SEMINAR

ON
MOTIVATION

SUBMITTED TO :- Mrs. Sadhana Adhyapak

(Lecturer Dr.D.Y.Patil.C.O.N)
SUBMITTED BY:- Mr. Manish Tripathi
SUBMITTED ON :- 3/08/10

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Name of the student teacher :- Mr. Manish Tripathi

Name of the Guide :- Mr. Manish Tripathi

Topic :- Motivation

Time :-

Date :- 3/08/10

Class thought :- 2nd Year Msc. Nursing Student

Venue :- 2nd Year Msc. Nursing classroom

Teaching Method :- Lecture cum discussion

AV Aids :-Power Point presentation

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General Objective:-

At the end of the seminar group will be able to gain in depth

knowledge about Motivation and use in their practice.

Specific Objective:-
At the end of the seminar group will able to

1. Define Motivation
2. Differentiate intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
3. List type of motivation
4. Discuss different theories of motivation
5. Describe strategies to create a motivating climate
6. Discuss application of motivation in Education and institution
7. List down seven rule of motivation
8. Discuss the role and function of nurse manager in motivation

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OUT LINE OF SEMINAR ON MOTIVATION

Name of the student teacher: - Mr. Manish Tripathi

Name of the Guide : - Mrs. Sadhana adhyapak

Date : - 03/08/10

1.Definition of Motivation

2.Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation

3.Type of motivation

4 Theories of motivation

1. The incentive theory of motivation

2. Drive theory of motivation
3. Cognitive dissonance theory
4. Need theory –a) Need hierarchy theory
b)Herzberg’s two factor theory

c) Alderfer’s ERG theory

d) Self determination theory

5. Broad theory
6. Cognitive theory –a) Goal setting theory
7. Model of behavior change-a) I-change model
b) Health action process approach

8. Unconscious motivation

9. Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory

10. Motivation crowding theory

11. Theory X and theory Y of Douglas McGregor

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12. Contribution of Rensis likert

13. Frederick Herzberg’s motivation hygiene theory

14. Contribution of Elton Mayo

15. Vroom valence x Expecttancy theory

16. The porter and Lawler Model

17. McClelland’s theory of need

18. Equity theory

19. Reinforcement theory

20. Goal setting theory of Edwin Locke

21. Cognitive Evaluation theory

5. Strategies to create a motivating climate

6. Application of motivation in Education and institution

7.seven rule of motivation

8. The role and function of nurse manager in motivation

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INDEX
SR.NO. NAME OF THE SUBTOPIC PAGE NO.

1 Definition of Motivation 7

2 Concept of motivation 8-12

3 Difference between intrinsic and extrinsic 13

motivation

4 Type of motivation 14-16

5 Theories of motivation 17-36

6 Strategies to create a motivating climate 37-39

7 Application of motivation in Education and 40-42

institution

8 seven rule of motivation 43

9 The role and function of nurse manager in 44-46

motivation

10 Research Finding 47-51

11 Current trends in motivation 51-52

12 References 53

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MOTIVATION
Motivation is the internal condition that activates behavior and gives it direction;
energizes and directs goal-oriented behavior. The term is generally used for human
motivation but, theoretically, it can be used to describe the causes for animal
behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation. According to various
theories, motivation may be rooted in the basic need to minimize physical pain and
maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a
desired object, hobby, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-
apparent reasons such as altruism, morality, or avoiding mortality.

Definition of motivation :-

Motivation means the degree to which an individual is moved or aroused to achive

a goal or purpose

( Rainey, 2001)

Motivation can be defined as the process of channeling a person’s inner drives so

that he wants to accomplish the goal of organization.

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CONCEPTOF MOTIVATION

Motivation is a behavioural concept. It is concerned with a goal oriented

behaviors, the production depends upon with both human and non human factors.

 The efficiency of non-human factors (e.g. materials, machine etc.) depends

upon the type of technology being followed.
 The performance level of human factor depends on
(i) The ability to do certain work (proficiency in the skill
(ii) Level of motivation
 These factors to be multiplied rather than added
 This can be expressed as:

Performance = Ability x Motivation

Thus we find that performance level would be high it both these factors are
high. It a worker is very capable of doing certain things but he is otherwise not
willing to do the work, his performance level would not be high. The ability to do
the work it governed by education and training, while the motivation can be
affected by the governing human behaviour in the organization.

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Importance of Motivation:-

1. High performance level:-

Motivation is the most important factors determining organizational

efficiency. All organizational facilities go waste due to lack of motivated
people. Motivated employee put higher performance (80-togo percent of
their ability) as compared to other employees (20 to 30 percent of their
ability)

2. Low employee turnover and absenteeism:-

Motivated employees stay in the organization and their absenteeism is quite

low. High turnover and absenteeism create many problems. Recruiting,
training and developing a large number of people into working terms take
years. Moreover is also affects the reputation and economic conditions of the
organization unfavorably.

3. Acceptance of changes:-

Motivation helps to bring changes in technology value system etc.

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INCENTIVES AND MOTIVATION

The needs of the individual serve as the driving force in human behaviour.
The management tries to govern the behaviour of the employees in satisfying their
needs. This is done in many ways one of the methods is by giving incentives.

Incentives may be either positive or negative.

1. Positive Incentives:-

It attracts people. They are classified into monetary and non-minatary.

a. Money becomes a basic incentive for individuals, because it takes care of

their primary needs of food, shelter, clothing etc. The monetary of incentives
may be in the form of payment of bonuses, merit increments, housing
facilities, medical care, loans, provision of transportation, education of
children etc.
b. The non monetary incentives are also used to motivate the employees for
higher production. They are in the form of status and recognition, job
security, responsibility, participation in decision making, training facilities,
promotions, discipline, team spirit etc. Negative incentives are those which
motivate an individual to abstain from doing something.
2. Negative incentives:-

Negative incentives are in the form of the demotion, suspension etc.

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JOB SATISFACTION AND MOTIVATION

Research proves that job satisfaction acts as a motivator for doing work.

 The term job satisfaction refers to on employee’s general attitude towards

his job.
 The factors influencing the job satisfaction are:-
1. Occupational level

The higher the level of the job, the greater if the satisfaction of the individual
in doing the work. This is because of the prestige or status attached with the
position out society values some job more than others.

2. Job consent:-

The greater is the variation in the job content and the less is the
representative ness with which the tasks must be performed, the greater is
the satisfaction of the individual involved.

3. Adequate pay & promotional opportunities.

4. Job security

5. Pleasantness of the work and working conditions.

6. Mutual trust and acceptance between the members in the organization.

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MORAL AND MOTIVATION

 Morale is basically a group phenomenon.

 It is a concept that describes the level of favorable of unfavourable attitudes
of the employees, collectively to aspects of their work-the organisation, the
job their tasks, the working conditions, superiors, the fellow workers etc.
 Morale and productivity go hand in hand.
 Higher the morale, higher is the productivity and vise-versa.
 Morale of the group depends upon many factors such as :-
i. There must be a common goal to achieve.
ii. Provisions for job satisfaction e.g. Incentives, job enrichment.
iii. Participation of personnel in decision making.
iv. Effective two way communication system.
v. Improved grievance procedure.
vi. Good management principles.
vii. Good human relations.
viii. Sympathetic & trustworthy persons as supervisors.

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INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC MOTIVATION
1. Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation comes from rewards inherent to a task or activity itself - the
enjoyment of a puzzle or the love of playing basketball, for example. One is said to
be intrinsically motivated when engaging in an activity "with no apparent reward
except for the activity itself".This form of motivation has been studied by social
and educational psychologists since the early 1970s. Research has found that it is
usually associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by students.
Intrinsic motivation has been explained by Fritz Heider's attribution theory,
Bandura's work on self-efficacy and Ryan and Deci's cognitive evaluation theory.
Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they:

 attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control
(e.g. the amount of effort they put in),
 believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results
are not determined by luck),
 Are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve
good grades.

2. Extrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the performer. Money is the most
obvious example, but coercion and threat of punishment are also common extrinsic
motivations.

In sports, the crowd may cheer the performer on, and this motivates him or her to
do well. Trophies are also extrinsic incentives. Competition is often extrinsic
because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the
intrinsic rewards of the activity.

Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over
justification and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic incentives sometimes can weaken the motivation as well. In one classic
study done by Green & Lepper, children who were lavishly rewarded for drawing
with felt-tip pens later showed little interest in playing with the pens agai

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TYPES OF MOTIVATION

(1) Achievement Motivation

It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement

motivation wishes to achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of

success. Here, accomplishment is important for its own shake and not for

the rewards that accompany it. It is similar to ‘Kaizen’ approach of Japanese

Management.

(2) Affiliation Motivation

It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation

motivation perform work better when they are complimented for their

favourable attitudes and co-operation.

(3) Competence Motivation

It is the drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform

high quality work. Competence motivated people seek job mastery, take

pride in developing and using their problem-solving skills and strive to be

creative when confronted with obstacles. They learn from their experience.

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(4) Power Motivation

It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated

people wish to on.

(5) Attitude Motivation

Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self confidence,

their belief in themselves, their attitude to life. It is how they feel about the

future and how they.

(6) Incentive Motivation

It is where a person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It is “You do

this and you get that”, attitude. It is the types of awards and prizes that

drive people to work a little harder.

(7) Fear Motivation

Fear motivation coercions a person to act against will. It is instantaneous

and gets the job do.

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MOTIVATING DIFFERENT PEOPLE IN DIFFERENT WAYS

Motivation is not only in a single direction i.e. downwards. In the present

scenario, where the workforce is more informed, more aware, more educated
and more goal motivating a subordinate, encouragement and support to
colleague as well as helpful suggest workforce is self motivated, just the
acknowledgement of the same makes people feel important.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MOTIVATION, SATISFACTION, INSPIRATION AND

Motivation refers to the drive and efforts to satisfy a want or goal, whereas
satisfaction refers to the contentment experienced when a want is satisfied. In
contrast, inspiration is bringing about a change in the thinking pattern. On the
other hand Manipulation is getting the things done from others in a
predetermined manner.

Inspiration Satisfaction

Action Result
Motivation OR

Demotivation

Dissatisfaction
Manipulation

Hence, manipulation or external stimulus as well as inspiration or

internal stimulus acts as carriers of either demotivation or motivation which in
turn either results in dissatisfaction or satisfaction depending upon.

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MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
1.The incentive theory of motivation

A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e.

behavior) with the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by
associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person
receives the reward immediately, the effect would be greater, and decreases as
duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to
become habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people.
These two sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation,
respectively.

Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it seems. Steven
Kerr notes that when creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while
hoping for B, and in the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your
goals.

A reinforce is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a

measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of
something to the environment.

2.Drive-reduction theories

There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of
the concept that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes
the strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon
satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. The theory is based on diverse
ideas from the theories of Freud to the ideas of feedback control systems, such as a
thermostat.

Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food,
the drive model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the
food is prepared, and, after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective
hunger. There are several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive
reduction open for debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how
secondary reinforces reduce drive. For example, money satisfies no biological or
psychological needs, but a pay check appears to reduce drive through second-order
conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as having a "desire" to
eat, making the drive a homunculi being - a feature criticized as simply moving the
fundamental problem behind this "small man" and his desires.
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In addition, it is clear that drive reduction theory cannot be a complete theory of
behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a meal without eating the food
before they finished cooking it. The ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds of
behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by adding on other traits such as restraint), or
adding additional drives for "tasty" food, which combine with drives for "food" in
order to explain cooking render it hard to test.

3. Cognitive dissonance theory

Suggested by Leon Festinger, this occurs when an individual experiences some

degree of discomfort resulting from an incompatibility between two cognitions.
For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase,
feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable.

Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior are in

conflict. A person may wish to be healthy, believes smoking is bad for one's health,
and yet continues to smoke.

4.Need theories

a) Need hierarchy theory

Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs theory is the one of the most widely
discussed theories of motivation.

The theory can be summarized as follows:

 Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only
unsatisfied needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
 Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the
basic to the complex.
 The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level
need is at least minimally satisfied.
 The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness
and psychological health a person will show.

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The needs, listed from basic (lowest, earliest) to most complex (highest, latest)
are as follows:

 Physiological
 Safety
 Belongingness
 Esteem
 Self actualization

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b) Herzberg’s two-factor theo

Frederick Herzberg's two-factor theory, aka intrinsic/extrinsic motivation,

concludes that certain factors in the workplace result in job satisfaction, but if
absent, lead to dissatisfaction.

The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but "respect for me
as a person" is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life.

He distinguished between:

 Motivators; (e.g. challenging work, recognition, responsibility) which give

positive satisfaction, and
 Hygiene factors; (e.g. status, job security, salary and fringe benefits) that do
not motivate if present, but, if absent, result in demotivation.

The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not
make you healthier, but absence can cause health deterioration.

The theory is sometimes called the "Motivator-Hygiene Theory."

c) Alderfer’s ERG theo

Clayton Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG

theory (existence, relatedness and growth). Physiological and safety, the lower
order needs, are placed in the existence category, while love and self esteem needs
are placed in the relatedness category. The growth category contains our self-
actualization and self-esteem needs.

d) Self-determination theory

Self-determination theory, developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses

on the importance of intrinsic motivation in driving human behavior. Like
Maslow's hierarchical theory and others that built on it, SDT posits a natural
tendency toward growth and development. Unlike these other theories, however,
SDT does not include any sort of "autopilot" for achievement, but instead requires
active encouragement from the environment. The primary factors that encourage
motivation and development are autonomy, competence feedback, and relatedness.

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4.Broad theories

The latest approach in Achievement Motivation is an integrative perspective as

lined out in the "Onion-Ring-Model of Achievement Motivation" by Heinz
Schuler, George C. Thornton III, Andreas Frintrup and Rose Mueller-Hanson. It is
based on the premise that performance motivation results from way broad
components of personality are directed towards performance. As a result, it
includes a range of dimensions that are relevant to success at work but which are
not conventionally regarded as being part of performance motivation. Especially it
integrates formerly separated approaches as Need for Achievement with e.g. social
motives like Dominance. The Achievement Motivation Inventory AMI (Schuler,
Thornton, Frintrup & Mueller-Hanson, 2003) is based on this theory and assesses
three factors (17 separated scales) relevant to vocational and professional success.

5.Cognitive theories

a) Goal-setting theory

Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive
to reach a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A
goal's efficiency is affected by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity.
An ideal goal should present a situation where the time between the initiation of
behavior and the end state is close. This explains why some children are more
motivated to learn how to ride a bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be
moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not
optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of
insecurity of success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a
substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity concerns the description
of the goal in their class. The goal should be objectively defined and intelligible for
the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest
possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that
goal. [5]

Douglas Vermeeren, has done extensive research into why many people fail to get
to their goals. The failure is directly attributed to motivating factors. Vermeeren
states that unless an individual can clearly identify their motivating factor or their
significant and meaningful reasons why they wish to attain the goal, they will
never have the power to attain it.

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6.Models of behavior change

Social-cognitive models of behavior change include the constructs of motivation

and volition. Motivation is seen as a process that leads to the forming of behavioral
intentions. Volition is seen as a process that leads from intention to actual
behavior. In other words, motivation and volition refer to goal setting and goal
pursuit, respectively. Both processes require self-regulatory efforts. Several self-
regulatory constructs are needed to operate in orchestration to attain goals. An
example of such a motivational and volitional construct is perceived self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is supposed to facilitate the forming of behavioral intentions, the
development of action plans, and the initiation of action. It can support the
translation of intentions into action.

a) I-Change Model

Introduction

The I-Change Model or the Integrated Model for explaining motivational and
behavioral change is derived from the Attitude – Social influence – self-Efficacy
Model, that can be considered as an integration of ideas of Ajzen’s Theory of
Planned Behavior,[3] Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory, Prochaska’s Tran
theoretical Model[4], the Health Belief Model[5], and Goal setting [6] theories.
Previous versions of this model (referred to as the ASE-model) have been used to
explain a variety of types of health behavior.

Phases of behavioral change

The I-Change Model is a phase model and assumes that at least three phases in the
behavioral change process can be distinguished: 1. Awareness; 2. Motivation ; 3.
Action. For each phase particular determinants are more relevant.

Awareness

Awareness of a particular problem in a person is the result of accurate knowledge

and risk perceptions of the person about his own behavior (not all persons are
aware of the level of their own behavior, for instance, many persons overestimate
the amount of their physical activity. Cues in their environment (e.g. a person with
cancer) may also prompt a person to become more aware of a particular risk and
the need to adopt a particular health behavior.

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Motivation

Motivation to change a behavior is regarded to be dependent on a person's attitude

(the results of perceived advantages and disadvantages of the behavior), social
influence beliefs (norms of others, behavior of others, and support of others) and
self-efficacy expectations (the perceived ability to perform a particular health
behavior). The ultimate result in level of motivation to adopt a health behavior can
be measured by intentions, a concept derived from Fishbein & Ajzen's Theory of
Reasoned Action[7] or related concepts such as the stage of change concept of the
Trans Theoretical Model of Prochaska.

Action

Intentions do not necessarily lead to behavior. Factors determining action, besides

a positive intention, are again self-efficacy, action planning and goal setting. With
regard to action planning we distinguish preparation planning (planning actions
required to change), initiation planning (planning the actions needed to perform the
new behavior for the first time) and coping or maintenance planning (planning the
actions to cope with barriers and relapse in order to maintain the realized changes).
Additionally, the development of skills required for the new health behavior is
needed as well.

Predisposing Factors

The I-Change Model assumes that these motivational processes are determined by
various predisposing factors such as behavioral factors (e.g. life styles),
psychological factors (e.g. personality), biological factors (e.g. gender, genetic
predisposition), social and cultural factors (e.g. the price of cigarettes, policies),
and information factors (the quality of messages, channels and sources used).

b) Health Action Process Approach

Models of health behavior change are designed to examine a set of psychological

constructs that jointly aim at explaining what people motivates to change and how
they take preventive action. The Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) is a
psychological theory of health behavior change. It has been developed by Ralf
Schwarzer, Professor of Psychology at the Freie University of Berlin, Germany. It
is an open framework of various motivational and volitional constructs that are
assumed to explain and predict individual changes in health behaviors such as
quitting smoking or drinking, and improving physical activity levels, dental
hygiene, seat belt use, breast self-examination, or dietary behaviors. The Health
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Action Process Approach (HAPA) suggests that the adoption, initiation, and
maintenance of health behaviors should be conceived of as a structured process
including a motivation phase and a volition phase. The former describes the
intention formation while the latter refers to planning, and action (initiative,
maintenance, recovery). The model emphasizes the particular role of perceived
self-efficacy at different stages of health behavior change.

Background

Models that describe health behavior change can be distinguished in terms of the
assumption whether they are continuum-based or stage-based. A continuum
(mediator) model claims that change is a continuous process that leads from lack of
motivation via action readiness either to successful change or final disengagement.
Research on such mediator models are reflected by path diagrams that include
distal and proximal predictors of the target behavior. On the other hand, the stage
approach assumes that change is non-linear and consists of several qualitative steps
that reflect different mindsets of people. A two-layer framework that can be
applied either as a continuum or as a stage model is the Health Action Process
Approach (HAPA). It includes self-efficacy, outcome expectancies, and risk
perception as distal predictors, intention as a middle-level mediator, and volitional
factors (such as action planning) as the most proximal predictors of behavior.

Good intentions are more likely to be translated into action when people plan
when, where, and how to perform the desired behavior. Intentions foster planning,
which in turn facilitates behavior change. Planning was found to mediate the
intention-behavior relation . A distinction has been made between action planning
and coping planning. Coping planning takes place when people imagine scenarios
that hinder them to perform their intended behavior, and they develop one or more
plans to cope with such a challenging situation .

HAPA is designed as a sequence of two continuous self-regulatory processes, a

goal-setting phase (motivation) and a goal-pursuit phase (volition). The second
phase is subdivided into a pre-action phase and an action phase. Thus, one can
superimpose these three phases (stages) on the continuum (mediator) model as a
second layer, and regard the stages as moderators. This two-layer architecture
allows to switch between the continuum model and the stage model, depending on
the given research question.

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Five Principles of the Health Action Process Approach

HAPA has five major principles that make it distinct from other models).

Principle 1: Motivation and volition. The first principle suggests that one should
divide the health behavior change process into two phases. There is a switch of
mindsets when people move from deliberation to action. First comes the
motivation phase in which people develop their intentions. Afterwards, they enter
the volition phase.

Principle 2: Two volitional phases. In the volition phase there are two groups of
individuals: those who have not yet translated their intentions into action, and those
who have. There are inactive as well as active persons in this phase. In other
words, in the volitional phase one finds intenders as well as actors who are
characterized by different psychological states. Thus, in addition to health behavior
change as a continuous process, one can also create three categories of people with
different mindsets depending on their current point of residence within the course
of health behavior change: Preintenders, intenders, and actors.

Principle 3: Post intentional planning. Intenders who are in the volitional fractional
stage are motivated to change, but do not act because they might lack the right
skills to translate their intention into action. Planning is a key strategy at this point.
Planning serves as an operative mediator between intentions and behavior.

Principle 4: Two kinds of mental simulation. Planning can be divided into action
planning and coping planning. Action planning pertains to the when, where, and
how of intended action. Coping planning includes the anticipation of barriers and
the design of alternative actions that help to attain one’s goals in spite of the
impediments.

Principle 5: Phase-specific self-efficacy. Perceived self-efficacy is required

throughout the entire process. However, the nature of self-efficacy differs from
phase to phase. This is because there are different challenges as people progress
from one phase to the next one. Goal setting, planning, initiative, action, and
maintenance pose challenges that are not of the same nature. Therefore, one should
distinguish between fractional self-efficacy, coping self-efficacy, and recovery
self-efficacy . Sometimes the terms task self-efficacy instead of preaction self-
efficacy, and maintenance self-efficacy instead of coping and recovery self-
efficacy are preferred.

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Psychological Interventions Based on the Health Action Process Approach

When it comes to the design of interventions, one can consider identifying

individuals who reside either at the motivational stage or the volitional stage [11].
Then, each group becomes the target of a specific treatment that is tailored to this
group. Moreover, it is theoretically meaningful and has been found useful to
subdivide further the volitional group into those who perform and those who only
intend to perform. In the post intentional preactional stage, individuals are labeled
“intenders,” whereas in the actional stage they are labeled “actors.” Thus, a
suitable subdivision within the health behavior change process yields three groups:
no intenders, intenders, and actors . The term “stage” in this context was chosen to
allude to the stage theories, but not in the strict definition that includes
irreversibility and invariance. The terms “phase” or “mindset“ may be equally
suitable for this distinction. The basic idea is that individuals pass through different
mindsets on their way to behavior change. Thus, interventions may be most
efficient when tailored to these particular mindsets. For example, no intenders are
supposed to benefit from confrontation with outcome expectancies and some level
of risk communication. They need to learn that the new behavior (e.g., becoming
physically active) has positive outcomes (e.g., well-being, weight loss, fun) as
opposed to the negative outcomes that accompany the current (sedentary) behavior
(such as developing an illness or being unattractive). In contrast, intenders should
not benefit from such a treatment because, after setting a goal, they have already
moved beyond this mindset. Rather, they should benefit from planning to translate
their intentions into action . Finally, actors do not need any treatment at all unless
one wants to improve their relapse prevention skills. Then, they should be prepared
for particular high-risk situations in which lapses are imminent. This can be done
by teaching them to anticipate such situations and by acquiring the necessary levels
of perceived recovery self-efficacy .

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7. Unconscious motivation

Some psychologists believe that a significant portion of human behavior is

energized and directed by unconscious motives. According to Maslow,
"Psychoanalysis has often demonstrated that the relationship between a conscious
desire and the ultimate unconscious aim that underlies it need not be at all direct ."
In other words, stated motives do not always match those inferred by skilled
observers. For example, it is possible that a person can be accident-prone because
he has an unconscious desire to hurt himself and not because he is careless or
ignorant of the safety rules. Similarly, some overweight people are not hungry at
all for food but for fighting and kissing. Eating is merely a defensive reaction to
lack of attention. Some workers damage more equipment than others do because
they harbor unconscious feelings of aggression toward authority figures.

Psychotherapists point out that some behavior is so automatic that the reasons for it
are not available in the individual's conscious mind. Compulsive cigarette smoking
is an example. Sometimes maintaining self-esteem is so important and the motive
for an activity is so threatening that it is simply not recognized and, in fact, may be
disguised or repressed. Rationalization, or "explaining away", is one such disguise,
or defense mechanism, as it is called. Another is projecting or attributing one's own
faults to others. "I feel I am to blame", becomes "It is her fault; she is selfish".
Repression of powerful but socially unacceptable motives may result in outward
behavior that is the opposite of the repressed tendencies. An example of this would
be the employee who hates his boss but overworks himself on the job to show that
he holds him in high regard.

Unconscious motives add to the hazards of interpreting human behavior and, to the
extent that they are present, complicate the life of the administrator. On the other
hand, knowledge that unconscious motives exist can lead to a more careful
assessment of behavioral problems. Although few contemporary psychologists
deny the existence of unconscious factors, many do believe that these are activated
only in times of anxiety and stress, and that in the ordinary course of events,
human behavior — from the subject's point of view — is rationally purposeful.

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8.Intrinsic motivation and the 16 basic desires theory

Starting from studies involving more than 6,000 people, Professor Steven Reiss has
proposed a theory that finds 16 basic desires that guide nearly all human behavior.

The desires are:

 Acceptance, the need for approval  Physical Activity, the need for
 Curiosity, the need to think exercise
 Eating, the need for food  Power, the need for influence
 Family, the need to raise children of will
 Honor, the need to be loyal to the  Romance, the need for sex
traditional values of one's clan/ethnic  Saving, the need to collect
group  Social Contact, the need for
 Idealism, the need for social justice friends (peer relationships)
 Independence, the need for  Status, the need for social
individuality standing/importance
 Order, the need for organized, stable,  Tranquility, the need to be safe
predictable environments  Vengeance, the need to strike
back

In this model, people differ in these basic desires. These basic desires represent
intrinsic desires that directly motivate a person's behavior, and not aimed at
indirectly satisfying other desires. People may also be motivated by non-basic
desires, but in this case this does not relate to deep motivation, or only as a means
to achieve other basic desires.

9.Motivation crowding theory

The Motivation crowding theory suggests that external interventions - monetary

incentives or punishments - may undermine (and under different conditions
strengthen) intrinsic motivation. The theoretical possibility of crowding out is
widely accepted among economists. Many of them, however, have been critical
about its empirical relevance. The idea that monetary incentives can crowd out the
motivation to undertake an activity is usually considered a major anomaly because
it predicts the reverse reaction expected according to the relative price effect, upon
which much of accepted economics is based

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10.Theory X and Theory Y” of Douglas McGregor :

McGregor, in his book “The Human side of Enterprise” states that people inside
the organization can be managed in two ways. The first is basically negative,
which falls under the category X and the other is basically positive, which falls
under the category Y. After viewing the way in which the manager dealt with
employees, McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human
beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to
mold his or her behavior towards subordinates according to these assumptions.

Under the assumptions of theory X :

 Employees inherently do not like work and whenever possible, will attempt
to avoid it.
 Because employees dislike work, they have to be forced, coerced or
threatened with punishment to achieve goals.
 Employees avoid responsibilities and do not work fill formal directions are
issued.
 Most workers place a greater importance on security over all other factors
and display little ambition.

In contrast under the assumptions of theory Y :

 Physical and mental effort at work is as natural as rest or play.

 People do exercise self-control and self-direction and if they are committed
to those goals.
 Average human beings are willing to take responsibility and exercise
imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving the problems of the
organization.
 That the way the things are organized, the average human being’s
brainpower is only partly used.

On analysis of the assumptions it can be detected that theory X assumes that lower-
order needs dominate individuals and theory Y assumes that higher-order needs
dominate individuals. An organization that is run on Theory X lines tends to be
authoritarian in nature, the word “authoritarian” suggests such ideas as the “power
to enforce obedience” and the “right to command.” In contrast Theory Y
organizations can be described as “participative”, where the aims of the
organization and of the individuals in it are integrated; individuals can achieve
29
their own goals best by directing their efforts towards the success of the
organization.

However, this theory has been criticized widely for generalization of work and
human behavior.

11.Contribution of Rensis Likert :

Likert developed a refined classification, breaking down organizations into four

management systems.

1st System – Primitive authoritarian

2nd System – Benevolent authoritarian
3rd System – Consultative
4th System – Participative

As per the opinion of Likert, the 4th system is the best, not only for profit
organizations, but also for non-profit firms.

12.Frederick Herzberg’s motivation-hygiene theory :

Frederick has tried to modify Maslow’s need Hierarchy theory. His theory is also
known as two-factor theory or Hygiene theory. He stated that there are certain
satisfiers and dissatisfiers for employees at work. In- trinsic factors are related to
job satisfaction, while extrinsic factors are associated with dissatisfaction. He
devised his theory on the question : “What do people want from their jobs ?” He
asked people to describe in detail, such situations when they felt exceptionally
good or exceptionally bad. From the responses that he received, he concluded that
opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying
characteristics from a job does not necessarily make the job satisfying. He states
that presence of certain factors in the organization is natural and the presence of
the same does not lead to motivation. However, their nonpresence leads to
demotivation. In similar manner there are certain factors, the absence of which
causes no dissatisfaction, but their presence has motivational impact.

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Examples of Hygiene factors are :

Security, status, relationship with subordinates, personal life, salary, work

conditions, relationship with supervisor and company policy and administration.

Examples of Motivational factors are :

Growth prospectus job advancement, responsibility, challenges, recognition and

achievements.

13.Contributions of Elton Mayo :

The work of Elton Mayo is famously known as “Hawthorne Experiments.” He

conducted behavioral experiments at the Hawthorne Works of the American
Western Electric Company in Chicago. He made some illumination experiments,
introduced breaks in between the work performance and also introduced
refreshments during the pause’s. On the basis of this he drew the conclusions that
motivation was a very complex subject. It was not only about pay, work condition
and morale but also included psychological and social factors. Although this

31
research has been criticized from many angles, the central conclusions drawn were
:

 People are motivated by more than pay and conditions.

 The need for recognition and a sense of belonging are very important.

 Attitudes towards work are strongly influenced by the group.

14. Vroom’s Valence x Expectancy theory :

The most widely accepted explanations of motivation has been propounded by

Victor Vroom. His theory is commonly known as expectancy theory. The theory
argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a specific way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on
the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual to make this simple, expectancy
theory says that an employee can be motivated to perform better when their is a
belief that the better performance will lead to good performance appraisal and that
this shall result into realization of personal goal in form of some reward. Therefore
an employee is :

Motivation = Valence x Expectancy.

The theory focuses on three things :

 Efforts and performance relationship

 Performance and reward relationship
 Rewards and personal goal relationship

This leads us to a conclusion that :

32
15.The Porter and Lawler Model :

Lyman W. Porter and Edward E. Lawler developed a more complete version of

motivation depending upon expectancy theory.

Actual performance in a job is primarily determined by the effort spent. But it is

also affected by the person’s ability to do the job and also by individual’s
perception of what the required task is. So performance is the responsible factor
that leads to intrinsic as well as extrinsic rewards. These rewards, along with the
equity of individual leads to satisfaction. Hence, satisfaction of the individual
depends upon the fairness of the reward.

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16.McClelland’s Theory of Needs :

David McClelland has developed a theory on three types of motivating needs :

1. Need for Power

2. Need for Affiliation
3. Need for Achievement

Basically people for high need for power are inclined towards influence and
control. They like to be at the center and are good orators. They are demanding in
nature, forceful in manners and ambitious in life. They can be motivated to
perform if they are given key positions or power positions.

In the second category are the people who are social in nature. They try to affiliate
themselves with individuals and groups. They are driven by love and faith. They
like to build a friendly environment around themselves. Social recognition and
affiliation with others provides them motivation.

People in the third area are driven by the challenge of success and the fear of
failure. Their need for achievement is moderate and they set for themselves
moderately difficult tasks. They are analytical in nature and take calculated risks.
Such people are motivated to perform when they see at least some chances of
success.

McClelland observed that with the advancement in hierarchy the need for power
and achievement increased rather than Affiliation. He also observed that people
who were at the top, later ceased to be motivated by this drives.

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17.Equity Theory :

As per the equity theory of J. Stacey Adams, people are motivated by their beliefs
about the reward structure as being fair or unfair, relative to the inputs. People
have a tendency to use subjective judgment to balance the outcomes and inputs in
the relationship for comparisons between different individuals. Accordingly :

If people feel that they are not equally rewarded they either reduce the quantity or
quality of work or migrate to some other organization. However, if people perceive
that they are rewarded higher, they may be motivated to work harder.

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18. Reinforcement Theory :

B.F. Skinner, who propounded the reinforcement theory, holds that by designing
the environment properly, individuals can be motivated. Instead of considering
internal factors like impressions, feelings, attitudes and other cognitive behavior,
individuals are directed by what happens in the environment external to them.
Skinner states that work environment should be made suitable to the individuals
and that punishments actually leads to frustration and de-motivation. Hence, the
only way to motivate is to keep on making positive changes in the external
environment of the organization.

19. Goal Setting Theory of Edwin Locke :

Instead of giving vague tasks to people, specific and pronounced objectives, help
in achieving them faster. As the clarity is high, a goal orientation also avoids any
misunderstandings in the work of the employees. The goal setting theory states that
when the goals to be achieved are set at a higher standard than in that case
employees are motivated to perform better and put in maximum effort. It revolves
around the concept of “Self-efficacy” i.e. individual’s belief that he or she is
capable of performing a hard task.

20. Cognitive Evaluation Theory :

As per these theory a shift from external rewards to internal rewards results into
motivation. It believes that even after the stoppage of external stimulus, internal
stimulus survives. It relates to the pay structure in the organization. Instead of
treating external factors like pay, incentives, promotion etc and internal factors like
interests, drives, responsibility etc, separately, they should be treated as
contemporary to each other. The cognition is to be such that even when external
motivators are not there the internal motivation continues. However, practically
extrinsic rewards are given much more weight age.

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STRATEGIES TO CREATE A MOTIVATING CLIMATE

Sometimes fostering a subordinate’s motivation is as simple as creating a

supportive and encouraging environment. The cost of this strategy is only the
manager’s time and energy. Losoncy (1977) identified the following characteristics
of the encouraging person or encouraging manager that are essential for a
motivating climate:

1. The encouraging person sees only individuals in the world. When faced with
groups of people, each person is viewed as unique, with interests, problems,
and goals that must be acknowledged.
2. The encouraging person is a safe, totally accepting person. He or she
believes that the discouraged person has not consistently experienced safe
relationships and, hence, has developed a mask.
3. The encouraging person is skilled at looking for uniqueness or differences in
a person. This is almost a second-nature skill that the helper develops along
the way. Once the person’s uniqueness is noticed, he or she begins to
develop a sense of self-worth and finds the courage to take risks and change.
4. The encouraging person not only has faith in human nature but also has faith
in the discouraged person.
5. The encouraging person is sincerely enthusiastic about the growth of the
discouraged person and communicates this enthusiasm to others.
6. The encouraging person is ultra-sensitive to the self-defeated person’s goals,
values, and purposes, believing that each behavior is significant and
consequential. The encourager helps this person learn to see him – or herself
in a more powerful light.

37
7. The encouraging person realizes that knowledge of the discouraged person’s
past proud moments – his or her “claim to fame’ – is important to building a
new, more positive identity. Encouraged to feel worthwhile, the formerly
defeated person will now take risks, formulate goals, and evaluate his or her
own growth.
8. The encouraging person is sensitive to over dependency in the relationship
and helps the discouraged person develop self-encouragement. As a result,
this formerly discouraged person begins to develop new relationships in
which he or she uses the same encouragement process with others. This
person then becomes an encourager.

In addition to positive reinforcement, role modeling, and being an encouraging

manager, the following additional strategies should be used consistently to create a
motivating climate:

1. Have clear expectations for workers, and communicate these expectations

effectively.
2. Be fair and consistent when dealing with all employees.
3. Be a firm decision maker using an appropriate decision-making style.
4. Develop the concept of teamwork. Develop group goals and projects that
will build a team spirit.
5. Integrate the staffs needs and wants with the organization’s interests and
purpose.
6. Know the uniqueness of each employee. Let each know that you understand
his or her uniqueness.

38
7. Remove traditional blocks between the employee and the work to be done.
8. Provide experiences that challenge or “stretch” the employee and allow
opportunity for growth.
9. When appropriate, request participation and input from all subordinates in
decision making.
10. Whenever possible, give subordinates recognition and credit.
11. Be certain that employees understand the reason behind decisions and
actions.
12. Reward desirable behavior; be consistent in how you handle undesirable
behavior.
13. Let employees exercise individual judgment as much as possible.
14. Create a trustful and helping relationship with employees.
15. Let employees exercise as much control as possible over their work
environment.
16. Be a role model for employees.

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APPLICATIONS
1.Education

Motivation is of particular interest to Educational psychologists because of the

crucial role it plays in student learning. However, the specific kind of motivation
that is studied in the specialized setting of education differs qualitatively from the
more general forms of motivation studied by psychologists in other fields.

Motivation in education can have several effects on how students learn and how
they behave towards subject matter. It can:

1. Direct behavior toward particular goals

2. Lead to increased effort and energy
3. Increase initiation of, and persistence in, activities
4. Enhance cognitive processing
5. Determine what consequences are reinforcing
6. Lead to improved performance.

Because students are not always internally motivated, they sometimes need
situated motivation, which is found in environmental conditions that the teacher
creates.

There are two kinds of motivation:

 Intrinsic motivation occurs when people are internally motivated to do

something because it either brings them pleasure, they think it is important,
or they feel that what they are learning is significant.
 Extrinsic motivation comes into play when a student is compelled to do
something or act a certain way because of factors external to him or her (like
money or good grades).

Note also that there is already questioning and expansion about this dichotomy on
motivation, e.g., Self-Determination Theory.

Motivation has been found to be a pivotal area in treating Autism Spectrum

Disorders, as in Pivotal Response Therapy.

40
Motivation is also an important element in the concept of Andragogy (what
motivates the adult learner).

2.Institution

At lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, such as Physiological needs,

money is a motivator, however it tends to have a motivating effect on staff that
lasts only for a short period (in accordance with Herzberg's two-factor model of
motivation). At higher levels of the hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition,
empowerment and a sense of belonging are far more powerful motivators than
money, as both Abraham Maslow's theory of motivation and Douglas McGregor's
Theory X and theory Y (pertaining to the theory of leadership) demonstrate.

Maslow has money at the lowest level of the hierarchy and shows other needs are
better motivators to staff. McGregor places money in his Theory X category and
feels it is a poor motivator. Praise and recognition are placed in the Theory Y
category and are considered stronger motivators than money.

 Motivated employees always look for better ways to do a job.

 Motivated employees are more quality oriented.
 Motivated workers are more productive.

The average workplace is about midway between the extremes of high threat and
high opportunity. Motivation by threat is a dead-end strategy, and naturally staff
are more attracted to the opportunity side of the motivation curve than the threat
side. Motivation is a powerful tool in the work environment that can lead to
employees working at their most efficient levels of production. [13]

Nonetheless, Steinmertz also discusses three common character types of

subordinates: ascendant, indifferent, and ambivalent whom all react and interact
uniquely, and must be treated, managed, and motivated accordingly. An effective
leader must understand how to manage all characters, and more importantly the
manager must utilize avenues that allow room for employees to work, grow, and
find answers independently.[14]

The assumptions of Maslow and Herzberg were challenged by a classic study[15] at

Vauxhall Motors' UK manufacturing plant. This introduced the concept of
orientation to work and distinguished three main orientations: instrumental (where
work is a means to an end), bureaucratic (where work is a source of status, security
and immediate reward) and solidaristic (which prioritises group loyalty).

41
Other theories which expanded and extended those of Maslow and Herzberg
included Kurt Lewin's Force Field Theory, Edwin Locke's Goal Theory and Victor
Vroom's Expectancy theory. These tend to stress cultural differences and the fact
that individuals tend to be motivated by different factors at different times. [16]

According to the system of scientific management developed by Frederick

Winslow Taylor, a worker's motivation is solely determined by pay, and therefore
management need not consider psychological or social aspects of work. In essence,
scientific management bases human motivation wholly on extrinsic rewards and
discards the idea of intrinsic rewards.

In contrast, David McClelland believed that workers could not be motivated by the
mere need for money — in fact, extrinsic motivation (e.g., money) could
extinguish intrinsic motivation such as achievement motivation, though money
could be used as an indicator of success for various motives, e.g., keeping score. In
keeping with this view, his consulting firm, McBer & Company, had as its first
motto "To make everyone productive, happy, and free." For McClelland,
satisfaction lay in aligning a person's life with their fundamental motivations.

Elton Mayo found out that the social contacts a worker has at the workplace are
very important and that boredom and repetitiveness of tasks lead to reduced
motivation. Mayo believed that workers could be motivated by acknowledging
their social needs and making them feel important. As a result, employees were
given freedom to make decisions on the job and greater attention was paid to
informal work groups. Mayo named the model the Hawthorne effect. His model
has been judged as placing undue reliance on social contacts at work situations for
motivating employees

In Essentials of Organizational Behavior, Robbins and Judge examine recognition

programs as motivators, and identify five principles that contribute to the success
of an employee incentive program

 Recognition of employees' individual differences, and clear identification of

behavior deemed worthy of recognition
 Allowing employees to participate
 Linking rewards to performance
 Rewarding of nominators
 Visibility of the recognition process

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SEVEN RULES OF MOTIVATION

#1 Set a major goal, but follow a path. The path has mini goals
that go in many directions. When you learn to succeed at mini
goals, you will be motivated to challenge grand goals.

#2 Finish what you start. A half finished project is of no use to

anyone. Quitting is a habit. Develop the habit of finishing self-
motivated projects.

#3 Socialize with others of similar interest. Mutual support is

motivating. We will develop the attitudes of our five best friends.
If they are losers, we will be a loser. If they are winners, we will
be a winner. To be a cowboy we must associate with cowboys.

#4 Learn how to learn. Dependency on others for knowledge

supports the habit of procrastination. Man has the ability to
learn without instructors. In fact, when we learn the art of self-
education we will find, if not create, opportunity to find success
beyond our wildest dreams.

#5 Harmonize natural talent with interest that motivates.

Natural talent creates motivation, motivation creates persistence
and persistence gets the job done.

#6 Increase knowledge of subjects that inspires. The more

we know about a subject, the more we want to learn about it. A
self-propelled upward spiral develops.

#7 Take risk. Failure and bouncing back are elements of

motivation. Failure is a learning tool. No one has ever succeeded
at anything worthwhile without a string of failures.

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LEADERSHIP ROLES AND MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS ASSOCIATED WITH
CREATING A MOTIVATING WORK CLIMATE

Leadership Roles

1. Recognizes each worker as a unique individual who is motivated by

different things.
2. Identifies the individual and collective value system of the unit, and
implements a reward system that is consistent with those values.
3. Listens attentively to individual and collective work values and attitudes to
identify unmet needs that can cause dissatisfaction.
4. Encourages workers to “stretch” themselves in a effort to promote self-
growth and self-actualization.
5. Maintains a positive and enthusiastic image as a role model to subordinates
in the clinical setting.
6. Encourages mentoring, sponsorship, and coaching with subordinates.
7. Devotes time and energy to create an environment that is supportive and
encouraging to the discouraged individual.
8. Develops a unit philosophy that recognizes the unique worth of each
employee and promotes reward systems that make each employee feel like
a winner.
9. Demonstrates through actions and words a belief in subordinates that they
desire to meet organizational goals.
10.Is self-aware regarding own enthusiasm for work and takes steps to
remotivate self as necessary.

44
Management Functions

1. Uses legitimate authority to provide formal reward systems.

2. Uses positive feedback to reward the individual employee.
3. Develops unit goals that integrate organizational and subordinate needs.
4. Maintains a unit environment that eliminates or reduces job dissatisfiers.
5. Promotes a unit environment that focuses on employee motivators.
6. Creates the tension necessary to maintain productivity while encouraging
subordinate job satisfaction.
7. Clearly communicates expectations to subordinates.
8. Demonstrates and communicates sincere respect, concern, trust, and a
sense of belonging to subordinates.
9. Assigns work duties commensurate with employee abilities and past
performance to foster a sense of accomplishment in subordinates.
10.Identifies achievement, affiliation, or power needs of subordinates, and
develops appropriate motivational strategies to meet those needs.

45
RESEARCH FINDINGS ON MOTIVATION IN NURSING

A number of examples of research addressing work motivation in nursing practice

can be found in the literature. Typically, the focus of work motivation research
looks at how motivation of employees is associated with various dependent
variables such as job satisfaction; desire to continue in one’s job, or commitment to
the organization. Often the focus is on conditions of the work environment that
may have a positive or negative impact on nurse in terms of how they feel about
their work, their positions, and the organization where they are employed. A few
studies are highlighted here to illustrate the diversity of studies and the different
motivation theories that frame the investigations.

Rantz and colleagues (1996) conducted a series of interviews with nurses in

different types of roles to find out what types of factors in their jobs were most
closely related to their motivation. Interpersonal relations with colleagues at work
ranked as the most important factor. Recognition at work, the amount of
responsibility, and the nature of the work itself were also identified as critical
motivating factors. These factors were deemed as areas that could be addressed in
the work setting to enhance the motivation and job satisfaction of nurses (Rantz et
al., 1996). This study used Herzberg’s two-factor theory as its framework.

A study of home health care nurses was conducted to examine the impact of
increasing workloads on the motivation of the nurses. These increased workloads
had created a variety of additional demands and stress for the public health nurses.
These changes had a direct effect on the motivation of the nurses-motivation
decreased when the responsibilities and the workload was felt to be overwhelming
by the nurses. In this study, information about work goals was a strong predictor of

46
positive work motivation (Laamanen et al., 1999). These findings fit nicely with
goal setting theory.

Tzeng (2002) studied staff nurses in acute care hospitals to identify what
factors would predict the nurses’ intent to stay in their positions at the hospital. The
most significant predictor was the work motivation of the nurses and how they felt
their jobs provided opportunities for them to meet their motivational needs. The
quality of the work environment moderated their levels of work motivation. Those
nurses who felt rewarded had positions in which they were involved in decision
making and felt valued by the hospital; they also had increased levels of motivation
and were less likely to leave their position. This study contains elements of
Herzberg’s two factor theory, expectancy theory, and goal-setting theory.

A similar study found that various aspects of the work environment have a
greater impact than personality variables on how individuals feel about their work
(Laschinger et al, 2001). In general, work experiences are a strong predictor of
affective feelings about work and, based on various theories of motivation, can
have an impact on employee motivation and job performance.

The issue of quality of the work environment and its relationship to how
nurses feel about their jobs and the organizations they work for is a consistent
finding in the research literature. This is a major theme in the magnet hospital
movement, based on the idea that hospitals which create positive working
environments supporting professional nursing practice will have more committed
employees, a better employee retention rate, and provide better patient care as well
(McClure & Hinshaw, 2002). These research findings relate to the various
motivation theories on how work and the work environment interact with

47
motivational needs and desires of the employee. The result is improved work
performance and better quality work for the organization.

Generalizations from motivation theory follow:

 The complexities of human behavior will likely never be explained by one

simple theory. However, motivation theories help nurses to identify that
individuals, in general, will seek outcomes that are positive for them and try
to avoid outcomes that are negative. Knowing this, motivation theory
suggests how important it is for nurses to understand what it is that they
value as positive and negative outcomes for themselves (Amabile, 1997).
The same applies to work with patients. Motivation theory is likely to
provide important insights in terms of how and why nurses behave as they
do. Although it may not explain the why, it likely will predict the what.
Nurse leaders and managers can use this theory to create positively
motivating work environments.
 Nurses are aware of individual differences as they work with patients. This
same variation in behavior is evident in motivation and work behavior as
well. Although it seems simplistic, more often than not nurses expect all
employees to work in the same way or perform at the same level. However,
individuals vary on almost every dimension because of fundamental factors
such as values, needs, personality, and culture. Individuals have unique
genetic and personal backgrounds that shape who they are-including wants,
reactions, and motives (Mitchell & Daniels, 2003). Given this variation, it is
very important that time be spent getting to know oneself, colleagues, and
patients and reflecting on how the unique components of every individual
can come together to influence his or her motives and behavior. Recognizing
the variation and uniqueness in those with whom we work will help nurses

48
and leaders and managers to understand their motivations and why they
behave as they do.
 Goals are important, regardless of the task at hand. Whether focusing on
team members or patients, it is always important to have established goals
that are understand by all in order to see successful behaviour (Nicholson,
2003). There is no guarantee that that people will perform accordingly
because of the phenomenon of individual variation. However, it is quite
likely that if shared goals do not exist, not everyone will behave in a
predictable manner. Goals are a major motivating factor, and specific goals
are generally preferred to ambiguity. Setting goals and contracts with
individual employees is a powerful way to motivate individuals (Rousseau,
2004). Once goals have been set, preferably in collaboration with those who
will be affected by them, there is a higher probability that individuals will be
motivated to perform accordingly.
 Incentives and rewards are always important. Regardless of the motivation
theory that seems to work best for a given situation, nurse leaders and
managers need to remember the importance of giving feedback to
individuals so that they receive cues on how they are doing and what else
they might need to do. Nurses value recognition for doing a task well, and
rewards work well in recognition programs (Kane & Montgomery, 1998).
These do not have to be monetary rewards; being recognized and praised is
often as important as money (Morse, 2003). This is especially important in
the current health care environment, which is continually challenged by
diminishing resources.
 Equity is important. Nurses are social beings, and all people tend to compare
themselves with those around them. This is equally true in the workplace. If
variations in performance are noted yet rewards and recognition are given to
49
all, even individual who may be performing at a substandard level, nurse
will likely have a negative reaction. Nurses want to be treated fairly and
want to see consistency from leaders and managers when they compare
themselves with others. Motives can vary, but nurses anticipate that, as
individuals, they will be treated fairly and equitably.

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CURRENT ISSUES AND TRENDS

Although the work on theory development about motivation seemed to slow down
by the 1990s, there is a growing need for further work in this area (Ambrose &
Kulik, 1999; Locke & Latham, 2004). In an assessment of the state of motivation
theory development, Steers and colleagues (2004) pointed out that not all of the
insights to be made about motivation have been accomplished. One reason is the
dramatic changes that have occurred in the workplace over the last decade.
Companies, including the health care industry, have down sized and restructured
with regularity. The workforce is increasingly diverse, information technology has
dramatically changed how much of our work is transacted, and the distribution of
power and the role of teams keep evolving. All of these forces have an impact on
the motivation of employees, regardless of the theory that seems to fit best in a
given sitution.

Another major challenge for motivation theory is the rapid diversification in

society. Cultural differences can have a profound impact on motivation and job
attitudes, although is it not always clear why or how culture influences
motivational processes. Often differences are seen in behavior across national
boundaries, but the underlying dynamics are not obvious. Nearly all motivational
theories have been developed in the United States and, as a result, have integrated
American cultural values extensively (Lachman, 1997). When these theories are
applied in other countries or with workers of different cultures, they often do not
work well to explain or predict motivation or behavior in the way we would
expect. Cultural differences are important variables that influence both individual
behavior and environmental characteristics. There is a growing body of evidence
suggesting that cultural differences influence work values, motivation, and job
attitudes. This evidence suggests that existing theories need to be reexamined and

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that new theories of motivation no doubt need to be developed (Hofstede, 1993;
Sanchez- Runde & Steers, 2001). As society becomes increasingly diverse, this
need will become more critical.

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