Waves and superpositions

A wave is the spreading of disturbance from one place to another. The source of any wave is
either a vibration or an oscillation. A wave motion provides a mechanism for the transfer of
energy from one point to another without the physical transfer of any material medium between
the two points.

G
Displacement / mm

C
B C D
D
D E I F
E H H
B
A I A
A
F
H Figure shows a graph of the displacement of
rope along its length at a certain instant of time.
G

The arrows on the graph show the direction of the motion of the particles.
A shorter arrow means a slower speed while a longer arrow means faster speed and dots
without any arrow indicate that particles are momentarily at rest.

Classification of waves
Waves can be classified on the basis of the three points:
(i) On the basis of medium
On the basis of medium, there are two types of waves – mechanical and electromagnetic.
Mechanical waves require a material medium to pass through, such as, sound wave.
Electromagnetic waves do not necessarily require a material medium to pass through, such
as, light wave.

(ii) On the basis of way of travel

On the basis of the way of travel, there are two types of waves – transverse and longitudinal.
Longitudinal wave particles vibrate in parallel to the direction of energy transfer.
Transverse wave particles vibrate in perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer.

EKTIDER SPORSHO 1
(iii) On the basis of energy transfer
On the basis of energy transfer, there are two types of waves – progressive / travelling and
stationary / standing.
Leading
Progressive wave has a transfer of energy, such as, light wave.
Stationary wave has no transfer of energy. This type of wave is formed by the superposition of
two progressive waves travelling in the opposite directions.

d/mm
Amplitude
2
Lagging
The maximum displacement of a wave from its mean position
is known as its amplitude. It is a vector quantity.
t/s
Amplitude
Phase difference
Compared
0.01 to the0.02
black wave,
0.03 red0.04
wave is lagging by 120°.-2
Compared
Leading to the black wave, blue wave is leading by 120°.

Phase difference is the term used to describe the

relative positions of the crests and troughs of two waves
of the same frequency. Different terms are used to
describe the phase difference:

Lagging  exactly in phase (difference of 0°)

 exactly out of phase (difference of 180°)
 phase difference of 30°, 45°, 90°, 120°, etc.
5

Exactly in phase Exactly out of phase t/s

0.01 0.02 0.03

If the crest of one wave is aligned with

trough of the other waves, then the waves
Phase difference of 120° are said to be exactly out of phase.
When crests and troughs
of two waves are aligned, Note: Phase difference is a
the waves are said to be measure of angle but path
in phases. difference is a measure of
wavelength.

Path difference of 1 λ = Phase

E F Wavelength is the shortest distance
Q. Figure shows a wave particle P at the instant. between
State twodifference
the path wave particles which
of Q and R are
frominP.
C D
Draw arrows toGshow their directions. H phase. It is represented by λ and its unit
is metre.
Q: λ / 4 I
Wavelength
A B J A to B
C to D
R: λ
E to F
G to H
I to J
Frequency
Frequency is the number of complete oscillations per unit time. It is measured by f and is
Wave speed
measured using the formula: , where T is the time period in seconds.
Displacement/mm d λ 1
The unit of measuring frequency is Hertz (Hz). V = = =( ) λ=f λ
t T T

So, wave speed is measured using the formula, V = f

λ Q.
λ , where f is the frequency in Hz and λ is the
Distance/m a) What is the
wavelength in time period?
m. The 0.02
unit of measuring wave
is
b)m/s.
Calculate its frequency. 1 / 0.02 = 50 Hz
T
Time/s Q. The time period of a wave is 0.02 s and its
wavelength is 120ofcm.
Q. The amplitude Calculate
a wave its frequency
is 5 mm and
and itsspeed.
frequency is 100 Hz. Calculate its time
period and hence sketch 3 cycles of the wave.
f = 1 / 0.02 = 50 Hz ; V = 50 x 1.2 = 60 m/s
Time period = 1 / 100 = 0.01

Wavefront
A wavelength is an imaginary line that is obtained by 1
joing the wave particles which are in phase. The
distance between two consecutive particles is 1 λ .

Properties of progressive waves

(i) All particles have the same amplitude of vibrations 1
(ii) All the particles have the same time period and hence the same frequency

EKTIDER SPORSHO 3
(iii) Neighboring particles are not in phase with each other
(iv) There is a transfer of energy along the direction of propagation

Intensity, amplitude and frequency

Intensity is defined as the energy emitted per second per unit area. It is represented by I and is
measured using the formula:
P
I=
A
[

where P is the power in Watt and A is the area in m2. The unit of measuring intensity is W/m2.

Intensity is directly proportional to the square Intensity is also directly proportional to the
of the amplitude. square of frequency.
2 2
I∝A I∝f
2 2
⟹ I =k A ⟹ I =k f
I1 I2 I1 I2
⟹ 2
= 2
⟹ 2
= 2
A1 A2 f1 f2

Q. The amplitude of a source of light is 4 mm and its intensity is I. What is the amplitude when
its intensity is double?
I1 I2
2
= 2
A1 A2
I 2I
⟹ 2
= 2
4 A
⟹ A=5.67 mm

Transverse and longitudinal waves

Transverse waves are the
waves in which direction of
the vibration of the wave
particles is in perpendicular
to the direction of energy
transfer. For example:
electromagnetic waves.

EKTIDER SPORSHO 4
Longitudinal waves are the waves in which direction of the vibration of the wave particles is in
parallel to the direction of energy transfer. For example: sound waves.

Polarization
The phenomenon of polarization
is something that only
transverse wave shows. A wave
in which the oscillations take
place in a number of planes is
called unpolarized wave,
whereas the wave in which the
oscillations take place in one
plane only is called the plane
polarized wave.
Electromagnetic waves are
transverse waves. So, they can
be polarized. This property is very useful in the transmission of TV signal. The main transmitter
has its aerial in the horizontal plane. So, the signal from these transmitters is
horizontally polarized. The relay station boosts the signals for the
areas where the reception is very poor. The aerials for the relay
stations are kept vertical so that signals from these transmitters are
vertically polarized. As a result, the horizontal and vertical signals do not
interfere each other.

Main transmitter Relay station

Experiment to show that only transverse waves can be polarized

Due to the vibrations in many different planes,
A transverse waves can be set up along AD by
holding the end A in hand and by moving the
B
rope in different directions perpendicular to
C AD.
If the experiment is repeated by placing two
Figure A parallel splits B and C between A and D, it is
D
observed that waves emerging along BC is
different from that of AB, If C is turned so that
A
it is now perpendicular to B, no wave is
B observed at D. If the rope is replaced by a
thick elastic cord and a longitudinal wave is
produced along AD, no difference of wave is
C
EKTIDER SPORSHO 5
D
Figure B
observed even though C is placed perpendicular to B. Hence, from this observation, we can say
that only transverse waves can be polarized but not longitudinal waves.

Experiment to show that light waves are transverse waves

Let us suppose that two polaroids
A and B are placed one behind
the other in front of a light source
and light passing through A and B
is observed, as shown in figure
(a). It is observed that when A and
B are parallel, light passing
through B appears slightly darker.

If Q is rotated slowly, it is
observed that the light becomes darker and darker and disappears at one stage when A and B
are perpendicular. If B is rotated further, the light reappears and becomes the brightest when
they are parallel. This proves that light waves can be polarized. Hence, light waves are
transverse waves.

Partial polarization
Light is partially polarized when ordinary light
is reflected by a plane sheet of glass.
This is because, each of the vibrations of the
incident light can be resolved into two
components. One component is parallel to the
glass surface and another is perpendicular to
the glass surface.
Components parallel to the glass surface is
reflected and the rest of the light is refracted
into the glass surface.
So, light reflected by the glass surface is
partially polarized.

EKTIDER SPORSHO 6
Malus’ Law
Malus’ Law states that when a plane
polarized light is allowed to pass
through an analyzer, the intensity of
the light transmitted by the analyzer is
directly proportional to the square of
the cosine of the angle between the
polarizer and analyzer.
From the diagram we can write,
A=A 0 cosθ
If θ=0, I = I0
2 2
⟹ A =(A 0 cosθ) If θ=90, I = 0
2
⟹ I =I 0 cos θ

where I is the intensity of the light after passing through the analyzer, I0 is the intensity of the
light passing through the polarizer and θ is the angle between the polarizer and analyzer.

Q. If the intensity of plane polarized light is 300 W/m2 and the angle between the analyzer and
the polarizer is 30°, calculate the intensity of the light after passing through the analyzer.

I = 300cos 2 30 = 225 W/m2

Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic spectrum is a group of some special waves which have some common
properties. This group consists of 7 waves. Names of the waves in descending order of
wavelength are as follows: radio wave, microwave, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-ray and
gamma ray.
Note: X-ray and gamma ray have ionizing power
Common properties

 They are all transverse waves

 They can pass through vacuum
 When they pass through vacuum, they have the same speed as the speed of light, which
is equal to 3.0 x 108 m/s.

Typical values of wavelength

Radio Gamma
Microwave Infrared Visible light Ultraviolet X-ray
wave ray
103 m - 10-2 m - 10-4 m - 10-6 m 690 nm (red) – 10-8 m 10-10 m 10-12 m
10-2 m 10-4 m 390 nm (violet)

Uses of electromagnetic waves

EKTIDER SPORSHO 7
[

Radio wave: It is used in telecommunications such as radio, TV, radar, etc.

Microwave: Satellite television, mobile phone, microwave oven, etc.
Infrared: TV remote control, intruder alarm, electric grill, etc.
Visible light: Optical fibre used by detectors.
Ultraviolet: Sterilization of medical equipment, sun tan, fluorescent lamp, etc.
X-rays: Detecting cracks in bones, medical diagnosis, identifying cracks in metals, etc.
Gamma-rays: Identifying cracks in metals, medical diagnosis and therapy, industrial purposes.

Doppler effect
When a source of sound moves relative to a stationary observer, there is an apparent change in
observed frequency. This effect is known as Doppler effect.
When the source moves towards the observer, the observed frequency increases and when the
sources move away from the observer, the observed frequency decreases.
When the source moves towards the observer, the observed frequency increases and is
measured using the formula:
V
f o=( )f
V −V s s
On the other hand, when the source moves away from the observer, the observed frequency
decreases and is measured using the formula:
V
f o=( )f
V +V s s

Combining these two equations, we can write:

V
f o=( )f
V ±Vs s
If the source is not moving:

f o= ( V V± 0 ) f =( VV ) f
s s

⟹ f o=f s

where f o and f s are the frequencies of the observer and the source respectively, and V and V s
are the speeds of the sound and the source respectively.

Q. The frequency of an ambulance is 400 Hz. Calculate the average frequency received by a
stationary observer when the ambulance approaches him with a speed of 30 m/s and when the

EKTIDER SPORSHO 8
ambulance moves away from him with a speed of 30 m/s. What is the total change of frequency
received by the observer? (Given that the speed of sound is 330 m/s)
330
When approached :f o=( ) x 400=440 Hz
330−30
330
When moved away : f o=( ) x 400=367 Hz
330+30

Total change of frequency = 440 – 367 = 73 Hz.

The principle of superposition

When two or more waves meet at point, the resultant displacement is equal to the sum of the
individual displacements at that point.

Graphical analysis

Phase difference of 0°

EKTIDER SPORSHO 9
Phase difference of 90°

Phase difference of 180°

0°
90°

180°

270°
360°

Resultant waves are different phase differences

[[[[

Stationary Waves
Stationary wave is a type of wave which is formed by the superposition of two progressive
waves of equal frequency and amplitude but travelling in opposite directions.

Properties of stationary waves

(i) In stationary waves, some of the wave particles are permanently at rest. Positions of these
particles are known as nodes. It is represented by N.
(ii) Between two consecutive nodes wave particles vibrate with varying amplitudes. Particles
which vibrate with the maximum amplitudes are known as anti-nodes. It is represented by A.
(iii) Particles between two consecutive nodes vibrate in phase with each other.
(iv) The path difference between two consecutive nodes = the path difference between two
consecutive anti-nodes = λ / 2.

(v) The path difference between two consecutive node - anti-node = anti-node – node = λ / 4.

EKTIDER SPORSHO 10
Comparison between progressive wave and stationary wave

Progressive wave Stationary wave

Energy is transferred along the direction of No energy is transferred.
propagation.
Each of the wave particles has the same They have different amplitudes of vibrations.
amplitude of vibration.
Neighboring particles are not in phase. All the particles between two consecutive
nodes vibrate in phase.

Experiment to demonstrate stationary waves using microwaves

A microwave transmitter is pointed towards Probe receiverthe Aluminium plate
aluminium plate. The
aluminium plate then reflects the microwave. The incident wave and
the reflected wave superpose to each other to produce a stationary
wave. Transmitter
Loud speaker
A probe receiver is moved along the line
between the transmitter and the reflector and the
positions of the nodes and Amplifier
anti-nodes are located. Nodes are the positions for which the loudspeaker shows
no sound and the anti-nodes are the positions where the loudspeaker shows the loudest sound.
The average distance between two consecutive nodes and two consecutive anti-nodes is
recorded which is equal to λ / 2. The speed of the stationary wave is calculated using the
formula: V = f λ , where f is the frequency from the transmitter in Hertz and λ is the wavelength
in metre.

Experiment to demonstrate stationary waves using a stretched string

Stretched string

Signal generator Vibration

generator

The string is stretched and its two ends are clamped. The string is then attached to a vibration
generator. It is then allowed to vibrate at a very low frequency (such as 1 Hz). If the experiment
is continued by increasing frequency, at certain frequency a stationary wave pattern will be
observed.

EKTIDER SPORSHO 11
When this happens, the distance between two consecutive nodes is recorded which is equal to
λ / 2. Using the frequency from the signal generator, the speed of the stationary wave can be
calculated.

Stationary waves in air column open at one end

A
A
λ2 / 4
N
l l
λ2 / 2 A

N
N
Fundamental
mode of vibration 1st overtone

A
λ2 / 4
N
That means, frequencies of fo, 3fo, 5fo,… are available. So, only odd harmonics are
λ2 / 2 A available.
l
N
Q. The length of a test tube is 15 cm. If the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s, find
λ2 / 2 A the three lowest frequencies for the sound emitted when open end of the tube
is blown.
N

2nd overtone

550 x 3 550 x 5
= 1650 Hz = 2750 Hz

Stationary waves in air column open at both ends

EKTIDER SPORSHO 12
A A
N

N A l
l

A A

Fundamental mode of vibration 1st overtone

A
λ2 / 2 N That means for open end pipe, frequencies of fo, 2fo, 3fo,….. are available.
So, all harmonics are available.
A
l Q. The length of a pipe is 20 cm. If the speed of sound is 330 m/s,
λ2 / 2 N
calculate the three lowest frequencies. Draw their diagrams.
A

λ2 / 2 N
A 2 x 825 3 x 825
= 1650 Hz = 2475 Hz
2nd overtone

Diffraction
When a wave passes through a narrow gap, then it bends and spreads out in different
directions. This effect of wave is called diffraction. The amount of diffraction depends on the
relative size of the gap distance and the wavelength. Diffraction is maximum when gap distance
is equal to the wavelength.

EKTIDER SPORSHO 13
Wavelength > Gap size Wavelength < Gap size Wavelength = Gap size

Experiment to demonstrate diffraction

The apparatus Adjustable slit is set up as shown in the figure. The slit is placed about 1
metre from the screen. The laser light is allowed to fall on the screen the
width of the slit is slowly reduced until a diffraction pattern is marked on the
screen. Since the laser light should not be viewed directly, the diffraction pattern
is observed by the reflection of light from the opaque
Laser screen.
Note: If the laser light is not available, a bright lamp and a single slit can be used to
illuminate the double Opaque slits and the experiment should be conducted in a dark
room. screen

Interference
Interference occurs when waves overlap each other to produce a pattern where the waves
reinforce each other in some places and cancel each other out in other places. The principle of
superposition provides an explanation for interference.

Coherence: Two waves are said to be coherent if they have a constant phase difference.
Monochromatic: Two waves are said to be monochromatic if they have the same color or
wavelength or frequency. For example, two red light rays are monochromatic.

Experiment to demonstrate two sources interference pattern using water waves

EKTIDER SPORSHO 14
n=1.5 n=1 n=0.5 n=0 n=0.5 n=1

C2 A2

B2

D2

B1
D1 A1
C1
S1 S2

Figure shows the interference pattern produced in a ripple tank using two circular waves which
are in phase with each other. It is observed that along certain lines known as nodal lines, the
water wave is not displaced at all. On the other hand, in the regions between two nodal lines,
water experiences large displacements which are known as anti-nodal lines. This diagram can
be explained by the following four steps:

Step 1: Line joining A1 and A2

At A1, the superposition of two crests produces a double crest. Hence, constructive interference
occurs and A1 is known as an antinode. Similarly, at A2, the superposition of two troughs
produces a double trough. Hence, constructive interference occurs and A2 is also known as an
antinode. Therefore, the line joining A1 and A2 is known as an anti-nodal line.

S1-A1 = 1.5 λ S2-A1 = 1.5 λ So, the path difference is 1.5 – 1.5 = 0 λ
S1-A2 = 5 λ S2-A2 = 5 λ So, path difference is 5 – 5 = 0 λ

So, for all the points along the line joining A1 and A2, constructive interference the path
difference is 0 λ .

Step 2: Line joining B1 and B2

At B1, the superposition of two crests produces a double crest. Hence, constructive interference
occurs and B1 is known as an antinode. Similarly, at B2, the superposition of two troughs
produces a double trough. Hence, constructive interference occurs and B2 is also known as an
antinode. Therefore, the line joining B1 and B2 is known as an anti-nodal line.

S1-B1 = 1.5 λ S2-B1 = 2.5 λ So, the path difference is 2.5 – 1.5 = 1 λ
EKTIDER SPORSHO 15
S1-B2 = 4 λ S2-B2 = 5 λ So, path difference is 5 – 4 = 1 λ

So, for all the points along the line joining B1 and B2, constructive interference occurs and the
path difference is 1 λ .

So, the condition for constructive interference is:

Path difference = n λ , where n = 0,1,2….
λ λ λ
Path difference=0 λ ,1 λ , 2 λ , …=0( ) , 2( ), 4 ( ), ....=multiple of even number of half lambda
2 2 2
When path difference is equal to zero, this is called the central maxima.

Step 3: Line joining C1 and C2

At C1, the superposition of a crest and trough cancels each other out. Hence, destructive
interference occurs and C1 is known as a node. Similarly, at C2, the superposition of a trough
and a crest cancels each other out. Hence, destructive interference occurs and C2 is also
known as a node. Therefore, the line joining C1 and C2 is known as a nodal line.

S1-C1 = 1 λ S2-C1 = 1.5 λ So, the path difference is 1.5 – 1 = 0.5 λ

S1-C2 = 4.5 λ S2-C2 = 5 λ So, path difference is 5 – 4.5 = 0.5 λ

So, for all the points along the line joining C1 and C2, destructive interference occurs and the
path difference is 0.5 λ .

Step 3: Line joining D1 and D2

At D1, the superposition of a crest and trough cancels each other out. Hence, destructive
interference occurs and D1 is known as a node. Similarly, at D2, the superposition of a trough
and a crest cancels each other out. Hence, destructive interference occurs and D2 is also
known as a node. Therefore, the line joining D1 and D2 is known as a nodal line.

S1-D1 = 1 λ S2-D1 = 2.5 λ So, the path difference is 2.5 – 1 = 1.5 λ

S1-D2 = 3.5 λ S2-D2 = 5 λ So, path difference is 5 – 3.5 = 1.5 λ

So, for all the points along the line joining D1 and D2, destructive interference occurs and the
path difference is 1.5 λ .

So, the condition for the destructive interference is:

1
Path difference=(n− )λ , where n = 1,2,3….
2
λ λ λ
Path difference=0.5 λ ,1 λ , 2 λ , …=1 ( ),3 ( ), 5( ), ....=multiple of odd number of half lambda
2 2 2

Young’s Double Slits Experiment Single Double

Filter Slit Slits Screen
EKTIDER SPORSHO 16

Bright
A beam of monochromatic light is passed through the single slit. The beam then passes through
the double slits which are at equal distance from the single slit.
As a result, these two sources are now coherent, that means they have a constant phase
difference and they have the same wavelength which means they are monochromatic. These
two waves now interfere with each other.
As a result, if these two waves arrive in phase, constructive interference occurs and bright
fringes are observed.
However, if these two waves arrive in anti-phase, they cancel each other out and destructive
interference occurs and dark fringes are observed. Therefore, a pattern of dark and bright
fringes will be observed. This pattern is known as interference pattern.
The fringe separation in the pattern is measured using the formula: λD=ax , where x is the
fringe separation in metre, D is the distance between the double slits and the screen in metre
and a is the slit separation in metre and λ is the wavelength in metre.

Note 1
λD
x=
a
x ∝ λ , if other factors remainconstant
x ∝ D ,if other factors remain constant
1
x ∝ , if other factors remain constant
a

Note 2

If the slid width increases, bright fringes become brighter and dark fringes remain the
same. For example:

When a the Initial slit width: slit width increases:

Crest 1 = 10 Crest 1 = 6 units units
Crest 2 = 10 Crest 2 = 6 units units
Bright Slit Bright fringe = 6 + 6 = 12 units fringe = 10 + 10 = 20 units
Dark width Dark fringe = 6 – 6 = 0 fringe = 10 – 10 = 0

Note 3

EKTIDER SPORSHO 17
0
B = Bright
D = Dark

0.5 0.5

maxima
1.5 1.5
1 Central 1
2 2
B B B
D D (x)

Diffraction grating
A diffraction grating consists of many fine parallel lines ruled closely on a piece of
2nd order
glass or plastic. A diffraction grating may have 1000 to 5000 lines/cm.
(n=2)
The formula for diffraction grating is: where
1st order
(n=1)
dsin θn=nλ
D Zero order
(n=0)
h
d is the distance in 1st order metre, θ is the angle from the central maxima, n is
the number of order (n=1) and λ is the wavelength in metre.
Note: 2nd order
(n=2)

EKTIDER SPORSHO 18
1
d= , where N is the number of lines per metre. For example, a diffraction grating has 5000
N
lines/cm. So, N = 500 000 lines/m.

Diffraction grating for white light

If white light is used instead
n=2
of monochromatic light, the
Dark
zero order diffraction is
white. For other orders of n=1
diffraction, white light is
Dark
separated into seven n=0
different colours. For the
same order of diffraction, red n=1 Dark
light is diffracted through a
greater angle than violet
light. This is because: Dark
n=2
dsin θn=nλ, So , sinθ n ∝ λ, as
d and n are constants. Red
colour has a greater wavelength than violet colour. So, the angular separation for the red colour
is more than the violet colour.

Q. Light from a source is incident normally on a diffraction grating which has 4000 lines/cm. If
the light consists of two colours of wavelength 656 nm and 410 nm respectively. Determine the
angular separation between the two lines in the second order of diffraction.
1 −9
When λ = 656 nm, sinθ=2 x 656 x 10
400 000
θ=31.65°
1 −9
When λ = 410 nm, sinθ=2 x 410 x 10
400 000
θ=19.15°
So, the angular separation = 31.65 – 19.15 = 12.5°

EKTIDER SPORSHO 19