Sabir Et Al-Fiel Guide Land Management

ii

Field guide for hill

land reclamation and
water management
Field guide for hill
land reclamation and
water management
By

Mohamed Sabir, Water Harvesting Specialist
Dany Lichaa El-Khoury, Project Manager, FAO
Maher Salman, Senior Land and Water Officer, FAO
FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Beirut, 2020
Required citation:
Sabir, M., El-Khoury D. L., Salman, M. 2020. Field guide for hill land reclamation and water management. Beirut, FAO.
https://doi.org/10.4060/ca8381en
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ISBN 978-92-5-132337-3
© FAO, 2020
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iii
Contents
Foreword v
Acknowledgments vi
Introduction 1
Land reclamation 3
Construction of bench terraces 3
Construction of dry stone walls supporting terraces 21
Construction of stone lines 29
Construction of dry stone small walls 30
Gully control 33
Water management 55
Design, construction and maintenance of irrigation reservoirs 55
Rainwater harvesting in open ponds 66
Raised beds perpendicular to the slope 70
Benches and bench elements 72
Jessours in the valleys 81
References 84
v
Foreword
Agriculture plays a significant role in the Lebanese national economy, accounting for
around four percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and six percent of the
total labor force. In spite of its declining role, as compared to other sectors, agriculture
still nowadays consistently supports food security and overall social conditions of
rural livelihoods, often characterized by small and poorly-resourced exploitations,
and it contributes to up to 80 percent of local GDP as a major source of income and
employment opportunities.
To these already challenging conditions, the conflict in neighboring Syria resulted in

approximately 1.1 million of refugees settling among the Lebanese communities and
earning their incomes mostly from agriculture.
The Green Plan launched by the Ministry of Agriculture since 1963, recognizes the
positive impact of land reclamation as a mechanism to enhance employment and
financial opportunities in agriculture through demand-driven programs, investing
in infrastructure for land, soil and water management. Nevertheless, these practices
in Lebanon are considered a cultural heritage, a long inherited know-how in soil
and water conservation and a major infrastructure in impeding soil erosion and land
degradation on mountain slopes. Updating this traditional knowledge, building on
already existing effective practices, will allow a better performance of natural resources’
management and, ultimately, will enhance social conditions and economic returns of
final beneficiaries.
Strengthening capacities of farmers and smallholders requires joint efforts of

stakeholders at different levels, from policy makers to agricultural practitioners, and
the application of a comprehensive approach to bring together different expertise.
To respond to this objective, this Field guide provides a thorough illustration of the
different techniques of land reclamation for soil and water management that could be
tailored to the local Lebanese rural context, and beyond, and directly implemented by
practitioners and farmers.
vi
Acknowledgments
The Field guide for hill land reclamation and water management is a technical and
practical tool prepared within the framework of FAO “OSRO/LEB/602/NET”
Project “Promotion of agriculture livelihoods & employment through investment in
land reclamation & water reservoirs” funded by the Netherlands.
In line with the assessed need to enhance the overall technical agriculture knowledge in
the country, the Field guide has been prepared to update existing farmers’ guides and
provide a valuable knowledge tool on land and water management.
The authors of this Field guide are Mohamed Sabir, Water harvesting specialist; and
Dany Lichaa El-Khoury and Maher Salman from FAO.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the guidance received from Maurice Saad, FAO
Representative in Lebanon.
A special thanks is due to the Green Plan (Lebanon) for their valuable support to the
preparation of this guide.
1
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
Introduction
Strategic development goals such as food security and environment conservation
represent major challenges to be faced by irrigated agriculture in the twenty-first
century, not only in developing countries. The growing scarcity of natural resources,
land and water in particular, associated to the expected increase of global population
to at least 9.1 billion by 2050, urgently requires the implementation of effective
measures to enhance the efficiency of irrigation systems and land reclamation works.
Furthermore, hydrological effects of climate change and global warming will increase
competition among users over finite natural resources, thereby requiring ever more
accurate and effective planning and design of irrigation & drainage systems and land
reclamation facilities, to reduce their vulnerability and enhance their flexibility to
climatic variations.
Throughout human history, land reclamation represented a meaningful system

to regulate and manage water resources while at the same time respecting and
developing related environmental factors. Nowadays, reclaimed land areas,
in particular irrigated lands, comprise between 10 and 15 percent of cultivated
surfaces, yet they provide around 30 percent of the economic value of produced
food. It is estimated that the development of well-planned and designed modern
reclamation systems could significantly increase crop production, well above 30 to 50
percent on existing reclaimed land.
As for a significant number of Mediterranean country, Lebanon has a long-standing

tradition of land reclamation practices for agriculture and the Green Plan, a demand-
2 Field guide for hill land reclamation and water management
driven support program, was firstly established in 1965 under the Ministry of
Agriculture to sustain farmers with the realization of terrace constructions, along with
the building of rural roads, pounds and water reservoirs. Reclamation works executed
by heavy machinery, until 1975, were subsidized by more than 85 percent. In spite
of the budget limitations that, since 1990’s, reduced the number of funded activities,
the Green Plan still represents the main reference for land reclamation works to be
implemented in the country. The main objective of the Plan is to support farmers’
income through the extension of productive areas, thereby, subsiding the costs of
required works, i.e. cleaning of land surfaces, removal of top soil, employment of the
ripper, terracing, leveling, usually performed through bulldozers and heavy machines.
A number of parameters, such as the natural slope, the nature and percentage of surface
rock outcrops and required terracing works, are taken into account in the calculation of
related costs, and only lands with slopes lower than 40 percent and with a percentage
of rock outcrops lower than 60 percent, on average, qualify for subsidies.
In line with the new Green Plan Strategy 2015-2019, which aims to sustain rural
livelihoods while at the same time improving water and soil conservation, the OSRO/
LEB/602/NET project, “Promotion of Agriculture livelihoods and employment
through investment in land reclamation and water reservoirs”, promotes sustainable
and climate change-adapted approaches for the management and conservation of
natural resources. In collaboration with the national Ministry of Agriculture, the
Green Plan authority and final beneficiaries, the project works to reclaim abandoned
agricultural lands and enhance water conservation, especially in mountainous slopes.
The expected outputs, thus, include the improvement of food security for the most
vulnerable farmers’ households through the boosting of local economy. In addition,
the project considers the enhancement of living condition of Syrian displaced
livelihoods, who will be involved, together with Lebanese workers, in the construction
of agriculture infrastructure, thereby generating higher incomes from agricultural
activities and increased building capacities of farmers.
In the framework of project activities, the need to develop capacities and enhance
knowledge of stakeholders is clearly indicated as a specific objective, both in terms of
training activities and guides produced.
The current manual has, thus, been prepared accordingly to provide a comprehensive
guide on the most relevant land reclamation, associated to water management,
practices currently implemented in Lebanon and it provides comprehensive sets of
information on the different techniques, from the specific objective of each one, to their
characteristics and average costs. Moreover, it results particularly effective in indicating
advantages and disadvantages of each system, according to existing environmental
conditions. The manual addresses an extensive range of stakeholders, from decision-
makers and relevant authorities, to agriculture practitioners and land and irrigation
managers and to farmers, all of which categories have been involved during project
activities.
Land reclamation 3
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
Land reclamation
Construction of bench terraces
1. Objectives
Cultivation on steep slopes often leads to serious erosion problems, which results
in a deterioration of land productivity, enhanced soil corrosion and flood damage
downstream. The ground situation is further complicated by the exploitation of
the steep slopes carried out by the farmers, who are mostly poor smallholders.
Farmers’ resettlement and land-use transformation are not economically feasible and
environmentally acceptable. Land and water resources, moreover, are permanently
threatened by this use transformation.
The objective of terracing and Figure 1: Bench terraces made by

protect waterways is to sustainably
machinery
cultivate these steep slopes
thereby increasing agricultural
production, minimizing soil
erosion and improving the farms’
ecology.
There are several types of terraces:

horizontal, profiled downstream,
discontinuous network, profile
dumped upstream. This guide
deals mainly with upstream spill
terraces that are built on a slope
and are particularly suitable for
hilly areas (Figure 1).
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
Figure 2: Plot managed with bench terraces
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
2. Description of terraces profiled upstream

Bench terraces generally consist of a series of horizontal, or almost horizontal,
bands of variable width, generally arranged in steps along the slope and supported
by steep banks. These embankments are built either in vegetation-protected earth or
in stone walls. The cultivation is practiced on the horizontal slope called sole or bed.
The terraces can be built and cultivated by hand, with the help of harnessed tools
or machines. Figure 3 shows the detailed profile of this type of work as well as the
terminology and related calculations.
Figure 3: Cross-section of a terrace with

profile dumped upstream and calculations
Source: USDA-NRSC, 2011

Land reclamation 5
1. Vertical interval (VI) VI = (S x Wb) x (100 - S x U)

(S : Slope %, U : 1 ou 0,75)
2. Height of the cant (RH) RH = Wb x 0,05
3. Bank height (Hr) Hr = VI + RH (depth of cut = Hr/2)
4. Bank width (Wr) Wr = Hr x U
5. Width of the terrace (Wt) Wt = Wr + Wb (Wb : width of the sole)
6. Length (L) L = 10.000m²/Wt (par ha)
7. Net area of cultivable area (A) A = L x Wb
8. Percentage of terraces (Pb) Pb(%) = A/10.000 x 100 (par ha)
9. Cross section of the terrace (C) C = (Wb x Hr)/8
10. Volume to be cleared and backfilled (V) V=LxC
Width of terraces
The width of the terraces should be established according to the crops’ needs, the
tools to be used and the depth of the soil and the slope. Accordingly, production
objectives and farmers’ financial conditions should also be taken into consideration.
Larger terraces would be too expensive and would require deep excavations and very
high embankments, which are not advised as general practices. Figures listed in Table
1 for hand-built and machine-built decks can be considered as references. For narrow
terraces, a width of 2 m is usually sufficient, yet it could be wider when the soil is deep
(1 m) and the slope is around 45%. It is estimated that a width of 3.5 m is a minimum
for terraces built with machinery and for mechanization.
Table 1: Indicative widths of the terraces according to the slope of the ground
and the depth of the soil (Source USDA-NRSC, 2011)
Width of cultivable Slope Bank height Minimum depth of Types of construction
area (Wb) (m) (%) (m) soil (cm)
2.5 30 1,5 60 Handmade

45 2 90 Handmade
3.5 20 1 50 Handmade
35 2 90 Handmade
4.5 25 1,8 80 Built with machines
5.5 20 2 90 Built with machines
7 15 2 90 Built with machines
Vertical interval and spacing of terraces

The vertical interval of terraces (VI) is determined once the width has been set. It gives
the approximate height of the bank, calculates the cross-section, and provides a useful
indication for picketing terraces on the slope.
The vertical interval (VI) represents the difference in level between two successive
terraces. It is determined by the slope of the land and the width of the terraces. It is
calculated using the below formula:
VI = (S x Wb) / (100 - S x U)
With:
VI = the vertical interval (meter).
S = the slope in percentage (%).
Wb = the width of the sole of the terrace (meter).
U = Slope of the bank (ratio between horizontal distance and vertical height, using a
value of 1 for mechanically constructed terraces and 0.75 for hand-built terraces).
Length of terraces
The length of a terrace is limited by the size and shape of the field, the relief, the
permeability and the erodibility of the soil. Relatively long structures will increase
the efficiency of operations of cropping systems, especially with reference to the
mechanization, while at the same time reducing construction costs. However, excessive
lengths in a given direction can result in runoff and accelerated erosion. A maximum of
100 meters in a given direction is, thus, recommended.
Longitudinal slope of the terraces

The slopes of the terraces must be controlled. In areas with low rainfall (below 500 mm/
year) and permeable soils, the longitudinal slope should be less than 0.5 percent, while in
areas with heavy rainfall and heavy soils, it is preferable to have a gradient of 1 percent to
remove excess runoff. It is necessary to give the profile of the upstream dumped terrace
a slope of five percent to maintain the runoff against the upstream part (clearing area) or
foot drain of the embankment, rather than on the loose area and backfilled that could fall
apart. For narrower terraces, a 10 percent overhang is required.
Height and slope of the bank

The height of the slope depends on the width of the structure. A too high embankment
is less stable and requires a lot of maintenance, thus, an average height of 1.5 m to 2 m
after settlement is recommended. Table 1 shows the bank heights according to different
slopes and widths of structures.
Land reclamation 7
The slope of the bank, as well as the tools and materials to be used to build the structure,
depends on the texture of the soil. Under average conditions, the ratio is 1/1 when the
construction is done with mechanical means and 0.75 in hand-made constructions,
provided that the works are sufficiently compacted and then protected with a dense
herbaceous cover or a stone wall.
Minimum depth of soil

The minimum depth of soil required to build stair terraces is obtained by dividing the
height of the bank by two. In the case of other discontinuous structures, the depth of
digging is equal to the height of the embankment after settlement. Table 1 gives the
minimum depths of soil needed for different widths and slopes.
Limit of slope for the construction of terraces

Hand-built structures are suitable for slopes between 12 and 50 percent, while
mechanically built ones are suitable for slopes between 12 and 35 percent. In
arboriculture, the discontinuous system of terraces-orchards of 2 m can be used on
slopes of up to 60 percent, if the soil is sufficiently deep. The feasible limit for all types
of works is 60 percent, beyond which the slope would be too high and too wide and
the cultivable slope too narrow.
The construction of terraces on slopes below 12 percent is not recommended for two
reasons:
• Wide-base terraces and other simple and inexpensive conservation treatments

can be easily adopted; and
• Such slopes are not generally an obstacle to mechanized cultivation.
Net area of terraces

The net area, i.e. the horizontal terrace area after development, is a very important
element in the context of land use. It is equal to the length of the terrace multiplied by
its width. For a given slope of land, the net area of the terraces, however, may be the
same regardless of their width. For example, on a slope of 25 percent, one hectare will
give 80 percent of horizontal terraces of three to five meters width. However, as the
incline of the slope increases, the net area decreases. With a slope of 45 percent, the net
area of terraces of the continuous type is only 64 percent, while it is 90 percent with a
slope of 12 percent.
3. Preparation, tracing and picketing

Land management is often carried out through the following steps:
• A preparatory phase to assess the general conditions of the terrain: climate,

relief, slope, nature of the soil, crops envisioned, etc.;
• A design phase to evaluate the type of work to be done and the crop to cultivate;
• An implementation and operational phase to, primarily, complete the picketing.
3.1. Preparation
The preparation of the terraces is based on in situ studies related to:
• The climate: precipitation, temperature, wind, air humidity, etc.
• The relief and topography of the plot: slope, slope length, slope shape, presence
of ravines.
• Soil: type of soil, depth, texture, structure, fertility, erosion, presence of stones.
• Current land use: natural vegetation, plantations, crops.
• Future land use project (crops, plantations, constructions).
A conservation plan and in-situ agricultural potential study would be very useful.
Once these parameters are assessed, the type of suitable work should be evaluated,
along with its load and the necessary tools to build it. The vertical interval (VI), the
height of the embankment (Hr), and the volume of the excavation/fill material will then
be determined.
Before starting the terrain picketing, it is important to decide on the location and type
of outlets, road network and windbreaks. All these elements must be integrated into
the development work. A diagram representing all the decisions taken on each specific
element should be kept for all purposes.
3.2 Tracing and picketing

It is generally recommended to install the water and soil conservation works on the
plots of the level curves (lines of equal altitudes), to allow the interception and efficient
collection of water and sediments.
Commonly, when the height difference is fixed (vertical distance in contour lines), the
distance between contour lines is variable, depending on the degree of slope (Figure
4). It is small when the slope is steep and large when the slope is low. In other words,
the equidistance is irregular when the slope of terrain is variable and it is regular when
the slope is regular.
The picketing must be, on the one hand, carried out quickly and inexpensively through
the use of local materials (reeds, branches, piles of stones) and, on the other hand, as
Land reclamation 9
visible as possible. According to the Figure 4: Variation of the equidistance

tools employed for digging (manual, according to the degree of slope for a
mechanical), several methods of constant unevenness
picketing of the terraces exist. The
picketing begins from the upper
terrace (upstream of the slope) and
corrections can be applied, in the
aftermath, if the contour lines show
sharp curvatures or large width
variations in the intervals.
Two-line method
This method consists of tracing and Source: Sabir, 2018
staking the upper and lower lines

of the terraces. It should respect
Figure 5: Water level hose method
the distances required to establish
the width of the terraces (Wt),
which depends on the width of
the cultivable soil (Wb) for a given
slope.
Before picketing, a line from top

to bottom must be installed on a
slope representative of the target
area (ridge of the slope between two
ravines). Milestones along this line
should then be set, according to the
width of the structure (Wt). Once
done, the contours from each guide
can be staked out.
This method is suitable for

uniform slopes consisting of large
patches of land, where the anti-
erosion network can be created
mechanically.
Water level hose method

This method is based on the
principle of communicating vessels.
As a general principle, the stability
of the liquid will determine two
points of the same horizontal plane. Source: FAO, 1995
It requires attaching the ends of a transparent 10 meters long and 10-meter diameter
flexible hose to two wooden rods of about 2 m (Figure 5). The two rods are then placed
next to each other and the pipe is filled with water by one of the openings at a given
height, which is then marked on the two rods.
This operation can be carried out effectively by three operators: two should hold
the rods and locate the points of a contour while the third proceeds to picking the
successive points of the line using piles of stones or lime or possibly tracing them with
a hoe.
Tracing and picketing should be performed from the top to the bottom of the area to
be covered. The first operator is placed at the starting point, firmly holding his rod
vertically. The second operator, at the same time, is placed at a distance corresponding,
for instance, to the distance between plants (6 - 7 m) in the direction of the contour
of level and begins to move its rod in the direction of the slope until the water level
stabilizes at 1.5 m.
Once the first point is spotted, operator 2 will maintain the rod on this first point,
while operator 1 moves beyond operator 2 at about the same distance, to locate the
third point of the contour. They will follow the same steps to identify the successive
points of the contour until the end of the course or, eventually, until they hit an
obstacle that exceeds the length of the pipe (large ravine, etc.).
Figure 6: Triangle method with water Operator 3 will score the points as
bubble level they are tracked by the other two
operators. The points of a contour
are then joined by sprinkling lime
or crushed limestone.
Triangle method with water

bubble level
This traditional instrument consists
of two feet forming an angle, whose
spacing is equal to a multiple of
2 m. A bar parallel to the ends of
the feet carries a mason spirit level.
The rule in Alpha should be long
enough but not exceeding 5 m.
From the benchmarks of the line

of the steepest slope, the level lines
are lifted using the Alpha (Figure
6). An operator places one end of
Source: FAO, 1995
Land reclamation 11
the ruler on the upper stake of the Figure 7: Optical level

slope rump, while another operator
plants the next stake vertically
above the other end of the ruler on
the contour.
One foot is placed on the starting

stake and the other is moved until
the bubble is between its landmarks;
a stake then is depressed and so
on. Given the simplicity of this
method, any two operators will be
able to carry out a suitably accurate
picket.
It is advisable always to start from

the ridge of the work area. Once the
first line is completed, the vertical
height difference will be measured
and the same procedure will be Source: https://www.isprzet.pl/en/product/optical-level-nivel-system-n32x-tripod-laser-
stave.html
repeated on the next line.
Optical site level method

This method consists in using an optical level fixed on a tripod and a worn sight (Figure
7). The operation requires at least three operators. Operator 1 is responsible for setting
and stabilizing the level at the starting point of the contour line and for determining
the height differences; operator 2 is the target and moves from point to point;
operator 3, ultimately, is responsible for marking the identified points of the level line.
Operator 1 starts by placing the tripod at the starting point and adjusting the ball of
the level so that it is horizontal in all directions. It measures the height (H) between the
horizontal reading line of the optical level and the ground surface. Operator 1 then asks
the target to move about along the contour of a given distance (which can be regular
in the case of picking accompanied by fruit plantation). Operator 1 will follow the
movements of the target on the sight of the level until the horizontal line of the level
corresponds to the height (H) measured at the beginning. This first point is actually
at the same height as the level’s parking point. Operator 3 will proceed to the marking
of this point with a pile of stones, crushed limestone or, lately, with the implantation
of a stake.
Once the first point of the line is marked, operator 1 asks the target to move further
to locate the second point by performing the same maneuvers as before. In principle,
the level line should correspond to the connection of all points where the operator has
performed a reading of the height (H) during the test pattern.
Once the first line is determined, the operator 1 will determine the starting point of the
next level line, depending on the level difference, and proceed as before.
4. Construction of terraces
Typically, the construction of the terraces is performed along the contours for financial
and environmental (aesthetics of the landscape) purposes. However, it may be decided
otherwise in specific cases. In order to enhance the stability and sustainability of
terraced systems, farmers should always work along contour lines.
Earthworks can be either manual or mechanical. Regardless of the earthmoving

method employed, it is recommended to gradually clear and backfill while working at
equal depths, in order to avoid having to evacuate excess soil or take it elsewhere. The
longitudinal leveling of the deck should always be carefully checked once works are
completed and the outlets are enforced.
4.1 Manual construction of terraces

The labor performance of the workforce is variable, depending on the width of the
terrace, the type of soil and the presence of stones and roots. On average, between
three to four m3 can be dug and backfilled during a standard working day and teams
composed of three to four workers can achieve good results.
The following rules should be carefully taken into consideration:
• Build the terraces when the ground is neither too dry nor too wet.
• Start the construction from the top of the hill and advance down the slope. If the
ground receives heavy rain, terraces will not be driven.
• The first cut must be opened just below the top markers, while the embankment
should start against the bottom steps in order to get the desired slope without
digging too much. In specific cases, stones may be placed along the lower lines,
or grassy clumps may be flown along the lower lines of land before backfilling.
• Each time the embankment is raised by 15 cm, it is solidly compacted by

tamping. However, if the embankment is too thick, it becomes difficult to
compact. Works crossing depression zones should, thus, be constructed in a
particularly solid way.
Land reclamation 13
• The edge of the work should be slightly higher than expected to account for
settlement. The settlement rate can be up to 10 percent of the embankment
thickness.
• The longitudinal slope and slope should be monitored during construction and
immediately rectified whenever necessary.
• Banks should have a slope of 0.75/1.
• Waterways should not be shaped until terraces are built and all related outlets
should be higher than the bed of the waterway.
• A team of three men for narrow terraces, and four for larger ones, represent an
appropriate working unit for efficient landscaping.
4.2. Mechanical constructions of the terraces

Earthwork requires the use of powerful equipment, suitable to difficult working
conditions, as in the case of large earthworks and derangements. It is generally
complemented by lower power equipment for less difficult finishing work.
Heavy equipment may consist of (1) crawler tractors or high-powered (200-235 hp)
tractors equipped with a bulldozer at the front and a ripper worn with one or three
teeth at the front; (2) compressors with one or more jackhammers, required in rocky
terrain; and (3) motor-graders to profile slopes and open and clean ditches (waterways).
The finishing equipment can be Figure 8: Machineries used to construct

composed of crawler tractors or terraces
medium-powered wheel tractors
(75 to 100 HP) equipped with
interchangeable equipment: blade
bull or angle-dozer and rock-rake
that will be used for stone removal
and levelling.
Before any earthworks and if

service roads are planned, we start
with their construction.
On rocky terrains, operations

initially concern the loosening of
the soil and the elimination of bare ©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
rocks and earthworks:
• Stripping of topsoil: When the surface soil is good and thick it should not be
mixed with infertile subsoil. This is carried out by stripping and storage by
the tractor at one end of the terrace. The heaps must not hamper the proper
operation of the machines.
• Single or crossed slip whenever the dimensions of the structures make it possible.
• Staking and removal of rocks and large stones dislodged by the passage of the
ripper. The rocks are piled either along the paths or at the ends of the terrace, or
at the lower limit of the terrace. Avoid pushing the rocks of the terrace further in
the ground. Physical conditions of the soil should not hamper the operations of
earthworks. Rocks can be used for the construction of retaining walls of terraces.
• Earthworks: The leveling is carried out by the machine on the entire terrace
surface by digging upstream of the median line and by filling downstream until
the mark indicating the lowest limit of the terrace. The machine begins with
the furthest and most relevant transports (filling a depression) and ends with an
approximate regularization of the earth.
• Stoning: when the earthwork is finished and if the quantity of stones requires
it, their elimination should be carried out with the same machine used for
earthworks, equipped with a rock-rake. The stones can be rolled in the direction
of dropping from the upstream limit (cuttings) to the downstream limit
(embankments) and can be piled at the lower limit. If the quantity of stones is
significant, they can be transported with trolleys.
Machines of average size (175 HP), such as the bulldozer D-6 or a D-8 (228 CV) with
oblique blade, can be employed to build wide terraces on slopes of less than 30 percent.
For narrow structures, on 45 percent regular slopes, smaller and less powerful machines
can be used. In terms of efficiency and economy, the D-6 will prove consistently more
efficient if the slope is not too steep.
To build 0.5 ha of 4.5 m wide terraces on a 25 percent slope, for instance, 600 m3 of
cuttings and embankments are needed and a D-6 bulldozer will take 14 hours to make
a rough size and 2.5 hours for leveling and final leveling. Some rules are to be observed:
• Start digging parallel to and about 50 cm from the top of the milestone line,
pushing the debris down and throwing it just above the bottom line. The most
effective result is obtained when the bulldozer moves down the slope for about
three times its length, i.e. approximately 12 to 13.5 m to unload the debris.
• While digging parallel to the top line, particular attention should be paid when
the bulldozer blade is full and as soon as the blade is full, it is necessary to drive
the bulldozer towards the zone of discharge.
Land reclamation 15
• Each time a layer about 30 cm thick is unloaded along the bottom line, compact
the debris with the bulldozer. Whenever the bulldozer has to move from one
end of the terrace to the other, always have it pass over the edge of the bench to
compact.
• In all cases, employ the oblique blade to dig from 40 to 50 cm. Continue digging
and backfilling until the desired slopes are obtained, sloping and longitudinally.
Otherwise, indicate the backfill height on the lower rung line using colored
ribbons as control points.
• Do not dig or backfill at the location where you intend to install a waterway and
do not over-furrow the ground at the base drain.
• A very careful control is necessary. Use a level to check slopes during

construction. Final leveling and leveling should be done as soon as the level is
checked.
• Shape bank slope to 1/1.
4.3. Surface soil treatment

The construction of the terraces exposes the sterile basement, which can lead to a
decline in production, thus, relevant precautionary measures should be taken. One of
these methods is the treatment of the superficial soil, which can be performed in two
ways:
• Build the terraces from the bottom and up the slope. When the bottom structure
is roughly dug, the top soil is pushed up and spread out on the terrace floor. In
the same way, the second work receives the superficial soil that overhangs it. We
continue to the top of the hill and the last work is built without superficial soil.
A medium sized bulldozer will take 20 hours more to treat 1 hectare.
• The second method involves pushing the topsoil towards the ends before
starting to build the structures and then putting it back in place when the
excavation is completed. When the terraces are built by hand, the topsoil may be
piled up along the midline or at specified intervals, provided that the structures
are sufficiently wide.
4.4. Final leveling

This operation is important for irrigation and future work on terraces. It must be
particularly well cared for terraces built on low permeability soils or with natural
slopes.
Defective points are marked with milestones and are placed at the same height as the
rest of the terrace.
This operation can be done with the same tractor or with workers to check the
correction.
5. Waterways and communication roads (tracks and roads)

5.1 Waterways
Waterways for the circulation of runoff during heavy rains are an integral part of
terracing in humid regions. Unshaped and unprotected natural depressions do not
provide sufficient safety to carry excess runoff that then concentrates on the structures.
It takes on average 100 linear meters of waterways for one hectare.
Preparation of water passages

The location and type of water passages for a given field depend on the slope, speed and
volume of the runoff, as well as on the tools used for cultivation. It is always desirable
to find a soft depression zone to place the waterway and then shape it and re-grow the
vegetation. When the flow rate exceeds 2 m / second, constructions will usually require
additional protection.
The water passage is usually at one end of the field. Occasionally, it is necessary to
install two of them, one at each end of the terraces, when larger flows are received and
when the terraces are longer than 100 m. Installing a water passage in the middle of
the deck, leaving both ends free for a ccess roads, can prove to be functional in some
cases. A stepped waterway can also be built in the middle, if four-wheeled agricultural
machinery is used. The same water passage can also be used as a way of operating from
top to bottom of the terraces. On gentle slopes, we can combine water passage and road
ditches to facilitate the route for tractors.
The size of the water passage depends on the peak flows of the drained area. It is
not advisable to have large waterways (wider than 3 m) on small plots, as they claim
significant amounts of land away from production.
Types of water passages and structures

Many types of water passages exist and vary according to the available materials, the
shape of the channel, the desired goals and the needs of works:
• Passage of grassed water: it is a parabolic channel, lined with low vegetation

(rhizome). It is suitable for gentle slopes (less expensive, simple maintenance).
• Grassed water passage with small dams: on moderately steep slopes and in
combination with sodding, small falls and low dams, can be used in steep
sections. For greater stability, each structure should not be higher than 2 m.
Land reclamation 17
• Rock-water drainage on moderately steep slopes: if availability permits, rip rap

of the parabolic channel with stones anchored in the ground can provide good
protection. On steeper slopes or if runoff is abundant, a wire mesh will be used.
• Precast concrete waterway: on very steep slopes or in the presence of intense

and frequent rains, prefabricated structures, parabolic or V shaped, are easy to
use to protect the central part of the water passage, the sides being protected by
the herbs.
• Stepped waterway: to protect the steep slopes of the terraces, a series of

waterfalls with basins are used, while on the horizontal terraces grassy, parabolic
water passages with a transverse slope of 3 percent are used to connect the falls.
• Water crossing and road ditching: combining the ditch of a road and the passage
of water in the same channel on a gentle slope is not only an economic solution
but also a favorable solution for four-wheel mechanization. In this case, the road
must be given a spilled profile so that runoff from the road can flow into the
channel. The profile of the terraces should also be inclined towards the channel
and should be parabolic and protected by stonework to facilitate the passage of
tractors.
• Conjunctive path and fall: on very steep slopes, where mechanization cannot
be performed, a masonry or concrete fall can be built, either rectangular or
trapezoidal and provided with steps in the middle. It would serve both to
evacuate runoff and as a trail. This solution is particularly appreciated by small
farmers.
Implantation of the water passages

Water passages should be shaped as evenly as possible with respect to their profile and
slope. Sudden turns and abrupt slope failures should be avoided unless a pool to collect
water or a fall are planned. To the extent possible, structures should be installed in soils
cut into the mass or into the rock. In principle, the grass used to line the water passage
must belong to a local species and be of rhizome type.
The following principles are important for the construction of waterways:
• The water must cross the works and not circumvent them. This could be the
most common cause of a malfunction.
• The works should be built in a dug and stable ground and the foundations
should be sufficiently deep and solid.
• The raft or dam of the fall should be solidly built and strong enough to dissipate
the energy of the waterfall and prevent undermining.
• Properly pack track bottoms for waterproofing and prevent leakage.
• Once the structure is built, firmly tamp the earth all around and back to prevent
crack formation.
5.2 Pathways
Pathways are also an essential component of an erosion control program.
The use of four-wheeled agricultural machinery implies the existence of access roads
to the terraced area. On fairly gentle slopes, roads going up and down the hills could
be built. On steeper slopes, these should be built diagonally across the terrain. The
maximum permitted slope when tractors are used is 12 to 14 percent. The terraces can
be used as access roads, it is not necessary to have transverse paths. On average, 200
m of access road per hectare should be sufficient, even in rough and steep terrain. A
width of 3.5 m is suitable.
Several types of paths exist depending on the conditions of the terrain and the
requirements of mechanization. Amongst these:
• Two slope-oriented paths connect each end of the terraces, making approximately
a right angle with them. This is the ideal system for mechanized cultivation on
gentle slopes (less than 15 percent). If there are large parcels, each path can serve
two sides.
• If the slopes are moderately steep or there is not enough room for the first
system, one can build a path connecting one side of the terraces while, on the
other side, a small hairpin road connects the terraces two by two to allow the
tractors to turn.
• A single path connecting the ends of the terraces in a single side provided that
the soles of the terraces are wide enough for the tractor to rotate.
• In the case of steeper slopes and round hills, the path can cross the terrain
diagonally.
For manual cultivation or hitching

The access requirements of hand or draft cultivation are less strict. A width of 2 m
should suffice and the road gradient can reach 30 percent or even more. It takes about
100 to 150 m of roads for one hectare.
6. Protection and maintenance of terraces

The success of the earthworks program requires specific protective measures and
subsequent maintenance of the newly constructed terraces, waterways and roads. Farm
Land reclamation 19
workers and growers should carefully monitor the treated area during the first two
rainy seasons. Minor damages should be repaired immediately, before deterioration.
Many land reclamation programs have failed not because of a lack of design or
construction, but rather because of negligence in terms of protection and maintenance.
6.1 Protection measures of terraces

Protection of terraces
Once the slopes are shaped, they must be grassed (seedlings, grass stumps). Local
species and rhizome type are more effective.
The outlets of the terraces, which are always the critical points, should be well
protected either by herbaceous plants forming clumps, or by small regulating works
(stones to make dam). Moreover, with reference to the anti-erosive work that crosses a
waterway in stairs, it is necessary to plant herbaceous plants.
Protection of waterways
In most cases, herbaceous plants are used to protect the channel or part of it. Any other
use of waterways, such as traffic or transport of materials, should be avoided.
Protection of runways and roads

Unsteady shoulders should be protected through various methods, such as picketing,
turf cladding, etc.
The pavement of steep roads should be protected with grass, marl or stones. The
construction of transversal drains at proper distances is necessary.
Steep road ditches should be protected by rip rap or a combination of sod and small
rockfill dams.
6.2 Maintenance measures for terraces

On average, 30 men per day are sufficient to maintain one hectare of terraces over a
year.
Maintenance of soles (worked area)

Worked area:
• Keep the foot drains always free and with the desired slope and do not allow any
accumulation of water at any point of the structures.
• Allow all runoff to collect in the foot drain for safe evacuation to the protected
waterway. Break down obstacles such as mounds or continuous planks so that
water can flow into the foot drains.
• Eliminate weeds and vines.
• Maintain the slope of soils or impluvia and remodel them immediately after
harvest. Ploughing should be carried out carefully not to destroy the foot drains
and the slope.
Bank:
• Do not allow runoff to spill over the embankments.
• Promote the growth of herbaceous plants on the slopes. Weeds and vines that
threaten grass cover should be cut or uprooted. Do not let the grass to grow too
high and apply fertilizer.
• Repair immediately any breakage or fall of the embankment.
• Move cattle away from trampling slopes or eating grass.
Outlets:
• Check the condition of the outlets and ensure that they are properly protected;
• Remove the silt that can settle in the channels.
Soil productivity:
• Perform deep ploughing, scarification or subsoiling on the excavated part of the

cultivable soil to improve its structure;
• Apply green manure, compost, sludge and manure at early stages to improve
soil fertility;
• Maintain soil productivity by choosing the right crop rotation and applying
fertilizer.
Maintenance of waterways
• Ensure that water flows into the waterways and does not go around or over the
deck. If ruptures are detected, they should be repaired immediately.
Land reclamation 21
• Remove large bushes before they weaken weeds. The waterway must maintain
a dense and low herbaceous cover over the entire length, as homogeneous as
possible to avoid turbulent flow.
• Inspect the works at least twice a year, once before and once after the rainy
season. Repair cracks, drifts and minor breaks on or around the deck before the
damage becomes too great or serious.
• Maintain stones properly fixed in stone waterways.
Road maintenance
• Maintain the profile of the transverse drains and clean the silts of the drains after
heavy rains.
• Prevent large vehicles from traveling on roads when they are too wet or loose;
• Ensure that scuppers and side ditches remain clear;
• Reshape the roadway as soon as rut erosion appears, caused either by the passage
of wheeled vehicles or by the hooves of animals.
Construction of dry stone walls supporting terraces

1. Wall types
To give more stability to the Figure 9: Constructed walls to support
terraces and to retain the earth, terraces
the following phase require the
construction of retaining walls at
the lower limits of the terraces.
This is recommended when stones
are available and the soil is not
very resistant to erosion. Moreover,
the collection of stones helps to
clean the terraces. In special cases
and whenever necessary, stones can
be brought from elsewhere. There
are two types of walls: vertical
and inclined walls. Their correct
construction requires a good
know-how, even a specialization,
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
on building with dry stones, thus,
specialists and skilled workers are increasingly scarce and their wages rise accordingly.
Figure 10: Vertical wall Vertical wall:

It is not difficult to realize, whereby
the wall should have a regular
thickness from the base to the top.
It is employed when:
• Stones are abundant on site or

easily accessible and not expensive.
The use of big stones of the fields
makes it possible to value the
terrace earth,
• the bank of the terrace is not

higher than 1 m.
Source: Roche, 1996
The thickness of the wall should be

at least half its height, and never less than 50 cm. The foundations should be at least 20
percent of the height of the wall. The stones of the base should be quite large, with a
length of 20 cm. The foundation plate can be 20 percent wider than the base thickness
of the wall.
Figure 11: Vertical wall with fruit
Vertical wall with fruit:
The upstream face is vertical and
the downstream face has a fruit
of 20 to 30 percent. It is used
when stones are abundant or easy
to access and not expensive. The
use of the big stones of the fields
makes it possible to value the
terrace earth. It is recommended
for banks greater than 1m. The
thickness of the top must be 45 to
60 cm, depending on the height of
the wall, but not be less than 45
cm, in all cases. The foundations in
Source: Roche, 1996 the earth are at least 20 percent the
height of the wall. The foundation
plate can be 20 percent wider than
the base thickness of the wall. The length of the stones of the base is at least 20 cm. To
ensure proper drainage of the upstream terrace and improve the stability of the wall,
it can be built 25 cm from the slope of the terrace. The space is filled with little stones.
Land reclamation 23
Inclined wall Figure 12: Inclined wall
This kind of wall is used when stone

are scarce or if the hard ground
can only be reached with difficulty.
It is suitable for marly soils. The
thickness of the wall varies from
1/2 to 1/3 of its height, according
to the nature of the ground, with a
counterpoise of 20 to 30 percent. It
should not be less than 50 cm.
Table 2: Indication of the height

of the retaining walls (fruit 20 to
30 percent) Source: Roche, 1996
Wall height (cm) Thickness of the

base (cm)
75 – 100 40 – 50
100 – 125 50 – 60
125 – 150 60 – 75
150 - 200 70 - 90
Source: Villemus, 2004
2. General principles for the construction of dry stone walls

2.1. Worksite preparation
Figure 13: Sorting stones for the
Removal, sorting and storage of construction of a wall
materials
The stones must be grouped into
categories to facilitate their selection
at a later stage:
Building stones:
• Foundation block (larger

stones).
• External facing stones (must

have a head or face).
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
• Filling stones (smaller or
shapeless).
• Blocking stones.
Special stones:
• Connecting stones: butisses, bumpers and other long or flat stones.
• Corner chaining stones (to block the wall in depth on each side with a 90° angle).
• Thick, flat crown stones.
• Wedges.
• Pebbles from the drain.
Cracked stones that crack when exposed to rain and frost, as well as stones that are
“soft” and will not have the strength required for siding construction, should be
removed. However, these can then be used for filling and be carefully placed.
Preparing the seat of the wall

The dry stone wall usually does not require deep excavations. To prepare the wall’s
position, however, a number of parameters should be assessed:
• Nature of the foundation soil: rock or earth, clay earth or not.
• Eventual presence of permanent or transient water in the embankment.
• Height of the wall, nature and dimensions of the stones, value of the “fruit”.
• Land use to support.
Through the evaluation of these elements, it can be established:
• The size of the wall and the width to be given to its base.
• The eventual need for a “drain”.
• The depth of the “search”.
• The eventual presence of a “hedgehog”.

Land reclamation 25
2.2. Build the first bed Figure 14: First steps of the
construction of a wall
Set up the ropes
Place two rulers in the ground
along the edge of the terrace and
stretch a first rope between them, 5
or 10 cm above the ground, then a
second rope 20 cm above the first.
The strings should never touch the
stones, but only brush them, to
serve as a reference. The wooden
templates inclined towards the
slope with the desired fruit are
then placed (20 to 30 percent). As
the elevation progresses, the ropes
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
are pulled up over the last bed of
stones.
Starting with the largest blocks on the bottom of the search, stones are then aligned
against each other, along the line, in a specific direction.
Recognize the quality and sense of laying a stone

Before laying a stone, one should know how to distinguish the “head” and the “tail”,
to orient it correctly:
The head is the most regular side, to be placed on the external wall side.
The tail is the largest side of the stone, if any, to be lodged in the depth of the wall.
A common mistake is to place the tail of stones in the siding to save time. This,
however, hampers the strength of the wall.
2.3. Laying stones

Once identified the head and the tail and its orientation in the wall, it remains to be
determined if a stone is suitable for the external facing and on which side it should be
put. Three conditions should be observed:
• The fruit of the first stones will guide the overall fruit of the wall, thus it is
important to choose the stones with a correct fruit, referring to the ropes
installed. There should not be too much, neither too little fruit. It is necessary to
observe the head of each stone and place it in such a way that it is inclined in the
same direction as the wall and with the same angle. Once positioned, the lower
face becomes the laying bed and the upper face the waiting bed.
• A stable laying bed: this downside should be as wide and stable as possible in
order to provide the largest seating.
• A correct waiting bed: this upper face should never be “slippery”, or lean
forward and be hunched as it could provoke the subsequent sliding of the stones
placed above.
With rare exceptions, the stones used for the agricultural terraces do not need to be cut.
In general, the stones are simply “retouched” to smooth an annoying beak, to reduce
a fruit, to regulate a face, etc.
Figure 14: First steps of the 2.4. Laying the first bed: foundation bed
construction of a wall The laying of the first bed of stones is fundamental
for the stability and the future of the wall. The
following rules are to follow:
• The slope of the laying base is inclined towards

the slope according to the fruit.
• The largest stones are laid in foundation; their

fruit will guide the general fruit of the wall.
• The blocks are touching, their tail (larger

dimension) is in the width of the wall.
• Their head (or facing) is perfectly aligned with

the cord, without touching it.
• At the rear of this first alignment, blocks are

similarly bulky but without a correct head. They
form the counter-facing or internal facing that
limits the wall width; between these two facings is
the wedging and blocking.
• This first seat should be massive and very stable;

it is necessary to reach a balanced distribution of
the blocks of different sizes not to create a more
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
fragile zone.
• For the same reason, attention should be paid not to extend a line of separation
between two stones. In common terms, this is called to “break the joints”.
• The filling of the voids between the stones is done with the biggest angular
stones possible. It is referred to as the blockage.
Land reclamation 27
2.5. Wall filling

The filling ensures the cohesion of the wall by increasing the friction, reducing the
possibilities of play, connecting the front and the back of the wall. Cohesion and
density are key factors in ensuring the strength of the wall.
It consists in filling the empty spaces between the two faces of the same bed, in order
to form a uniform plane. The next bed will then be laid on it, using all the stones, in
spite of the facings.
It should always be remembered that empty spaces not filled by a stone will sooner or
later be filled by the earth that will penetrate the wall and make it weaker.
The filling should be carefully done by placing the stones by hand.
6. Build the following beds

Before building a second bed:
It is necessary to ensure that the previous one provides a stable horizontal plane and it
is slightly inclined with a correct fruit.
The following bed will obey the same rules, with stones generally slightly smaller and
some additional constraints.
Break the joints in all the plans

On both sides of the wall and in the cup, no stone is laid on another stone, but straddles
two other ones. On the horizontal plane of the beds, a stone is never placed along the
extension of another one.
Spread the masses from one bed to another

During the superposition of the beds, to avoid concentrating large and small stones in
the same places, , large stones are not laid on top of each other, but rather large ones on
small ones and the opposite, so as not to prolong the seal line.
Link the front and the back of the wall

Linking the front and the back of the wall should be a permanent concern. Such
connection is ensured by the laying of the longest stones that can be found. Their role
is to consolidate the wall, which they cross almost completely, even beyond the bank,
thus binding the front and the back.
The link is also ensured by the use of:

• Long connecting stones that are threaded into the spaces between the stones of
the facing and penetrate into the filling;
• Flat stones that, through their surface, will cover both elements of the front and
the back.
Respect alignments
The alignments are fixed according to the ropes that are slid vertically along the battens,
allowing both the fruit and the horizontal alignment to be checked.
Respect the fruit of the wall

Stones with an excessive fruit should be properly managed and should not be lifted
to the rear to correct it. As they will slip forward at some point, they can be set more
recessed, resized or used in the counter-facing.
Allow the minimum space among the stones

In the siding and inside the wall, all stones should touch each other, in order to increase
the contact surfaces for a better resistance to thrusts. Tightening the stones, moreover,
contributes to the aesthetics of the external facing. The empty spaces fill up during
the construction and not later: a stone slipped into the external facing afterwards will
emerge in the same way without effort.
Figure 16: Marly agricultural plot Wedging stones

managed with walls A laid stone should not move and
rest on its surface as flat and wide
as possible, and at least on three
points of support.
Stones wedging is required to

overcome an incorrect pose but it
should be carried out as little as
possible because it decreases the
strength of the work. However,
whenever performed, it should
respect specific principles. To close
a space between two stones, rather
than introducing one from the
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed front, a stone in force from above
should be introduced, which will
be blocked as it is covered by the
next bed.
Land reclamation 29
Construction of Figure 17: Cross section of a stone line

stone lines
1. Description of stone lines
Stone lines are stones placed
along contour lines to slow down
runoff. Stone lines are used to
recover degraded lands, control
water erosion and improve water
infiltration.
Source: Rose et al. 2010

Over time, the soil builds up on
the upslope side of the stone line
and a natural terrace is formed. As
the sediments settle upslope the Figure 18: Stone lines according to the
stone line, the stone line is raised contours in a slope
with other stones. The line can be
strengthened by planting shrubs
(fodder) and a life hedge.
2. Where suitable
• Gentle to moderate slopes
(less than 10 percent).
• Low annual rainfall areas

(200 - 750 mm) Source: Rose et al. 2010
• Stony areas.
3. Objectives
• Slow down runoff.
• Induce a natural process of terracing.
• Rehabilitate eroded and abandoned land.
4. Design and construction

The realization of stone lines begins with the determination of a contour using the
water level or a topographic survey. Tracing is then carried out using pickaxes, plows
towed by an animal, tractors, etc. The spacing between the stone lines varies according
to the slope (15 – 40 m). Stone lines are 35-40 cm wide and approximately 25 cm
high. Constructions include a shallow foundation trench of 10-15 cm created along
the natural contour with larger stones on the downslope side of the trench, while
smaller stones are used to build the rest of the bund. The stone lines can be reinforced
with earth, or crop residues. Stone lines are generally laid 15 - 30 m from each other,
however the distance could be reduced for slopes steeper than 10 percent.
5. Advantages
• Increased infiltration and soil moisture.
• Reduced erosion.
With a distance of 33 m between the lines, runoff is reduced by 12 percent and soil loss
by 46 percent. The average moisture content per plot is higher as the spacing between
cords is lower. Soil moisture immediately upstream of stony cords is greater than the
rest of the field. On average, in a year of deficit rainfall, the gain in grain production
is 110 percent, while in a year of good rainfall, production gains range from 20 to 70
percent.
Stone lines contribute to sustainable land management by combating water erosion,

improving water infiltration, stabilizing topsoil and improving vegetation regeneration
and microfauna development. They contribute to adaptation to climate change by
reducing crop moisture stress during drought periods, through increased infiltration
and reduced water erosion. The return of vegetation and microfauna, moreover, helps
to improve biodiversity.
6. Disadvantages
• Labor intense.
• Rodents and reptiles may hide under stone lines.
7. Costs
Stone lines are easy to design and require very low maintenance, although their
construction is labour-demanding. The structure is also permeable, thus does not
require spillways to drain excess runoff. On average, the cost of stone lines is about
200 USD per hectare.
Construction of dry stone small walls

1. Description
Dry stone walls are a technique of water and soil conservation. Their construction
along the contours helps to slow the speed of runoff, improve infiltration and store
Land reclamation 31
sediments. The large stones from Figure 19: Dry stone small wall
the stone removal are stacked in
such a way as to build walls along
the contours.
2. Design and
construction
Paving the slab and stone removal
helps cleaning the land and
improving productivity. The stones
are arranged in a structure that
allows its stability. The small ones
are mixed with the big ones; the
flat and wide faces are oriented ©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
downwards. Width and height are

variable, respectively 30 to 70 cm Figure 20: Agricultural plot managed
and 50 to 120 cm. Walls are built with stone small walls
along contour lines on slopes of
less than 40 percent slope and are
anchored in the soil at 10 - 20 cm
(25 to 30 percent of the height).
The base, wider than the top, is

packed enough to avoid fox effects.
Stone walls are designed with tilt
of 10 percent upstream and their
height depends on the slope, varying
from 40 cm for a slope of 5 percent
to 120 cm for a slope exceeding 20
percent. They can reach important
lengths, up to several hundred ©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
metres. Wall elements of 15 to 25 m
can be discontinuous and arranged in staggered rows. The distance between the walls
vary according to the slope and the availability of the stones.
Once built, the upstream face is clogged to increase trapping of sediments, plant debris
and to stop runoff. As the seasons go by, sediments settle behind the walls, which
are gradually raised. To improve their capacity of trapping sediment, reducing runoff
and softening slope slopes, they are accompanied by planting multipurpose shrubs
and perennial grasses (grasses, legumes, etc.). Plant debris clogs gaps in the walls and
promotes sediment deposition and water infiltration. Planted and/or natural vegetation
enhances their stability. In the long term, the low walls organize the slope in terraces
and the overall slope is reduced.
3. Where suitable
Small stones walls are suitable for low-permeability soils such as flyschs and marls
armed with calcareous beds or sandstone or quartzite beds and for shallow soils. Dry
stone walls have an optimal effect on the conservation of water and soils in arid and
semi-arid climatic zones, on stony soils, and with weak to moderate slopes (below
40 percent). However, they require maintenance to prevent their breakage and the
overflow of runoff and the orientation of trees and shrubs to ensure better protection
of the walls.
The observation of the walls after the heavy rains is necessary to check possible breaks,
which should be immediately repaired to prevent the development of intense runoff on
the damaged parts.
4. Costs
Costs of dry stone small walls are relatively high as they include stone removal,
subsoiling if necessary, stones collecting, base foundation digging, stacking stones. It is
around USD 800 per hectare.
5. Advantages
• Dry stone walls allow valuing the earth by cleaning big stones.
• They allow recovering runoff water and improving the water balance of the soil.
• They can store sediments, reduce soil erosion and improve their fertility.
• They improve land productivity.
• They allow the reduction of the general inclination of slopes and their
reconfiguration into terraces.
• They improve the landscape.
6. Disadvantages
• The network of walls reduces the movement inside the parcels.
• Their preparation requires land removal and when carried out on steep slopes
(above 30 percent), it increases the risk of water erosion.
• They require sustained maintenance.

Land reclamation 33
Gully control Figure 21: Gully control with gabion

check dams
1. Introduction
Gully erosion is an advanced
stage of linear erosion. The runoff
responsible for this form of
erosion increases due to the surface
roughness and initiates the digging
of more or less parallel channels.
These channels widen and deepen
permanently, to the point where
the usual techniques of tillage are
not enough to fill them.
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
Before proceeding to the detailed
description of the thresholds and in
order to facilitate their realization, it is necessary to make a preliminary classification of
the ravines, based on their dimensions. Gullies are classified into three categories (small,
medium and wide gullies) according to their depth and the area drained upstream. This
categorization allows the definition of recommended type of works.
Table 3: Gully size according to depth and drained area upstream
Gully size
Small Medium Large
Depth (m) <2 2-4 >4
Drained area (ha) < 10 10 - 50 > 50
Dry stone dams or Check dams in Civil engineering
Recommended works
stone masonry gabions structures
Source: Desta & Adugna, 2012
2. General principle of gully control

As gully control can be an expensive undertaking, prevention is always better than cure. Gully
formation is often a symptom of land misuse and can be prevented by effective land
husbandry. Planning of any infrastructural development should take into consideration
the safe disposal of the runoff water and during road construction, it should be verified
that runoff does not damage the adjoining land. In some cases, a gully may develop
even when good care has been taken.
Generally, gullies are formed due to high run off volume and peak run off rate.
Therefore, reducing surface run-off volume and peak runoff rates through improved
land use system is essential in gully control. Watersheds deteriorate because of human
misuse of the land, short intensive rainstorms and prolonged rains of moderate to high
intensity. These precipitation factors also turn into high run-off, which causes flooding
and forms gullies.
Retention of water on the watershed through mechanical and vegetative measures is

useful for effective gully control program. It is advisable to retain as much runoff water
as possible in the gully catchment through different moisture retention techniques.
Proper management of the runoff water and increasing the vegetative cover of the
watershed improves the watershed hydrology and the watershed conditions, increases
infiltration, reduces overland flow, and enhances the gully healing process.
In gully control, the following methods should be applied in order of priority:
• Improvement of gully catchments to reduce and regulate the run-off volume and
peak rates and diversion of runoff water upstream of the gully area.
• Stabilization of gullies by structural measures and complementary re-vegetation.
In some areas, the first method may be sufficient to stabilize small or incipient gullies.
In some other areas that receive intense rains, all methods may have to be used for
successful gully control. Runoff control is the first, foremost and effective way for
gully control. If runoff entering into a gully can be controlled, then it is easy to grow
vegetation in the gully.
Controlling gully erosion can be an elusive process. The rate of success in such schemes
depends on the planning, design and techniques employed. Ultimately, its success
depends on the proper diagnosis of the problem, the steps taken to eliminate the causes,
and on drastic changes in land use to stabilize the ecosystem.
The phenomenon to be tackled is the digging, which destabilizes the edges and causes
a strong erosion. The objective is to set the profiles lengthwise and crosswise to stop
the evolution of the erosion, and if possible, to raise the line of the profile lengthwise
to soften the slope of the ravine and thus reduce the speeds of the flows and increase
the stability of the ravine bed. Then allow the vegetation to settle (natural, cultivated).
Gully control begins with a diagnosis of the impluvium to understand the processes of
generation of runoff and to locate the areas where it is produced. Then a diagnosis of
the channel responsible for water drainage must be done to understand the mechanism
of ravine dynamics.
Land reclamation 35
The gully control can be subdivided into two stages:
Step 1. Management of the impluvium
The ravine watershed is managed to reduce runoff production. The actions will be
likely to increase the vegetation cover, the roughness of the ground and the resistance
of the soil to the detachment. Agronomic actions, pastoral improvement, plantations,
breakage of the slope and therefore the speed of runoff and storage of water in the soil
are to be preferred (benches, walls, dry stone cords, etc.). These actions should take
into account the natural (soil types, climates, relief, etc.) and socio-economic (land,
farming system, land use, farmers’ needs, etc.) environments.
Step 2. Correct the ravine
This phase aims at reducing the flow velocity, spread the concentration time of the
basin, land the maximum sediment and stabilize the bed of the ravine. In the long term,
the bed and the banks will be occupied by various permanent vegetation. This objective
is achieved with the construction of thresholds (various categories exist).
This step begins with the determination of the profile along the ravine. The plot of the
bed of the ravine on a graph gives the ordinate elevation (m) and the abscissa distance
from the outlet (m). Two parameters are then calculated, the total length of the ravine
(Leng (m)) and its average slope (P percent). The latter is often weighted by length
while the former is subdivided into homogeneous reaches. The total height difference
(H (m)), the length of the ravine (Leng (m)) and its slope (P percent) allow to determine
the number of check-dams (N) and the distance between them (S (m)). The number of
dams and the distance then allow the location of dams in the field. Once determined,
the locations of the dams can be modified to ensure better stability thanks to the
presence of support points (rock, solid banks), throat, meander, wide surface to land
the maximum sediment, etc.
3. Check dams
Checking dams allows:
• The landing of sediments upstream of these structures, which, in turn, softens

the slope of the ravine, reduces the loss of soil in watersheds, improves the
quality of the water produced at the outlet.
• The decrease in water speed because the slope after landing is lower than that of
the initial bed, a condition that increases the concentration time of the watershed,
reduces peak flows and reduces the risk of flooding downstream.
• The distribution of water on the landing, which increases the surface of friction
and thus contributes to the decrease of the speed of the waters.
• The formation (by landing) of corners, which makes it possible to support the
borders;
• Landings allow a higher infiltration of water and perched water-tables are

created. The water balance in the area is thus improved.
• The deposited sediments constitute a more fertile and favorable environment for
the development of vegetation (crops, shrubs, trees, etc.).
Check dams are arranged in stair steps, so that the sediments deposited upstream of a
check-dam arrive at the base of the check-dam upstream. These deposited sediments
will have a slope at equilibrium lower than the initial slope of the ravine, called the limit
slope or the compensation slope. For such a slope, the amount of material removed
by erosion is the amount deposited. Once the mechanical correction is completed, the
sediments deposited and banks are consolidated and fixed by shrubby vegetation and
trees.
Technical characteristics of check dams
Effective height of the check dam (HE):
It is a function of the cross-sectional and longitudinal profiles of the ravines, the

sedimentary activities of the bed and the flows of water. It is determined by these
factors together with field observations of sediment deposition (taking into account the
slope of compensation). From a general point of view, the larger the work, the higher
the cost price and the risk of its reversal.
Check dam thickness (T):
The definition of thickness is important in the dimensioning of the check dam and it
depends on its effective height HE:
(m) = 0.5x
In the case of masonry or rocks check dams, the thickness of the dam at the base must
be greater than that of the crown. It is recommended for a dam fruit of the order of 20
percent that the thickness be equal to 0.4 x for crowning and 0.6 x for base.
Land reclamation 37
Shape of the spillway:
The spillway corresponds to the upper part of the threshold through which the water
flows. It can have several forms: rectangular, trapezoidal or curvilinear. The curvilinear
form is recommended when the banks of the ravine are fragile. The other two forms,
which distribute waters more effectively, are suitable for solid banks. The dimensions
of the thresholds should be sufficient as to ensure the evacuation of strong floods and
without overflow. The rectangular shape is particularly used for gabion thresholds. Its
width (l (m)) is calculated from the following relation:
(m) = 0.25x ; L is the width of the dam (m).
Foundations of the check dam:
Foundations should be wider than the thickness of the base of the dam and extend 20
to 30 cm upstream and downstream. The dam should be deeply anchored in the banks
to avoid breaks. It should be noted that the most frequent ruptures originate from the
scours that occur in two particular points:
• at the foot of the dam, where the waterfall and the eddy it causes scour the foot
of the work and end up overturning it; and
• on the banks. In order to prevent the dam from being overturned by the water
flow, it is necessary to embed the wings of the structure deeply into the banks, in
this case by stair foundations, and to elevate the wings near the banks and make
the spillway properly.
The foundations are estimated through the following relation:
(m) = 0.25x(m); L is the width of the dam.
Dimensioning of dams:
In order to calculate the correct distance between dams and their number, we assume
that the landing of the downstream dam arrives at the foot of the upstream dam (at the
nearby compensation slope). Thus, the number of dams is:
N = H/HE
• N: number of dams,
• H: height difference from the head of the ravine to the outlet (m),
• HE: effective height of the dam (m).
This number can be corrected by the compensation slope (observable on the site).
The spacing (S) between the dams is then:
S (m) = Length of ravine (m) /N
The number of dams depends on the length of the ravine (Leng (m)) and its elevation
(H) (m). When necessary, the number of dams can be rectified to suit the conditions
of the field. The effective height (HE) is determined from the typical cross-sectional
profiles measured in the field.
Table 4: Guide to spacing thresholds at different effective heights and slopes
Effective height of the dam (HE m)

Slope (%) 0,4 1,0 1,5 2,0
1 80 200 300 400
5 15 38 58 78
10 9 19 29 38
15 3 8 12 15
20 2 6 9 12
25 2 5 7 10
Source: Greco, 1966; Desta & Adugna, 2012
Figure 22: Dry stone bunds

Once the spacing between the
check dams is determined, their
field placement can be carried out.
For the setting, the cross sections
are characterized by their depth
and width (cross sections). These
profiles will be used to determine
the material requirements (stones,
gabions, stakes, etc.) for the
construction of the check dam. The
choice of the type of dam is often
determined by the availability of
raw materials (stones, branches,
etc.) and the budget allocated for
the development of the ravine.
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
Land reclamation 39
Common design considerations for all check dam types:
Proper design of check-dams is crucial. The following considerations apply in designing

check dams, regardless of the material employed:
• Lower check-dams are less likely to fail than higher dams as high dams will
impound much water and the pressure may lead to seepage and undermining.
• A check-dam should have a spillway in the center to discharge water and

shoulders on either sides to prevent water cutting around. The width and depth
of the spillway will be determined by the width of the gully and the discharge
rate.
• All check-dams should have properly constructed apron on the downstream

side to protect the dam from undercutting.
• For the dams to be effective, they must be placed at a distance that takes into
consideration the gradient of the gully and the expected height of the dam.
• The check-dam should be properly anchored to the floor and sides of the
gully to improve stability. This involves the excavation of 0.5 m deep and wide
foundations across the gully floor and 0.5 m into the gully sides.
• Construction should start from the upper end to reduce the risk of failure due to
water entering the gully before all check-dams have been constructed.
5. Type of check dams

5.1. Dry stone bunds
Dry stone dykes are obstacles erected perpendicularly in the ravine beds to reduce the
speed of the flows, to stop the scouring of the bottoms and the undermining of the
banks and consequently to stabilize the ravines. The vegetation can then settle either
spontaneously or artificially.
Design and installation
On gullied and stony slopes, the collected stones can be used for making dry stone
bunds through the ravine beds to stop digging. The height and location of the bunds
are determined according to standards, and after establishing the profile along the
ravine (medium slope). The most effective bunds are small and spread closely along the
bottom of the bed. After sediment landing, the bed of the ravine takes a stepped form.
The installation of the bunds begins with a terracing of the bottom and a slight
anchorage onto the banks (at least 10 cm). The base of the dyke is between 60 and 80
cm wide, but it is only 30 to 50 cm at the top. The height is often between 80 and 120
cm. The stones should be of variable size and shape for better resistance to the water
thrust. Large stones are stacked first to form the base of the dyke, then, once the stones
are flattened, they are laid facing down. The small stones are used to plug the wide gaps
as well as the base of the dyke.
A slight landing is created on the upstream side by the earth recovered from the
terracing of the bed. The top of the dyke has a convex shape to concentrate the flow
towards the center. The trapezoidal shape of the bunds makes it possible to avoid
overflows in the form of jets of water. The downstream portion of the dyke reduces
the speed of waterfall.
The installation of bunds stops the digging of the ravine bed and allows the first landing
of sediment. Once the landing is sufficiently thick, the planting of shrubs and trees for
various uses (grazing and firewood) and herbaceous grass can be carried out. Trees and
shrubs (Atriplex, Acacia, Eucalyptus, Carob, Fig Tree, Reed, etc.) are used on the banks
and grasses (grasses) on the beds bottom.
Favorable conditions
Dry stone bunds are a technique for the correction of small and medium ravines (2 m
deep, 2 m wide). They are used under the following conditions:
• Humid, sub-humid, semi-arid and arid climate (300 to 800 mm/year).
• Stony slopes (availability of stone).
• Limestone or sandstone substrates.
• Medium to strong slope (lower than 60 percent).
Monitoring and maintenance are necessary to avoid breakage of bunds and overflows
of runoff. It is also recommended to remove trees and shrubs that grow in the middle
of the bed and always keep a channel to drain excess water during rare (intense) events.
Advantages
• Reduce land degradation.
• Decrease the speed of the flows and thus improve the infiltration of water
(groundwater recharge).
Land reclamation 41
• Storage of upstream sediments and reduction of siltation of dams.
• Improvement of land productivity.
• Reduction of the overall ravine slope and its transformation into terraces.
• Planting of trees and shrubs with multiple uses.
• Improvement of the landscape (panorama).
• Low cost.
Disadvantages
• Unstable structures during intense floods
• Intense skilled labor required
• Regular and long-term maintenance (at least three years) requested.
5.2. Loose stone check dams Figure 23: Loose stone check-dam
Loose stone check dams are
structures composed of relatively
small rocks and placed across
gullies or small streams to reduce
the velocity of runoff and prevent
the deepening and widening of
the gullies. Sediments accumulated
behind a check dam could be planted
with crops, trees/shrubs or grasses
and thus provide additional income
to the farmer. This technique is
commonly used to check gullies
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
on highly eroded grazing and
cultivated lands and hillsides.
Design and construction
• The foundation of the dam is dug so that the length of the foundation will be
higher than the length of the spillway.
• The width of the foundation depends on the dam height.

Figure 24: Scheme of the loose stone check-dam
Source: MARA-DEFCS, 1978
• The dam should be properly keyed across its base and up the abutments to the
crest elevation;
• An adequate spillway should be provided for safe disposal of water.
• An apron of non-erodible material should be laid at the base, to dissipate the

energy of water falling through the spillway.
• Proper spacing between the successive dams should be ensured.
• The height of the dam should be properly planned.
• Stones should be placed to interlock easily and form a denser structure. If small
stones are to be used, they should be placed at the center and the outer surface
should be covered with large stones to strengthen the dams.
• Loose stone check-dams can be strengthened by covering the upstream wall and
the crest with vegetation (reed-mat).
A loose stone check-dam should respect the following minimum standards:
• Bottom key and foundation: 0.5 m deep.
• Height: 1 – 1.5 m excluding the foundation (1 m should be sufficient to avoid

failures)
Land reclamation 43
• Base width: 1 m – 3. 5 m.
• Spillway (trapezoidal/parabolic): 0.25 – 0.5 m acceptable depth and 0.25 m free

board; and 0.5 – 1.2 m width.
• Apron length should be at least 1.5 times of the effective height of the check-dam
and as wide as the gully bed.
• The apron should be placed in an excavation of about 0.3 –0.5 m to ensure

stability and prevent wash away. A sill of about 15 cm should be constructed at
the lower end of the apron.
Advantages
• Contribute effectively to the limiting of erosions effects.
• Enhance the sustainability of downstream infrastructures.
• Ensure a diversified agricultural production on the selected lands.
Disadvantages
• Require regular maintenance especially before the development of vegetation on

the landings.
5.3. Gabion check dams

Gabions are rectangular boxes of different sizes, generally made of galvanized steel
wire woven into mesh. The boxes
are tied together with wire and Figure 25: Gabion check-dam
then filled with stones and placed as
building blocks. Small stones can be
used as the wire mesh will prevent
them being washed away. If large
stones are used, they should be
placed carefully together with small
stones filling the spaces between
them. Otherwise, water may stream
through the gabion and undermine
the ground beneath. Gabions are
filled in situ and, provided they
have been correctly installed, they
will not be washed away as they are
extremely heavy. ©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
Figure 26: Gabion lattice The main advantages of gabions are

that they are robust and enduring,
provided that the wire has been
well galvanized. Furthermore,
they are somewhat flexible and can
be installed on uneven surfaces.
They can be used to stabilize
gully sides, gully heads, roadside
embankments, river banks and
even landslips. However, they
are expensive and should only be
used if no other cheaper method
is possible. Installing gabions is
not a solution in the case of land
Source: DREFLCD-HA. 2011. misuse and, if the land is denuded,
installing gabions will not solve the
problem. However, they can prove effective in conjunction with measures to restore
vegetative cover.
The gabions are porous consolidation structures formed by prefabricated galvanized

wire mesh cages, filled with stones and arranged to match the shape of the proposed
structure, taking into account the foundations and lateral anchors. These structures are
set up to:
• Stabilize the profile along ravines in sections where the general tendency is
overcrowding.
• Maintain the flanks of the ravine that would otherwise gradually melt into the
ravine, either by undermining the banks or slipping if the incision had continued.
• Stop the regressive erosion at the level of the ravine, and thus limit its deepening.
Retain sediments in transit sections where the incision is weak.
However, it would be inappropriate to rely solely on these structures to reduce the rate
of erosion. These are prerequisites for the successful installation of vegetation, which
remains the most sustainable treatment.
This technique is intended for the correction of ravines, which represent the highest
affecting and threatening linear erosion form for the land value and productivity of
agricultural land. As a result, ravines deeper than 1 m and suffering from active erosion
by deep linear cuts, should be treated mechanically while waiting for the greening of
the upstream landings.
Land reclamation 45
This type of structure is recommended mainly for basic structures, such as ravines
in landslide zones. Gabion dams are particularly recommended for the correction
of ravines in difficult areas (clay or marl soils) since they lend themselves with some
flexibility to scours and soil movements and do not require means of transportation,
of materials, etc. In addition, the gabions resist very high pressures and give greater
strength and durability compared to other types of thresholds.
However, the filling and handling of gabions requires the supervision of a qualified and
experienced person. Stones should not be thrown in bulk in crates. Their resistance to
the water current and therefore the durability of the structure depends on that.
Design and construction
The lattice gabions available on the market is of standard dimensions (multiples of m3).
Commonly, the ravine is divided into several sections according to the degree of the
slope and the height of the structure, but also to strengthen particularly solid sites
(rocks, strangulation of beds between two rocky banks, etc.) in order to allow the
creation of important and resistant thresholds.
Once the number, the dimensions and the location of dams are determined, the
installation is carried out through the following steps:
• Determine the volume (m3) of stones necessary to fill the entire lattice gabion,
including the aprons and the anchoring in the banks.
• The trellis of the gabions is transported folded up to the site of interest.
• Before filling it with stones, the trellis of the gabions is placed horizontally so
that the lower face adheres to the material of the foundation. The trellising of the
cubic gabion is thus unfolded and maintained by tensioners to facilitate filling
with the stones. The lid is braided separately, and, after filling, it is sewn with
galvanized wire.
• The gabions are stacked on top of each other, but crossed as for the construction
of a brick wall.
Specification of a gabion check dam
• The foundation depth (key trench) should not be lower than 50 cm.
• The foundation width is 1 m and the structure should be plugged for one meter
to each side of the gully wall /abutment/ right up to the height of the dam.
• Construct apron from the downstream side of the structure, with a foundation
of 30 cm from a dry stone and a width of 1.5 times the one of the reservoir level.
• The spillway should allow peak flows, without overtopping the dam.
• An apron of stone/similar gabion box, about 1.5 m times the height of the
spillway, is necessary. General considerations for the apron are the same as for
the loose stone check dam.
• Stones to be used for filling the gabions should be hard and of sufficient size
and they should be placed tightly together to avoid large voids that could allow
water to flow through and eventually result in the sinking of the dam. The bigger
stones should thus be put along the sides of the box gabions while the smaller
ones are filled in the middle.
• Gabions should be constructed where the soil depth is higher, preferably in a

wider part of the gully and just after a series of loose stone check dams.
• Gabions need to be closed by using large spanners (closers) and have to be wired
together.
Advantages
• Reduce soil erosion.
• Allow the formation of a fertile deposit upstream of the check dam.
• Stabilize banks.
• Contribute to the recharge of the water table.
• Require little maintenance and can remain in place as a permanent work.
• High stability, thanks to its dimension and to its metal frame, resistant to
traction forces.
• Harmoniously integrate into the environment and promote vegetation growth.
Disadvantages
• Deterioration of the gabions wire mesh after a few years.
• Use limited to areas where the flow is intermittent and where drainage is not
too significant.
Land reclamation 47
• Not suitable for unstable Figure 27: Check dam in masonry

clay soil.
• Relatively expensive as
compared to dry stone check
dam.
• The setting up of the works

necessarily requires a
qualified workforce.
5.4. Check dams in masonry

A masonry dam is constructed of
cemented stone or concrete. These ©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
works are realized through the
bed of a torrent or a large ravine
to prevent the bed from widening Figure 28: Check dam in masonry with
because of the instability of the banks barbicans
and slopes. It is civil engineering
work used to strengthen, on the
same ravine, a series of dams (dry
stones and gabions) built upstream
or when the torrent is large enough
and the materials transported
cannot be stopped by single dams.
These masonry dams, sometimes
very large, ensure the setting of the
torrent bed in the lower part since
only once it is filled with sediments
these works are effective. ©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
Objectives
• Retain the carried elements.
• Limit the depression of the torrent in its bed.
• Reduce sideways ravels and erosion.
• Reduce the speeds and volumes of possible sludge flows.
• Ensure the stabilization of unstable banks.
• Adjust sediment transport.

Characteristics
• Body built with stone masonry mortar.
• Foundations and footings made of concrete.
• Wings with good insoles anchored onto the banks (1/3 width of the dam on
friable substrates).
• Height between 3 and 5 m.
• Thickness of 1 m or more.
• Spillway shaped rectangle very open (2/3 width of the dam).
• Installation of barbicans to evacuate the water in depth and reduce the

hydrostatic pressure on water and sediments.
• Upper part covered by a concrete cap.
• In addition to the soil grain, their stability is also ensured by their weight. This
should be at least equal to the weight of the sediments that will be retained
behind the dam.
• The waterfalls are designed to avoid downstream flooding of the dam: rafting,
basin.
Advantages
• Strong and durable.
• Allow the definition of what is associated with other types of thresholds, then
to correct the profile in the long term.
• Good efficiency in the treatment of large torrents thalwegs.
• Better withstands embankment thrust and water flow.
Disadvantages
• High cost of realization due to the large volumes of the works.
• Require a qualified workforce, technical skills and know-how.

Land reclamation 49
• Must be generated by their Figure 29: Mesh barriers

high cost and limited scope with wooden stake
of application.
5.4. Mesh barriers

with wooden stake
The screened dams consist of 1 cm
iron or plastic meshes stretched
over wooden stakes or 2.5 m angle
iron sunken 50 cm into the ground.
Roasting, often called chicken
roasting, can be single or double.
In the latter case, two layers of f
small and large meshes are used ©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
to increase the capacity of the
threshold to trap the plant debris.
Figure 30: Scheme of mesh barrier
The fence dams are erected across

the ravine and at close distances to
reduce flow velocities by trapping
plant debris and sediment. The mesh
is held vertically and perpendicular
to the direction of flow by wooden
stakes. The number of stakes
depends on the width of the ravine.
The mesh is anchored 10 to 20 cm
in the banks. Part of the grid is Source: MARA-DEFCS, 1978
spread on the bottom upstream side
and is fixed by stakes placed into the bottom of the ravine. It is then covered with soil
and plant debris to prevent it from being washed away by the first floods. The top of
the fence is fixed on a wooden frame attached by galvanized wire to a stake placed into
the bottom of the ravine, a few meters upstream. The galvanized wire that tends the
wire mesh towards the front (tensioner), allows to stabilize the dam.
Favorable conditions
The use of roasting dams can provide good results on gullies and non-torrential gullies
in areas where threshold-building materials are scarce and / or expensive. Clogging of
the fence with plant debris and sediment reduces flow velocity and gully excavation.
As a result, the bottom of the ravine stabilizes and vegetation can recapture sediments
deposited upstream.
Figure 31: The banks of a ravine Advantages

stabilized by the Eucalyptus plantation
• Reduce land degradation;
• Decrease the speed of the

flows and improve the infiltration
of water.
• Retain sediments upstream

and reduce siltation of dams.
• Contribute to the
improvement of land productivity.
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
• Low cost.
Disadvantages
• Unstable in the case of strong floods.
• Requires the maintenance of tensioning wires, stakes and grillage.
• Requires regular control during the first floods.
• Requires guarding because the fence can be stolen and used for different
purposes.
5.5. Biological treatment of ravines

The biological treatment of ravines consists of planting species adapted to the climate
and the soil. These will provide a vegetal cover and allow, on one side, the stability of
the bottom and the banks of the ravine and, on the other, the evacuation of ravines
water flows. The banks are planted with trees and shrubs with mixed rooting (swiveling
and tracing) and often with multiple uses (fodder, firewood). The bottom of the ravine
is covered with herbaceous vegetation that tilts with the flow. As a result, the bottom
of the ravine is no longer hollow and the banks are no longer undermined.
The revegetation of the ravines allows the rapid installation of a permanent mixed
vegetation (tree, shrub and herbaceous), which results in the reduction of the flow
velocity and the solid charge, due to the increase of the bed roughness. Moreover, it
enhances the stabilization of the ravine banks and bottom. It consists in supporting the
vegetation in its development by planting and / or sowing adapted species.
Land reclamation 51
The mechanical treatment (check dams in dry stones, gabions, wire mesh) ensures the
installation of a permanent vegetation. The planting of trees and shrubs is done at the
same time as the installation of the check dams or after the first landings. Planting is a
mixture of fast-growing agroforestry species that can provide a good surface cover and
a root system that allows good sediment cohesion.
The species planted are selected according to their ecological abilities, their effectiveness
in combating gullying and their capacity to value the site (fodder and fruit production,
wood). The tree and shrub species used are fruit trees (olive, fig, apple, plum, apricot,
peach, vine, almond, carob, walnut) and / or agroforestry trees and shrubs Eucalyptus,
Acacia, Populus, Fraxinus, Atriplex, Agave, Tamarix., Salix, Retama, Ziziphus (Jujube),
Phragmites (reed), Opuntia (Cactus).
The trees and shrubs are mixed and densely planted (over 2000 plants per hectare) on
the banks of the ravine and around the bed. The decision over the planting location
is also important. On inclined slopes, holes are to be staggered into steps of steps or
facing upstream half-moons. On flat areas, simple holes are sufficient. The bottom of
the bed should only have soft shrubs and grasses that bow with the flow. It could also
be covered with a stone pavement to facilitate the flow and protect the bottom.
The transport of the seedlings from the nursery to the site will be done just after a
copious watering. The transported plants will be unloaded on a fitted place and close
to the ravine to be planted. The stay of the plants in this plot should not exceed 48
hours and their distribution should be done by means of crates to avoid any damage.
The plastic bag of the plant should be removed to avoid root curl and the neck should
remain visible. At the end of the planting, mowing around the plants and loosening
of the surroundings, within a radius of 60 cm, are performed. The planting time
is determined by taking into account the rainfall, the risks of winter cold and the
possibility of replanting in the spring. Late planting at the end of the rainy season is
generally not advised. One to two irrigations are necessary during the following dry
season. Depending on the initial fertility of the soil, a moderate intake of manure and
/ or fertilizer is essential.
The choice of species for the greening of the ravines takes into account the nature of
the land and its state of degradation. Fruit and forage species are preferred by farmers.
However, land status, site instability, and ecological conditions (climate, soil, exposure)
should be taken into account. Availability of quality seedlings and seeds at the right
time is also an important factor. The installation and maintenance of vegetation
requires work force and considerable skill. Vocational training may result necessary
in some cases. The farmers’ adherence to this kind of valorizing actions of degraded
areas is easy and can be supported through financial (wage of labor) or material (plants,
seeds) resources provided by the State or associations start-up.
However, it is important to take into account the management of woodlands after

vegetation has been planted, as it may generate conflicts between users.
Advantages
• Durability of the torrential correction.
• Lower cost treatment of ravines.
• Creation and recovery of new lands (landings).
• Contribution to the improvement of fodder production and firewood for

residents.
• Strengthening the links between the peasants and the land.
• Protection of slopes against erosion.
• Rehabilitation of landscapes and biodiversity (fauna and flora).
• Easing pressure on already degraded forest areas.
Disadvantages
• Need for regular monitoring by farmers.
• Potential source of disputes between adjacent users.
• Potential source of dispute between peasants and the land use administration
(legal nature of the land).
• Source of weeds, pests and pests for adjacent crops.
• Farmers harvest wood and fodder, which contributes to reducing the efficiency
of the technique.
6. Reasons for Failure in Gully Rehabilitation

Gully control can be tedious whenever applied measures do not seem to work. Failure
in control brings losses of material, time, money and sometimes even enhance the gully
erosion effects. However, failure can be avoided if appropriate measures are taken and
proper techniques are applied. From field experience, the following problems should
be considered as the major reasons for the failure of most of the gully rehabilitation
schemes:
Land reclamation 53
• Poor consideration for upper catchment treatment.
• Poor installation of check-dams due to the lack of keying the check-dam to the
floor and to the gully sidewalls.
• Lack of apron, which allows the water falling from the check-dam spillway to
erode the below area and undermines the structure. If the apron is not keyed or
secured into the gully, it will be washed away.
• Lack of spillway. Check-dam tend to block the water flow, leading to the water
exerting pressure on the dam to ultimately weaken it. A spillway will discharge
the runoff thus protecting the check dam.
• Poor maintenance. The life and effectiveness of control measures are prolonged
by regular maintenance. Any shortcomings in the control structures should be
corrected before they develop into serious problems. Any died grass, shrub/
bush and tree planted should be replaced.
• Improper spacing of check-dams. Proper spacing is crucial if the check-dams are

to serve their purpose. Inappropriate and irregular spacing of the check-dams
may lead to their being washed away.
• Failure to complete the work. In some instances, the completion of gully

rehabilitation schemes could not be ensured due to different reasons.
Uncompleted measures do not offer the required protection and are a waste of
time and resources.
• Structures are sometimes too high and the ponding water causes the instability
of the soil and the piping underneath or around the structure.
• Poor integration between physical and biological measures.
A strong involvement of the farmers in the design and the implementation of the check
dams generally guarantees the success of the project of gully control.
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
Water management
Design, construction and maintenance
of irrigation reservoirs
1. Objective
An irrigation reservoir can provide a farm with the irrigation water supply needed and
to have a secure, dependable irrigation water supply is important to maintain
production in dry years and seasons.
Combining an irrigation reservoir Figure 32: Geo-membrane reservoir
with a low yielding well can result
in a sufficient water supply. Pairing
an irrigation reservoir with winter
pumping from a stream can result
in a sustainable farm water supplies
while avoiding stream pumping
during summer low flow periods.
Irrigation reservoirs store water

pumped from an approved water
source, to be employed later on.
A well designed, constructed and
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
maintained irrigation reservoir
project should:
• Provide adequate water storage for the projected irrigation needs.
• Provide an efficient and cost-effective operation of the irrigation system.
• Minimize water loss from storage.
• Minimize maintenance requirements.
• Minimize both maintenance and construction costs.
• Provide a safe and secure water storage system.
2. Types of irrigation reservoirs

There are three types of irrigation reservoirs:
• Dugout storage is below grade (normal ground level). Large amounts of soil is
excavated and disposed of during construction.
• Above grade bermed storage consists of four-sided berms constructed completely

above ground to retain water. A large quantity of clay (impermeable) soil is
required to build the berms and construction is similar to the construction
of dams. This type of reservoir is primarily used in areas with poor subsoil
conditions such as bedrock;
• Combination storage is both below and above grade (Figure 32). The excavated
soil is used to construct berms around the excavation for additional above-grade
water storage. This type of construction usually allows the most efficient use of
the excavated material.
3. Storage size
Several factors affect the volume of required storage:
• Area of the irrigated crop.
• Type of irrigated crop.
• Expected number and frequency of irrigations.
• Frequency of reservoir refilling.
Once the required storage volume is determined, various reservoir layouts based on
a range of water surface areas and depths (Tables 5 and 6) should be calculated. It is
Water management 57
important to note that the shallower is the reservoir, the larger should be the surface
and the land areas used for the project.
Table 5: Standard reservoir dimensions and water holding capacities (A reservoir

with 3:1 inside slopes and 3:1 outside slopes; 3 m top of berm width; 10% of
reservoir depth is reserved for freeboard)
Berm Total Depth Reservoir Footprint Water Volume

Length (m) Width (m)
Height (m) (m) (m²) (m3)
100 100 3 8 15 376 40 122
100 50 3 8 9 176 13 626
50 50 3 8 5 476 5 130
50 50 1,5 5 4 225 5 324
50 30 1 4,5 2 604 2 356
Source: Short, 2016
Table 6: Standard reservoir dimensions and water holding capacities showing

impact of varying slope (A reservoir with 3 m top of berm width; 10% of reservoir
depth is reserved for freeboard)
Length Width Berm Total Depth Interior Exterior Reservoir Water
(m) (m) Height (m) (m) Slopes Slopes Footprint Volume (m3)
(m2)
100 100 3 8 3:1 3:1 15 376 40 122
100 100 3 8 6:1 4:1 16 900 20 519
50 50 3 8 3:1 2.5:1 5 041 5 130
50 50 3 8 3:1 3:1 5 476 5 130
Source: Short, 2016
4. Location
The reservoir should be located:
• Close to the water source that will be employed to fill it, in order to minimize
pumping costs.
• At the center of the fields to be irrigated, in order to minimize piping and

pumping costs.
• Distant from houses, buildings and public roads to protect public and local
infrastructures from damages in the case of a major failure.
In site selection for reservoir, the following considerations should be taken into
account:
• If feasible, ensure the availability of electrical power.
• Ensure proximity to access roads.
• Avoid areas with utilities, communication lines, pipelines, etc.
• If possible, select a site with low-productivity land.
• Do not interfere with existing crop and field management practices.
• Identify any subsurface drainage and alterations that would need to be completed
if a reservoir were to be constructed there.
• Select a location with clayey subsoil to allow for the construction of the reservoir
from on-site water-holding materials. Importing clay from another site or using
synthetic liners substantially increases project cost.
Finding a site that incorporates all of these requirements is not easy. Options and
decisions will be affected by cost and operational preferences. The goal is thus to
choose the site that best incorporates all of the above-mentioned factors.
5. Site investigation
A soil site investigation is extremely important to determine the suitability for
the construction of a water reservoir. It is recommended to conduct an initial site
assessment by checking existing soil information on available soil maps, then followed
by a more detailed site investigation under the direction of an experienced soil
professional (engineering consulting firms).
Adequate clay content will minimize or eliminate water seepage through the bottom
and sides of the reservoir. The ideal site would have subsoil with a minimum of 15
percent clay content, uniformly distributed throughout, to a depth greater than that of
the proposed excavation.
With suitable clay content, the portion of the reservoir below the normal ground grade
will retain water. Furthermore, the excavated clay is used to construct the berms for the
portion of the reservoir storage above the normal ground grade. Otherwise, clay needs
to be found at another site to line the reservoir.
Water management 59
A good site investigation includes taking test holes using backhoes, drills, augers or
specialized boring machines so the soil samples can be assessed for their clay content,
suitability for water retention, lining material and berm construction.
It is critical to determine if there are any pipelines or utilities as they should be avoided
before beginning any excavations.
If the clay content is not suitable or there is not enough clay to line the reservoir
and construct the berms, the site location for the reservoir may need to be changed,
or another site may need to be investigated as a potential source of clay known as a
“borrow pit”.
If a reservoir needs to be lined, a 1 m layer of compacted clay is recommended and

the reservoir depth and surface size should be adjusted depending on the quality and
quantity of clay soil found.
The test holes will also verify if groundwater may be an issue during the construction
of berms, or when excavating the below-grade portion of the reservoir.
6. Design
An experienced person trained in the design of berms, dykes or dams should design
the tank. The design should be prepared by an engineer if the depth of water above
ground level is:
• Above 3 m. Reservoirs above grade pose a potential risk if the reservoir breaks
and water is suddenly released.
• Above 1.5 m and the reservoir is close to buildings, infrastructure (roads, railway
tracks, utilities) or places where people work, live or play. Reservoir failure may
in fact be a risk to any infrastructure within a radius of three x the reservoir
length.
A good design and plan are important for the long-term successful operation of a water
reservoir. The design, in the specific, should respect the following conditions:
• Selection of the reservoir depth and the berm height for water volume
requirements and a favorable earth balance of soil excavated versus soil required
for berm construction.
• Allowance for settlement after construction.
• Berm height allowance for freeboard to avoid overtopping by wave action or

large rainfall (freeboard is the additional height above normal water level).
• Adequate top width for the proposed uses on the berm (minimum width is
usually three m). A larger top width may be needed for the placement of pumps,
maintenance access or other activities.
• Appropriate and safe interior and exterior slope selection (steeper slopes will
use less land, decreasing cost, but are more prone to erosion and failure thus
requiring increased maintenance costs).
• A key trench (≥1 m deep, 3 m wide) is dug first into the subsoil along the center
line of the berm then is repacked with compacted fill and serves to anchor the
berm and prevent seepage below the berm.
• Pipes for filling and emptying the reservoir are placed on top of the berms. If
the pipes need to be buried into the berms, they should be placed well above the
high-water level of the reservoir to avoid a potential seepage path. Pipes through
the berm and below the high water mark are possible but should be designed by
a professional engineer.
Figure 33: Design of an above and below grade reservoir
Source: Short, 2016
7. Construction
The functionality of the tank always depends on the practices implemented during the
construction, even with the best possible design. Quotations should be asked from at
least three contractors, whose works should be inspected and referenced found. The
experience, professional qualifications and specialized equipment employed by the
entrepreneur should be considered. Priority should be given to companies that have
an engineering technician who can supervise or inspect construction work. The most
relevant factors in the construction of a water reservoir are presented below:
Water management 61
Site preparation: Figure 34: Construction of a reservoir
The entire surface layer should be

removed and set aside for later
use. It is particularly important to
remove the surface layer over the
berms, otherwise an infiltration
path could easily form and
compromise the structural integrity
of the berm, hampering the overall
infrastructure. It is advised to set
aside all the topsoil, a valuable
material that could be used to cover
the ridge and slopes of the berms
to allow the establishment of an
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
erosion-resistant lawn.
Underground equipment:
Location of all underground pipes (drainage) and cables (electrical, telephone, etc.),
that should be removed to bypass the tank site.
Equipment:
Appropriate equipment will be required to excavate, move, spread and compact large
amounts of soil. An experienced contractor should be employed, with an expertise in
building this type of tank and able to implement the design, especially the berms.
Water tightness of the bottom and edge of the basin:

The water tightness can be ensured either by clay layers or by special geo-membranes.
Use of clay layers:

As a first step the cut-off trench and laying of the clay in layers 150 to 300 mm
thick should be performed. Thus each layer should by compacted. The clay should
have an optimal moisture content as determined by tests performed on site or in the
laboratory by the contractor, a technician or an engineer preferably. The objective is
to compact and coat the floor to create a relatively impervious layer and avoid any
risk of infiltration. The compaction is carried out using a specialized apparatus such
as a “sheeps-foot roll”. The simple passage of a bulldozer does not ensure sufficient
compaction. As the soil layers are placed and compacted, a specific instrument is
used to measure the density of the layers and ensure that their resistance respects the
design parameters. The required density is generally obtained after at least 10 passages
of mechanical compactors over the entire surface of each layer when the soil water
content is optimal.
The use of geo-membranes requires special considerations:

• A simple geometric shape of the basin (to limit the complex assemblies, to avoid
the formation of folds).
• An adequate slope of the bank according to the quality of the materials of the
site. It should be determined taking into account the rules of soil mechanics. The
embankment should be stable by itself and the geo-membrane is only required
to seal the structure.
• The geometry of the structure (slopes, crawling lengths).
• The nature of the materials of the support and the protective layer.
• The mechanical characteristics of the different elements of the geo-membrane.
• The coefficients of friction at the interfaces of the different layers with each
other.
• The mode of operation of the structure (eventual presence of water, variation of

the water level, possibility of rapid emptying).
Although the implementation of the geo-membrane is possible on some vertical or

sub-vertical supports (rocky slopes, concreted or masonry), it is commonly preferred
to place them on the slopes between 2/3 (66.67 percent) and 1/2 (50 percent), to
overcome site constraints.
The selection of a geo-membrane and its installation for a given work depend on many
parameters:
Temperature:
Temperature variations lead to withdrawals and expansions of the geo-membrane and
can induce temporary or even permanent constraints, folds assemblies, traction on
the anchors. It is therefore necessary to check the value of the coefficient of thermal
expansion indicated in the technical data sheet of the geo-membrane.
Ultraviolet radiation:
UV is one of the several aging factors of geo-membranes. The establishment of a
protective structure considerably increases the life of the materials. The behavior of
geo-membranes with ultraviolet radiation is verified by accelerated aging tests.
Water management 63
Wind:
Without precautions, the wind blowing, both during installation and service, may
induce sufficient depressions to lift some parts of the geo-membrane. Several solutions
are possible depending on the progress of the work such as anchoring and/or partial
weighting (sandbags, cords of non-aggressive materials, weighted tires, water, etc.),
possibly taking into account the weight of the geo-membrane and total weighting for
a general protection.
Whenever possible, and if the shape of the structures allows it, the geo-membrane is
unrolled, beginning the laying by the crest of the slopes, continuing along the line of
greatest slope and taking into account the direction of the prevailing winds.
Under-pressures:
The water and gas accumulated under the geo-membrane exert some under-pressures
on it that tend to raise it:
• Hydraulic under-pressure: a rise in the water table that can be levelled with
the bottom of the basin and the lifting of the geo-membrane; rainwater or
uncaptured sources that can cause landslides or scour under the geo-membrane
in the embankment. The implementation of a drainage system under the seal
allow a better distribution of the under pressures, to evacuate the gases towards
the slopes and, eventually, to limit the effects due to these under-pressures. In
cases where the risks of rising water are well identified, the establishment of a
protection structure balancing foreseeable under-pressures is essential.
• Gas-related under-pressures: All basins are susceptible to back-welling damage.

The gas is produced by the decomposition of organic matter. It is recommended to
purge the support of these materials before the installation of the waterproofing.
The rise of the sheet expels the air contained in the soil thus causing under-
pressure under the seal. The solution is to install a gas drainage system under the
geo-membrane and the establishment of slope forms.
After building the berms, a layer of topsoil over the ridge and slopes should be applied
and sowing with a turf mixture within 24 hours before the soil dries out should be
performed. A mixture of drought-tolerant and mowing-tolerant species such as Tall
fescue or Red creeping fescue is recommended. Light mulching can facilitate the start
of seedling establishment.
The crest of the berm is often covered with gravel to allow the passage of vehicles under
all weathers.
8. Inspection and maintenance

It is advised to inspect the tank regularly, at least in spring (maximum level) and fall
(minimum level), or more often if there are signs of damage or seepage.
An inspection list should be drafted and a log of maintenance activities created, to

have a history to be consulted in the future as needed. The register will also allow the
operator to demonstrate his due diligence. Moreover, timely maintenance, combined
with regular inspections, can help to solve problems in a less expensive way before they
escalate.
Inspection and maintenance checklist:
• Cracking or settling of the berms,
• Wet or soggy conditions at the berm toe,
• Stability of interior and exterior side slopes,
• Excessive erosion or sedimentation in or near the reservoir,
• Woody vegetation in or on the berms,
• Animal holes,
• Obstructions of the inlet or outlet devices by trash and debris,
• Deterioration of irrigation intake or pipes.
9. Ground cracking
Soil cracking can often be the result of insufficient compaction or compression of the
foundations. Cracks parallel to the crest of the berm reduce the soil resistance and the
safety effect of the slope, thus eventually leading to a slip of the slope, depending on
the state of the site. Cracks perpendicular to the crest of the berm, on the other side,
may be infiltration routes, which may also cause slope slip.
It is not easy to repair the cracks. They can be filled with clay to prevent water
from entering and circulating, but the effectiveness of this method is limited. It may
otherwise be necessary to reduce the reservoir level and / or rebuild the berm.
10. Infiltration
Infiltrations reduce the safety factor effect of the slope and may cause its slipping.
The presence of the infiltration zones is revealed by the presence of stagnant water,
persistent humidity or hygrophilous plants and sometimes by a subsidence of the soil.
Water management 65
Interventions to reduce post-construction infiltrations are generally expensive, thus

preventing them from the outset with proper design and good construction techniques
is the most effective solution.
11. Erosion
Erosion can compromise the integrity of the berm. Seeding a low-maintenance turf
mixture on exposed slopes is a standard component of construction to prevent erosion.
Eroded areas should be repaired without delay as part of routine maintenance to avoid
the deterioration of the situation.
12. Organic material

Sediments’ accumulation in the reservoir depends on the type of material used, slopes
and deposits of organic matter such as leaves. Organic matter entering the reservoir
builds up over time and, by degrading, can affect the quality of the water. If the amount
becomes too consistent it may be necessary to clean the tank.
13. Plants and unwanted animals

The growing of woody plants on the berms should be avoided as the roots could
weaken them. The digging of burrows by animals should also be prevented and
eventual cavities filled.
14. Shearing
External slopes should be mowed regularly unless short grass has been sown.
15. Security
Each tank site is unique and it needs to be assessed for safety purposes. Basic warnings
and simple rescue devices (i.e. ropes, buoys, flotation devices, etc.) could be employed
Figure 35: Geo-membrane reservoir fenced for security reasons
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
to avoid people entering the pond. Installation of a safety fence around the entire
tank could be considered. A consultation of the municipal regulations and safety
requirements for tanks (fences, etc.) is always advisable.
Rainwater harvesting in open ponds

1. Description
Basin dug in the ground are open upstream to collect the water of a channel and capture
the runoff produced by an impluvium of variable size on located on the upstream
slopes. Basin represent the lowest point in the runoff flow system and their dimensions
can be highly variable, from a few tens of m3 to thousands of m3. Excavated soil is
used to delineate the pond and fortify its edges, often protected by a thorny hedge
or fence. The bottom of the basin is sealed by a bed of clay, clay or stone paving.
The impluvium feeding it is kept
Figure 36: Open basin dug in ground naked and compacted (surface of
filled by the runoff of the road whose a track, rocky or groomed surface,
banks are stabilized by stone rip rap ditch of a road, etc.). A channel,
as stabilized as possible by stones,
guides the water collected in the
impluvium towards the basin. The
water is subsequently returned by
regulated flow or by pumping.
2. Objective
The open basin is created to
temporarily store runoff from an
impluvium. It represents an old
technique employed in collective
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed pasture areas where no wells or
shallow water tables are available.
Figure 37: Open basin dug in ground It can be found either next to
houses, or near tracks or encrusted
land. They are mainly used for
herd watering, irrigating small areas
(market gardening) in the case of
large water volumes and sometimes
for domestic uses.
3. Basin construction
The elements that are systematically
found in a retention basin are: a
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
water inlet, an accumulation
Water management 67
volume, a water supply and an overflow of relief or a diversion of the water inlets.
The construction of ponds for the storage of water for agricultural purposes (breeding,
irrigation) follows the following stages:
Site selection for the basin:

• The site is located downstream of an impluvium that can produce runoff water
in considerable quantity and of sufficient quality (little thrusting).
• Presence or possibility of construction of a channel for the transfer of water

from the impluvium to the basin.
• Possibility of digging a not expensive large basin with little impact on the surface
of the earth (agricultural).
• Possibility to complete landscape integration of the basin.
• Distant from sources of pollution (petroleum station, factory, urban drainage

network, urban waste dump).
Sizing of the basin:

• The dimensions of the basin depend on the configuration of the site.
• The basin must have an elongated shape to break the water entry speed, i.e. long
and narrow.
• The volume of the basin is a function of the quantities of runoff produced by

the impluvium (rainfall intensity, runoff coefficient) and water requirements
(irrigation); building a large pool difficult to fill is not effective.
Digging of the basin:

Large basins are mechanically dug. Once the site is selected, the limits of the basin
should be defined. Attention should be paid to orienting the entry of water towards
the channel draining the runoff. The excavation is done with a bulldozer and the
land is evacuated by large trucks. Surface earth is placed on the sides to eventually
build a hillock around the basin. The excess soil is then removed to places where
the accumulation of soil does not pose environmental problems (in agreement with
the municipality). The slope of the bank should not exceed 30 percent to be easily
accessible to allow quick evacuations of people in the case of accidental falls.. There
are no standard rules to establish depth as it is determined by the nature of the rocks
(presence of hard slab or impervious clay floor).
Sealing of the basin:

Basins constructed for water storage for agricultural uses should be as tight as possible
at the level of the base and the slopes. Most often, compaction with mortar or casting
of a clay coating is sufficient.
Basin equipment:
• Cleaning of the inlet water: at the end of the flow inlet channel, one or two
screeners are first installed to retain the large debris, the waste and the stones,
then one or two sanders to decant the water before it enters into the basin. The
waste is evacuated on regular basis. This system improves the quality of stored
water.
• Installation of water intake infrastructure for irrigation: water is often pumped

to the bottom of the basin and sent into a pipeline to convey it to agricultural
parcels, often very close.
• Access to the pool: installation of an access ramp to the bottom of the pool to
ensure mechanical maintenance.
Safety of the basin:

Before the watering of the basin, the following actions should be carried out:
• Secure the equipment with fences (wire fences).
• Prohibit access to the pool by barriers or fence.
• Inform the residents about the presence of the basin.
• Install access signage, non-drinkability of water, drowning risk and prohibition

of swimming.
• Place trees rows around the pond to limit the effects of winds and reduce
evaporation.
4. Cost
The construction of a basin does not require high skills. However, a minimum of
geological knowledge is necessary. Current costs for the construction of a runoff
storage basin are approximately:
Water management 69
• Installation cost: 10 to 100 USD per m3 of water stored.
• Maintenance cost: 0.2 to 0.8 USD/m3/year.
5. Monitoring and maintenance

• Annual cleaning of the mud that accumulates at the bottom of the basin.
• Cleaning of the screens and gutters at least after each rainy season.
• Maintenance of the inlet channel and bead and maintenance of the hedge on the
bead (size, replanting).
• Control of the risks of eutrophication.
• Surveillance of fauna and flora.
6. Advantages
• Availability of water from the first rains.
• Trapping of sediments.
• Possibility to irrigate additional agricultural areas.
• Increases the vegetable production and thus of the income of the peasant.
7. Disadvantages
• High evaporation in summer.
• Infiltration losses and rapid siltation.
• Contamination by animals.
• Large landholding (on agricultural land).
• Deposit of sludge and floating mud.
• Constraints on the quality of collected water.
• Proliferation of mosquitoes, frogs, etc.
• Risk of contamination of the surface water by accidental pollution.

Figure 38: Raised beds perpendicular to Raised beds

the slope perpendicular
to the slope
1. Description (Earth
embankment between
furrows)
Ridges are earthen cords made
along contour lines. The waters
between the ridges can flow freely
or be stored when the ridges are
partitioned. Ridges’ height can vary
between 20 and 100 cm. Their width
at the base is variable and in some
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
cases can reach above one meter.
They can be realized on low (<15
percent) to medium (<30 percent)
to high (<60 percent) slopes.
There are various types of ridges: simple, partitioned, with or without soles. The simple
ridges are adapted to the strong slopes and do not have soles. The partitioned ridges
are on low slopes and create small basins (10 m2) to better store rainwater. Whenever
the plot is located in the bottom of the valley or bed of the wadi, ridges can also be
consolidated by stones. Commonly they are permanent and allow to sustainably value
dryland lands by planting fruit trees (rosaceae) or vineyards. The endurance of the
ridges has the advantage of promoting the improvement over time of the physical,
chemical and biological properties of the soil.
2. Objective
The purpose of employing the ridges is to recover rainwater, reduce water losses
by runoff and infiltrate these waters into the soil to improve the water balance. The
breaking of the slope by the ridges also allows to break the speed of the runoff and thus
reduce the risks of erosion.
Such intervention allows to increase infiltration to the maximum and improve the
water balance of the soil, as well as to cultivate different crops and trees that require
a large amount of water (corn, alfalfa, fruit trees). The trees are often planted at the
upstream foot of the ridges, but never on the ridges to avoid their breakage.
3. Ridges construction
Ridges are recommended on deep, permeable soils with few large stones and they can
be created in zones with a recurrent moisture deficit and average rainfall (600 mm/
Water management 71
year). The ridges are very unstable and require regular maintenance.
The ridging is usually performed manually or by plows pulled by animals or a tractor.

Farmers begin with a plowing of the ground at different depths to loosen the surface.
Then, the ridges are formed with shovels by putting the soil on both sides of a line that
follows the contour. The collected stones are incorporated in the ridge to reinforce
it. When the surface is large, they are built mechanically. Following deep plowing, a
double plow is pulled along the contour lines to make ridges.
On vegetable plots, work is performed by hand. The ridges are built with the objective
of retaining runoff and storing it into the soil to improve the water balance. Between
ridges, basins can be created to optimize the use of water by plants, which also reduce
the risk of runoff.
For a slope of 15 to 30 percent, the average dimension is 80 to 100 cm in height and

a base of 70 to 150 cm. The distance between ridges or the width of the sole varies
according to the slope, the type of soil and the rainfall:
• For steep slopes (30 - 60 percent) ridges are very close to reduce the volume of
water stored between them and prevent them from breaking.
• For low (<15 percent) to medium (<30 percent) slopes the distance between
ridges may be larger (70 - 150 cm) and may be cropped.
In some cases, ridges are connected to a runoff gully or a ditch draining a path or a trail
to collect runoff from these surfaces. In this case, it is necessary to have a system to
control the quantity of runoff water entering in inter-ridges to avoid overflows.
4. Cost:
Ridges can be created manually or with towed plows (animals, machines), once the
plowing (loosening) of the soil is completed.
Manually:
• Soil plowing: 15 man-days/hectare = 150 USD/hectare.
• Making ridges: 10 man-days/hectare = 100 USD/hectare.
• Total: US$ 250;
With machine:
• Labor: USD 50/hectare.

• Making ridges: 50 USD/hectare.
• Total: USD 100/hectare.
5. Monitoring and maintenance:

Made-up ridges need to be monitored after heavy rains and at the end of each rainy
season to fill gaps created by excessive runoff.
6. Advantages
• Concentration of rain water that improves infiltration and storage of water in
the soil.
• Slowing of runoff by increasing the roughness of the soil.
• Added value of eventual supplementary agricultural surfaces.
• Increase and stabilization of yields per unit area cultivated.
7. Disadvantages
• Increased risk of erosion in case of poor application or heavy rain.
• High sensitivity to excess water due to intense storms.
Benches and bench elements

1. Description
Benches are long bowls, designed parallel to contour lines. They consist of three
elements: the slope, the bottom and the bead. Depending on the importance of each of
these three elements, three profiles can be distinguished:
• A profile (inclined) looking upstream, also called V profile, which facilitates the
evacuation of runoff at the expense of infiltration. This profile is recommended
for slopes steeper than 40 percent.
• A normal flat bottom profile, which allows the enhancement of the flat with a
protruding and profiled bead. Such profile is recommended on slopes of 30 to
40 percent as it promotes infiltration and improves soil water reserves. A low
counter-inclinationof the slope towards the bread improves the water regime in
the bench.
Water management 73
• A cushioned profile with a Figure 39: Benches handmade in

gentle bead. Such profile, agricultural land
resembling a terrace, is
recommended on low slopes
(less than 10 percent). Profile
benches of this type are fully
cultivable and require work
along contour lines.
The networks of benches and

bench elements apply to all types
of terrain and have high economic
relevance mostly with crops and
orchards.
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
2. Objective
Benches are often realized to host
plants in the middle of the plates that favor their stability and profit from the retained
water of runoff. On steep slopes (> 30 percent), without permanent and protective
vegetative cover, and randomly cultivated, the runoff at the origin of the lands’ erosion
largely exceeds the infiltration. Through the installation of benches, the slope is cut into
regular strips (inter-benchs), thus breaking the runoff’speed and reducing soil erosion.
Collected water can either infiltrate or be evacuated in fitted drains. The purpose of the
bench construction is to improve the water balance for the plants and reduce the risk
of erosion due to runoff.
3. Design and construction Figure 40: Bench elements in a forest

land
The basic unit of a bench network
includes:
• An elongated field forming

an impluvium between two
substantially level lines,
often cultivated.
• A bench gathering and

channeling the runoff water
at the bottom of the field.
• A finished end of this bench

on a natural outlet or artificial ©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
collector.
Figure 41: Scheme of bench
Source: MARA-DEFCS, 1978
The elementary bench is characterized by:
• Its longitudinal slope along the contour (<5 per 1000).
• Its length along the contour lines L (m).
• Its usable section.
• Its interval or difference in height between two successive benches H (m) called
spacing between two benches.
3.1. Calculation of intervals between benches

The distance between two booths should be sufficient to allow breaking the erosive
forces of the runoff between benches and thus avoiding erosion. Such distance depends
on the slope of the ground, the nature of the soil and the intensity of the rain.
To prevent the slope being eroded by intense rainy events (return period 10 years),
field experiences indicate that for a moderately balanced textured soil (between clay
and sand), engorged with water, the slope must be cut by benches placed at a vertical
distance H (m) called elevation difference. This should be calculated as follows:
For slopes (P percent) below 25 percent:

H3
= 260 ± 10
P
For slopes (P percent) above 25 percent:

H2
= 64
P
Water management 75
This formula is employed for agricultural land not covered by vegetation, saturated
with water and subject to stormy precipitation. Attention to soil protection against
water erosion is important.
Other formulas are applied in the Mediterranean basin:
H = 2.2 + 8 P
In the USA instead, one of the following two formulas is more often used, taking
into account the intensity of water erosion and providing lower figures and therefore
tighter bench networks:
Low erosion:
H = 0,076P +0,610
Strong erosion:
H = 0,076P +0,610
Table 7: The inter-bench distance according to the slopes of the land
Slope of the ground Difference between two benches Horizontal distance between
P (%) H (m) two benches
L (m)
3 2.00 67
5 2.35 47
10 3.00 30
12 3.15 26
15 3.4 23
20 3.70 19
25 4.00 16
30 4.37 14.5
35 4.72 13.5
40 5.05 12.6
45 5.36 11.9
50 5.65 11.3
55 5.92 10.7
60 6.19 10.3
65 6.44 9.90
70 6.68 9.54
75 9.62 9.24
80 7.15 8.93
85 7.36 8.66
90 7.58 8.42
95 7.79 8.20
100 8.00 8.00
Source: Greco, 1966; MARA-DEFCS, 1978
3.2. Profile along the benches

In the case of tilled land, the installation of benches with a slight longitudinal slope, of
the order of 5 per 1000, is often recommended to drive away the excess water, with a
low speed, to a corrected outlet (managed). It is recommended not to exceed a length of
400 m between the initial and the final point of a bench, also considering that networks
respecting these standards are not easy to trace and maintain. They are perfectly
justified on agricultural lands where productions can be important and interesting. The
bench should cross ravines and various obstacles (rocks, tufts of vegetation); the beads
should be kept at a rigorous height as any low point may cause an overflow on the
bottom bench and therefore a risk of breaking with those at the bottom.
To avoid this risk, short seat elements (1 to 12 m) are often adopted, arranged in
staggered rows end to end or separated by intervals of different dimensions. The
beads are fixed by woody plants or perennial herbaceous plants. If the quantity of
accumulated water is large, the surplus should overflow at the ends and not at the
center: appropriate outlets are maintained for this purpose. Benches’ elements are
more easily achievable than the benches themselves. Each element is independent, and
a line can be interrupted in the case of an obstacle, or, or slightly shifted up or down.
The spaces left between two extremities of banquettes allow the passage of people and
animals.
3.3. Cross section of the benches

In sloping bench networks, the cross-section of the earthworks is calculated so as
to drive the excess water to the outlet without risk of overflowing. In cultivated
areas, slopes and ridges are more or less damped to allow the passage of agricultural
machinery.
The choice of the profile is rather determined by the water needs of the cultivated
plants. It is therefore appropriate to adopt different profiles depending on whether the
Water management 77
accumulation of water (moisture) behind the beads is:
• Harmful.
• Not important.
• Desirable.
In marl, compact soils, prone to landslides, the opening of banquettes is more often
harmful than useful, especially under a humid climate. If needed, the beads should
not accumulate water to their foot. Benches improve water infiltration, therefore they
should in no case be performed on soils of low permeability, swelling or sensitive to
mass movement (solifluxion). It is also preferable to have a relatively deep soil (> 50
cm) to obtain benches with optimal sizing. Small steps with a spilled profile, should
then be selected, which slows down the water without stopping it completely, either
through simple earthworks or more or less elongated boulders, easily bypassed by
runoff water.
With medium permeability soils, and under a relatively rainy climate (upper semiarid,
sub-humid, 450 to 600 mm/year), solutions such as small bench on ditch, or just
planting potot (holes with bowls) should be promoted, as water concentration or
evacuation is not desirable.
On the contrary, with permeable soils, or when the rainfall is insufficient (semiarid
lower or arid climate, 250 to 350 mm/year), the largest water accumulation is advisable,
at the foot of the beads for the plants. In this case, larger earthworks are carried out
such as flat-bottomed banquettes, low walls or raised earth.
The flat-bottom bench is often used for planting fruit trees. The bottom is 1 to 3 m
wide, flat and slightly spilled (inclined) upstream. The bank has a slope of 100 percent.
The bead installed on the natural ground downstream of the flat has a rounded or
flattened ridge and a height of 35 to 70 cm. If the slope of the ground is steep (50 to 70
percent) it is recommended to consolidate the bead and enhance it.
3.4. Bench construction

The method involves drawing substantially horizontal benches and designed to:
• Break the erosive force of runoff before they harm the soil by breaking the slope
of the field;
• Infiltrate normal rainwater (return period <10 years) to improve the water
balance of the soil and promote its cultivation in areas with rainfall deficit;
• Evacuate slowly and without risk of erosion any excess rainwater to developed
outfalls.
Figure 42: Bench elements spaced apart Benches are usually run with
tractors up to a 45 percent gradient.
Beyond 45 percent, the work is
manual, employing skilled workers
able to give it a consistent pattern
along contour lines. Benches’
implantation begins with the
identification and the decision over
of the outlets and by drawing lines
according to the contours of level
or very weak longitudinal slope
(5 per 1000).
Benches can be made on variable

©FAO/Sabir Mohamed slopes, up to 60 percent or above.
The most effective results, however,
are obtained on gentle slopes (below
15 percent) since they allow to have
wider boards. Benches are conceivable in areas with low annual rainfall (semiarid and
sub humid climates).
The length of the banquettes can cover the entire slope if the soil’s infiltration capacity
exceeds the amount of rainwater. The bench’s width is 2.5 m maximum when the slope
is 20 percent. The height of the bead is a function of the intensity of the rains and
the degree of the slope. For a slope of 5 percent and an intensity of 30 mm / h for 30
minutes (return period 10 years), the performing height of the bead is approximately
50 cm, which should be increased
Figure 43: Bench elements in a by 20 percent to account for the
staggered arrangement settlement of the bead with time.
In the case of lower intensity rains
and permeable soils, the height can
be reduced.
Manual work
Primarily recommended for steep

slopes where gears cannot be used
because of its stability, manual work,
can be well applied on any slope. It
would require a team of skilled
workers (two to four people) and a
site manager (technician), whereby
©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
the construction site leader draws
Water management 79
the benches according to the contours. The workers open a 40 to 50 cm wide ditch,
and dispose the land downstream at a distance equal to the width of the bench. As a
result, they shape the flat of the bench and the upstream slope. In all cases the earth
is moved down. After they shape the bead, they should tamp it and reinforce it with
the stones and clods grassed on the slope. As a final step, the workers finalize the final
profile of the bench.
If the route is correctly realized, the bench will have a suitable profile and, from an
hydrological perspective, it will be beneficial for the soil (reduce erosion, store more
water) and for plants (improved water balance). Once the vegetation is installed
(protective role), the bench is durable.
Mechanical work:
The tractor begins from the basement of the bench seat. Then, it follows the layout of
the bench with its angle-dozer blade and materializes it on the ground. Afterwards,
the tractor starts digging while keeping on the track at the required depth. When the
slope is regular, one obtains with a regular bead an almost completed bench of roughly
constant width. The cut of the embankment and the finish of the bench are carried out
manually with a team of workers behind the tractor.
In both cases, a site is organized on site to provide the team of workers (site manager,
driver, workers) convenient conditions of habitat and food. This saves time and
therefore reduces costs. A light truck (pick-up) is often needed to link the yard to the
nearest village (supply of consumables).
4. Costs
Installation cost of bench seats
• Digging ditches and creating beads: manually 1000 to 1500 USD per hectare;
mechanically 1500 to 2000 USD per hectare.
• Planting of fruit plants: USD 1000 per hectare.
5. Advantages
• Enhance sloping land by increasing yields of fruit trees and intercrops.
• Promote the efficiency of water use by improving the hydrological functioning

of the landscaped slope.
• Enable water erosion control by reducing runoff and reducing flood risk
downstream.
• Improve the sustainability of infrastructure (dams, roads, etc.)
6. Disadvantages
• Reduces land availability for intercropping practices (10 to 15 percent).
• Requires regular maintenance, especially if inter-bench spaces are grown.
• Do not allow the mechanization of crops on steep slopes.
• Present risks when the works are poorly maintained or unsuitable.
• High installation cost.
Figure 44: Jessours built to store Jessours in the

sediments and water at the feet of trees valleys
1. Description
In semiarid mountains, small earth
embankments are built in series
in secondary valleys to capture
runoff and its solid load. These
dykes allow the gradual formation
of terraces planted with fruit trees
whose stems can buried under
sediments (fig, olive, vines) and
sown in cereals and legumes.
The compacted earth embankment

©FAO/Sabir Mohamed
is built either manually or by
bulldozer. The height is 1 to 3 m,
the length is 10 to 50 m and the thickness is 2 to 3 m at the base and 50 to 100 cm at
the top. The dyke is sometimes protected by a stone wall and equipped with a lateral
outlet that leans onto the edge of the slope. If the lateral spillway is created along a soft
slope, it is reinforced by lines of stones.
2. Objectives
The objective is to recover water and fine sediments in transit at the bottom of a valley
beyond a series of dykes, to gradually build terraces that will be intensively cultivated
with fruit trees, vegetables, cereals and fodder.
Water management 81
Figure 45: Scheme of Jessours
Source: Roose et al., 2010
3. Construction
The Jessur (plural of Jesr) are hydro-agricultural works (small hydro). This technique
involves the construction of one or more dams across wadi and gully troughs, which
allow, on one side, the retention of a quantity of alluvia that can be cultivated and,
on the other, retains some of the runoff. The water balance of the “agricultural
plots” formed by the trapping of these alluviums is much improved, which allows an
agricultural activity based on runoff even in such arid areas.
A Jesr consists of a small dyke mostly built in the ground and consolidated by blocks
of stone at the base. Its dimensions can reach a few tens of meters long and 4 to 5 m
in height and width. The shape is that of a trapezium with a flat top, separating an
upstream mini-talus retaining alluvium and water and a downstream slope. Dams often
have spillways consolidated by stones to allow evacuating excess water and alluvium
to the next Jesr and avoid the destruction of dams eventually due to the retention of
excess water.
The dam is built with soil taken from the bottom of the valley or on the slopes. Some
parts, however, require the use of stones collected nearby. The height of dams varies
from two to five meters, on average, and have a length of a few tens of meters. Their
cross section is roughly trapezoidal, and they are protected downstream by a strong
enough wall, made of dry stones. The body of the jesr can be colonized by herbaceous
vegetation whose root network increases the cohesion of the whole. The summit
can be used as a trail to easily pass from one slope to another. Behind the dam, large
volumes of loose materials accumulate over time, usually silts and sands torn off the
slope by runoff. The “jesser” created in this way stores large quantities of water and a
small water table is created temporarily after the rains. The water supply can be further
increased by collecting water along the slope through small walls that guide the flow
towards the plot.
The farmer therefore has the opportunity, through this system, to engage in significantly
water demanding crops: olive, fig, pomegranate, almond, but also some crops (barley,
peas, lentils, beans, watermelons) that give each thalweg a constantly green appearance.
It should be noted that, in order to withstand the heaviest showers, the jessour system
has several types of weirs.
4. Cost
• Construction of an earthen dyke sometimes reinforced with a pebble coating
that is collected on site 10 man days/20 m3 to 100 man days/100 m x 10 USD:
100 to 600 USD.
• Careful landscaping of the spillway with cut stone masonry: for a surface of
1 m x 1 m: 30 USD.
• Purchase and planting of fruit trees (olive trees, fig trees): 2 to 4 USD/plant,
• Fertilization (manure and NPK): 70 USD/hectare.
• Total: 500 to 1500 USD/hectare.
5. Monitoring and maintenance

• Maintenance of the dyke: 5 man day/hectare/year, i.e. 50 USD/hectare/year.
• Fertilization of fruit trees: 60 USD/hectare/year.
6. Advantages
• Recovery of water and sediments circulating in the valley.
• Reduction of solid transport, peak flows and siltation of dams.
• Improvement of land productivity.
• Strengthening biodiversity.
7. Disadvantages
• Requires regular maintenance of the dyke and spillway, especially after each
main flood.
• Production depends on rains (it should be neither too abundant nor too weak
and well distributed).
References
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département Sud d’Haïti. Ministère de l’Agriculture, des ressources naturelles et du
développement rural, Haïti.
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Technical Regional Office (ENTRO), Eastern Nile Watershed Management
Project. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
DREFLCD-HA. 2011. Guide de traitement des ravins à l’usage des acteurs communautaires. Direction
Régionale des Eaux et Forêts et de la Lutte Contre la Désertification du Haut Atlas,
Marrakech, Maroc.
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design of irrigation reservoirs in Kent. European Regional Development Fund (ERDF),
South East ERDF Competitiveness Programme 2007-2013. Kent.
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constructing and commissioning a water storage reservoir. QT, UK.
FAO. 1990. Gestion des eaux en irrigation. Manuel de formation n° 5 Méthodes d’irrigation. FAO,
Rome, Italy.
FAO. 1995. Levés topographiques - nivellement direct. CDrom/FAO_Training. FAO, Rome,

Italy.
FAO. 1996. Aménagement des sols pour une agriculture durable et la protection de l’environnement sous les
tropiques. FAO, Rome, Italy.
GAL Pays de l’Ourthe. 2008. Guide technique de la pierre sèche: Toutes les règles de base à connaître
avant de commencer un mur. Ourthes, Belgique.
Greco, J. 1966. L’érosion, la défense et la restauration des sols, le reboisement en Algérie. Ministère de
l’Agriculture et de la Réforme Agraire, Alger, 303 p.
Hokayem, A., Ghammache, M. 1967. Séminaire sur l’utilisation des terres et des eaux au Proche
Orient - Les techniques d’irrigation au Liban, Beyrouth, Liban. 25-30 septembre 1967.
FAO-UNDP.
Hudson, M. 1990. Conservation des sols et des eaux dans les zones semi-arides. Bulletin pédologique
de la FAO 57, Traduit par Roose E. FAO, Rome, Italy.
Institution ADOUR. 2016. Démarche de lutte contre l’érosion des sols : de la préparation à la mise en
œuvre. Guide pratique Erosion. SAGE Midouze, France.
Kallala, A. 2017. Guide pratique des principales techniques de lutte contre la désertification. Observatoire
du Sahara et du Sahel, Tunis, Tunisia.
Lempérière, F. 2017. Design and Construction of Dams, Reservoirs, and Balancing Lakes.
HydroCoop, Paris, France.
Liniger, H., Mekdaschi Studer, M., Hauert, C., Gurtner, M. 2011. La pratique de la
gestion durable des terres. Directives et bonnes pratiques pour l’Afrique subsaharienne. TerrAfrica-
WOCAT-FAO.
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la Réforme Agraire, Direction des Eaux et Forêts et de la Conservation des Sols.
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de l’Eau et des Sols (GCES) aux conditions agro-écologiques du Maroc. (Manuel de GCES du Maroc).
Edition IRD, Marseille, France.
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Rural Solutions SA. 2011. Farm dams – a guide to siting, design, construction and management on Eyre
Peninsula. Eyre Peninsula Natural Resources Management Board. Government of
South Australia. Port Lincoln, Australia.
Sabir, M. 2019. Guide pratique de la gestion conservatoire des eaux et sols dans le bassin du Sebou. WWF,
Casablanca, Maroc.
Sabir, M., Roose, E. 2020. Soil degradation in North Africa and techniques for their conservation. In:
Napier, T., El-Swaify, S., Li, R., Sabir, M., Rienzi, E. “Degradation of Soil and
Water Resources: A Global Issue”. Springler – WASWC. Washington.
Sabra, M., Andraos, L., Nahas, N. 1967. Aménagement des terrains en pente au Liban : Terrasses et
banquettes. Séminaire sur l’utilisation des terres et des eaux au Proche Orient, 25-30
septembre 1967. Beyrouth, Liban. FAO-UNDP.
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technique 16-010, AGDEX 753/652, Ministère de l'agriculture, de l'Alimentation
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SYMASOL. 2016. Les bassins à ciel ouverts. Gestion des eaux pluviales : Guide pour la mise en œuvre de
techniques alternatives. Syndicat mixte des affluents du Sud-Ouest Lémanique, Suisse.
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Compétences Acquises et de Savoirs Techniques. Sous-programme européen
GRUNDTVIG projet multilatéral. Conseil de Mallorca.
Villemus, B. 2004. Etude des murs de soutènement en maçonnerie de pierres sèches. Thèse de l’institut
national des sciences appliquées de Lyon, Formation doctorale : Génie Civil,
Ecole doctorale MEGA (Mécanique, Energétique, Génie Civil, Acoustique), ECL,
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USDA-NRSC. 2011. Chapter 8: Terraces. H_210_NEH_650 - Part 650 - Engineering

Field Handbook, United States Department of Agriculture - Natural Resources
Conservation Service. 210–VI–EFH, Amend. 48.
Field guide for hill land reclamation
and water management
Estimates indicate that around 20-25 percent of the active population of
Lebanon derives at least part of its livelihoods from agriculture. Nevertheless, the
majority of farmers live below the upper poverty line of 4 USD per day, with over
20 percent of households’ heads engaged in extremely poor sectors and living
with less than 2.40 USD per day. The enhancement of food security, rural
development and sustainable resources management are, thus, imperative and
they are targeted as key priorities both in the Strategy of the Ministry of
Agriculture as well as in the Green Plan, which aims to assist poor farmers in
deploying natural resources infrastructure. In order to bring effective
improvements at field level, however, the joint efforts of all stakeholders are
required, from decision-makers to agricultural practitioners.
The current Field Guide has been prepared as a practical and technical tool that
can well respond to the current challenges in land reclamation for soil and water
management and, ultimately, support final beneficiaries and agricultural agents
through the provision of clear indications and potential costs. The Guide, thus,
should be considered not simply as a compendium of land reclamation and water
management practices, but also as a manual for implementers and specialists.
While the Guide provides a complete set of instructions to implement an

extensive range of land reclamation and water management solutions to achieve
optimal employment of resources, the successful outcome still depends on the
farmers’ willingness to embrace and adopt the illustrated practices. However, the
Guide takes in due consideration the constraint represented by the availability of
resources for farmers willing to improve their practices. As a result, the
illustrated techniques are presented together with realistic estimates of required
manual work, labor employment and financial costs, for a correct evaluation
based on local and individual needs and priorities and the subsequent direct
implementation.
With the technical support of

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ii

Field guide for hill

Mohamed Sabir, Water Harvesting Specialist

Dany Lichaa El-Khoury, Project Manager, FAO

Maher Salman, Senior Land and Water Officer, FAO

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Construction of bench terraces 3

Construction of dry stone walls supporting terraces 21

Construction of stone lines 29

Construction of dry stone small walls 30

Design, construction and maintenance of irrigation reservoirs 55

Rainwater harvesting in open ponds 66

Raised beds perpendicular to the slope 70

Benches and bench elements 72

Jessours in the valleys 81

To these already challenging conditions, the conflict in neighboring Syria resulted in

Strengthening capacities of farmers and smallholders requires joint efforts of

Throughout human history, land reclamation represented a meaningful system

As for a significant number of Mediterranean country, Lebanon has a long-standing

The objective of terracing and Figure 1: Bench terraces made by

There are several types of terraces:

Figure 2: Plot managed with bench terraces

2. Description of terraces profiled upstream

Figure 3: Cross-section of a terrace with

Source: USDA-NRSC, 2011

1. Vertical interval (VI) VI = (S x Wb) x (100 - S x U)

2.5 30 1,5 60 Handmade

Vertical interval and spacing of terraces

VI = the vertical interval (meter).

S = the slope in percentage (%).

Wb = the width of the sole of the terrace (meter).

Longitudinal slope of the terraces

Height and slope of the bank

Minimum depth of soil

Limit of slope for the construction of terraces

• Wide-base terraces and other simple and inexpensive conservation treatments

• Such slopes are not generally an obstacle to mechanized cultivation.

Net area of terraces

3. Preparation, tracing and picketing

• A preparatory phase to assess the general conditions of the terrain: climate,

• An implementation and operational phase to, primarily, complete the picketing.

• The climate: precipitation, temperature, wind, air humidity, etc.

• Current land use: natural vegetation, plantations, crops.

• Future land use project (crops, plantations, constructions).

3.2 Tracing and picketing

visible as possible. According to the Figure 4: Variation of the equidistance

staking the upper and lower lines

Before picketing, a line from top

This method is suitable for

Water level hose method

Triangle method with water

From the benchmarks of the line

the ruler on the upper stake of the Figure 7: Optical level

One foot is placed on the starting

It is advisable always to start from

Optical site level method

Earthworks can be either manual or mechanical. Regardless of the earthmoving

4.1 Manual construction of terraces

The following rules should be carefully taken into consideration: