Social Position
1. Women are caring and nurturing. Domestic division of labour, unpaid care work, wage
gap
2. More emotional and less rational. Glass Ceiling
3. Good with soft skills. Pink collared jobs.
4. Weak, passive, dependent. Violence against women.

Glass Ceiling: The transparent ceiling existing in every organization beyond which women is not promoted
is referred to as the glass ceiling.

Pink Collared Jobs: The jobs in the labour market that are specifically reserved for women are referred to
as pink-collared jobs. For example, Air Hostesses, Receptionists, ASHA workers.
Patriarchy: The concept of gender draws its legitimacy from a patriarchal society. Patriarchy refers to a
system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women. Patriarchy is
not constant and the nature of control and subjugation varies with respect to caste, class, ethnicity, etc.

Structures of patriarchy:
 Family: As per the feminist scholars, the first lessons of patriarchy are learned in family, for example, the
boy-child is considered the inheritors whereas the girl child is considered as ‘paraya dhan’. Since most of
the families are patrilineal and patrilocal, hence, a girl child is accorded lower status. Since the family is
responsible for primary socialization, sometimes it results in gender stereotyping.

 Knowledge System: Patriarchal construction of knowledge perpetuates patriarchal ideology, and this
is reflected in educational institutions, as well as media. With respect to media, there are incidences of
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objectification and commodification of women, for example, even the advertisements are divided into
gender lines. Similarly, the educational content also. With respect to the education system, even the
content is biased against women, which is promoting patriarchy. When the infrastructure is not
conducive for girls, it promotes patriarchy for example, according to the ASER Report, the girls drop out
of school due to a lack of functional toilets.

 Symbolism: More subtle/soft expression of patriarchy is through symbolism, which is creating a self-
sacrificing image of women or damsel in distress image, etc. Patriarchal construction of social practices
is legitimized by religion and religious institutions as some of their customs and practices regard male
authority as ‘superior’. The laws and norms regarding family, marriage, divorce, and inheritance are
often biased against women. That is a demand for Uniform Civil Code to ensure women's empowerment.

 Caste: Caste and gender are closely related and the sexuality of women is directly linked with the purity
of the caste. The caste system and caste endogamy retain control over the women. Hence, caste not only
determines the social division of labour but also the sexual division of labour. Uma Chakravarty has used
the term ‘Brahmanical Patriarchy’, that is, notions of purity and pollution have been extended to women.
Pratiloma marriages are not allowed as per some traditions.

Patriarchy vis-a-vis work:

Domestic Household: Confined to domestic chores.
Private Patriarchy: Presumed that notion of Patriarchy is getting challenged.

Public Patriarchy: Silvia Walby has promoted the notion of Public Patriarchy, which includes: Wage gap,
Glass ceiling, Pink Collared Jobs, and Sexual Harassment at the Workplace.

Women in agriculture:
Statistics: According to an Oxfam report, 80% of economically active women are in the agriculture sector,
48% of them are working as self-employed farmers, and 33% as agricultural labourers. According to the
Agriculture census 2015-16, 14% of landholding is held by women, out of this 14%, 90% of the land is small
and marginal, according to an Oxfam report, 80% of farmworkers and 90 % of the daily work is done by
women. The wage gap is 35.8%

Feminisation of agriculture(FoA): A measurable increase in women's participation in the agriculture

sector is referred to as FoA.

Causes of FoA:
1. Economic causes: Agriculture distress  Increased participation of men in non-Agricultural activities,
Male-specific Migration leads to FoA, Cheap labour. According to Economic Survey (2017-18)  More
than 80% of landholding was small and marginal  Cannot afford to hire the labour  Depends on
labour of women in the family  Globalization  Diverse job opportunities  But it requires skills  In
absence of education and skill, women are confined to the agriculture sector.
2. Socio-cultural causes: Cultural acceptance of women working in agriculture, Easy to manage the dual
burden, Low bargaining power. Hence, preferred Feminization of old age, Farmer suicides. In flexible
work as defined by Surinder S. Jodhka, Women can be made to work for any number of hours under any
circumstances at a very low wage.

Implementation
challenges in the agriculture sector: Lack of ownership rights over land (14%). Limited access to
institutional credit---> More dependent on informal money lenders---> Aggravates economic challenges, for
example, Debt trap. Wage gap (35.8%).

Corteva AgroSciences report---> 78% of women are subjected to gender discrimination. According to Food
and Agriculture organization, only 5% of women farmers receive agriculture extension services (any new
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technology, plant variety or cultural practice reaches farmers). Only 15% of extension service agents are
women. Lack of representation of women in administrative bodies for example agriculture marketing
committees. Lack of autonomy with respect to decisions regarding crop selection, technology, marketing, etc.
Lack of awareness regarding schemes, benefits, rights, etc.

Positive implications: More presence of women in public space, Skill development, Financial autonomy,
Leadership skills, Increase in bargaining power, Better development/growth of the child. The work of women
becomes more visible and it can be further accounted for, Increase in the social status of women.

Women empowerment: Sense of self-worth

Access to resources: Social, Political, Economic, Autonomy with respect to decision making, Control over
their lives, Ability to influence the direction of social change

Government effort: Mahila Kisan sashaktikaran Pariyojana. ICAR (Indian council for agricultural research)
- Central Institute for women in agriculture. Additional support by the department of agriculture cooperation
+ farmers' welfare to women in existing schemes, for example, NFSM, Integrated scheme for agriculture
marketing, etc. Government has increased focus on SHGs to ensure sustainable livelihood. 15 th October is
women farmer day. Operation flood in association with SEWA established 6000 dairy cooperatives which
resulted in women's empowerment.

Way forward: Enhanced representation of women in decision-making bodies. Gender-friendly intervention

with respect to agriculture extension services. Development of gender-friendly farm equipment. SHGs (Self
Help Groups) can proactively engage in the value addition of agricultural produce. Prioritizing providing
credit to women on soft terms. Awareness generation among women with respect to rights and entitlements.
Skill development training, for example, Dilasa Sanstha, 7650 SHG was established to encourage organic
farming among women. Active participation of civil society in educating and training women, for example,
Deccan development society. Project Prerna, Mahindra, and Mahindra under this project are developing
gender-friendly tools. Area such as poultry, fishery, and beekeeping have scope for women farmers. Hence it
needs to be explored

Women in industry and service sector: According to the Consulate General of Sweden in India, Women
in industries vary from 3 to 12%. According to GE and Avatar research, it is 12%. According to ILO, Women
in the industries + service sector---> Women participation is around 20%.

Women in the informal sector: Women in informal sector + part time job are more than men, it leads to
feminization of informal sector.

Patriarchy--->Deprivation---> Limited access to education, Limited access to skills, Limited access to formal
jobs---> Confined to informal sector---> No Minimum wages, No social security benefits, Lack of career
growth, Lack of Proper working conditions, Lack of social security.

Female labour force participation:

o Statistics - According to the Global Gender Gap report, Female Labour force participation has been
reduced to 22.3%.
o Causes- Increase in household income--->Domestication of women.

Way forward: Caste norms of purity and pollution, Feminization U- hypothesis: In the initial stages, with
increased enrolment in secondary and higher education, there is a decline in female labour force
participation. However, it is only a short-term phenomenon as in long term, the participation will increase,
Lack of incentive to work: Dual burden, Glass ceiling, Sexual harassment, wage gap, Career break due to
domestic and reproductive responsibilities. Due to automation-2030(12 million women will lose jobs)
(McKinsey Global Institute). Fail to create jobs in sectors that can readily absorb women. Lack of safety and

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security (challenge of accessibility) Infrastructural issues (for example, Lack of Creche facility). Feminization
of the Informal sector +SHGs got disrupted.

Implications at the individual level-

o Lack of opportunity for upward social mobility.
o Lack of financial independence.
o Lack of autonomy with respect to decision-making.
o They have limited cognitive development.
o Self- alienation
o Lack of ability to initiate change.

Implications at the child level-

o Incidences of child labour increases.
o Lack of autonomy among women.
o High fertility rate and child malnutrition increase.

At the Family level- The decline in the standard of living. The low status of women remains low in the
family. Lack of ability to challenge patriarchy because of which there is intergenerational transmission of
patriarchy.

At the National level- Threatens the potential to reap the benefits of a Demographic dividend.
It negatively impacts economic growth (For e.g. according to the IMF chief if FLFP=MLFP, the GDP of India
will increase by 27%). It will obstruct the achievement of SDG goal number 5. It will lead to the perpetuation
of social evils in society for e.g. dowry, child marriage, domestic violence, etc.

At the Global level- If threatens the potential of India to emerge as a global power. The overall status of the
nation declines due to poor performance with respect to social indicators and indices.

Wage Gap- It is defined as a 'lack of equal pay for work of equal value'. According to Monster's online salary
Index wage gap is 20%. As per ILO, the Global wage report- -1993-94- 48%, 2019-20- 28%, PLFS (periodic
labour force survey - Due to COVID wage gap has increased by 7%.

Causes- According to OECD- Low bargaining power, Undervaluation of care work, Overconcentration of
women in feminized occupations. According to ILO- Patriarchy, Limited access to education, skill
development, experience, Motherhood penalty, Undervaluation of feminized occupation.

The government did make efforts for example- the minimum wage act, equal remuneration act, MGNREGA,
maternity benefit act, etc.

Unpaid work - It is defined as 'Work that is mostly done by women for which she is not paid any
remuneration'. For e.g. Care work in households, household chores such as maintenance voluntary work done
(for self-consumption) by people. As per the economic survey- 91.8% of women in India (15-59), perform
unpaid work whereas only 20% of men do. According to McKinney’s report, 75% of women globally are
performing unpaid work. According to the same report on average women spend 299 min/per day and men
spent 97 min/per day on unpaid work. In fact, according to ILO, if we monetize unpaid work done by women
and girls is 9% of the global GDP which is $11 Tn, ILO called it a hidden engine.

The main reason for the decline in FLFP is over-concentration in unpaid work. Supreme court ruled that
income for the non-earning home marker is a step towards social equality and dignified life similarly Goa's
Griha Aadhar scheme provides financial assistance to housewives and Assam's Orunodoi scheme
(assistance through DBT).

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 12

Causes for over-representation of women in unpaid work- Limited access to education and skill
development hence limited opportunities in the labour market. Socialization of girls for domestic chores. Lack
of safety and security along with women being associated with the prestige of the family (caste notions of
purity and pollution). Gender stereotyping (caring and nurturing). The sexual division of labour. Restricted
mobility after marriage. Subordinated status of women in society.

According to Oxfam report the primary role of women is to take care of the family, any income-generating
work is secondary. Industrialization has created accessibility issues. It has a high opportunity cost. Lack of
acknowledgment of their work reduces their confidence and generates frustration. Occupational
downgrading and segregation (Women choose employment below their skill level and in sectors that are
associated with gender roles). Discrimination in hiring and pay. Inequality in gender relations is further
aggravated.

Deteriorates the quality of life due to issues like alienation. Detrimental to women's empowerment and it
increases the vulnerability of women with respect to social, economic, and environmental, shocks and
disasters.

Pros and cons of Monetizing unpaid work:

Cons: Commoditization of women reduces. It will further stereotype the work done by women and they will
be confined to the domestic sphere. Many people don't consider care work to be work and hence will not be
reported. It is difficult to capture the whole spectrum of unpaid work done by women as she is often multi-
tasking.

Pros: Ensuring the rights of unpaid workers. Holistic understanding of labour. Women empowerment. It will
enhance policy efficiency, especially with respect to gender inequality in employment.

Way forward: Under SDG -5, talks about recognizing unpaid domestic work through provisions of public
services, infrastructure, social protection policies, and shared responsibility in the household.
Reducing unpaid work by investing in physical infrastructure.

According to an Oxfam report with increased access to drinking water women are spending 22 min less on
unpaid work and 60 min more on paid work. Similarly, With the Ujjawala yojana women are spending 49
min less on unpaid work and 60 more min on paid work. Defeminisation of unpaid work for e.g. introducing
paternity leave.

Maternity benefits Act:

Premise- To arrest the decline in FLFP due to reproductive responsibilities.
Provisions- Applicable in the context of the formal sector. Paid leave for 26 weeks (for 1st two children).
For more than 2 children- adopting child less than 3 months, commissioning mother (leave will be of 12
weeks). Leave can be availed 8 weeks before the due date. In an organization, less than 50 employees are
mandatory (CRECHE facility). Mother can visit the creche 4 times a day.

Pros- Will help women working in the formal sector. It is in line with the ILO provisions for paid leaves. By
putting a conditionality, it is promoting small family norms. It recognizes the right of mothers in the context
of adoption and surrogacy. The provision of a creche facility will help in arresting the trend towards career
break. Also, it ensures income security and early childhood care.

Cons- The majority of women work in the informal labour market. The paid 26 weeks has increased the
financial burden on companies which has reduced the desirability for hiring women, decreasing FLFP and
increasing the wage gap. In the absence of equivalent paternity leave, it is aggravating gender stereotypes
related to child care. It might also result in women losing touch with the care work.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 13

Way forward: We can take inspiration from the International example- In the context of Singapore, 16
weeks of paid leave is given and a financial burden is equally shared between the company and the
government. In the context of Sweden, 480 days of parental leave is provided which can be split among the
couple with each of them availing of at least 90 days of leave. promote flexible work conditions. Give
employers an incentive to hire more women in form of tax benefits etc.

The code of social security 2020 promises that the central government will set up funds for women in the
unorganized sectors similar initiatives should be taken by the State government. Husbands are to be seen as
partners i.e. Gender parity in child caregiving roles. There is a need to redefine maternity as a fundamental
economic right because women are bringing up the nation's future workforce.

Paternity Leaves:

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Violence against women: It is defined 'As gender-based violence, which results in physical. mental and
sexual harm'.

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Manifestation - It constitutes a life cycle- Pre-birth- Sex-selective abortion  Infanthood- Infanticide 
Childhood- Child marriage, child sexual abuse  Adolescent- Trafficking  Adulthood- Domestic violence
 Old age- Sexual abuse of old women (especially widows).

Statistics- According to NCW there is a 46% increase in violence against women in the first eight months
of 2021. There exists a regional variation w.r.t to violence against women with a maximum in UP>Delhi>
Haryana. 86% of the women who have been the victim of violence did not report it. Out of 14%, only 7%
could reach the appropriate authority. 77% did not even speak to anyone about the violence due to stigma.
UN Women has coined the term i.e. shadow pandemic.

Causes of increased violence against women: Institutionalization of patriarchy. The different processes
of socialization with respect to men and women. Objectification and commodification of women.
Economic dependence of women due to which she does not report cases of violence, especially domestic
violence. Due to gender stereotypes women are weak, passive, and dependent. Traditional and cultural
practices for example child marriage, female genital mutilation, Structural factors for example Alcoholism,
drug abuse. The nuclearization of the family - lack of social support- increases incidences of frustration,
and anxiety- women are treated as cushions to vent out frustration. Urban educated family- Increase FLFP-
disruption of the traditional division of labour - threatening of male hegemony. Internalization of
patriarchal norms both by men and women.

Patriarchal bargain- According to the gender social norm index by UNDP- 19% of people Globally have a
biased attitude against women. 90% of people (globally) have a biased attitude against women. 50% of them
believe men are better political leaders. 40% believe men are better corporate executives. 28% believe it is
fine for husbands to beat women.

Institutional weakness - Lack of stringent laws. Lack of proper implementation. Lack of gender-sensitive
attitudes among the stakeholders. Lack of certainty i.e. delay in justice delivery.

Government efforts to arrest violence against women:

Statutory laws - Dowry prohibition act, Domestic violence act, Sexual harassment act
International Convention
o UDHR-Article 5: No one shall be subjected to inhumane treatment
o CEDAW: The Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women.

Government schemes - Beti Bachao Beti padhao, One stop centre, Mahila Police Volunteer and fast track
special court.

The lacunae with respect to the Government effort or the Reason why Violence against women is on
the rise - Poor conviction rate. It is not the severity but the certainty that acts as a deterrence factor. Delay
in judicial proceedings due to lack of infrastructure. Lack of awareness among women with respect to the
grievance redressal mechanism. Under-reporting due to a known accused or lack of reporting due to fear of
ostracization. Lack of efforts with respect to attitudinal change, for example - Increase incidents of gas
lighting. The gender-biased attitude of law enforcement agencies. Corruption of value system.

Broken window theory (When at an early stage, a person is not reprimanded for a petty offence, the chances
of committing a heinous offence at a later stage are very high). Normalization or trivialization of violence
against women. According to Andre Beteille, Law determines the direction in which society should move,
however, it is the culture or value system which determines the direction in which the society actually moves.

The implication of violence against women:

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 16

 At the individual level: With respect to health, Violence against women is a Presentable cause of
morbidity and Mortality in women.
 At the individual level: With respect to economic, Violence against women has both direct and indirect
costs.
o Direct: High disability burden, which increases health costs. Low productivity leads to low income.
o Indirect: Intergenerational social and psychological cost  Impact on children.

 At the societal level: It would lead to disruption of family life. Perpetuation of existing social evils in
society, etc.

 At the National level: Violence against women costs around 3.7% of GDP. It will threaten the
achievement of targets under SDG goals. It reduces social and cultural capital. It will further aggravate
gender inequality and it will reduce female labour force participation.

Way forward:
o Short term - Strict enforcement of laws. Speedy disposal through Fast track courts. Regulation of public
transport. Using technology to create gender-friendly space. Destigmatization of violence against
women. More autonomy in political decision-making to ensure gender-friendly policies. Proper training
with respect to evidence collection to increase the conviction rate. Me too: Social media campaign
o Long term - Moral overhauling of society. Value-based education without any gender discrimination.
Awareness generation through Information and communication technology. More autonomy in political
decision-making to ensure gender-friendly policies. Liquor regulations and proactive participation of
civil society and NGOs.

Dowry:
Premise- It is the reason behind sex-selective abortion. Female infanticide. Child marriage. Domestic
violence. Lack of investment in the education of girls. Skewed sex ratio. In 1930 – 40% of marriages involved
dowry. In 2000 – 90% of marriages involved dowry,

Causes of Dowry: Acceptance of culture of dowry both by men and women. Consumerist culture has
increased the incidences of Dowry. It is also identified with the concept of groom price which is determined
based on market value. The practice of caste endogamy has created a scarcity of grooms which has led to
increasing in dowry. Lack of proper implementation of existing laws. Despite the increase in girls' education,
it has not transformed into their labour market participation which is also the reason for the occurrence of
dowry.

Way forward: Promote the concept of Adarsh marriage (For example affluent people restrain from a lavish
wedding). The stigmatization of the practice of dowry. For example - Naming shaming etc.
Use of innovation, and diffusion framework to create awareness regarding the problems associated with the
dowry. One can use fear appeal to persuade man against dowry. Ensuring that the girl child gets a share in
ancestral property. Outlaw extravagant weddings.

Dowry prohibition Act, 1961:

Domestic violence: MOSPI says Domestic violence has the highest share in violence against women.
Discussed the PPT in detail (Please refer to it).

Reasons for increased incidences of domestic violence: Cultural acceptance of domestic violence.
Lack of alternative opportunities (Due to the traditional value system, financial dependence, lack of parental
support etc). Changing socio-economic relations for example in urban areas women are challenging the male
hegemony which is resulting in domestic violence. With respect to rural areas, there exists the problem of
violence against young widows. Lack of criminalization of marital rape. Disruption of social and economic
life due to covid. In the context of UP initiatives like bell Bajao or suppress corona, not your voice.
Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 17
Sexual harassment at the workplace: Sexual harassment is one of the major reasons for the decline in
major labour force participation. According to FICCI,36% of Indian companies and 25% of MNCs have yet
not constituted an internal complaint committee. Approximately 70% of the women do not report the cases
due to the following factors:
 Lack of understanding of what constitutes sexual harassment.
 Lack of faith in the complaint mechanism.
 Fear of retaliation.
 Fear of social exclusion.
 Fear of domestication due to stigma associated with violence.

Surrogacy: As per the CII, surrogacy is an almost $2.3 billion industry. It created grounds for the financial,
physical, and emotional, exploitation of surrogate mothers. Often surrogate mothers belong to vulnerable
sections due to poverty or lack of alternative employment opportunities. Intended parents had money due
to this reason, middlemen prepared improper contracts which absolved the parents of all their responsibility.
Increase in the incidences of abandonment of surrogate children especially girl children, unplanned twins,
etc. The problem of legal recognition of the children in the context of foreign nationals of these countries
which do not recognize surrogacy.

Surrogacy Act (to be done from handout).

Diversity:
Concept of diversity- Collective differences mark off one group as different from others.
Manifestation of diversity- Linguistic, religious regional. racial and ethnic.
Problems associated- Linguistic nationalism, communalism, regionalism, racial intolerance, and
ethnonationalism.

Process of Subjective realization of objective reality:

 Individual - Livelihood and culture. Discrimination/domination with respect to either or both. Creates
the objective reality of deprivation.
 With 3rd party intervention- Media, political party, pressure group, charismatic personality, social
movement. Subjective realization of objective reality leading to feelings of relative deprivation results in
Resentment. Example- Assam crisis of 1979-1985, Anti-corruption movement by Anna Hazare or JP
movement & Role of media during COVID.
 Linguistic diversity- India is a land characterized by extensive linguistic diversity for example According
to the census 2011, there are 121 major languages and around 1599 other languages. We have 22
languages declared as the scheduled language under the 8th schedule of the constitution. Language
is the most powerful tool of our cultural identity and has remained both sources of cohesion and conflict.
Often discourse has emerged due to feeling relative deprivation and fear of domination by the majority
language speaker. Diversity is not a threat to national integration however when using these diverse
identities one group is pitted against another it threatens national integration.

Official language issue: Leadership was clear that India would not have any national language as it is a
land of multiple provincial languages. These languages are ancient languages with rich inheritance and
masses can grow educationally and culturally through the medium of their own language. However, the
adoption of the official language was a debatable issue in post-Independence period. Both English and Hindi
were strong contenders, English was a language of International diplomacy, trade, and commerce, rich
literary treasure, and exposure to western thoughts and values. However, it cannot be made the official
language due to unequal relations with the Britishers. Hence under Article 343, Hindi was declared as the
official language and English was the associate language till 1965. However, it was the over-enthusiastic
attitude of Hindi proponents to purify the language which backfired.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 18

1956 to 1960 was a period characterized by various protests and agitation. 1963 official language act
was passed to ensure the use of English beyond 1965. However, the text of the act was ambiguous and hence
generated apprehensions. 1967- Official language amendment act was passed which ensured an indefinite
policy of bilingualism. Post-1967 the problem gradually disappeared demonstrating the capacity of the
Indian political system to deal with the problem on a democratic basis and promote national consolidation.

Linguistic reorganization of State: According to political scientist Rajni Kothari linguistic

reorganization was functional as it removed the major source of discord. Created homogeneous political
units which could be administered through the medium that the vast majority of the population understood.
The linguistic reorganization created grounds for the development of regional languages, the massive
spread of literacy and universal education, peaceful and harmonious coexistence of linguistically diverse
groups. However, it did not resolve all the problems related to linguistic diversity as even after the creation
of States there were various minority languages spoken in that particular State. It was more like the opening
of Pandora’s box as linguistic demands are still prevalent for example - Demand for Gorkha land,
Mithilanchal, etc. The creation of small States also had the spill over effect where the demands were raised
based on other reasons. For example- Socio-economic factors (Jharkhand, Chhatisgarh, Telangana).
Administrative factor (Uttarakhand).

Religious diversity:
The extent of diversity- Inter-religious- Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism, Sikhism. Intra-religious- Sects, cults,
mode of worship. Issues with respect to diversity- Communalism and religious fundamentalism.

Communalism: It is defined as an ideology according to which society is divided into different religious
communities having different secular interests. In a literal sense, communalism refers to a strong attachment
to one's own community however in the context of our society it is interpreted in religious terms. A man of
religion is not communal but the one who practices politics by linking with religion is referred to as
communal. Hence, communalism is nothing but political trade in religion.

Manifestation of communalism:
 Mild form: when people belonging to the same religious community have the same secular interest.
 Moderate form: when people belonging to different religious groups have a different social, economic
and political interest.
 Extreme form: when we believe our interest is not only different but is mutually hostile or antagonistic.

It is the constant view of power which is based on the perception that the resources in the society are constant
and if someone is progressing it is always at the cost of others. This is responsible for extreme communalism

Types of communalism:
1. Assimilationist communalism - Under this small religious groups are assimilated into big groups.
For example, the policy of assimilation w.r.t tribals as given by GS Ghurye i.e. to treat tribals as
backward Hindus or the Hindu code bill which is applicable to other religious groups such as Sikh,
Buddhist & Jain etc.
2. Welfarist communalism - Here the emphasis is placed on the welfare of a particular community by
providing education, scholarships, residential accommodation etc. They are involved in the socio-
economic upliftment of people belonging to their own community.
3. Retreatist communalism - Religious community keeps themselves away from political activities.
For example, members of the Bahai community are forbidden from participating in the political
process.
4. Retaliatory communalism - Communities have mutually hostile interests and hence they try to
harm each other. For example, the exodus of the Kashmiri pandit.
5. Separatist communalism - When the demand for autonomy is based on religious lines, however
within the Indian union is referred to as separatist communalism. One tries to maintain cultural

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 19

specificity, however, demands a separate territorial state to do so. For example, the creation of a
separate Punjab state.
6. Secessionist communalism - when there is a demand for separate nations on religious lines which
is threatening the territorial integrity of the country. For example, the demand for Khalistan

Note: the last 3 types of communalism are a threat to national integration

The positive interpretation of communalism is as follows: It aims to unify the community. Develops the
affinity of the individual towards the community. Ensure efforts for the social and economic upliftment of the
community.

Factors responsible for the emergence of Communalism: Agricultural stagnation, lack of modern
industrial development, lack of alternative employment opportunities and rise of the middle class due to the
spread of education, their interest and aspiration were not getting satisfied which created a ground for
communal politics. It is believed by many that communalism is a by-product of colonialism and economic
stagnation. It was the discrepancy in demand and supply w.r.t jobs which created grounds for nepotism and
started validating communal politics. The irony in the Indian context was that socio-economic reality was
such that religious distinctions were coinciding with class distinctions. For example, X landlords were pitted
against Y peasants. Rather than, perceiving the issue as in the economic realm it was seen through the prism
of a religious lens.

Divide and Rule policy of Britishers: To counter the growing nationalism, communalism became the main
tool of colonialism. For example, tolerance towards the communal press, separate electorate, acceptance of
the communal person as the main spokesperson of their community etc. Overthrowing of Britishers was only
the necessary condition to tackle communalism but not sufficient hence it continued even in the post-
independence periods

Reasons: Failure of national leadership to unify different sections of society was only restricted to a policy
of negotiation with the leaders of different communities. It was believed that they only share economic and
political interests however socially and culturally they are distinct from each other.
It was also due to different perceptions such as giving religious touch to the freedom struggle or undermining
a certain phase of history. It is also the result of divisive politics where people, in order to serve their vested
interest, try to pick one group against another. The lack of adequate opportunities for socioeconomic
development created the objective reality. For example, the Sachar community report stated that they are
more deprived as compared to SC/STs. Politics of appeasement: For e.g. Shah Bano's
judgment. Administrative failure to tackle the incidences of communal violence. Role of media which is often
accused of sensationalization of News and disseminating rumours as news creates ground for communal
conflict. The situation has further worsened due to the penetration of social media. Lack of mutual trust
among members of the different religious communities. Socioeconomic deprivation creates a ground for
political manipulations.

Religious fundamentalism: According to Gabriel Almond - It is defined as a violent offshoot of

communalism. It is referred to as the visible pattern of religious militancy, by which self-style true believers
try to arrest the erosion of religious identity.

Rationale: It is believed that due to forces of modernization and secularisation society has changed so much
that it is difficult to protect and promote religious identity.

Causes:
Necessary condition: Modernisation and Secularisation.

Sufficient condition:
 Ideological cohesion (single sacred text).
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 Supply of potential recruits (relatively deprived section).
 Presence of a charismatic personality.
 Information & communication technology.
 Secular Education.
 Emergence of counter-civil society.

According to Neera Chandoke - 'not always civil societies strengthen democracies but sometimes can disrupt
it by acting as a medium to defuse anger and resentments

Way forward:
Short-term: The extremist communal outfit should be immediately and their capacity to disrupt law and
order must be crippled. Suspension of internet. Prevent association and assembly of a large group. To prevent
diffusion of responsibility. Ensure individualization through CCTV cameras. Setting up of peace committee.
Community policing. By innovation diffusion framework we can persuade religious leaders to establish peace
and ensure that people do not indulge in violence. Patriotic fervour can be generated by playing patriotic and
motivational songs. Enhancing security in communally sensitive areas. Ensuring mobile infrastructure w.r.t
medical support

Long term: Eradicating the problem of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment. Values-based education
without ideological coloration. Responsible and restraint journalism. Reform in the criminal justice system.
For e.g. - 'Fastrack court, adequate compensation, training of police personnel w.r.t human right issue as
mentioned by Rangnath Mishra committee reports'. Codified guidelines for administration to tackle the
incidences of violence. Use of cinema and any other cultural platform to promote communal harmony.
Regulation of content on media platforms to address the problem of fake news or propaganda. The
communalization of political elites or administrative personnel needs to be checked. For example, any
incident of hate speech should be strictly reprimanded. In the long term banning communal outfit. Relive and
rehabilitation measures should be unbiased. Proper scrutinization of domestic and international funding of
religious institutions or organizations. Statutory backing for moral code of conduct during elections. As a
matter of proactive steps, there should be proper data collection w.r.t the intensity and incidences of
communal violence during certain specific times

Regionalism:
Region: The region is defined as a homogenous area. Physically & Culturally distinct from neighbouring
areas. People living in Particular regions have the awareness that they are similar but distinct people of other
regions which leads to the emergence of regional identity. With the emergence of regional identity, people
start professing their loyalty more towards the region rather than the state or nation

Regionalism: Regionalism is rooted in India's diversity w.r.t caste, religion, language, ethnicity, etc. when
these factors get geographically concentrated along with the feeling of relative deprivation it is referred to
as regionalism. To conclude, that regionalism is a threat to national integration is an oversimplified
assumption because it has both positive and negative connotations.
In the positive sense- It encourages people to develop a sense of oneness which seeks to promote the interest
of a particular region and promote its welfare and development. However, in the negative sense- it means
excessive attachment to one's own region which acts as a threat to unity in diversity.

Politics of regionalism:
 Positive: If any demand is to concertize the cultural identity/Cultural assertiveness. If it is to promote
the socio-economic development of the region (Ex: Telangana, JH, Chg.). To ensure administrative
convenience (Ex: Uttarakhand).
 Negative: Resorting to violence Demand in communal nature Threat to territorial integrity(Secessionist)

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 21

Son of the soil: It is defined as a concept where local habitants claim the right over the resources of the land
to the extent of the exclusion of outsiders. It says "state constitute exclusive homeland for its majority
language speaker".

Reasons: Lack of future of the culture of outmigration. Struggles for middle-class jobs. For example - the
Exodus of the Sikh population from the Khasi area in Meghalaya. Similarly, the passage of the official
language act in Assam was due to the overrepresentation of Bengali youth in middle-class jobs. Presence of
a strong regional party. The inability of state administration to serve the interests of both migrants and
natives. Due to rising aspirations, everyone has high expectations and anything short of it leads to
disenchantment.

Some examples of the son of the soil- It is mainly concentrated in urban areas of Assam, MH, Karnataka,
and Telangana, Haryana.

Landmarks that led to the emergence of Regionalism:

 The democratic form of government aims at nation-building on the principles of democracy, equality,
justice, etc. Everyone wanted a fair deal, and anything short of expectations was met with
disenchantment.
 Integration of Princely states: Smaller states were brought within the folds of larger states however
people continued to nurse their loyalties towards the old territorial units.
 Linguistic Reorganisation of states: It was like the opening of the pandora box where various other
linguistic demands flared up which formed the basis of regionalism.
 The selfish interest of politicians- They took advantage of the sentiments of the ignorant masses to
fulfill their vested interest. In post-independence India, there are 3 phases in which regionalism has
emerged- First phase 1950-the 60s: Linguistic reorganization. 2nd phase 60s-70s: NE. Post 2000: UK, JH,
chg., Telangana.

Basis of regionalism:
 Historical factor: It supported regionalism on the basis of cultural heritage, folklore, and myth. E.g. in
Dravidian, it was supported by the theory that at one point in time, the Dravidian-speaking area had non-
Brahmanical polity and society that is it was unstratified however it was disrupted by the Aryan conquest
and Brahmanical hegemony.
 Geographical Factor: It is based on the presence of natural resources, landforms, climate, and coastal
areas. rainfall, Buffer area, international border etc.
 Socio-cultural Factor: Language has been the most important mark of group identification and hence
it has given rise to linguistic regionalism. Examples: Division of greater Assam. Caste: Demand of Tamil
Nadu that provided a strong impetus to linguistics-based demands, as caste-based demand will never be
accepted. Similarly, in the context of Religion: in the 1950s leadership had explicitly clarified that any
demand is communal in nature it may add as a divisive force in society. For example, in the context of
Punjab, the religion-based demand was presented in linguistic garb.
 Political factors: Politics doesn't create regionalism it only accentuates it that is, it takes advantage of
situations of regional discontent and converts it in its favour to strengthen its vote bank.
 Economic factors: It is at the crux of regional politics and it is based on the fact that resources are limited
and demands are disproportionate. Even the policies of the govt since independence have not been able
to address regional disparities. In many cases, it has aggravated the regional imbalance and economic
differences for example, despite being rich in natural resources, some regions remain underdeveloped-
E.g. North the East remains underdeveloped Telangana accused Andhra of colonizing their region by
grabbing their land, and job opportunities and also blamed govt for not investing in their infrastructure.

Types of regionalism (06:35 PM)

 Interstate Regionalism: Inter-state river water dispute, The conflict between states over a region.
Example: Karnataka v/s Maharashtra over Belgaum. UP vs MP over w.r.t Bundelkhand

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 22

 Intrastate Regionalism: Demand for Bodoland(Assam). Demand for Gorakhaland (WB). Demand for
Vidarbha (Maharashtra)
 Supra-state regionalism: Groups of states are pitted against each other. Example: NI Sate vs S States
on the issue of official language. NE India vs the rest of India on the issue of underdevelopment
 Demand for a separate nation: Ex-Khalistan.

Impact of regionalism:
 Positive: It plays an important role in nation-building if it accommodates federal sentiments. Accepting
the demand of people gives them the right to self-determination. Not always a regional interest pitted
against the national interest, in fact, it can ensure better integration of people in overall governance.
Accommodating the aspirations of the political extremism at bay. It helps in realizing the salad bowl
theory of multiculturalism.
 Negative: It can be seen as a threat to and unity of the nation especially when regionalism has violet and
secessionist tendencies. When it is used as a tool for vote bank politics. It also hinders international
diplomacy, for example- the role of India in Sri Lanka's civil war. Unequal distribution of resources due
to the presence of strong regional leaders resulted in the feeling of relative deprivation.

Racial Diversity:
Concept of race: Defined as a social group, consisting of people, having different physical traits w.r.t racial
diversity. According to BS Guha, there exist the following racial groups- Negrito, Nordic, Mongoloid,
Mediterranean’s, Proto Australoid, Western Brachycephals.

Racal intolerance: Racial intolerance is defined as a prejudiced attitude toward others on the basis of their
race.
Causes of racial intolerance: Obsession with fair complexion. Lack of cultural integration--> Stereotype-->
Due to survival tech. of invisibility--> Ghettoization. Reinforcing stereotypes through various cultural
platforms. For example: Media through ads. Cinema through Characterisation. Content of school curriculum.
The discrepancy in demand and supply w.r.t to availably of resources/Opportunities--> The feeling of relative
deprivation

Implications of racial intolerance:

 Individual level: Lack of access to resources. Limited opportunity for upward social mobility. Self-
alienation. Loss of confidence. The feeling of relative deprivation. The feeling of retaliation. Vulnerable
to radicalisation by fringe elements. It can generate mental health issues. Increased vulnerability to
external threat intervention. Negative impact on efficiency and productivity which increases the chances
of people falling into the poverty trap. It infringes upon the Fundamental rights of an individual.
 Societal level: Create potential for social conflict. Threatens peace and harmony. Disrupts social
capital. Ghettoization. Threatens unity in diversity. Increases secessionist tendencies.
 National level: Negatively impacts bilateral relations. Dilutes soft power. Threatens the potential of
India to emerge as a business and education hub. Disrupts tourism potential. Demographic disaster.
Threatening Indian diaspora. It can create lawlessness which can question the legitimacy of the existing
form of governance.

Way Forward: There should be a sensitisation programme focussing on Indian obsession with a particular
race. Charismatic personalities must lend their voice to the problem of racial discrimination. For example-
Celebrities refusing to endorse a fairness cream.
Police need to be trained and sensitised with respect to racial attacks as well as problems of racial groups.
Confidence-building measures should be taken to assure racial minorities about their security and well-
being in India. Educational institutions need to be more inclusive and accommodative. Holding workshops
by the govt and civil societies to sensitize the locals about the culture of minorities. Different agencies of
socialisation need to provide a value system that is neutral with respect to primordial identities.

Recommendations of the Bezbaruah committee:

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 23
1. Stringent laws are the need of the hour.
2. Fast-track courts for the speedy disposal of cases.
3. Making use of social media outreach to create awareness in society.
4. Provide legal awareness to racial minorities with respect to grievance redressal mechanisms.
5. Bonding power of sports needs to be explored.

Ethno-nationalism (en): An ethnic group is defined as a social group which consists of people united by
common history, ancestor, culture etc. According to Erikson, an Ethnic group is defined as one which consists
of people who consider themselves culturally distinct and such groups may exist in hierarchical order in
society. People are aware of their similarities and distinctions from other groups. It leads to ethnic identity,
which leads to differential access to resources which in turn leads to Ethnic stratification. Ethnic
stratification leads to Ethnic antagonism. For Example- Sri Lanka. In Sri Lanka, two groups are present-
Sinhalese and Tamils. After the independence of Sri Lanka, Ceylon Citizenship Act was passed. Also,
Buddhism was adopted as the state religion. Also, a ban on the import of Tamil literature was adopted. Also,
the Policy of Standardisation was adopted.
Later, a civil war started in Sri Lanka.

Sanjib Baruah wrote a book known as India against itself: Assam and its politics of nationalism, in
which he gave the following reasons for the demand of Bodoland - An increased presence of Bengali youth
in govt jobs. Illegal migrants from Bangladesh led to the displacement of traditional agricultural workers.
Outnumbering of native tribes in electoral rolls by outsiders.

The concept of EN based its legitimacy on language, religion, shared historic experiences etc to include or
exclude people from the nation.

Unity in diversity: It is a phrase that signifies unity among people with diverse cultures, beliefs,
experiences, and demographic differences.
Unity -It refers to a sense of 'Oneness' or 'we' feeling. It is the bond which binds people. it can be based on
both uniformity and differences.

Bonds of Unity
1. Geographical:
o Geopolitical -The first bond of unity is found in the geopolitical integration of India. India is
known for its geographical unity with the Himalayas in the North and oceans in the sides. Amidst
this geographical unity, India also stands politically united with a single constitution, single
citizenship and common political culture.
o Geo-cultural - Geo-culturally Indians are bounded by a network of sacred places, shrines,
rivers etc. Examples- Dwarka in the West, Puri in the East, Kedarnath in the North, and
Rameshwaram in the South. Temple culture plays a significant part in promoting interaction
and cultural affinity among people living in different parts of India. Hence it is a source of unity
in diversity.
2. Regional:
o Horizontal - A horizontal bond of unity exists due to common caste practices amidst regional
diversities.
o Vertical - Common language is a common thread amidst vertical caste diversity.
3. Socio-Cultural:
o Religion:
 Inter-religious diversity - Earning Religious merit by visiting religious shrines by Hindus,
Buddhists, Jains etc.
 Intra-religious diversity -Despite diversity (Sects, Cults, Mode of worship), it is the teachings
of religious scriptures which bind people together.

o Language - Amidst linguistic diversity, Hindi and English act as unifying threads.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 24

o Miscellaneous -Examples - Festivals, All India services, defence forces, parliament, Social media,
public transport, Corporate culture, Urban areas etc.

Diversity in Unity: It refers to the existence of plural culture with respect to ethnicity, race, religion, food
habit etc within the nation. For e.g. Patriarchy in India.

Secularism: It is defined as the principle of separation of govt institutions and people who have the
mandate to represent the state from religious institutions and practitioners. It is devoid of both inter-
religious and intra-religious domination. It promotes equality and freedom both within and between
religions. The sphere of politics is separated from the sphere of religion but the nature and extent of
separation depend upon the values it intends to promote.

Models of Secularism
1. US - The concept is given by Thomas Jefferson. The US has soft secularism.
Principles -The sphere of politics is separated from the sphere of religion. The state shall not adopt any
religion as the state religion. No one shall be discriminated against based on the religion he or she
practices. Religion and State should be mutually exclusive at an arm's length distance i.e. under no
circumstances state will interfere in religious matters or vice-versa. Hence, there exists no scope for
state-sponsored religious reforms.

Rationale -Religion constitutes a personal matter hence state neither has a right nor has a liability to
interfere in religious matters.

Rights -In this context, equality, and freedom is with respect to an individual. There exists no provision
with respect to community rights.

2. France - It is also known as 'Laicite'. It originated in 1905- Law with respect to the separation of state
from religion. The state neither supports nor discourage any religion provided it is not interfering with
the state or the rights of other citizens. France has hard secularism.

Rationale -Church was dominating. Both King and commoners wanted to curtail the authority of the
church. They wanted to domesticate religion.

Secularization - It is a social process by which the authority of religion declines. Due to its
commitment to total separation, any explicit or overt religious practice symbol is banned from the public
sphere. The public sphere here connotes public schools, public offices, and public places. It leads to a
decline in the social significance of religion in public spaces.

3. Indian Model- There exists a principled distance between religion and the state. The wall of
separation between them is porous. The state can interfere in religious matters. Religion cannot
interfere in state matters. Any mobilisation of masses for electoral support/vote bank on the basis of
religion is not allowed. The state can interfere to give affect progressive voices and disagree with certain
aspects of religion. For e.g. Abolition of untouchability or the Abolition of triple talaq etc. Principled
distance is a concept given by Rajeev Bhargava. It refers to the ability of the state to interfere or
abstain from interfere or abstain from interference whichever is deemed appropriate to ensure equality,
liberty, and justice.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 25

Rationale- The reason that India adopted this model was that it is religiously diverse and although its
idea of secularism appears to be inspired by western origin, it is rooted in India's unique socio-historic
circumstances. For example- The freedom struggle advocated equal respect for all religions.

Scope - It is compatible with the idea of state-sponsored religious reforms. It deals with both
individual as well as community-specific rights.

Challenges with France's model of Secularism: It fails to recognise the contemporary nature of society
which is multicultural and any religious restriction is perceived as a denial of religious rights. For many,
religion is not just a matter of faith but also a way of life hence restricting it to the private sphere will not be
possible. Although France promoted Freedom of expression, denying freedom of religious expression
undermines their civil liberty. Curtailing and curbing the sentiments have backfired as there are increasing
instances of radicalisation. E.g. Charlie Hebdo attack.

Hence, France can learn the following things from India: Ensuring equal respect for all religions and
recognising the religiously plural nature of society. To adopt the principled distanced concept which allows
for interference with regressive practices. We have been able to ensure a balance between freedom of
expression and religion by incorporating reasonable restrictions. Ours is a positive secularism as it provides
enough space for everyone to promote and propagate their religion without infringing on the rights of others.

Contemporary issues:
Uniform civil code (UCC): It refers to a common set of laws that governs the area of personal matters
(marriage, adoption, inheritance, etc.) of all individuals, irrespective of their religious background.

Arguments in favour of UCC: To implement the spirit of equality. To also ensure uniformity. To reduce
the legal burden and to further increase the efficiency of the judiciary. Probability of women
empowerment. Since it is part of DPSP, it already possesses the legitimacy/ To give effect to the provision
under Article 44. To inculcate the spirit of scientific temper and rationality. It will bring an end to vote
bank politics based on UCC. It will also reduce the incidences of religion-based conflicts. Upholding the
spirit of true secularism. Overall national integration and social cohesion. Reducing prejudices. To
achieve Social justice- Rights, Equality, and Opportunity.

Arguments against UCC: India is a multicultural society and it goes against the principle of the Salad bowl
theory. Currently, there is a situation of cultural lag (difference in the pace at which core and peripheral
values change). Hence over-enthusiastic attitude to implement UCC might backfire because religion
constitutes a core value. Some believe that UCC leading to women's empowerment is an over-exaggerated
statement since there have been some changes in the laws to uplift the status of women such as inheritance
laws despite that their share in property has not increased. In the absence of the blueprint, there has been
an apprehension that it is a means of imposing majoritarian culture over minorities. Instead of being viewed
from the lens of progress, empowerment, and justice, it is being viewed from the prism of religious differences.
Lack of emotional intelligence among the people to understand the essence of UCC. lack of responsible use
of social media. It is against the Rights guaranteed by the Constitution under various Articles such as 25,
26, etc. There is a constant fear of communal conflict due to the problem of cultural chauvinism and
politicization of the issue due to lack of scientific temper. Even according to the Law Commission report,
2018, UCC is neither necessary nor desirable as society is not yet prepared for it.

Conclusion- Overall democracies can be established in multicultural countries; however, efforts should be
made to end cultural exclusion, the development of complementary identities, and the promotion of unity in
diversity. National cohesion does not require the imposition of a common identity but the accommodation of
diversity. Hence any decision with respect to UCC should be based on popular consensus.
Way forward: Using foot-in-the-door technique for implementation of UCC. E.g. Adoption provision under
the Juvenile Justice act applies to all irrespective of their religion. Prepare a draft of UCC and during its
Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 26
preparation, involve all the stakeholders. Once the draft is prepared, it should be put on the public platform
for 3Ds- deliberation discussion, and debate. One can use Innovation- Diffusion framework i.e. persuading
the respective religious leaders to create awareness among the people with respect to what constitutes UCC.
Till the time a popular consensus is built, effort should be made with respect to individual religious reforms.
At the same time, NGOs, Civil society, and various cultural platforms should be used to promote inter and
intra-religious harmony.

Doctrine of essential religious practices (ERP) vs Judiciopapism: The doctrine of essentiality is to

protect those practices which are essential and integral to the religion. This doctrine emerged in the
Shirur Mutt case in 1994. It specified that the term Religion will cover all rituals, practices, and even
dressing styles. It also specified that the judiciary will decide what constitutes essential practices. However,
this by many has been considered an act of Judiciopapism. E.g. Anand Marga case, the Ismail Faruqui case,
the Church of God case, etc.

Santhara practice: It is a practice of voluntarily giving up on food and water to end life in Jainism. A
PIL was filed in Rajasthan High Court where the court banned the practice on the following grounds -
Right to life does not include the Right to Die, hence not protected under Article 21. It does not consist of
ERP. However, the Supreme court lifted the ban on the following grounds- High Court made an error in
interpreting Jain practices. Jain scholars were not consulted by the court. It was considered an act of
Judiciopapism. It cannot be equated with suicide as it is impulsive.

Talaq-e-Biddat: Talaq-e-Biddat is declared null and void in the context of the Shayara Bano case.
Post this judgment, govt passed the Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Marriage) Act, 2019 - It
declared Talaq-e-Biddat as a criminal offence with a three-year jail term and a fine. It is a cognizable offence
if the information is provided by the woman herself or a blood relative. Provision of reconciliation without
Nikah Halala, if the party agrees to stop the legal proceedings. There are provisions for maintenance and
custody of the child. Magistrate can grant bail after hearing the wife.

Arguments in favour of the act: It will act as a source of deterrence. It will ensure gender equality and
social justice. It provides a grievance redressal mechanism for women. It helps in challenging the
patriarchal hegemony. The provision of maintenance will address the problem of economic vulnerability.
The provision of reconciliation without Nikah Halala will help in upholding the dignity of women.

Arguments against the act: However, the counter-argument says criminalising civil offences is wrong. It
might result in rising cases of divorce and abandonment of women. It might be misused by certain women
to settle their personal scores. It would be a challenge to provide allowance when the person is in jail. It is
believed that it is the practice of Nikah Halala which needs to be immediately addressed.

Sabarimala issue:
Arguments in favour of women's entry into the temple: Banning entry was derogatory to the dignity of
women. Individuals' dignity cannot be at the mercy of the mob. Patriarchy in religion cannot supersede the
freedom to practice religion. Exclusion based on physiological factors is unconstitutional. A prohibition is a
form of untouchability under Article 17 (Based on the doctrine of the Living Tree). Prohibition is not an
ERP and hence is not protected under Article 25. Fundamental rights are meant for individuals and not God.

Counter arguments: The religious community should decide what constitutes ERP. Diversity is being
confused with discrimination. Different temples have different customs so what is observed in Sabarimala is
not discrimination but restriction. Prohibition is not an act of patriarchy but a means to respect the
Celibate nature of god. In pluralistic societies like India, entertaining PIL, and challenging various religious
practices can cause damage to the constitutional provisions and multi-cultural fabric of India.

Population and associated issues:

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 27

Debate concerning population growth:
Liability: Stress on the Limited resources. Social Comparison. Above two factors, leads to the feeling of
relative deprivation. Mobilisation of masses on primordial identities. This leads to social conflict, which
causes the diversion of resources for the maintenance of law and order. This acts as a threat to sustainable
development. It also disrupts the potential for the development of social capital. It paints a negative image of
the nation at the global level due to poor performance concerning various social indices. However, treating
a high population as a liability is the one-sided accentuation of reality, as the same population can be turned
into an asset if we transform it into human capital.

Human capital: Human capital refers to knowledge, skill, and health accumulated over the years, which
enable us to realize our potential and emerge as productive assets for society.

Sources of Human Capital: Expenditure on social infrastructure, expenditure on Migration in search of job
and expenditure on Information regarding the availability of jobs in the labour market.

The prospects of human capital formation:

 Individual Level - Ability to realize the true potential and contribute to family welfare. It will result in
healthy aging. gratification of desires. It will reduce the instances of self-alienation. It will result in
cognitive development. This will lead to a state of happiness.
 Family Level - Standard of living will increase. Positive reinforcement of interpersonal relations in the
family. Family bonds and cohesiveness will enhance. It will create grounds for women's empowerment.
 Societal level - It will reduce unemployment. Human capital ensures better utilization of physical capital,
as people would know how to utilize it. It will ensure sustainable development. It will address the
challenges of poverty, hunger, and malnourishment. With the increase in skill development, there is an
increase in specialization. This will increase economic dependence. This will ensure social solidarity. It
will help in reducing the vulnerability of people to shocks and disasters. Social cohesion increases trust in
social institutions, reduction in social conflicts, Society needs sufficient human capital to produce further
human capital, for example, skilled professionals.

 National Level - Overall economic growth. Increased probability of demographic dividend. Demography
can be realized in the letter and spirit. This will make the citizens active participants rather than passive
recipients. It will further research and development, and innovation. It will further accelerate the
probability of achievement of sustainable development goals. It will also enable India to emerge as a
global power. It will help us transform our economy into a knowledge-based economy. It will increase
efficiency with higher utilization of resources. The government has taken various steps concerning
human capital formation. For example Ayushman Bharat, Skill India, National Education Policy, Poshan
2.0, etc.

Demography: It consists of two words demo and graphy. It means the characteristic of the population. It
refers to trends and process which deals with the structure and composition of the population. There are two
types of demography: Formal demography and social demography. Formal demography deals with various
statistics-related information dealing with the various aspects of the population. For example, birth rate,
death rate, etc. Social demography deals with the social analysis of statistical information. For example,
causes and implications.

Demographic dividend: Currently, the population in the working age group (15-59 years) is 62.5%. It is
expected to peak around 2036 (65%). Economic growth potential generated due to the bulge in the working
age group is referred to as a Demographic Dividend. This bulge creates the potential for growth as:
 Increased availability of labour force. Increased competitiveness in the global market. Cost of labour
declines. Generates the possibility of an increase in productivity.
 Independent population is more than the dependent population. Increase in income and lower
expenditure. This leads to an increase in savings and an increase in personal disposable income. This also
leads to an increase in investment. This will lead to capital formation.
Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 28
 Working age is the prime period for saving money.
 With the increase in the working-age population, and decline in the fertility rate, the potential for female
labour force participation is created.
 With the increase in the working-age population, the employment-seeking population will increase. This
will put pressure on the government to provide opportunities, which will lead to increased urbanization
and industrialization.
 Due to the decline in the dependent population, the government has more resources at its disposal. This
will lead to increased investment in social infrastructure. The shift toward middle-class society will create
the potential for growth as it is the aspirational class. Middle-class is known for its income, education,
and occupation. Due to their education, their adoption of technology is higher. Middle classes are very
traditional, despite their exposure to technology and outside values.

According to Leela Fernandez new middle class is defined as - English speaking, Urban Living, Educated,
working in the private sector and governed by the ideology of consumerism.

The working age group only generates the potential but does not guarantee economic growth. This is because
- Economic growth depends on the quality of knowledge, skill, and health, Job opportunities should be present
to absorb the workforce. Hence, to avail the benefits of demographic dividend,
 The focus should be on the expansion of the manufacturing sector, self-employment, a conducive
environment for increasing women's participation, and regular skill upgradation to increase the
desirability of labour in the market
 Educational content should be marketed driven creating the culture of start-ups, by enhancing their
utility through media.
 Making labour laws flexible to reduce the incidences of industries going for labour substitution
technology.
 Investment in the gig economy.
Factors affecting population change:
Fertility - It means the actual childbearing by women in the reproductive age group (15-45 years). Fertility
rate means the number of live children born per 1000 women in the age group 15-49 years.
the total fertility rate (TFR) is 2 (According to NFHS 5). This is below the replacement level (TFR=2.1). The
exceptions to lower total fertility rates are UP, Bihar, Jharkhand, Meghalaya, and Manipur.

Causes behind high TFR: Poverty, Illiteracy, Desire for a male child (Son-Meta Preference). This has led to
an increasing number of unwanted girls. High status of Male child, Lack of awareness among women
concerning reproductive health and rights. Religious beliefs (Abortion is not allowed). Traditional Practices
(like child marriage, dowry, etc.). High Infant Mortality Rate, Child Mortality Rate, etc. Decline in death rate
in comparison to decline in the birth rate. Joint Family. Decline in fertility rate due to better access to health
infrastructure. Lack of availability, accessibility, affordability, awareness, and quality concerning family
planning methods. Universalization of heterosexual marriages with the purpose of progeny.

Regional Variation: In Kerala, the fertility rate is low, because of access to education and ante-natal care.
In Uttar Pradesh, because of the low literacy rate and access to antenatal care the fertility rate is higher. To
maintain the purity of lineage, surrogacy has been practiced. Adoption has not taken up to desired levels till
now.

Two-child policy: In the context of India, we do not have a national policy concerning a specific number of
children. In the post-independence period, although we adopted a family welfare program, it was voluntary.
However, there are some states such as Assam, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Orissa, Andhra, etc. where there exist
two child norms concerning government jobs and elected positions.

In Favour – The high fertility rate, has resulted in limited resource availability. This leads to issues like
Unemployment, Poverty, etc. This results in the decline of the standard of living, ecological degradation, the
limited potential of nations to transform human resources into human capital, people emerging as liability,
Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 29
etc. A high resource crunch will happen. The major burnt is borne by women. For example, Maternal
Depletion Syndrome. Maternal depletion syndrome is the decline in the nutrition level of women due to
frequent pregnancy.

Against - The total fertility rate has already declined below the replacement level. India has the highest rate
of tubectomy. 37% of women are sterilized. This number may further increase. Sex-selective abortions and
infanticide will increase due to the desire for a male child. Destabilization of the family as an institution. For
example, increased divorces, desertion of wives, and abandonment of children (girl child and child with
disability). It will be a coercive policy that will be in contravention of Article 21 of the constitution. Lessons
learned from the negative implication of China's one-child policy. For example, a skewed sex ratio, violence
against women, an aging population, and a fast-declining workforce. Moreover, there are certain
communities, where the population is already very less. For example, the Parsi community.

Way Forward - It should be done voluntarily. The strategy should be choice based. Enhance awareness about
the benefits of family planning, contraceptives, etc. Investment in education. (Education is the best
contraceptive pill). According to Amartya Sen, one should focus on making women an agency of change. 20
percent of poor out of poverty, fertility rate would decline to 1.9. Increase in marriageable age, which will not
only ensure maturity but also, informed decision-making concerning reproductive behaviour. As per the
suggestion of MS Swaminathan's report, the government should discontinue monetary incentives for
sterilization. Instead, the focus should be on behavioural change such as reducing the taboos related to family
planning methods.

Migration: It is defined as the process of geographical/spatial mobility from one region to another as it
involves a change in residence for a considerable period.

Types of Migration
Based on Duration: Permanent, Semi-Permanent, Temporary
Based on Destination:
 Internal: Rural to rural (62%), rural to urban (20%), Urban to urban (13%), and Urban to rural
(5%).
 International: According to the Economic Survey, 2017 inter-state migrants are around 60 million,
and inter-district migrants are around 80 million.

Major places of origin are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, MP, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh. Major places of destination
are Delhi, Punjab, Maharashtra, and Karnataka

Based on duration:
 Permanent Migration: When people move from source to destination area, without any intention of
coming back to source areas.
 Semi-Permanent: When people move from source to destination area, but due to the high cost of living
and limited opportunity for upward mobility, they are forced to come back to the source area.
 Temporary /seasonal /circular migration: Person indulges in agriculture which is in the source area
and during the lean season, he moves to the destination area for better employment opportunities. Once
the lean season is over person voluntarily comes back to the source area. Here the place of residence is
fixed and only the place of work changes. They always remain unaccounted for, however, in an Economic
survey in 2017, they account for 139 million in total.

Temporary visitor: According to the 'state of migration report' those who entered the household after
march 2020 stayed continuously for a period of 15 days or more but less than 6 months.
0.7% of the country's population was recorded as temporary visitors and the majority of them moved places
due to place.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 30

Causes of migration:
1. Economic Factors:
o Push Factors: Agriculture distress. Lack of alternative employment opportunities. The decline in
Village industries. Low remunerative nature of agriculture. Lack of basic infrastructure.
o Pull Factors: Globalisation. Industrialization. Urbanisation. Commercialization of agriculture. Good
quality Infrastructure. Better standard of living.
o Pushback: Congestion& overcrowding. limited job opportunities. High cost of living. The decline in
the standard of living.
o Pull back: Government schemes w.r.t: poverty alleviation, employment generations and
infrastructure. The emergence of counter magnets.

2. Socio-cultural Factors:
o Push factors: Denial of resources based on primordial identities. Caste-based division of labour.
Patriarchy.
o Pull factors: Urbanisation leads to urbanism i.e. heterogeneity and anonymity. Marriage.
o Pull back factor: A feeling of nativism. Family reunification.
o Push Back factor: Ghettoization. Replication of social stratification as existed in the source area.
Insulations of natives w.r.t any cultural integration with migrants. Cultural shocks (problem of
marginalization)

3. Political factors:
o Push factors: Violence. Political-administrative corruption. Lack of implementation of
developmental schemes. The development led to displacements policies of the government
o Pull factor: Political freedom, safety and security, Good governance and Increased opportunities for
political participation.
o Push Back factor: Son of soil policy and State led persecution.
Pull Back factor: Strengthening of local governance and Change in political leadership.

Consequences:
 Consequences for Source Area:
o Economics consequences: Loss of human resources. However, if it draws upon surplus labour then
it is a win-win situation. Benefits of remittances. It provides the opportunity for the government to
invest limited resources in the development of a reduced population.
o Demographic Consequences: In the case of male-specific migration: The decline in the birth
rate. Feminization of workforce. Increases the probability of child labour. Increased dependent
population. It might lead to the emergence of ’Ghost hamlets'
o Socio-cultural consequences: Migrants act as an agent of social change. For example, the diffusion
of new ideas w.r.t family planning, girl's education and technology etc. The absence of an adult male
for a very long period may lead to the dislocation of the family.
o Political consequences: A decline in political representation and participation. Diffusion of
responsibility by political leaders although, does create the potential for efficient service delivery.
 Consequences For destination area:
o Socio-cultural consequences: The migration of people from different cultures gives rise to the
cosmopolitan culture. Broadening of the mental horizon. Increase in social tolerance Promotion of
unity in diversity. Due to access to limited resources and feelings of relative deprivation, there are
increased incidents of crime.
o Demographic consequences: Skewed sex ratios in case of male-specific migration Over.
urbanisation leads to informal sector proliferation and the socioeconomic profile of this sector is
largely consisting of the vulnerable section. Increased female labour force participation.
o Political factors: Failure of state administrations w.r.t good governance. It creates ground for
regional politics for example - the son of soil theory.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 31

o Economic Factors: Competition for scarce resources. Limited opportunities. High cost of living.
Leading to slum proliferation. Migrants are perceived to take away the jobs of locals which generates
the potential for conflict.

Impacts on migrants:
Positives: It creates a potential for upward mobility. Due to the increased interaction of people from diverse
cultures. It generates a potential for increased social tolerance and social capital. Due to the emergence of a
new value system, there is an increased opportunity for innovation.

Negatives: Devoid of skills, information and bargaining power migrants are often caught in exploitative
labour arrangements. Lack of social security benefits, minimum wages, housing sanitation etc there exists a
constant threat of displacements, evictions and poor health etc. The lack of proper identification and
documentation further aggravated their vulnerability.

According to the census 2011, 57.8% of female migrants and 25.8% of male migrants are illiterate. 80% of
the children of seasonal migrants do not have access to education and around 40% are subjected to abuse.
Migrants are often the victims of identity politics. Hardship magnifies when state boundaries are crossed. In
the absence of credible data, they often remain outside the bounds of government, civil society etc. There
exists a problem of the transmission of poverty over generations. Migrants are also victims of westernization
i.e. unsustainable lifestyles. Due to the above-mentioned points, it may create an issue of socio-political and
economic exclusion, especially w.r.t vulnerable sections which may give rise to ghost citizens' status.
Way Forward: Mainstreaming the concerns of migrants, especially while making national developmental
plans. Prioritise implementation of existing laws, for example, Interstate Migrant Workmen Act. Sensitization
and training of policymakers, local government officials, NGOs, employers or financial institutions regarding
the obstacles faced by the migrants in exercising services. Revise the design of census and surveys to provide
sex and age disaggregated data. Creation of migrant labour cells in every state labour department. Conduct
a detailed country-wide mapping of internal migrants. Encourage state-level research institutions to develop
state migration profiles.
Build the capacity of panchayats to maintain the database of migrant workers. Create inter-district and
interstate coordination committees to jointly plan institutional arrangements w.r.t service delivery.
Development of source region. The politicization of the issue of migration needs to be checked. Portability of
benefits: for example, provisions under Ayushman Bharat, One Nation One Ration Cards etc.

Child issue: To give effect to the provision of UNCRPC GoI passed a national policy on children, in 2013.
According to this, every individual below the age of 18 is children. By virtue of being children, they have the
following rights Survival, Health, Nutrition, Education, Development, Protection and
Participation Hence in 2016, the Ministry of women, child development was created. MWCD came up with a
'National plan of action for children. For the implementation of this plan, a body was created known as the
'National Coordination Action Group'.

Survivals: Universal immunization. Universal maternal Child health. Robust pre and post-natal care.

Developmental: Widening the ambit of the education policies to provide robust Early Childhood Care and
Education (ECCE) and secondary education.

Participation: Ensure participation of children in planning and implementation of policies concerning them.
For example, Bal Panchayat.

Child sexual abuse:

Statistics: According to NCRB, out of all crimes against children 36% falls under POSCO. According to the
study MWCD - 53% of the children are subjected to abuse, the culprit is a known person in more than 90% of
the cases and only 6% of the cases are reported.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 32

Causes for increased child sexual abuse: Low bargaining power of children. The disintegration of joint
family. Dysfunctional families- lack of agency in social control. lack of care/surveillance especially in a dual-
career family. Intersectionality approach poverty. Lack of safe places. Lack of awareness among children
w.r.t good and bad touch. Corruption of value system: objectification and commodification for e.g. child
pornography. Lack of democratic parenting Orphan/surrendered/Abandoned children: It is the
responsibility of CWC to take care of children w.r.t both quality and quantity have increased the vulnerability
of the children.

Evaluation of POCSO: According to the supreme court, POCSO has failed to deliver as the conviction rate is
28.2% and the pendency rate is 89%. Ministry of Law and Justice has also established fast-track special courts
for the speedy disposal of cases.

Challenges with respect to POCSO implementation: Poor reporting due to fear of ostracisation, lack of
awareness among children that they can be abused, lack of infrastructure and lack of sensitized officials
overburdened officials hence they refuse to file the FIR, overburdened judiciary, lack of trained prosecutors,
both national and state commissions have failed to perform the function of monetary evaluation and
implementation of the act.

Way forward: Mandatory police verification of staff of all the organizations dealing with children. State
government to formulate a child protection policy based on zero tolerance. Periodic training with respect to
sensitization of all stakeholders regarding child safety and protection. Prepare age-appropriate education
material for children with respect to personal safety emotional and mental well-being etc. Orientation
programs and courses for police personnel and forensic experts for capacity building. Reporting
pornographic material is mandatory. National-wide assessment of the impact of POCSO. Awareness among
parents with respect to what constitutes abuse.

Child labour: According to ILO any labour which deprives children of their dignity and potential childhood
and is harmful to cognitive and physical development is child labour.

Statistics: According to Census 2011 approximately 10.1 million child labourers in India constitute 7.3% of
global child labour, and 80% of child labour is in rural India. Regional variation with maximum child labour
in UP Bihar Rajasthan Maharashtra and MP. According to a global report on child labour published by ILO
and UNICEF 160 million child labourers globally, 72% of child labour in family enterprises, and child labour
in rural areas is 3 times that in urban areas. It is estimated that due to COVID approximately 9 million, more
child labour is added globally.

Causes:
o Push factors: Poverty, unemployment. high fertility rate (HFR). lack of awareness among parents with
respect to the negative implications of child labour. Patriarchial setup: by default girls are considered
extensions of the labour of the mother. the problem of bonded labour. high drop rate due to a lack of
relevant education. Covid 19- mortality in the family, closure of the school, the problem of the debt trap,
increased incidences of self-employment, dilution of labour laws, child marriage. Environmental social
economic shocks & disaster. In the absence of qualitative childcare institutions, the kids are left to fend
for themselves.
o Pull factors: Low bargaining power, easy to hire & fire, cheap labour, Globalization- outsourcing of work
has led to demand for cheap domestic labour. Some industries require the labour of child. Some industries
do not require skilled labour and need cheap child labour.

Government effort: All children-related schemes, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan; Child in street situations(CISS)
(under Ministry of Women and child development, Baal swaraj portal).

Lacunas: Despite provisions with respect to child labour prohibition it still persists due to the following
reasons - lack of credible data. lack of the implementation of existing provisions due to limited administrative

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 33

capacity. lack of survey, identification, withdrawal, and rehabilitation are the major issues. one-size-fits-all
approach. lack of 4 Q with respect to education. failure of the government to generate employment
opportunities for adults. large informal economy which aggravates the exploitation of children. dependence
of MSMEs on the labour of the child and any effort to completely eradicate child labour may make them
financially unviable. failure to address the perception that "more children means more working hands"

Way forward: Strict implementation of laws; create employment opportunities for adults; adequate budget
allocation for successful implementation of NCLP (national child labour project); community mobilization
and sensitization with respect to problems of child labour either through media or charismatic personalities;
remove ambiguity with respect to the definition of child labour; create comprehensive and inclusive
infrastructure.

Juvenile delinquency: It refers to a large variety of disappropriate behaviour for which some kind of
punishment is justified in the public interest.

Causes:
Social and economic factors: Lack of primary socialization. Lack of social contract. corruption of the value
system. Increased incidences of consumerism. Poverty & unemployment = feeling of relative deprivation.
faulty socialization through different agencies. subjective realization of objective reality (regional, caste,
race, class, ethnicity). Lack of deterrence- juveniles were used as shields to commit crimes due to the lack of
stringent punishments. Dysfunctional families- autocratic, permissive. Technology which is leading to various
addictions.

Individual factors: Feeling of insecurity. lack of self-control/ impulsive behaviour. emotional conflict.
Broken window theory.

Subculture of crime (it is not considered a crime among the group)

Labelling theory- labelling also has a negative impact on the psyche of the child which once associated is
difficult to be done away with.

Poverty-> feeling of relative deprivation -> juvenile delinquency -> stigma associated with delinquencies ->
social exclusion -> lack of access to education, lack of access to skill development, lack of formal education -
> back to poverty.

Child marriage: The child labour prohibition act acknowledges the socio-economic reality of India and
hence child labour is not completely abolished. Child labour is defined as a marriage when a girl is less than
18 or a boy is less than 21 or both. According to the National family health survey, report 5, 1/4 of the women
surveyed in the age group 18-24 years were married before they were 18. A maximum number of child brides
in West Bengal, and teenage pregnancy is high in rural areas; with an increase in education, the incidences
of teenage pregnancies decline. 7% of the women in the age group 15 to 19 have started bearing children.

Causes of child marriage: The girl child is considered a social liability, the reason girls are associated with
the prestige of the family, lack of safety and security. The girl child is treated as an economic liability due to
the culture of dowry. Younger is the bride lesser is the dowry. The prime objective of a girl is to bear and beget
a male child. (son- meta preference). Due to the patrilocal nature of families, it is believed that is easier for
the younger bride to adjust to the groom's family.
Traditional practices- hence any digression- ostracisation. Lack of 4 AQ with respect to educational
infrastructure also leads to no option for their parents other than getting their children married. Lack of
culture of acceptance of working females in society. Among the vulnerable groups, there exists a culture of
bride price due to which child marriage is also perceived as a source of income. The implication of child
marriage. The practice of cast endogamy

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 34

The implication of child marriage: It deprives girls of their education and meaningful work; an adverse
impact on the economy due to low female labour force participation; high maternal and child mortality rates;
early frequent pregnancy; maternal depletion syndrome. It will further aggravate the vulnerability of women
to various kinds of abuses e.g. domestic violence dowry deaths marital rape; violence against young widows.
The lack of human capital formation among girls negatively impacts their cognitive development which
creates ground for self-alienation. Lack of education and awareness limits the potential of women to
challenge the existing notions of patriarchy and bring about social change.

Child marriage Act: The faculty briefly discussed some provisions of child marriage acts like - Marriage is
valid but voidable. Allows minors to repudiate nullified marriage up to 2yrs after attaining the majority Girls
are provided safe homes/maintenance till their remarriage. No legal validity if marriage happens with the
sole purpose of trafficking, fraud, deceit, etc.

Debate w.r.t increasing the marriageable age of women to 21 yrs.:

o Arguments in favour: Will reduce the fertility rate and may reduce mortality and morbidity. Healthy
infants and child birth-Reduction in IMR/MMR/NMR. Better access to education and skill development-
potential for an increase in female labour force participation- generation of human capital +
Demographic dividend. Will reduce the vulnerability of women w.r.t domestic abuse/violence since with
more awareness better assertion of rights and entitlements. With more maturity, women will be more
able to exercise sexual and reproductive rights. Also, generate prospects of pursuing technical
education(STEM). Sustainable development goal-5 i.e. Gender equality Autonomy w.r.t. reproductive
rights (Art 21). Access to better socialization. Overall, standard of living will increase, and greater
participation in decision making

o Argument against: Despite the child marriage prohibition act, the problem of child marriage still
persists. Hence, it will overburden the judiciary with the cases. The age of consent is 18, hence increase
in the marriage age will not be in sync with existing provisions. Since women are perceived as a social
liability, any further increase in the age of marriage may increase the incidence of female infanticide.
It further may aggravate the conflict with the religious belief system as some religions practice early
marriage. Marriage is a matter of culture and tradition and any amendment from above without
popular consensus may lead to social and administrative disruption. It's a patriarchal setup and with an
increase in marriageable age, girls will have no say in their personal matters till 21 yrs. An increase in
marriage age may deny many young women from experiencing pregnancy at the safest age i.e. 20-24.
Even the task force observed that the age of marriage has no correlation with the nutritional aspect of
women as it depends on the status of women in the family. Although abortion laws have been made
progressive but unmarried pregnancy is still considered stigmatic hence the incidence of unsafe and
illegal abortions will increase. It might lead to mental health problems. According to the report, the
median age of marriage has increased to 22.3. According to the 18th Law commission report, the age
of marriage of both girls should be made 18 years. In fact, according to CEDO (Convention on the
elimination of all forms of discrimination against women),18 years should be the age of marriage for
women.

Way forward: Proper enforcement of laws. Girl empowerment w.r.t both life skills and protection skills.
Community mobilization through media, Nukkad Natak, and IEC campaigns. Incentivise and enable girl
education up till 12th std. Mandatory registration of marriages. Treating child marriage as a human rights
violation. Establishing a social movement along the lines of Bachpan Bachao Andolan to tackle the menace
of child marriage. Investment in welfare and opportunities for women.

Old age:
Statistics: According to 2011 census, 8.6% of population is above 60yrs. Expected to increase to 16% by
2041 and 20% by 2050.
o Ruralization of old age- 72%.
o Feminization of old age: 1033/1000 Regional variation (12.6% population in Kerala).

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 35

Longevity Dividend: Economic growth potential due to an increase in life expectancy. Ministry of Health
and Family welfare: 2020-2030: Decade of healthy aging.

Silver economy: It refers to the system of production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
that use older and aging people purchasing powers to meet their needs for consumption, healthcare, the place
to live, etc. E.g.- There is SACRED Portal- Senior able citizens for reemployment in dignity.

Issues w.r.t. old age:

o Failing health- the process of aging is synonymous with a decline in health. This problem is get
aggravated due to the lack of 4AQs of Health.
o Income insecurity- lack of assured and sustainable income to meet social security needs aggravates
the vulnerability of old people.
o Isolation and neglect- Report by the Age well foundation, 43% of old age people suffer from
depression and one of the major causes of it is isolation.

Globalization has resulted in the disintegration of joint families which has aggravated the problem of
isolation. Globalization has led to the emergence of the specialized institute of knowledge because of which
the status of old age people is reduced as they are no longer considered a source of wisdom. Globalization has
led to the penetration of technology + digital illiteracy- further increasing the isolation of old age. With
globalization, there has been the corruption of value systems i.e. the development of individualism, and a lack
of compassion towards old people. There exists a prejudice w.r.t. age known as ageism where an old person
is treated as a liability. Due to stereotypes that old people are weak, passive, and dependent, the incidences
of abuse against them are on the rise. (physical/mental/emotional/financial/verbal/sexual etc). Lack of
preparedness i.e. there is no formal awareness program to prepare people for old age. It sets in quietly and
suddenly.

Positive impact of globalization on the old age population: With globalization and the penetration of
technology - Better access to health infrastructure. Awareness about their rights and entitlements. Social
media has provided a platform for voicing their concerns. Same social media has also generated ties with
extended kins and created scope for collective interaction. Globalization has created livelihood opportunities
for old people. E.g.-Vocational trainers sharing their experience in think tanks, multigenerational care homes,
etc. With better access to health infrastructure, the quality of life has improved for the old. With changing
value system, has also provided means for old people to fulfill their aspirations which they could not have
earlier. It has also led to the development of the idea of a silver economy. It helps in challenging the traditional
and rigid mindset of old people and facilitates a smooth merger with a modern value system. Globalization
has also provided avenues for investments, and saving, and with technology accessibility to financial services
has also become convenient. In fact, globalization has also helped them to reinforce their independence. It
has also helped in bridging the generational gap.

Maintenance of welfare of parents and senior citizen act: According to this act, Children include a son,
daughter, grandson, and granddaughter and Parents include a father, and mother (biological, adaptive).
State govt. shall constitute tribunals to adjudicate and +decide upon the maintenance. Maintenance provision
for food, clothing, residence, and medical treatment. Deposit of maintenance amount within 30 days of a
court order etc.

Govt schemes: Integrated program for older persons. Rastriya vayoshri yojana. Indira Gandhi's national old
age pension scheme etc.

Way forward: Mainstreamed the concerns of senior citizens, especially older women. Promote income
security, old age pension, insurance, and housing. Promote the care of senior citizens within the family and
institutional care should be the last resort. Work toward the creation of an inclusive and age-friendly society.
Recognize the potential of old people and treat them as productive assets for society. Encourage employee

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 36

opportunities. E.g.- age friendly and gender-friendly farm equipment, establishments of SHG, and
Cooperatives, they can be recruited as vocational trainers in school. Encourage self-opportunities through
handholding. Promoting geriatric care. Promote the culture of healthy aging. Promote the culture of
promotive and preventive health care. Promotion of green cities and smart cities to encourage healthy living.
Attitudinal change to combat the stereotype of ageism. E.g.-Through cinema/glorification of established
personalities in their old age.

Persons with disability:

What do we mean by disabled - Lack of ability to perform the activity which was otherwise considered
normal. It is a negative term and should be replaced with differently abled. Differently abled person
becomes persons disabled due to the public perception that mocks, pities, or ridicules them.

Statistics: According to the census 2011, 2.21% population is PwD. PwD means a person with a long-term
physical, mental, intellectual, and sensory impairment which in interaction with barriers hinders full and
effective participation in society. The term disabled is significant as it draws our attention towards the public
perception of disability as a retribution of past karma for which there is no respite.

Vicious cycle of disability and poverty: Disability-limited access to social participation-limited access to
education and skill development-limited access to formal job opportunities, mostly confined to the informal
sector-lack of safe neighbourhood-lack of access to quality health infrastructure-lack of social security
benefits-problems of WASH and occupational health hazards-aggravation of disability.

Issues: Ambiguity w.r.t definition-lack of credible data. Census is the source of data- Due to stigma, especially
w.r.t. mental disability- problem of underreporting. Lack of effective policy-making in the absence of
data. Lack of inclusive infrastructure leads to social, economic, and political exclusion-Reduces them to the
status of ghost citizens. Based on the intersectionality approach, women and children are more vulnerable.
Public perception w.r.t disability has also led to the generation of stereotypes that they have a low quality of
life, poor health, are disabled, etc. There is a lack of access to assistive technology and devices at an
affordable price. Lack of sensitized attitude among the stakeholders. PwD suffers from triple jeopardy-
Disability, stigmatization, and poverty.

PwD Act: Act defines discrimination. No of disabilities increased from 7 to 21. Concept of benchmark
disability. Reservation: Higher education-5%; Govt jobs-4%. etc.

Analysis of the Act: Although the Act defines what constitutes discrimination, there exists a caveat that it
will be allowed if it is a proportionate means of achieving the legitimate goal. The ambit of disability has been
increased from 7 to 21 which has made the act more comprehensive and inclusive.
The provision of benchmark disability has been criticized due to its subjectivity and scope of misuse.
The provisions of 4% reservation are less w.r.t. to the PwD. Although there exist advisory bodies which serve
as apex policy-making body but do not have much authority. The provision of special courts welcoming w.r.t
speedy disposal of cases. The Act is focussing on ensuring an accessible and enabling environment by
incorporating both public and private establishments. There is a lack of provisions w.r.t attitudinal change,
a lack of provisions w.r.t political representation of PwD, and a lack of clarity w.r.t the management of funds.

Way forward: Ensure strict accountability with respect to the implementation of Provisions. Identification
of beneficiaries, and credible data collection. Promote inclusive education without any labelling. (For
Example, Accessible classroom, teacher training, etc.) Create inclusive infrastructure in private
infrastructure. (For Example, FICCI Accessibility Index). Promote subsidized aid and adaptive technology.
Treating disability as a social responsibility rather than a medical problem. Early identification and
prevention of disabilities. Give political voices to people with a disability so that they can voice their concerns.
Promoting sports and curricular activities so as to improve the comprehensive development of persons with
disability.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 37

Transgenders: They are defined as those people whose sex assigned at birth does not match the Gender
Identity of a person.

Provisions for the protection of Transgenders: Article 14, 15, 19, 21 of the constitution. National portal
for transgenders for issuing I cards. Garima Greh to provide shelter with basic amenities.

Provisions of the Transgender Act: Prohibition of discrimination based on education, employment, etc.
Offences: Forced labour. Denial of use of public places.

Issues with respect to transgender: They are often considered vulnerable because of the following reasons:
Health issues (Prevalence of HIV among transgenders, Lack of livelihood opportunities.) They are often
denied jobs and confined to low-paying or undignified work. For Example-Begging, Sex work, Badhai's, etc.
During COVID-19 were majorly impacted as their livelihood depends upon social interaction. They are often
victims of social ostracization and are shunned by both family and society. Exclusion from participation in
political culture. Limited access to education and skill development. Subjective to different forms of abuse.
They also suffer mental illness due to a culture of bullying and not allowing them to participate in social
activities. Legal hurdles in possessing identity documents. Lack of inheritance rights for transgenders.
Administrative apathy towards transgenders. Discrimination by society creates barriers to accessing public
space and shelter. Lack of Gender neutral IPC provisions. According to a recent observation of the Supreme
court, the right to termination of medical pregnancy will be extended to women beyond cisgender.

Way Forward: Kerala is the first state to formulate a policy for transgenders. To make it more accessible to
the transgender community, it should ensure correct data collection. Psychological counselling to
transgenders. Promote self-employment and vocational training. Introduction of scholarships for gender
non-conforming persons. Convergent approach, for example, Establishing linkages with livelihood and
literacy programs. Gender-neutral laws with respect to sexual harassment. Need for a Separate and
dedicated anti-discrimination act that penalizes any discrimination based on gender. Sensitization of police,
healthcare providers, and mass media awareness for the public. Ensure rehabilitation of transgenders. Give
effect to the NALSA judgment both in letter and spirit (The 1% horizontal reservation provided by the
Karnataka Government to the Transgenders is a welcome move.)

Population policy: purposeful measures with an aim to affect the demographic processes. (Fertility,
mortality, Migration)
Types:
o Anti-natal: It deals with controlling the Birth rate so as to stabilize the population.
o Distributional: Aims to check the concentration of the population.

Evolution of population policy over time:

 Pre-independence: The policy of indifference.
o R K Mukherjee committee: It prescribes self-control along with self and cheap birth control
measures opening birth control clinics and increasing the age of marriage.
o Bhore Committee: It talks about purposeful intervention.

 Post -Independence:
o 1947-51- Period of neutrality: Although the leaders wanted to control the population growth there
were other issues confronting the polity and governance of India such as the Kashmir issue.
o 1951-61 – Period of Experimentation: First Family Planning Programme,1952.
 Clinical approach- The government will not involve in awareness generation but the services
would be provided to those couples who are motivated to visit family planning centers set up by
the government.
o 1961-71 –
 Extension Approach: To educate people with respect to the benefits of small families, different
family planning methods available, etc.
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 Cafeteria Approach: The government will provide various options for family planning but the
ultimate choice will be given to the people to opt for any one of them.
 Selective Approach: They decided to selectively target couples in the age bracket of 25-35 to
make family planning a success. However, 1971 census, the decadal growth rate was 24.6% so
we introduced the National Population Policy.
o 1978 - Renaming Family planning to Family Welfare. Increasing the minimum age of marriage to 18
and 21 for girls and boys respectively. Voluntary sterilization. Monetary incentives for sterilization.
Use of Media to spread awareness, including population education as part of the study curriculum.
Thrust towards research in reproductive biology and contraception. In 1993, M S Swaminathan
submitted a report which said,
He discouraged monetary incentives. He was not in support of tubectomy,
He also believes that, In society, one cannot put the entire onus of family planning on women. He
emphasized democratic and decentralized interventions with respect to population control, hence
the challenging one size fits approach. Lastly, he suggested population funds to meet the requirement
of implementing population policy.
o 2000 - It was introduced with the objective of social and economic development to improve the
quality of life. To provide people with the opportunity and choice to become productive assets in
society. This policy had the following goals:
 Immediate: To meet the unmet needs of family planning, health infrastructure, etc.
 Mid-term: To reduce the TFR to 2.1 by 2010.
 Long Term: To stabilize population by 2045.

Reasons for high IMR and CMR: Lack of access to qualitative healthcare. Unsafe abortions due to stigma
related to unwed pregnancies. High fertility rate leading to maternal depletion syndrome. Lack of Safe
(WASH) Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene. Lack of medical infrastructure, Rural-urban divide. Presence of
Quakes, etc. Poverty, illiteracy, and failure of government to implement policies and provisions.

Conclusion: A population policy should address the above challenges and a piecemeal engineering approach
needs to be adopted.

Population education: It is the process by which the students explore the nature and meaning of the
population and the characteristics that cause population changes and consequences for individuals, families,
and society in the world.

Objectives of population education is to develop an understanding of the following: Various

demographic concepts and processes. The rapid growth of population and causes. Close interaction between
population growth and development. Negative impact on the environment. Appreciation of the fact that small
families are desirable and the size of a small family is a matter of choice. Awareness with respect to
population policy and schemes empowering the learners to make informed choices regarding reproductive
health. How the individual's decision with respect to family planning can have an impact on others.
Population education was incorporated under the National education policy of 1986.
The following initiatives were taken to promote population education: National Population Education
Project was launched in 1980 to institutionalize population education in the existing system. Adolescent and
reproductive and sexual health was launched. At the higher education level, In 1983 financial support was
provided to colleges to organize the population's education through population education clubs. In 1986,
Lecture series was introduced on population education. With respect to national Education policy, 2020
under the curriculum for adult education, there is a provision for family welfare and planning. With respect
to out-of-school adolescents, there has been a national youth policy that emphasizes an education program
for adolescents to prevent unwanted pregnancies.

Urbanisation: Urbanisation refers to a process which involves the movement of people from rural areas to
urban areas involving a change in place, and occupation along with a change in beliefs.

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Urbanism: It refers to the organisation of society based on the following factors: Complex division of labour,
Specialised work, High level of technology, Economic interdependence, and Impersonality in social relations.

Statistics: According to the census 2011, 31.18% of the population is living in urban areas. 13% do not have
access to sanitation accessibility and 30 % do not have access to safe drinking water.
According to the C Rangarajan committee, 26.4% live below the poverty line.

Types of urbanisation:
 Over-urbanisation: It is a situation in which a country's urban population is considerably larger than
expected based on that country's level of economic development.
 Sub-urbanization: It is used to describe the growth of areas on the fringes of major cities. It is the
increased growth of slums in urban areas.
 Urban sprawl: Urban sprawl is defined as the 'dispersed outgrowth of areas outside cities core which
also engulf nearby villages'. It is characterised by low-density residential housing and increased
reliance on private vehicles. The cause of this sprawl was to accommodate the rising populations and
desire for increased leaving space. However, it has negative consequences, such as traffic congestion,
environmental degradation and a decline in community cohesiveness.

Because of the decline in health and high cost associated with urban leaving, the development of
technology and along with the availability of vehicles has resulted in - People move to rural areas after
retirement & Emerging farmhouse culture. Counter-urbanization can be defined as de-urbanisation in
quantitative terms. However, it is facilitating urbanism in rural areas.

Issues with respect to urbanisation: Housing problems and slums proliferations. According to the UN-
Habitat, slums are defined as 'residential dwellings considered unfit for human habitation'. Because
they are overcrowded, poorly ventilated and lack basic resources for survival.
According to an expert panel on urban poverty, slum proliferation is the result of the failure of housing
policies. According to the World bank, 35.2% urban population live in slums. In fact, by 2035 most of the
extremely poor population will be found in urban areas.

Problems with respect to housing: Improper city planning due to the heritage of past construction, for
example, Delhi is expanded horizontally but not vertically. Lack of private developers to construct houses
for the poor. Lack of integrated planning i.e. entire focus is on land use without taking into consideration,
transportation, environmental socio-economic needs etc.
To address this problem the government has planned an in-situ rehabilitation example, the Kathputli colony
in Delhi.

Failure to implement the national urban housing and habitat policy whose objective was to earmark 15%
of land for social housing every year. The concept of a gated community has resulted in a lack of availability
of land for affordable housing. In fact, it is an example of social exclusion at the top or ghettoization based
on the standard of living. Lack of will, corruption and inefficiency on the part of Urban administrations.

Although the slums were perceived as a temporary problem, it has now become a permanent structural
issue - They are the most politically active section of society and hence constitute major vote banks. It
contributes to the labour force as the majority of the informal economy is thriving in slums. There exists a
quid-pro-quo between slum dwellers and informal sector employers. They also provide cheap labour for
political parties. For example, using them in rallies during the time of elections. There exists a subculture of
poverty hence the feeling of relative deprivation does not develop.

The dependence on the ideology of giving a dole has also created a social ecosystem where people are not
looking forward to improving their circumstances. It has been observed that people leaving in slums have
Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 40
immense resilience and power to adapt to any situation. Bureaucratic barriers, and lack of governmental
accountability. The romanticization of slum culture through media, for example - cinema.

Socio-cultural problems in urban areas: Due to impersonality in social relations, the collective conscience
has weakened and aggravation of materialistic tendencies. The disintegration of a joint family has challenged
the process of socialization and social control. The limited resources and disproportionate demands have
created disruptions w.r.t resource availability. For example, food insecurity, hunger, malnutrition, increased
disease burden, and lack of access to educational infrastructure. Loss of human capital and demographic
dividend turning into a disaster. Because of relative deprivation, as a result of unequal access to resources
will increase criminal behaviour. Lack of trust between natives and migrants, and politicisation of migrants
led to the son of the soil. Urbanisation has resulted in Westernization. (for example, individualism, a decline
of the social significance of religions, obsession with goals of material success).

The lack of synergy between the value system imparted by families and the value systems existing in urban
areas has led to the emergence of concepts of marginal men which creates grounds for self-alienation. The
culture of consumerism is on the rise which is also posing challenges to the environment. Rising aspirations,
especially among the youths and limited opportunity have created grounds for radicalisation and social
conflicts based on primordial identities. In urban areas there exists reinforcement of social stratification as
they were existing in rural areas. For example, replication of caste conflicts in urban areas however the term
is replaced by class. Residential segregation based on primordial identities has also led to a spatial pattern
of communal violence.

The degradation of the value system has aggravated the incidence of crime against the marginalised.
Skewed sex ratios have increased incidences of violence against women. Slum proliferation has also
increased the incidences of crime as slums are considered a 'den of pathological behaviour'. Increased
incidences of urbanisation during the pandemic due to the increase in the density of the population, human
encroachment of wild habitats, and proliferation of slums which do not have basic resources.

Physical infrastructure: The problem of waste generation and waste management. Environmental
degradation as congestion of people reduces the quality of air and contaminates water. The problem ranges
from poor management of water resources, leaky distribution networks, and a vast volume of untreated
wastewater being dumped in the rivers.

Transportation: Inadequate road infrastructure, inefficient public transportation leading to capacity

overloading and problems like road accidents, traffic jams etc. On the lines of Vision zero in Sweden, the
incidence of road accidents should be reduced as it is a major reason for preventable mortality and morbidity.

Way forward: Development of inclusive cities i.e. providing all essential resources at an affordable price to
the poor and vulnerable. Integrations of urban development programmes to ensure sustainable cities. For
example: 'Swatch Bharat Mission'.

Reforms in Urban administrations: Urban local bodies: the problems are w.r.t to 3F's i.e. funds, functions
and functionaries. For example, a new cadre of city administrators. Development of expertise through proper
training and tapping different sources of funding. For example, public-private partnerships, collection of
more property tax, and monetisation of land assets.

Need for cascaded Planning structure: That is we need to have a plan for long-term vision along with
immediate targets.
A new model of development needs to emerge:
 Transport-oriented model: The first step is to develop a mode of public transport and then in close
vicinity develop amenities like health, education, residence etc.
 Hub and spoke model.

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Globalisation: Globalisation is defined as national, and regional economies, societies, cultures getting
globally integrated through movements of ideas, technology and people etc.

Homogenizations: Homogenization is the establishment of uniform culture which can also be referred to as
global culture. For example: Obsession with the English language, the disintegration of joint family, the
emergence of the nuclear family, Growing incidences of living relations, Walmartization, McDonalizations of
food habits, Multiplex theatre, Corporate cultures.

Hybridization: It is a mixing of global with local cultures. For example, McDonald not selling beef products
in India. Wearing Kurtas with jeans. The corporate culture of offices with celebrations of Ethnic days. Nuclear
families with extended ties. Teaching different languages in schools. Dubbing of movies in regional languages.
Emergencies of different forms of marriages and families. Use of social media for promoting culture, for
example, e-darshan.

Revival of local cultures: Celebration of international yoga days. Religious revivalism for e.g. - the
proliferation of God men. Promoting education in mother tongues. Promotion of indigenous culture.
Demand for Indian fashion products such as Bhandni and Chikan Kari in global fashion industries. Concepts
of GI tag.

Impact of globalization on marriages:

 Purpose: Maintain the purity of lineage and progeny but to due globalisation, we are seeing the rise of
Inter-caste marriage and Dink marriage i.e. Double income no kid.
 Nature: Earlier arranged marriages were norms but due to globalisation love marriage is seen. Attitude
towards marriage has changed it is no longer the result of social acceptance but to find
companionship. For example, people in old age are going for a second marriage to have a companion.
There is a new avenue for spouse selection in marriage for example matrimonial sites or social media
platforms. Due to globalisation, there exists commercialization of marriage and desacralization of
marriage. The commodification of marriage.
 Impact of globalisation on religion: Secularization. Existence of religious beliefs along with scientific
temper. Religious revivalism.
 Impact on education: With globalisation emergence of secular and exoteric education. It has created a
competition which is required for the positive revival of the education system in India. Promoted
acceptance of cultural diversity. Many believe globalisation has led to the glorification of Western
education and the undermining of local knowledge. Increased pressure on education systems due to the
race of survival of the fittest. Preference for the English language, privatisation, and competitive
screening has made the education system elitist. Lack of value-based education. Education is no longer
considered an end but a means to achieve a good job. Increased performance pressure has led to
alienation among the children w.r.t education systems.

Impact of globalization on youth:

 Technology: increased incidences of a sedentary lifestyle, increased incidences of non-communicable
diseases.
 Education: awareness, information and diversity are created; however, it is biased against rural youth.
Globalisation has created diverse job opportunities which are well paying and highly skilled but it has led
to displacements of unskilled and semi-skilled youth. Limited opportunities aggravated feelings of
relative deprivation among youth. Youth has become more secular w.r.t marriage, accommodations and
commensality. However, in the backdrop of the disintegration of joint family and increased aspirations,
incidences of mental health issues and delinquent activities have increased. It led to the emergence of
yuppies.

According to Neera Chandhoke - The middle class is considered a cornerstone of Indian democracy. It
provides a voice to the voiceless. It helps in organizing the issues of the vulnerable and putting them

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 42

forward to the governments. It provides policy inputs to the government by providing membership to
various interest groups. They draw the attention of the government to the issues overlooked by them. It
contributes to revenue generation as it constitutes the tax-paying class. It helps in running or sustaining
the economy by creating demand in the market. It helps in preserving the tradition and culture in
society. The middle class is known for its education, occupation and income. Due to their access to
technology and exposure to modern value systems, they are the flagbearers of social change. The impact
of globalisation has led to the emergence of a new middle class who are defined as English-speaking
urban leaving working in private sectors and characterised by the ideology of consumerism.

Social issues

Poverty: According to Amartya Sen, Poverty refers to the deprivation of the basic capabilities of life rather
than mere lowness of income. It is not just about survival, it is about meaningfully contributing and
participating in various aspects of life. for Example: Let us suppose 'X' is provided food grain for survival,
however 'X' does not have awareness and environment with respect to the utilization of resources such as the
problem of open defecation which reduces the absorption of nutrients by the body. Poverty is a
multidimensional concept that has confronted culture and civilization over the ages. Humans were
dependent on nature for basic resources food clothing, shelter, etc. (Natural poverty). (However, benefits of
the socio-economic growth were not equally reaped by all. It leads to the polarization of society into Have
and Have Not's). Hence, we can say poverty is socially generated and perpetuated.

The roots of poverty lie in economic inequality but are perpetuated due to social, political, and cultural
backwardness. For Example, Caste notions of purity and pollution, Caste based on the occupational division
of labour, Geographical isolation of tribals, and Income insecurity among old age due to prejudices such as
ageism and sexual division of labour.

Poverty manifestation: Poverty is manifested in the multidimensional format in the following manner.
 Economic Aspect: Right to work, Right to Minimum wage, Right to equal pay, etc.
 Political Aspect: Right/ freedom of participation.
 Social Aspect: Access to 4A'Q with respect to Health, education, etc.
 Cultural Aspect: It refers to an ability of an individual to maintain one's cultural identity and be involved
in promoting the culture of the community.

Is poverty a violation of fundamental rights? If poverty is a direct consequence of government policy or a

failure of the government to act then it will be referred to as a violation of human rights.
For Example, Development induced displacement policy of the government in the context of tribals or poor
identification of beneficiaries while implementing the government schemes. However, if it is a construct of
individual inaction, then it will not be treated as a violation of human rights. For Example, you don't want a
certain job because of the caste structure. You don't want to migrate in search of jobs. You seek immediate
gratification in form of intoxication. Not allowing women to work due to patriarchy.

Approaches to Poverty:
1. Nutritional Approach: It is applicable in the context of developing and under-developed countries. It is
focused on minimum calorie/ nutrient intake which is required to maintain the working capacity of
individuals. It is an objective approach. It demarcates poor from non-poor.
2. Relative Deprivation Approach: It is applicable in the context of developed countries. It focuses on
social inequalities existing in the society. It is a subjective approach. It is perceived in terms of exclusion
of a class of people from the privileged ones or exclusion of people from participation due to lack of
resources.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 43

Incidence of poverty is defined as a number of poor, whereas the intensity of poverty is deprivation with
respect to health, education, and standard of living.

Causes of Poverty:
 Economic Cause: Agrarian Distress. The decline in village industries. Immobility of labour.
Informalization of the labour market. Increasing inflation impacted the purchasing capacity.
Consumerism. Globalization leads to the penetration of market forces in resource-rich areas which leads
to the displacement of tribals.
 Demographic Cause: High population growth. Huge pressure on the limited natural resources. Lack of
funds for investment in other sectors. High population growth in old age and income insecurity leads to
forced poverty. Quality of workforce: According to the India Skills report, 45.9% of graduates in India are
unemployable. Health profile of the population: Unhealthy population leads to a burden on pocket
expenditure.
 Socio-cultural Cause: Education. Caste system. Social customs. Unequal distribution of resources based
on primordial identities. Corruption of the value system. Lack of agency of social control. Increased
incidence of juveniles in drug addictions, online gaming, and gambling. Child marriage, child labour,
bonded labour.
 Politico-administrative Cause: Lack of Administrative capacity and will to implement policies. ASHA
Workers and Anganwadi Workers are not trained. Corruption Red Tapism. Lack of Transparency. War
and Conflict. Covid, conflict, and crisis. Law and Order: The policy of the government is focused on
incentivizing rather than empowering. Centralized approach (One size fits all). Lack of preparedness to
deal with disasters. Lack of effective functioning of schemes. Inability to create awareness about schemes
among beneficiaries.
 Climatic Cause: Floods. Droughts. Sea level rise. Different climate-induced factors.

Implications: Poverty leads to a vicious cycle with respect to illiteracy, illiteracy, and hunger issues.

Governments Initiatives/Efforts: 5-year Plans, Nationalization of Banks. 20-point Programme.

Government Schemes like:
 Wage Employment: MGNREGA.
 Self-Employment: Start-up, Stand-up, Skill India.
 Food Security: NFSA, Poshan, ICDS, MDM.
 Social Security: AB-PMJAY, PMAY, SBM, JJM.
 Misc.: PMGSY, PM Gati Shakti.

Lacunas in Government Efforts: Inclusion and Exclusion errors. One size fits all approach. Leakages,
corruption, and misappropriation of funds. Lack of awareness about schemes. Lack of Infrastructure to
facilitate implementation of schemes. Lack of availability of impanelled hospitals in the Ayushman Bharat
Programme. Lack of storage and warehouse facility. Low funds like 1.3 % of GDP for the health sector. Failure
with respect to the evaluation of schemes and plugging of the schemes. Example: Poor learning outcome in
ASER report and lack of credible data. People were considered passive beneficiaries rather than an active
participant in the development. Lack of political will to overcome above mentioned lacunas.

Way Forward:
1. Capability Approach: In this approach Endowment means assets owned by the individuals.
Entitlement: i.e. ability of an individual to translate these assets into goods. According to Amartya
Sen entitlements are significant for poverty reduction. For Example, the Kerala model of development
(High literacy, access to health care, Low IMR, Low fertility rate and High life expectancy.)
2. Jagdish-Bhagwati Model: Only focusing on growth can generate enough resources to be
redistributed in social sectors. Growth may lead to inequality in the initial stages but sustained
growth will ensure enough resources with the state to mitigate the inequality which was initially
generated. For Example, the Gujarat Model of Development. It has three major components, Quantum

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 44

jump in infrastructure to facilitate the inflow of corporate investments, Significant growth in
governance to address the requirement of corporate units, and Unprecedented rise in incentives and
subsidies on investment to the corporate sector to attract further investment.
3. Piece-meal engineering Approach: For Example, Odisha's model of development. The state has
brought down the poverty level to a considerable extent i.e. 63% to 29% by focusing on - Controlling
child malnutrition and Building the capacities of Women SHGs.

SDG goal concerning poverty: Eradicate poverty in all its forms everywhere.
Targets - Eradicate extreme poverty. Reduce at least by half the proportion of the population living in
poverty according to the national definition. Ensure Social protection measures for all. Ensure everyone has
equal rights to economic resources, access to basic services, ownership and control over land, appropriate
technology, etc. Build the resilience of the poor and the vulnerable, and reduce their exposure and
vulnerability to economic, social, and environmental shocks, and disasters.

Government Efforts:
 Accelerated economic growth- National Social Assistance Program, MGNREGA, Code on Social Security,
E-Shram portal, etc.
 Access to social services - National Education Policy, Ayushman Bharat, Ujjwala Yojana, Jal Jeevan
Mission, etc.
 Livelihood opportunities, employment, and skilling opportunities - Stand up India, Skill India,
National Rural Livelihood Mission, National Urban Livelihood Mission, etc.

Achievements - According to Global Multidimensional Poverty Index, 415 million people have been pulled
out of poverty, i.e. the incidence of poverty has fallen from 55 to 16 %. According to a paper published by
World Bank, the decline in extreme poverty is around 12.3%. According to this paper, poverty reduction is
higher in rural areas, as compared to urban areas.

Hunger: Hunger is defined as a situation of distress that is associated with a lack of food.

Manifestation of Hunger:
 Undernourishment: According to FAO, it refers to the condition when an individual is not consuming
min 1800 Kcal per day, to maintain his working capacity.
 Malnutrition: According to WHO, it is defined as the state of excess deficiency or imbalance with respect
to nutrient intake. It is manifested in form of undernutrition, lack of micronutrients, or diet-related non-
communicable diseases. Undernourishment means being underweight, stunting, and wasting.
Underweight refers to less weight with respect to age. Stunting refers to less height with respect to age.
Wasting refers to less weight with respect to height. Lack of micro-nutrients leads to hidden hunger. Diet-
related non-communicable diseases are obesity, overweight, diabetes, etc. These are also called lifestyle
diseases.

Causes of hunger and malnutrition

 Lack of Food: Poverty, agriculture productivity, wastage of food, failure of government schemes, 3C's
(Conflict, COVID, Climate Change), social pathologies, inflation, etc.
 Lack of Nutritious Food: Green revolution (cereal-specific revolution), lack of diversified food, lack of
nutrition education and awareness, McDonalizations of food habits, fad diets (GM diets, Keto diets, etc.),
poverty/inflation, lack of women as an agency of change, etc. Green Revolution led to the unprecedented
use of fertilizers and pesticides which has impacted the quality of food. Misleading advertisements
encourage the consumption of unhealthy food. According to Dandekar and Rath committee, poor person
spends two-thirds of their income on food. Hence, any price of rice negatively impacts nutrition
consumption.
 Lack of absorption by Nutrition by the body: Lack of safe drinking water, lack of sanitation, lack of
hygiene, high-disease burden, sedentary lifestyle, high dependence on technology, etc.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 45

Implications:
 At the Individual level: Hunger leads to limited physical and cognitive abilities, poor learning outcomes,
limited ability to absorb the skills, and limited social participation. This would lead to limited efficiency
and low productivity in the labour market. This would lead to poverty. Poverty would lead to restricted
access to food, lack of nutritious food, and less absorption by the body. This would further intensify the
hunger.
 Implications at the family level: Inter-generational transmission of hunger and malnutrition. Direct
and indirect economic costs associated with hunger. The decline in the standard of living and quality of
life. Negative impact on interpersonal relations in the family.
 Implications at the national level: Loss of potential human capital. Dividend turning into a disaster.
Lack of healthy ageing. Creates a burden on the government and its limited resources. Population acting
as a liability. Hunger and poverty reinforce each other in a vicious cycle. Some spill-over effects like high
fertility rate, increase incidences of child labour, IMR, MMR, etc. Limited development would result in
increased relative deprivation which would increase the incidences of crime. Malnutrition is referred to
as a silent assassin, which not only impacts the individual but the nation as it creates an army of sick
people.

SDG and hunger:

Goal - End Hunger, improve nutrition, ensure food security, and promote sustainable agriculture.
Targets - Universal access to safe and nutritious food. End all forms of malnutrition. Double the productivity
and income of small-scale food producers. Ensure sustainable food production. Maintain the genetic diversity
in food production

Government Efforts:
 End Hunger: National Food Security Act, National Food Security Act, etc.
 Improve Nutrition: Eat Right campaign, Integrated Child Development Scheme, POSHAN 2.0, etc.
 Ensure Food Security: One nation one ration card.
 Promote sustainable agriculture: Soil Health Card, Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana, Pradhan
Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, etc.

Achievements: Number of beneficiaries under the National Food Security Act is 81 crores. Six times increase
in food production from 50 million tonnes in 1950-51 to 292 million tonnes in 2020. According to National
Family Health Survey, report 5 stunting has reduced from 38.4% to 35.5%. Wasting has reduced from 21%
to 19.3%. Underweight has reduced from 35.8% to 32.1%.

Challenges in tackling Hunger and Malnutrition: Social structure of the society. Weak implementation of
schemes. (one size fits all, top-down approach, lack of qualified human resources due to low wages, and lack
of adequate training). Food Wastage due to inadequate infrastructure. Lifestyle changes due to globalization
(McDonalizations, sedentary lifestyle, and over-dependence on technology). Low status of women in society.

Way Forward: Poverty alleviation builds the resilience of the vulnerable sections. More investment in
disaster prevention, risk reduction, and mitigating climate change. Promote sustainable production and
consumption of nutritious food. Motivate food producers and suppliers to ensure the availability of affordable
healthy food. Prevent the adulteration of food. Mandatory labelling on the front of the package. Access to safe
WASH. Promote the culture of a diversified diet. Empower women. Fortification, and biofortification of food.
Collect, analyze, and use good-quality data to guide action and track progress.

The Cycle of Hunger, Poverty, and Stalled Development:

 Individual level- Lifecycle of malnutrition. limited cognitive development. Increased disease burden.
Poverty and limited resources.
 Labour force: Reduced capacity to work. Low-paying jobs. Less life expectancy. Low productivity and
lifetime earnings.

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 National economic development: Diminished economic development. The limited capacity of the health
and education system.

Health:
Concept of Good Health: According to WHO, good health is defined as the state of individuals' physical,
mental, and social well-being, rather than the absence of illness.

Manifestation of good health: Good health can be manifested at different levels.

 economic good - Low health spending and efficiency at the workplace.
 political good - Being healthy ensures active and informed participation in the political process which
helps in strengthening democracy.
 social good - Being healthy ensures better absorption of other social products. It helps in establishing an
equitable and sustainable society.
 ecological good - It will lead to sustainable production, consumption, and overall development.

Tiers of Healthcare systems:

Issues of Healthcare:
Lack of Health force - In India, there is one doctor for every 1194 patients (WHO recommended one doctor
for every 1000 patients). In India, there is one nurse for every 670 patients (WHO recommended one nurse
for every 300 patients). According to WHO, 53 % of doctors in India are quacks.

Rural Urban divide - According to NITI Aayog, 80% of doctors, 75% of dispensaries, and 60% of hospitals
are in urban areas.

Weak Primary healthcare system - The primary healthcare system is important for early identification,
and intervention, reducing preventable causes of mortality and morbidity, and promoting preventive
healthcare.

Problem of provider-induced demand. Culture of self-treatment.

Privatization of Health care - 60% of in-patients and 70% of out-patients are handled by the private sector.
Health is a state subject, because of which there is a lack of proper implementation of the Clinical
Establishment Act 2010. Along with privatization, this has led to high out-of-pocket expenditures.

Lack of uniform law concerning generic medicine, hence often the branded version is prescribed. Absence of
medical ethics. For example, engaging in malpractices such as organ trafficking, kickbacks, Lack of requisite
infrastructure in the existing hospitals which makes it difficult to implement government policies. Lack of
focus on emerging health issues such as geriatric care, mental health care, road safety, addictions, etc. There
are four aspects of health care: promotive preventive, curative, and rehabilitative. However, the focus is only
on curative care. Lack of research and development has resulted in high dependence on the import of active
pharmaceutical ingredients. Lack of trust in traditional medicinal systems.
Lack of integrated health management information system, which results in delays in treatment and high
health costs. Lack of insurance coverage. Lack of digitalization of healthcare. Dysfunctional state of
Integrated Disease Surveillance Program. Neglect of certain diseases as it largely affects the poor and
marginalized population. For example, tropical diseases. Problems with National Medical Commission Act.
Evergreening of patents on drugs. Lack of inclusive health workforce system. For example, limited female
doctors in departments not traditionally meant for women. Similarly, there is a demand for male ASHA
workers.

SDG3: It deals with good health and promoting well-being.

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Targets: Reduce MMR below 70. Fight communicable diseases. Prevent and treat substance abuse. Reduce
road injuries and death. Promote mental health. Universal access to reproductive care, family planning, and
education.

Criteria and Government Efforts: PM-Jan Arogya Yojana and National Medical Council, Affordable health
care-- Ayushman Bharat-PMJAY (PM Jan Aushadhi Pariyojana). Reduce MMR-- RMNCH A strategy + Pre
Natal (PMSMA), peri Natal (JSY), and pot Natal (JSSK). Reduce IMR, CMR, Malnutrition-- ICDS, Mission
Indradhanush, POSHAN 2.0. Promotion of AYUSH--Proposal to establish Ayurveda centers in every district.
With respect to Mental Health care-- RAAH app., NIMHANS, Mental Healthcare Act.

Contemporary Issues: Digitalization. UHC. Right to health as a fundamental right. Mental Health.

Please refer to the handout Health class ppt (Key trends and key highlights of the survey).

Universal Health Coverage (UHC): UHC refers to equity in healthcare that is every individual should have
fair and just access to qualitative and affordable healthcare.
Please refer to the handout Health class ppt (UHC, Prospects of UHC, way forward).

Tiers of health care system:

 Primary Health Care (PHC): PHC is defined as the first point of contact between individuals and the
health care system. According to Alma Atta Declaration 1978, PHC includes family planning,
vaccination, nutritional awareness, and access to safe wash. According to this declaration, the goals of
PHC include - To reduce exclusion, Organized health care around the need of the people, Ensure
community participation, Development of appropriate technology and Adequate health workforce and
multisectoral approach.
 Secondary Health Care: Please refer to the handout Health class ppt (Secondary Health Care-
Challenges w.r.t Secondary Health care and Way Forward).

Please refer to the handout Health class ppt (Ayushman Bharat PM-JAY-about the scheme, and prospects
of PM-JAY, analysis of PM-JAY, concerns, reasons for limited effectiveness, and measures needed to improve
PM-JAY).

Concerns w.r.t PM-JAY (widening inequality, lack of control over the private sector, lack of adequate
budgeting allocation, absence of private healthcare, lack of quality accredited and certified hospitals, lack of
credible data, ghost beneficiaries, etc).

Digitalization of health infrastructure: Please refer to the handout Health class ppt (What is the
digitalization of Healthcare, prospects of digitalization of Healthcare, challenges, and way forward).

Challenges- health is a state subject, underdeveloped infrastructure, a fragmented healthcare delivery

system, a dominant IT vendor, a lack of internet accessibility, the problem of data safety, and information
standards are weak.

National Digital Health mission (what is NDHM, and what is its vision- Universal Health Coverage). The
building block of the Digital System (health ID, Consent manager gateway, Digi Doctor, Electronic medical
record, Personal Health Records, and Health facility register).

Mental healthcare:
Please refer to the Handout for Mental Healthcare (Premise, Issues, definition, and government efforts,
MHC Act, causes, Covid 19, and health care and way forward).

Mental Health Care Act- makes the right to mental healthcare a legal right. There exists provision of an
advanced directive (regarding the treatment and nominative representative), Central and State mental
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authority, Mental health review commission, Mental health review board, Limited and careful use of electro-
convulsive theory, and suicide is decriminalized.

Causes: Urbanization, Modernization, Discrimination, relative deprivation, isolation, imbalance in means

and goals, the negative impact of social media, and hormonal factor.

Way forward- Detect, Treat, and Manage.

COVID-19 and Mental Health: Reasons why COVID has aggravated problems of Mental illness: Policies of
government such as social distancing, quarantine, etc. Fear of losing the job. Stigmatization during the
pandemic. Disrupted education, stress about the future. Women under mental stress (double shift). Fear of
getting affected by the virus. Lack of responsible journalism.
Limited access to mental healthcare services. Understaffed and overwhelmed police and healthcare workers.

Way forward: Sustaining and strengthening mental health care service. Community-based intervention.
Digitally mediated therapy and telepathy.

Education:
Concept of Education: The concept of literacy is defined as objective or quantitative criteria that are
confined to the realm of formal school. However, education is qualitative in nature which goes beyond formal
schooling and includes overall personality development. For example, values, morals, wisdom, emotional
intelligence, etc.

Characteristics of Quality Education: Well-designed curriculum. Safe and secure learning environment.
Value-based education. Robust infrastructure. Well-trained and motivated teachers. Adequate financial
support.

Significance of good education: It will ensure early childhood care which is essential as 90% of the brain
develops before 5 years of age. It will reduce the dropouts as the education appear to be relevant. Better
employment opportunities and overall empowerment, for example, transformation to job creators, thrust to
innovation and creativity, effectiveness w.r.t start-up India, Make in India, etc.

Education will improve the health and resilience of communities for example avenues of social mobility,
reduced inequality, fostered tolerance and strengthened social and cultural capital. Effective means of
achieving SDG. The transformation of human beings to being humane (reduced incidence of violence, crime,
corruption, social conflict, etc).

Issues w.r.t School education: Inadequate attention to the quality of education. Focus on rote learning.
Unhealthy competition. Focus on grades creates stress and dents self-esteem. One size fits all teaching models
reduced learning outcomes. Lacunas in assessment, hence difficult to measure and track progress.
Engagement of teachers in non-teaching tasks. Lack of infrastructure and resources for example- innovative
teaching-learning material, smart classrooms, drinking water, functional toilets, etc. Shortage of qualified
teachers, for example, the pass percentage of the CTET exam is less than 25%. Lack of focus on life skills. Lack
of vocational training.

Way Forward:
Stakeholder approach:
 With respect to learners- Emphasize foundational learning. Encourage the role of families in the
process of learning. Universalization of enrolment and retention.
 With respect to teachers- Develop a sense of responsibility towards the children. A proper mechanism
for performance appraisal. Make teaching lucrative, meritocratic, and socially valuable so that it can
attract the best minds. Providing tools and techniques for effective learning.

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 With respect to learning sources- High-quality age-appropriate material. Availability of content in the
mother tongue. Effective access to technology to achieve learning objectives.
 With respect to schools- Promote inclusive learning. Addressing any form of prejudice and
discrimination. A proper mechanism for grievance redressal. Infrastructure for mental health education
and support. Comprehensive education (nutrition education, sex education, self-defence education,
training, etc). Creating adequate space for both learning and co-curricular activities.
 With respect to management- Provide autonomy and investment in a management capacity and
leadership to support schools.

Please refer to Reports (ASER, National Achievement Survey, Foundational Literacy, and Numeracy
Study, AISHE).

Higher education:
Issues w.r.t Higher Education: According to the All India Survey for Higher Education, GER is 27.3%,
whereas in the USA it is 88%, in China 54%, and in Brazil 51%. The reason is due to dropouts during
secondary education (the ambit of RTE is limited to primary education and labour is also allowed during this
stage, hence the lack of eligible population for higher education). Poor learning outcomes due to the medium
of instruction (a measure of government to provide higher education in a regional language). Socioeconomic
constraints. Due to limited seats in public higher educational institutions, it has created a situation of brain
drain. (The government initiative to establish National Digital University and Guidelines for Foreign Higher
Education Institutions to open their campus in India). According to India’s Skills Report, only 45.9% of the
graduates are employable. Sub-optimal research ecosystem, that is only 0.65% of the GDP is spent on
research. Only 2.5% of Higher Educational Institutions are running Ph.D. courses. Politicisation of Higher
Educational Institutions.

Key Provisions under NEP 2020: (Early Childhood Care and Education, Attainment of Foundational
Literacy and Numeracy, Curtailing Dropout Rates and Ensuring Universal Access to Education at All Level,
Curriculum, and Pedagogy, etc). Way Forward: Provisions of NEP.

SDG 04:
Goal- Quality education to all.
Targets: equal access to preschool education. Strengthening of secondary education. Universal literacy and
numeracy. Increase the supply of quality teachers. Eliminate all forms of discrimination. Equal access to
technical and vocational education.

Government Efforts:
Criteria and Government Efforts:
 Pre-school-- ICDS, Anganwadi, FLN, Nipun Bharat.
 School Education-- RTE, MDM, Vidyanjali, Samgra Sikhsa Abhiyan.
 Higher education-- RUSA, HEFA, BDU.
 Skill Education-- PM-Kaushal Vikas Yojana.
 Digital Learning-- SWAMYAM, MOOC, DIKSHA, NISHTHA portal.

Social movement: The social movement is defined as collective action to further the common interest
through actions outside the political system. New Social Movement (objective, philosophy, structure, Action
repertoires, social constituency)

Dalit Movements:
Who is a Dalit? - Dalits are those groups of people who have faced social discrimination including the
untouchability. They largely belong to the economically disadvantaged groups of our society. They are placed
in the Scheduled Caste categories in our constitution.

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Who coined the term? - The category of Dalits was first used by Jyotiba Phule in the nineteenth century. It
was first popularly used by the Dalit Panther in the 1970s.

Objectives of the movement: Dalit movement raises issues of caste-based discrimination and economic
inequality. It involves a st

Peasant movement during British Period:

 British introduced the exploitative Land Tenure System with Ryotwari system in western and southern
India and Zamindari system in eastern and northern India. These two distinctive Systems of Land Tenure
System gave way to the rise of feudal Lords, sub feudal Lords, thereby giving rise to the evolution of large
body of leisure class living on the exploitation of peasants in India.
 Exploitative taxation and introduction of cash crops completely paralysed subsistence production.
Peasants were exploited by both Landlords and exploitative market of British. Hence movement in diff
parts of country Sanyasi Vidroh, Indigo Movement, Champaran Movement, Bardoli Movement, Eka
Movement, Moplah Rebellion, Birsa Munda Movement.
 Peasant movement offered platform for the rise of localised leadership in various parts of the country
which became the precursor to the national movement in India.
 Kisan Sabha Movement: AR Desai considers that this movement is originally initiated by middle
peasants and subsequently received ideological support from middle-class youth and finally when this
movement acquired a nationalistic appeal several peasants joined the movement as a result of which
class movement got converted into mass movement.

Post-Independence Agrarian movement: After India's independence peasant movement has gone to the
state of oblivion. The factors responsible for that can be attributed to rural development programme
introduced by the state. By cooperative movements small and marginal farmers in India liberated themselves
from historical exploitation, gather self-confidence and improved their quality of life. This view was
contradicted by Marxist scholar Utsa Patnaik. She said all the big farmers are hijacking all the
institutionalised benefits in their own favour. There is consolidation of capitalism in Punjab and Haryana.

Contemporary Agrarian movements: This period saw the rise of New Farmers movement with following
characteristics:
 These farmers’ movements do not believe in romanticising their lifestyle or social life.
 These movements believed in the principle of going beyond locality. It is nothing but going beyond
nation/nationality to internationalism.
 They believed in united or undifferentiated struggle.
 Gail Omvedt argues that the new farmer’s movement believed in the new form of Exploitation.
 The demands of the farmers’ movement include issues like remunerative prices, writing off loans, anti-
government policy of procurement, levy policy, liberalisation etc. Other than these economic issues, the
farmers’ movement also focused on social issues.

Thus, agrarian movement did bring about a paradigm shift in the discourse, analysis and perception about
farmers in India. It made the policy makers to address the deep-rooted crisis of agriculture as well as agrarian
classes in India. It has also helped the farmers to be a part of international movement against such issues as
globalisation, imperialism and capitalism.

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 51

Lavkush Pandey – [email protected] 52