The Effect of Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok

Videos on Consumer Well-being

Author: Aïsha Xiao Mei Scholtens

University of Twente
P.O. Box 217, 7500AE Enschede
The Netherlands

ABSTRACT
In today’s world, physical inactivity is a serious concern. “Fitspiration” content
on social media may have an impact on the behaviour of the consumer. A self-reporting
online survey (n = 114) was conducted to investigate the differences between how men
and women’s attitudes, norms, intentions, and exercise behaviour are influenced by
being exposed to Fitspiration content on TikTok. Using the Theory of Planned
Behaviour (TPB) the results show that being exposed to Fitspiration TikTok videos did
not directly impact one’s exercise behaviour. However, exposure to Fitspiration
affected men’s subjective norms, whereas both exercise attitudes and subjective norms
of women were impacted by viewing such content. These findings might suggest that
men may be less susceptible to the impact of social media when it comes to engaging
in physical activity. Furthermore, attitudes toward exercising impacted exercise
intentions in both men and women, while subjective norms also significantly impacted
exercise intention in women. Additionally, exercise intention was found to significantly
predict exercise frequency in both men and women. These findings contribute to a
better understanding of the role of social media in shaping exercise behaviour and
highlight the importance of considering gender differences in future interventions and
campaigns promoting physical activity.

Graduation Committee members:

Dr. Hatice Kizgin

Keywords
Social Media, Fitspiration, TikTok, Theory of Planned Behaviour, Consumer Well-being.

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License, which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
CC-BY-NC
conceptual model is presented, and several hypotheses are
1. INTRODUCTION formulated. In section four the research methodology will be
In the Netherlands, the average amount of time spent provided, after which the findings of the study based on the
on social media is roughly 2 hours per day (114 minutes), with conceptual model are outlined. Section six focuses on the
youngsters spending over 2,5 hours (161 minutes) on social discussion, the theoretical and practical implications, and
media every day (Oosterveer, 2023). Social media platforms suggestions for future research. Finally, the last section presents
provide access to a range of trendy content related to health and the conclusion.
fitness (Carrotte et al., 2015). A specific category of health and
fitness-related content on social media platforms is 2. LITERATURE REVIEW
“Fitspiration”, the amalgamation of the words “fitness” and The conceptual framework is based on a review of the
“inspiration”. Fitspiration content consists largely of slim and literature on Fitspiration and the Theory of Planned Behaviour.
athletic women, lean and muscular men, and content that The effects of engaging with Fitspiration via social media on
promote healthy diets and exercising to achieve a certain look, consumers’ mental well-being will be discussed as well as its
instead of health-driven motivations (Berry et al., 2023; Boepple impact on exercise behaviour. Additionally, a review of the
& Thompson, 2016). However, having external fitness objectives existing literature will be conducted on TPB to provide
undermine physical activity levels and quality of life (Gillison et justification for its relevance to exercise behaviour.
al., 2007). Additionally, Fitspiration posts are often found to
emphasize appearance-related standards, sexual allusion, and 2.1 Exposure to Fitspiration
promote restrictive food habits (Alberga et al., 2018). Fitspiration involves sharing or consuming images,
In the last few decades, Western populations' health quotes, and tips related to fitness and nutrition (Tiggemann &
has been adversely affected by physical inactivity (Organisation, Zaccardo, 2015), which connects individuals who share their
2003). However, regular exercise is crucial as it boosts overall interest in Fitspiration on social media (Carrotte et al., 2017).
body health and promotes a general feeling of well-being (Abou Fitspiration content is aimed to motivate individuals to adopt
Elmagd, 2016). The paradigm of weight-focused approaches to healthy and active lifestyles (Boepple et al., 2016). Engaging
health has negative effects on psychological well-being and with Fitspiration content enhances social support and acts as a
might lead to chronic physical harm, such as metabolic damage source to obtain information related to health (Raggatt et al.,
and weight fluctuations (Marks et al., 2020). 2018). However, findings suggest that although exposure to
The effects of Fitspiration content via social media on Fitspiration images may enhance viewers' motivation to
women have been widely investigated (Choo, 2022; Fardouly et participate in healthy behaviours, it may also portray possible
al., 2018; Prichard et al., 2020; Robinson et al., 2017; Tiggemann harmful themes (Carrotte et al., 2017).
& Zaccardo, 2015), while Fitspiration exposure has rarely been Tiggemann and Zaccardo (2015) indicated that
researched in men (Fatt et al., 2019). Especially a comparative Fitspiration images might have a negative impact on body image,
study between men and women has not been researched before. as exposure to such images resulted in increased negative mood
Nonetheless, Fitspiration content containing various statements and body dissatisfaction, while confidence in one’s appearance
may elicit different responses from men and women (Arigo et al., decreased as compared to exposure to travel images. More
2021). literature (Fatt et al., 2019; Griffiths & Stefanovski, 2019;
Limited research has been done on the role of Prichard et al., 2020) explore these effects. The study conducted
Fitspiration on exercise frequency (Pryde & Prichard, 2022). by Fatt et al. (2019) analysed the correlation between how often
Thus far, the predominant focus of studies investigating one engages with Fitspiration content on Instagram, and men’s
Fitspiration content on social media have been primarily on discontentment with their bodies, extrinsic fitness motivation,
Instagram (Arigo et al., 2021; Prichard et al., 2020; Robinson et and fitness to increase their health. Based on the findings, it was
al., 2017), since there is a significant amount of Fitspiration concluded that while the frequency of consuming Fitspiration
content available on the platform and its widespread usage. content did not have an immediate correlation with body
Previous research shows that body image is often more contentment or motivation to workout, there were notable
negatively affected by graphic platforms like Instagram than by indirect effects through increased internalisation of the muscular
text-based platforms such as Facebook (Vandenbosch et al., ideal and the tendency to compare one's looks with others (Fatt
2022). However, since its debut in September 2016, TikTok has et al., 2019). Viewing content of ideal male physiques may have
become a widespread phenomenon among young people (Yuan, a detrimental impact on the body satisfaction of young men
2021). TikTok, owned by Byte Dance, is a social network service (Blond, 2008). In addition, the meta-analysis by Barlett et al.
for sharing videos and aims to encourage users' creativity while (2008) indicated that being exposed to muscular ideals was
bringing them joy (TikTok, 2023). It is a platform that provides linked to decreased levels of body satisfaction and self-esteem,
users with the ability to create content instead of the company as well as increased levels of negative psychological and
itself (Yang & Zilberg, 2020). With over 1.7 billion active users behavioural consequences among men. Fardouly et al. (2018)
globally in 2022, TikTok surpassed Instagram in terms of user found that a higher levels of exposure to Fitspiration images on
count in 2021 (Buchholz, October 2022). This highlights the Instagram was linked to increased concerns regarding body
need for more insight into the effects of Fitspiration TikTok image in women, and this correlation is affected by factors such
videos on consumers’ well-being. as internalisation, propensity to compare one’s overall looks, and
The present research addresses this gap in the literature comparing one's looks to females depicted in Fitspiration
by performing a comparative study, exploring the influence of content.
Fitspiration TikTok videos on exercise frequency. Inspired by the Further research explored that being exposed to fit-
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1991), the present normative content on Instagram can potentially promote
research models the role of exposure to Fitspiration TikTok unhealthy reasons for working out (Wood & Pila, 2022) and may
videos on attitudes toward exercising, norms toward exercising, lead to compulsive exercising (Wu et al., 2022). Specifically,
and perceived behavioural control as predictors of exercise Raggatt et al. (2018) conducted a survey (N=180) where 17.7%
intention, which impacts exercise frequency. of the respondents were categorised being at a heightened risk
The paper is divided into 7 sections. The second for the development of an eating disorder, 17.4% stated they were
section provides a review of the relevant literature. Next, a experiencing a significant degree of psychological distress, and
10.3% were identified as being sensitive to compulsive fitness detailed discussion is provided on the proposed relationships and
behaviours. Gender could be a significant factor in Fitspiration, hypotheses.
affecting both the chances of being exposed to Fitspiration, as
well as the influence of such exposure (Griffiths & Stefanovski,
2019). Choo (2022) conducted a review of relevant literature
investigating the influence of Fitspiration on young women,
suggesting that the existing literature does not support the idea
that interacting with Fitspiration reduces the harmful
consequences of comparison with others and self-objectification.
However, only a few studies explore the impact of
Fitspiration content on exercise frequency. On one hand, Welker
Figure 1: Conceptual Model
et al. (2019) found that students who had access to fitness pages
demonstrated higher levels of exercise more than students who 3.2 Exposure to Fitspiration
did not. On the other hand, Chasler (2016) demonstrated that Fitspiration refers to photos and videos on social media
those who viewed Fitspiration images actually showcased lower that aim to encourage viewers to adopt a healthier way of living
levels of exercise than those who did not. The present study (Tiggemann & Zaccardo, 2015). Eng et al. (2022) demonstrated
complements these studies by examining the influence of that exposure to Fitspiration content was linked to greater
exposure to Fitspiration TikTok videos on the antecedents of perceptions of affective attitudes toward exercising and
exercise intentions and its impact on exercise frequency. descriptive norms, which was in turn positively related to actual
engagement in exercise. However, Fitspiration exposure did not
2.2 Theory of Planned Behaviour seem to influence perceived behavioural control toward
The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) has been
exercising (Eng et al., 2022). This research proposes that greater
extensively discussed in the literature. TPB explains how
exposure to Fitspiration TikTok videos will be positively related
attitude, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control, to Attitudes toward Exercising and Subjective Norms toward
affect the end consumers’ behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). Attitudes
Exercising, while Exposure to Fitspiration content will be
refer to one’s general assessment about engaging in a certain
negatively associated with Perceived Behavioural Control
behaviour, while subjective norms evaluate the influence of
toward exercising.
others on a person to behave in a certain way or not (Ryan E
Rhodes & Kerry S Courneya, 2003). Perceived behavioural H1: Exposure to Fitspiration content is positively related to
control involves an individual's assessment of their ability to attitudes toward exercising.
engage in the behaviour (Eng et al., 2022). H2: Exposure to Fitspiration content is positively related to
In general, empirical studies indicate that TPB has subjective norms toward exercising.
strong predictive power for various behaviours (Kautonen et al.,
2013; Tonglet et al., 2004), including exercise and physical H3: Exposure to Fitspiration content is negatively related to
activity (Eng et al., 2022; Hagger et al., 2002). Hausenblas et al. perceived behavioural control.
(1997) discovered significant effect sizes in various 3.3 Antecedents of TPB
relationships: intention and exercise behaviour, attitude and Attitudes toward exercising, norms toward exercising,
intention, attitude and exercise behaviour, perceived behavioural and perceived behavioural control affect behavioural intention,
control and intention, and perceived behavioural control and this in turn significantly predicts actual behaviour (Armitage &
exercise behaviour were all characterized by large effect sizes. Conner, 2001). In a study conducted by Kerner et al. (2001)
The connection between subjective norm and intention was attitudes toward fitness were significantly associated with
moderate, whereas the relationship between subjective norm and intentions to exercise. Furthermore, Rhodes et al. (2006) found
exercise behaviour was found to be negligible (Hausenblas et al., that people’s attitude toward exercise and their perceived
1997). Furthermore, Boudreau and Godin (2007) used the TPB behavioural control had an influence on their intentions, which is
to predict exercise intention among obese adults and revealed in line with the study of Hausenblas et al. (1997). In addition,
that TPB accounted for 66% of the variation in exercise social norms of friends and family members have a great impact
intentions, where perceived behavioural control and attitude on one's intentions to perform a certain behaviour (Rivis et al.,
significantly influenced intention. Moreover, the results by Mok 2009). Research by Mok and Lee (2013) demonstrated that
and Lee (2013) demonstrated that the subjective norm and subjective norms together with perceived behavioural control
perceived behavioural control were found to significantly predict were significant factors influencing physical activity levels. Prior
intention to exercise (53.1%), while TPB was responsible for research has demonstrated that perceived behavioural control had
26.6% of the variance in predicting exercise behaviour. a significant positive impact on the intention to adopt a healthy
3. HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT way of life (Banerjee & Ho, 2020). In particular, Lu et al. (2022)
In the following section, the conceptual model found that perceived behavioural control was the most potent
developed for this research will be presented with a brief predictor in children's exercise and Armitage (2005) illustrated
discussion of each hypothesis. that perceived behavioural control substantially predicted both
intentions to exercise and actual exercise behaviour. Based on
3.1 Conceptual Model these findings, the following hypotheses are developed.
The present study examines the impact of exposure to H4: Attitudes toward exercising are positively related to exercise
Fitspiration TikTok videos on the exercise intentions and intention.
exercise frequency of the consumer, based on the constructs of H5: Norms toward exercising are positively related to exercise
the TPB. In line with Eng et al. (2022), this research intention.
conceptualizes the influence of exposure to Fitspiration TikTok
videos on the attitudes toward exercising, subjective norms H6: Perceived behavioural control is positively related to
toward exercising, and perceived behavioural control toward exercise intention.
exercising. This in turn has an impact on the intention to exercise,
which predicts exercise frequency. In the following section, a
3.4 Exercise Intentions this research used both snowball-sampling as well as random
Increasing one's intention to engage in a behaviour will sampling. The respondents ranged from all kinds of ages, with
increase the probability of actually carrying out that behaviour the biggest age group being 19-22 years old (57.0%). Most of
(Ajzen & Madden, 1986). Rhodes et al. (2006) employed the the population spend around 1-2 hours a day on TikTok
TPB to explore the exercise domain. The results showed that (46.5%). Further information on the demographics can be found
individual’s intention to exercise was a strong predictor of their in Table 1.
actual participation in physical activity (Rhodes et al., 2006). Table 1: Demographic Information of the Participants (n = 114)
This is consistent with Rivis and Sheeran (2003) who Variable Value Count %
investigated TPB in young people and found significant
correlations between intentions and exercise behaviours. Gender Male 50 43.9
Therefore, it is hypothesized that Exercise Intentions are Female 64 56.1
positively related to Exercise Frequency. Age < 16 years old 1 0.9
H7: Exercise intention is positively related to exercise frequency. 16-18 years old 12 10.5
3.5 Fitspiration Effect 19-22 years old 65 57.0
Looking at Fitspiration pages could be advantageous 23-26 years old 23 20.2
for people as it might inspire them to engage in more physical 27-30 years old 11 9.6
activity and strive for objectives associated with building muscle
> 30 years old 2 1.8
(Welker et al., 2019). Individuals have a tendency to assess
themselves by making comparisons with others who have Weight < 50kg 4 3.5
superior physical appearance, and then implement strategies to 50-59kg 14 12.3
address any perceived deficiencies (Fardouly et al., 2017). 60-69kg 31 27.2
Therefore, Fitspiration might promote unhealthy exercise
motives related to appearance instead of health. Wu et al. (2022) 70-79kg 29 25.4
discovered a notable positive correlation between involvement 80-89kg 23 20.2
with Fitspiration and healthy eating content and higher levels of 90-100kg 5 4.4
compulsive exercise. This is consistent with the findings of
> 100kg 8 7.0
Holland and Tiggemann (2017) who investigated disordered
eating and compulsive exercise in women exposed to Time Spent on TikTok None 3 2.6
Fitspiration. Although the motives for exercising might not be to < 1 hour a day 30 26.3
improve one’s health, it is hypothesized that exposure to 1-2 hours a day 53 46.5
Fitspiration TikTok videos is positively related to exercise
3-4 hours a day 25 21.9
frequency.
5-6 hours a day 1 0.9
H8: Fitspiration TikTok videos are positively related to exercise
frequency. > 6 hours a day 2 1.8

The present study examines the difference in impact of 4.2 Survey Instruments and Measures
the proposed model between men and women. Men and women The items used in the survey have been drawn from
spend different amounts of time online (Cataldo et al., 2022). existing literature. A cover page with the necessary information
Further research shows that men tend to have higher behavioural has been provided. The first section included several opening
intentions than women (Mok & Lee, 2013). Arigo et al. (2021) questions regarding TikTok usage, which were used to screen out
found that as a reaction to both traditional Fitspiration messages any participants who did not use TikTok. The subsequent
and pictures free from text, men exhibited higher exercise sections of the survey focused on the variables outlined in the
motivation and behaviour compared to women. Another study conceptual model. In the last section, the participants were asked
conducted by Newson and Kemps (2007) found that women to provide their socio-demographic information.
primarily engaged in exercise for health-related purposes,
whereas men emphasized the importance of challenge as their 4.2.1 Frequency of Exposure to Fitspiration
primary motivator. This study aims to discover any difference in To measure the frequency of exposure to Fitspiration,
influence of Fitspiration TikTok videos on exercise behaviour two items are adapted from Pasko and Arigo (2021). To gain a
between men and women. deeper comprehension of the exposure to Fitspiration, the survey
included items that evaluate intentional and unintentional TikTok
4. METHODOLOGY viewing separately, in terms of the number of days per week. The
available answers included “less than one day per week,” “1-2
4.1 Population and Sampling days per week,” “3-4 days per week,” “5-6 days per week,” “once
A self-report online questionnaire was distributed for
per day,” and “more than once per day.”
this quantitative study. The survey aimed to explore the
influence of TikTok videos on exercise behaviour. Therefore, 4.2.2 Exercise Attitudes
the present study found 50 men (43.9%) and 64 women (56.1%) Four 5-point semantic differential scales were
who use TikTok. Since these individuals may be difficult to obtained from Lowe et al. (2002) to measure attitudes toward
identify and to recruit, the snowball-sampling method has been exercise. Contemporary research differentiates attitudes into
used which means that current respondents recruit new affective, perceptions toward behaviour based on emotions and
respondents from their own network of acquaintances (Berndt, affect, and instrumental components, the perceived costs and
2020). However, random sampling, identifying participants at benefits related to a certain behaviour (Hamilton & Johnson,
random from the relevant population, is preferred to minimize 2020). Therefore, to create an effective attitudes scale, the two
bias caused by shared factors among study participants items unenjoyable-enjoyable and boring-interesting were
(Emerson, 2015). Therefore, to reach the aimed number of combined. Additionally, an instrumental attitudes scale was
participants while at the same time limiting the potential bias, created by combining the two items, harmful-beneficial and
unhealthy-healthy. The statement “Exercising in my leisure loadings above .3 and .4, indicating their stability. However, for
time over the next 6 months would be . . .” was displayed after Subjective Norms toward Exercising the two items SN2 (.450)
which four 5-point attitude measures were presented. and SN5 (.493) displayed significant low factor loadings
4.2.3 Subjective Norms compared to the other items, suggesting these items are
To assess subjective norm, five items adapted from suboptimal. Therefore, these items have been removed,
Ryan E Rhodes and Kerry S Courneya (2003) have been used. resulting in acceptable results for further validity and reliability
tests. To examine the construct validity, the Kaiser-Meyer-
Injunctive norm refers to the belief that significant others approve
or disapprove of one's behaviour, while descriptive norm Olkin (KMO) measure and Bartlett's sphericity test have been
involves the influence of other people's behaviour in particular conducted. The KMO and Bartlett's test results provided
situations (Schultz et al., 2007). Participants responded to items moderate values, ranging from .5 to .76 (see Table 2). These
such as “My friends would approve if I exercised regularly in the results are considered satisfactory as they surpass the threshold
of .5 (Chen et al., 2019). The reliability of the items was
next 6 months” for injunctive norm and “Most of my family
members exercise regularly” for descriptive norm. It was evaluated using Cronbach's Alpha (see Table 2). Following
measured on a 7-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) Seibert et al. (2020), a Cronbach's alpha above .5 is considered
to 7 (strongly agree). acceptable. All constructs exhibited scores exceeding the
threshold of .5, suggesting reliability of the items. Furthermore,
4.2.4 Perceived Behavioural Control the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) was calculated. An
The measurement of perceived behavioural control AVE score exceeding .5 is typically deemed acceptable
included three items of Ryan E. Rhodes and Kerry S. Courneya (Purwanto, 2021). All constructs displayed an AVE of .5 or
(2003). The following items have been assessed on a 5-point higher.
scale with 1 (strongly disagree) and 5 (strongly agree):
‘‘Whether or not I exercise regularly in the next 2 weeks is 5.2 Correlation Analysis
entirely up to me’’ and ‘‘Exercising in the next 2 weeks feels Before conducting the Correlation Analysis, all items
beyond my control". The third item, ‘‘How much personal belonging to a construct were coded into one variable. The
control do you feel you have over exercising in the next 2 weeks", Correlation Analysis (see Table 3) portrayed several significant
has been assessed on a 5-point scale with 1 (no control) and 5 correlations among the variables. There is a notable positive
(complete control). correlation between Exercise Intentions and Exercise Frequency
(r = .561). Moreover, Attitudes toward Exercising (r = .515) and
4.2.5 Exercise Intentions Subjective Norms toward Exercising (r = .460) exhibited
Three items on a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 significant positive correlations with Exercise Intentions.
(strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) obtained from Zhu et al. Additionally, Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok Videos displayed
(2017) were used to assess exercise intentions of the participants. a positive correlation with Attitudes toward Exercising (r =
The items consisted of the statements "I am highly motivated to .207), Subjective Norms toward Exercising (r = .267), and
exercise regularly within the next month", "I have a strong Exercise Frequency (r = .218).
intention to exercise regularly within the next month," and "I am
fully dedicated to exercising regularly within the next month." 5.3 Hypotheses Testing
Multiple Regression Analysis was employed to test the
4.2.6 Exercise Frequency hypotheses derived from the conceptual model. The data file with
Three items adapted from Cho (2016) were used to the total population was split up between men and women. In the
measure the current frequency of exercise. The first question was following section, the results of the Multiple Regression Analysis
“How often do you exercise for at least 30 minutes in your free for the male and female population will be presented to
time per week?” with answer given on a 5-point scale ranging demonstrate the differences in relationships between gender.
from 1 (never), to 5 (every day). The second question was “What
is the average duration of a workout in your free time?”, with 5.3.1 Male
answers ranging from 1 (less than 30 minutes) to 5 (more than In case of the male population, the findings indicate
120 minutes). The third question was “How long have you that out of the eight hypotheses, only three were found to be
already participated in exercising?”, with answer ranging from 1 statistically significant (see table 4). The regression analysis
(less than 1 month) to 5 (more than 6 months). revealed a positive, but insignificant relationship between
Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok and Attitudes toward
4.3 Data Collection and Analysis Exercising (β = .112, p = 0.440) and Perceived Behavioural
The data collection process involved distributing the
Control (β = .083, p = .567). However, Exposure to Fitspiration
survey link through group chats and sharing it on Instagram and
had a positive, significant relationship with Subjective Norms
LinkedIn. The data collection started in May and took
toward Exercising (β = .328, p = 0.020). Thus, H1and H3 are
approximately two weeks. For the data analysis, the statistical
not supported, while H2 is supported. Furthermore, Attitudes
software SPSS (version 28) was used. Individuals who did not
toward Exercising (β = .511, p = < 0.001) was found to have a
use TikTok were excluded from the dataset, after which an
positive, significant impact on Exercise Intentions. However,
Exploratory Factor Analysis was conducted to explore the
Subjective Norms toward Exercising (β = .212, p = .086) and
underlying factors. The reliability of the identified factors was
Perceived Behavioural Control (β = .028, p = .818) showed a
assessed using Cronbach's Alpha. To investigate the conceptual
positive, insignificant influence on Exercise Intention.
model depicted in Figure 1, a Correlation Analysis was
Therefore, H4 is supported, while H5 and H6 are not supported.
performed along with a Multiple Regression Analysis.
Additionally, Exercise Intention (β = .677, p = < 0.001) was
5. RESULTS found to influence Exercise Frequency significantly and
positively. However, Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok (β = .030,
5.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) p = .785) exhibited a positively insignificant effect on Exercise
To assess the level of influence exerted by the items Frequency. Consequently, H7 is supported, while H8 is not
on the variable, an Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) has been supported.
performed. The stability of the factor loadings was assumed for
factor loadings above .4, while suppressing of loadings below .3
(Guadagnoli & Velicer, 1988). All items displayed factor
5.3.2 Female p = < .001) and Subjective Norms toward Exercising (β = .385,
In the context of the female population, the findings p = <.001) were found to have a positive and significant impact
demonstrate that five out of the eight hypotheses were found to on Exercise Intentions, while Perceived Behavioural Control (β
be statistically significant (see Table 5). Exposure to = -.001, p = .989) showed a negative and insignificant influence
Fitspiration TikTok and both Attitudes toward Exercising (β = on Exercise Intention. Therefore, H4 and H5 are supported,
.274, p = .028) and Subjective Norms toward Exercising (β = while H6 is not supported. Moreover, Exercise Intention (β =
.338, p = .006), were found to be positively related. However, .359, p = .005) was found to influence Exercise Frequency
Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok had a negative but significantly and positively. However, Exposure to Fitspiration
nonsignificant effect on Perceived Behavioural Control (β = - TikTok (β = .226, p = .073) exhibited a positively insignificant
.061, p = .630). Thus, H1 and H2 are supported, while H3 is not effect on Exercise Frequency. Consequently, H7 is supported,
supported. Furthermore, Attitudes toward Exercising (β = .403, while H8 is not supported.

Table 2: Item Loadings

Constructs Items Item Loadings KMO  AVE
Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok ETF1 .864 .500 .654 .746
ETF2 .864
Attitudes toward Exercising EA1 .648 .680 .673 .530
EA2 .714
EA3 .740
EA4 .801
Subjective Norms toward Exercising SN1 .672 .606 .516 .516
SN3 .765
SN4 .715
Perceived Behavioural Control PBC1 .724 .617 .628 .584
PBC2 .830
PBC3 .734
Exercise Intentions EI1 .961 .760 .944 .901
EI2 .935
EI3 .952
Exercise Frequency EF1 .803 .628 .616 .574
EF2 .690
EF3 .776

Table 3: Descriptive Statistics and Pearson Correlation (n = 114)

M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Exercise Frequency 9.4649 2.79120 -
2. Exercise Intentions 15.1491 4.75084 .561** -
3. Perceived Behavioural Control 12.5439 2.29713 -.051 .023 -
4. Subjective Norms toward Exercising 13.5351 3.36347 .291** .460** -.111 -
5. Attitudes toward Exercising 16.3158 2.72100 .346** .515** .186* .248* -
6. Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok 5.3333 2.88010 .218* .282** .042 .267* .207* -
* Note: Variable 1, 3, and 5 are measured on a 5-point Likert scale, variable 6 is measured on a 6-point Likert scale, and variables 2 and 4 are measured
on a 7-point Likert scale.
** . Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
Table 4: Multiple Regression Analysis Male (n = 50)
H# Variable Coefficient t p Result
Attitudes toward Exercising
H1 Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok .112 .779 .440 Not supported
Subjective Norms toward
Exercising
H2 Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok .328 2.404 .020 Supported
Perceived Behavioural
Control
H3 Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok .083 .576 .567 Not supported
Exercise Intentions
H4 Attitudes toward Exercising .511 4.092 <.001 Supported
H5 Subjective Norms toward Exercising .212 1.757 .086 Not supported
H6 Perceived Behavioural Control .028 .231 .818 Not supported
Exercise Frequency
H7 Exercise Intentions .677 6.295 <.001 Supported
H8 Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok .030 .275 .785 Not supported

Table 5: Multiple Regression Analysis Male (n = 50)

H# Variable Coefficient t p Result
Attitudes toward Exercising
H1 Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok .274 2.246 .028 Supported
Subjective Norms toward
Exercising
H2 Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok .338 2.828 .006 Supported
Perceived Behavioural
Control
H3 Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok -.061 -.484 .630 Not supported
Exercise Intentions
H4 Attitudes toward Exercising .403 3.809 <.001 Supported
H5 Subjective Norms toward Exercising .385 3.619 <.001 Supported
H6 Perceived Behavioural Control -.001 -.014 .989 Not supported
Exercise Frequency
H7 Exercise Intentions .359 2.898 .005 Supported
H8 Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok .226 1.824 .073 Not supported

6. DISCUSSION Previous research found that being exposed to

The present study aimed to examine the relationship Fitspiration content was associated with increased perceptions
between Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok and Exercise of subjective norms (Eng et al., 2022). The regression analysis
Frequency, using Theory of Planned Behaviour in both men and demonstrated that Exposure to Fitspiration TikTok was found to
women. The findings revealed interesting differences between have a significant, positive relationship with Subjective Norms
the male and female populations, indicating varying patterns of toward Exercising in both men and women. Therefore,
associations. hypotheses 2 was found fully supported. Businesses,
Results from the Multiple Regression Analysis influencers, and celebrities have utilized Fitspiration content to
revealed that the impact of Exposure to Fitspiration on Attitudes foster a sense of community among individuals who share
toward Exercising differs between gender. In line with Eng et al. similar interests (Raggatt et al., 2018). This creates the
(2022), Exposure to Fitspiration was positively related to perception that a significant group of people are actively
Attitudes toward Exercising among the female population. participating in exercise, which might be interpreted as a signal
However, no significant relationship was found for the male of social acceptance. These findings suggest that individuals
population. These results indicate that female individuals who who are exposed to Fitspiration TikTok tend to perceive social
are exposed to Fitspiration content on TikTok tend to develop expectations and greater social support for engaging in physical
more positive attitudes toward exercise but may not significantly activity.
impact exercising attitudes among men. Mass media pressure In contrast with the hypotheses, the data shows no
might not contribute to men’s desire to enhance their muscles significant relationships between Exposure to Fitspiration
(Ricciardelli et al., 2000), but specific individual characteristics TikTok and Perceived Behavioural Control in both men and
can render women more susceptible to the influence of social women. The female population portrayed a slightly negative but
media usage (Fardouly et al., 2015). insignificant relationship, while the relationship was positive
but insignificant among the male population. These results
indicate that exposure to Fitspiration content on TikTok may literature, while also shedding new light on the topic of
not significantly impact perceived control over exercising (Eng Fitspiration within the TikTok domain. It seeks to understand the
et al., 2022). To potentially enhance an individual's perceived impact of social media use on consumers’ well-being. In
behavioural control toward participating in exercising, addition, the study will contribute to existing literature by
Fitspiration content may need to foster fundamental skills and providing a comparative study exploring the different effects of
strategies for exercising regardless of external obstacles Fitspiration between men and women. This study will fill the gap
(Martinez & Lewis, 2016). that exists on the effect of Fitspiration on exercise behaviour
Consistent with the expectations, Attitudes toward (Pryde & Prichard, 2022).
Exercising was found to be a significant predictor of Exercise
Intentions in both males and females. This echoes past research
6.2 Practical Implications
The findings of this comparative study have several
that positive attitudes toward exercise are associated with a
practical implications for various stakeholders, including
greater likelihood of intending to engage in physical activity
businesses, social media influencers, and health organisations.
(Kerner et al., 2001), implying that personal attitudes play
The study highlights the need for tailored approaches between
important roles in shaping their exercise intentions.
gender when using Fitspiration content to motivate individuals
As previous research concluded, social norms
to adopt a healthy lifestyle. Content creators and influencers
established by friends and family members significantly
need to develop content that affect specific factors that
influence an individual's intentions to engage in a particular
influence each gender to engage in physical activity. In
behaviour (Rivis et al., 2009). Therefore, it was hypothesized
addition, the insights on the differential response between men
that Subjective Norms would increase one’s intention to
and women allows marketers to deploy strategic marketing
exercise. The regression analysis in this study demonstrated that
plans. By creating and promoting positive and empowering
Subjective Norms toward Exercising had significant positive
content, it is possible to enhance exercise motivation and
effects on Exercise Intentions among women, suggesting that
intention among women, whereas interventions targeting men's
perceived social support contribute to their intention to engage
exercise behaviours may focus more on shaping men’s attitudes
in exercise. However, Subjective Norms toward Exercising did
toward exercise.
not illustrate significant effects on Exercise Intentions among
men, implying that opinions of others may not play substantial 6.3 Limitations and Future Research
roles in shaping their exercise intentions. The different Although this study gives insights into social media
outcomes between gender might implicate that women have a and exercise behaviour, several limitations should be kept in
greater perception of social benefits and place a higher value on mind. The findings are specific to the present study and may be
social aspects compared to men (Koivisto & Hamari, 2014). influenced by various factors, including sample characteristics,
Furthermore, Perceived Behavioural Control did not measurement instruments, and the specific nature of the
demonstrate significant effects on Exercise Intentions among Fitspiration TikTok content examined. The study did not
both men and women. This might indicate that PBC is not a control for potential confounding variables or external factors
good predictor of EI, which is in line with (Eng et al., 2022). that could influence exercise behaviour, such as personal
However, Exercise Intentions was found to have a significant motivations, access to fitness facilities, or other social and
positive influence on Exercise Frequency in both males and environmental influences. Future research should further
females. Hence, hypothesis 7 is supported. The findings are in investigate the underlying mechanisms and contextual factors
line with Rhodes et al. (2006), advocating that strong intentions that contribute to the observed gender differences in the
to engage in exercise are likely to translate into more frequent relationship between exposure to Fitspiration content and
participation in physical activity. Lastly, Exposure to exercise-related outcomes. Additionally, on average,
Fitspiration TikTok did not show a significant impact on respondents in the sample reported low frequency of viewing
Exercise Frequency among men or women. These findings Fitspiration videos on TikTok, with the majority of participants
might suggest that although Fitspiration content might inspire (n = 60) indicating that they view Fitspiration TikTok less than
people, it might not influence an individual’s actual physical once a week. Future research could explore individuals who are
activity engagement (Robinson et al., 2017). intensive users of social media and are exposed more frequently
to Fitspiration posts.
6.1 Theoretical Implications Furthermore, the data collected in this study relied on
The present study holds several important theoretical
self-reported measures, including participants' exposure to
implications. Even though the exposure to Fitspiration content
Fitspiration TikTok and their exercise behaviour. Self-reporting
might not directly influence an individual’s exercise behaviour,
introduces the potential for response bias (Donaldson & Grant-
there is evidence that being exposed to Fitspiration content has a
Vallone, 2002), as participants may provide socially desirable
different impact on women than on men. As such, it might be
responses or inaccurately recall their actual behaviours. This
valuable for researchers to take into account gender when
could affect the accuracy and reliability of the reported
considering the influence of social media, given that women
associations. In addition, the study employed a cross-sectional
might be more sensitive to the influence of social media
design, acquiring data at a single point in time. This design
(Fardouly et al., 2015). Particularly, being exposed to
limits the ability to establish temporal relationships or examine
Fitspiration TikTok was a significant predictor of exercising
changes in behaviour over time. Future research could perform
attitudes and subjective norms, which in turn predicted exercise
longitudinal studies, which would provide more robust insights
intentions among women. These findings highlight the
into the causal relationships and changes in exercise behaviour.
importance of leveraging Fitspiration content on social media
Moreover, the study focused specifically on the impact of
targeting women’s exercise behaviours. For men, subjective
exposure to Fitspiration TikTok on exercise behaviour among
norms were influenced by viewing Fitspiration content, and
males and females. Future research might focus on different
exercise intentions were more directly influenced by their
forms of social media or different demographic groups.
attitudes toward exercising. The present study aims to add
empirical support for the relationships suggested by existing
7. CONCLUSION
The present study investigating the relationship
between Fitspiration TikTok and exercise behaviour among
TikTok users was based on gender. The study showed that there
is not a significant positive relationship between the exposure to
Fitspiration on TikTok and exercise participation levels among
men and women. Findings are aligned with the findings of
Robinson et al. (2017). One of the goals of this study was
predicting men and women’s exercise behaviour using the
Theory of Planned Behaviour. The findings showed that being
exposed to Fitspiration content on TikTok positively influenced
exercise attitudes, and that social norms toward exercising
influenced one’s intention to exercise among women, whilst
there was no such a relationship found among men. This finding
indicates that in terms of impact of social media and social
expectations, women might be more sensitive to the influences
of social media and put more value on perceived social support,
while men are less prone to the impact social media can have
and do not put significant value on the opinions of people
around them to engage in physical activity. In addition, the
study found that there is a positive significant relationship
between being exposed to Fitspiration content on TikTok and
subjective norms among both men and women. Findings are
consistent with the findings of Eng et al. (2022). Consistent
with Kerner et al. (2001) the data demonstrated that exercise
attitudes positively predict one’s intention to exercise in both
men and women.
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to express my gratitude
to my supervisor, Dr. Hatice Kizgin. Her expertise and support
offered guidance throughout my bachelor journey. Special thank
you to my supportive thesis circle and all the respondents who
spent their time to help me graduate by filling out the survey. I
am immensely grateful for my family and boyfriend who have
provided me with a lot of courage and love. Thank you all for
being an integral part of my academic and personal growth.
9. APPENDIX
9.1 Appendix 1: The Survey
The Effect of Fitspiration on Exercise Behaviour
Dear Participant,
I am a third-year International Business Administration student at the University of Twente. For my bachelor thesis, you are invited to participate in a
survey on social media use and well-being. The purpose of this survey is to collect information and insights on the effects of fitness inspiration TikTok
videos on actual exercise behaviour.
All your responses will be kept completely anonymous and confidential. This survey consists of six components and should take approximately five
minutes to complete. Your participation is completely voluntary, and you may withdraw at any time. Please read each question carefully and answer to
the best of your ability. Your honest and thoughtful responses are greatly appreciated!
Thank you for taking the time to participate in this survey! Your feedback is valuable and will contribute to a better understanding of the impact of social
media usage on consumer well-being.
Sincerely, Aïsha
Introduction Questions

Exposure to Fitspiration
The following section focuses on exposure to Fitspiration. In this study, "Fitspiration” (the fusion of the words “fitness” and “inspiration”) is defined
as sharing or consuming images, quotes, and tips related to fitness and nutrition. It is aimed to motivate individuals to adopt healthy and active lifestyles.
Please read each question carefully and choose an option that best describes your experience.

Exercise Attitudes
The following section focuses on attitudes toward exercising. Please read each statement carefully and choose an option that best describes your opinion.
Subjective Norms Toward Exercising
The following section focuses on subjective norms toward exercising. In this study "regular exercise" is defined as engaging in physical activities for at
least 20 minutes, at least once a week. Physical activities include, but are not limited to, walking, cycling, and sports. Please read each statement carefully
and choose an option that best describes your opinion.

Perceived Behavioural Control

The following section focuses on perceived behavioural control toward exercising. Please read each item carefully and choose an option that best
describes your opinion or situation.
Exercise Intentions
The following section focuses on the intention to exercise. Please read each statement carefully and choose an option that best describes your opinion.

Exercise Frequency
The following section focuses on exercise frequency. Please read each question carefully and choose an option that best describes your situation.

Demographics
The following section is the last section of this questionnaire. Please provide some information about yourself. All your information will be stored
anonymously and kept securely.
Closing Note “If you have any questions, feedback, etc. feel free to note them down below.”

________________________________________________________________

We thank you for your time spent taking this survey.

Your response has been recorded.

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