METAL JOINING

The following pages deal with the joining of metals and covers the following
processes :-
* Soldering.
* Brazing.
* Welding.
* Adhesives.

Riveting and bolting is covered in the book in this series Basic Engineering 2.

SOLDERING

Sometimes called soft soldering to distinguish it from hard soldering (brazing).

It is the process of joining two metals together using a low melting point solder.

MATERIALS

Soldering Irons

Usually electrically heated and may be thermostatically controlled. The irons

are classified by their wattage. The copper bit should be kept clean and care
should be exercised when they are on as they will cause painful burns. For
soldering large items a blow torch can be used.

Solders

Supplied in stick and wire form to B.S. 441 and 219. Wire solder is usually
flux cored. The flux may be active or non-active. Several types of solder are
available, e.g.:

Fluxes

The use of a flux is essential to ensure that the surfaces of the metals to be
joined are chemically clean. It also helps to prevent the formation of oxides
and other impurities, and helps the molten solder to flow. Fluxes conform to
DTD 599 and are supplied in either resin, liquid or paste form.
Active Fluxes - These are very effective but can only be used where thorough
cleaning of the joint can be carried out afterwards.
Non-Active or Safety Fluxes - Used where complete removal of the flux after
joint completion is not possible.

QUESTION: What flux should be used wher} soldering electrical cables?

(2 mins)

ANSWER: Non-active or safety flux, because it would be impossible to

wash the flux out of the cable if it were an active flux.

METHOD OF SOLDERING - GENERAL

1. Mechanically clean the parts to be joined, ideally leaving the surfaces
slightly roughened.
2. Degrease the surfaces using trichlorethylene. Stainless steel should be
further cleaned using a pickling process followed by washing.

3. For soldering Al alloy special cored solder is available.

4. Use the correct solder and flux.

5. Allow the iron to heat up and "tin" using the solder.

("Tinning" means melting some solder onto the bit. This will allow for
good heat conduction when heating up the work pieces).

6. "Tin" both parts to be joined separately, applying the hot iron to one side
and the solder to the other.

7. Bring the parts together and apply the soldering iron to melt the solder
on both parts.

8. Remove the iron, and allow parts to cool without disturbing.

9. Test joint for mechanical strength. If necessary construct a second joint

and test to destruction.
NOTE: If the joint does pull apart it is said to be a DRY JOINT. It probably has
not been cleaned and tinned correctly. So the soldering process will have to be
repeated.

A soldered joint can be dismantled by applying a hot soldering iron and gently
pulling apart the soldered items.
Soldering is not carried out on aircraft as much as it was as most of the
electrical connections are crimped.

Parts to be joined by soldering are usually made of the same metal.

BRAZING

Sometimes known as hard soldering to distinguish it from soldering. The

process is very similar except that the temperatures are higher and brazing
spelters are used instead of solder. Usually applied to ferrous metals. It
produces a stronger joint than soldering.

EQUIPMENT USED.

* Oxy-acetylene, gas/air torch, or paraffin blow lamp.

* Brazing paste or flux.
* Brazing spelter or filler rod. , •

Brazing Paste

Used to help the removal of oxides from the joint and will vary depending on
the process being used. For most applications calcined borax is used mixed
with water. ;

Brazing Spelter

Usually made of brass and melts at a lower temperature than the parts being
joined. The actual composition varies with the materials to be joined. (UTS of
70/30 brass - 550 MPa).

Brazing Methods

General Method: 1. Clean parts to be joined and apply flux,

i 2. Clamp in position and pre-heat.
3. Dip spelter into flux and melt into gap.
4. Allow to cool, clean and inspect.

Furnace Brazing: The parts are prepositioned in an oven.

High Frequency Brazing: Similar to above but using a high frequency coil.

Silver Brazing: Sometimes called silver soldering.

INSPECTION OF JOINTS
1. Ensure clean and all traces of flux removed.
2. Ensure spelter has melted and flowed completely through the joint.
3. If necessary X-Ray to check for complete spelter penetration.
Brazed joints can be dismantled by applying heat in a similar way to soldered
joints except a blow lamp or oxy-acetylene torch would have to be used.

Produces a strong pressure tight joint the strength of which is equal to or

greater than the surrounding metal. The principle employed is the local
melting of the two metals into one. The joint cannot be dismantled unless it is
melted (damaged).

CATEGORIES
* Plastic Welding - requires heat and pressure.
* Fusion Welding - requires heat only.

TYPES
Resistance Welding - e.g. spot and seam welding. Uses a high current low
voltage supply (e.g. 30,000 amps). When current is passed through the metals
the resistance causes the temperature to rise rapidly and the metals to weld
together.
The electrodes act as the conductors, are water cooled and exert pressure on
the metals to be joined.

Arc Welding - A fusion process where the heat required is obtained by striking
an arc between the electrode and the parts to be welded. The arc will produce
heat up to 3500°C using 50 to 100V ac at 10 to 300 amps or dc at 50V. The
electrode is used as the filler rod and is consumed.
Argon Arc Welding - Similar to arc welding but a stream of argon gas is
caused to flow over the weld area. This reduces oxide formation making a
cleaner and stronger joint. This allows some metals to be joined which would
otherwise be difficult, e.g. al. alloys; nickel alloys; non corrodible and heat
resisting steels. The electrode may be consumed - similar to ordinary arc
welding - or the electrode may remain intact and a filler rod used. Supply up
to 100V @ 300 amps a.c.
(TIG Welding = Tungsten Inert Gas Welding).
(MIG Welding = Metal Arc Inert Gas Welding).

If the electrode is consumed it is usually fed automatically as a wire electrode

to the welding gun.

Oxv-Acetylene Welding - Uses a oxy-acetylene welding torch, a filler rod and a

flux. The torch is supplied with oxygen from an oxygen cylinder (black) and
acetylene from an acetylene cylinder (maroon).
WELDING MATERIALS/EQUIPMENT

Filler Rods - Usually made of the same material as the metals being welded
but must comply with B.S. 1453.
Fluxes - Reduces the effect of oxidation and helps float oxides and impurities
to the surface of the weld pool. The type of flux to be used is specified by the
filler rod manufacturer.
Flux removal - If it is of the corrosive type it is removed using boiling water.
For al.alloy a solution of 10% nitric acid in boiling water is used.
Electrodes - Various electrodes including tungsten for arc welding/TIG
welding.

Electrode Wire - For arc welding (MIG/TIG).

Power Supplies - For spot, seam and arc welding.
Transformer/Rectifier Units - Used for some of the power supplies.

Oxygen Cylinders - For oxy-acetylene welding.

Acetylene Cylinders.
Oxy-Acetylene Torch.
Water Cooled Electrodes - For spot welding.
Circular Electrodes - For seam welding.
Protective Clothing.

INSPECTION OF WELDS

* Clean off all loose material and remove all traces of flux.
* Inspect weld and check that it is continuous, without blow-holes, and
that it continues through the metal in such joints as butt welds.
* Check surrounding metal for burning, melting, distortion.
* If necessary produce a test piece and test to destruction.
* X-ray weld if necessary.
APPROVAL OF WELDERS

Welders working on aircraft and aircraft components must be approved by the

C.A.A. At periods specified by the C.A.A. the welder produces test pieces that
are tested at a test centre. If found satisfactory he will keep his approval.
ADHESIVES
Theory
Most materials can be joined by adhesive bonding - wood, paper, glass, metal,
rubber, plastic.
Many theories exist as to why adnesives work. Why does the adhesive "stick"
to the adherend? Possibly by a combination of chemical reactions;
interrnolecular forces (absorption) or by intermolecular electrical forces - the
text books differ on the subject.

Advantages of adhesive bonding: :

1. No holes to weaken the metal.
2. No high temperatures (unlike welding}.
3. Smooth exterior surfaces.
4. The adherends are sealed.
5. No stress concentration - unlike riveting or bolting.

Disadvantages
1. Long curing times.
2. Careful joint preparation is required.
3. Some materials dangerous to handle.
4. Difficult to check the joint. Because a poorly made joint looks just the
same as a well made joint. It is usual to construct a test piece at the
same time and with the same materials as the real joint and then test
the test piece to destruction.
5. Joints do not like high temperatures.
Safety

When using adhesives the following safety precautions should be observed:

1. Know the chemicals you are working with.

2. Keep all areas, benches and tools clean.
3. Adequate ventilation is required.
4. Use barrier cream and protective clothing.
5. If splashed wash affected parts with soap and water immediately.
6. Observe all fire precautions.

CLASSIFICATION OF ADHESIVES

Inorganic Adhesives

(Such as sodium silicate based) not used for metal bonding.

Natural Adhesives

Rubber based, shellac, cellulose, etc., used mainly for paper and wood.

Thermoplastic Adhesives

Made from thermoplastic resins. Are softened by heating which can be

repeated. Used where great strength is not important though hot melt
thermoplastics are very strong (18 MPa).

Elastomeric Adhesives

Based on synthetic rubber they produce an instant stick when brought

together. They set by the evaporation of the solvents. For structural work
thermoplastic and thermosetting resins are added.
Thermosetting Adhesives

Include epoxide and urea resins. Provides a strong joint. The process of
making the joint usually involves a curing agent. When the resin and agent are
brought together curing takes place which involves a chemical reaction. Used
in structural bonding.

QUESTION: Can you define the terms Thermoplastic and Thermosetting?

These definitions apply to both adhesives and polymers
(plastics). (5 mins).

ANSWER: A Thermosetting material is one that sets with heat and

once set remains set.
A Thermoplastic material is a polymer which becomes soft or
plastic with heat. The process of softening with the
application of heat is repeatable.

The General Method

1. Surface Preparation - The surface must be thoroughly cleaned and in

most cases chemically cleaned. Some metals must have additional
treatments such as anodising to provide a key for the adhesives.

2. Adhesive Preparation - Film adhesives are stored at -20°C and require

little preparation prior to use. Epoxide type adhesives will require
mixing and must be used within the time (pot life) specified by the
manufacturer. Again absolute cleanliness is required throughout the
preparation.

3. Applying the Adhesive - It is applied in accordance with the

manufacturers instructions.

4. Making the Joint - The adherends are brought together using some or
all of the following :-

(a) A heater blanket to speed up the curing process. Thermisters

might be placed close to the joint to check the temperature.
(b) Vacuum/Pressure device. Many processes use a vacuum bag
which allows atmospheric air pressure to exert a force on the joint.
(c) Clamps. To clamp the joint tight.

5. Allow Curing Time.

6. Joint Inspection - Inspect the edges of the joint as far as possible to
check on the colour of the adhesive and whether it has penetrated to all
the joint edges.

7. Check Test Piece - A test piece can be manufactured in several ways:-

(a) By making up a separate test piece using the same metals

(adherends) and the same adhesives, temperatures, etc.
(b) By making a part that is longer than required - cutting the extra
piece off - and sending it away for testing.
(c) In some cases the test piece can come from the middle of a
component, e.g. when making up an aircraft skin the window
aperture can be cut out after fabrication and sent for test.

Testing of Test Specimens

Various tests can be carried out using - in some cases - fairly simple machines.
The part is tested to destruction: In general the thinner the bonding agent the
stronger the joint.

Tap testing can be used though this is not as satisfactory as destructive

testing. It is used to check for delamination or lack of bonding and involves
tapping the surface of the joint with a coin to check the change in tone as the
coin passes from a good section of the join to a poor section.

X-rays may be used though the definition might be poor.

Ultrasonics can be used on monolithic structures though the resulting picture

can suffer from noise (unwanted signal) when testing composites.
Some destructive tests are shown below.
SHEET METAL BENDING

Where sheet metal has to be bent to a particular angle and has to meet a
particular size then the overall length of the metal must be calculated prior to
the bending operation being started.

To calculate the overall length the lengths of the straight sections and the bent
sections are calculated separately and then added up.

Calculation of Straight Sections

This is not really a calculation as such, it is more of a deduction. The process
involves making a good size drawing of the end of the item we wish to fabricate.
Put all the dimensions in accurately, and then, by a logical process, work out
the length of the straight sections.

Example
Straight Section A = 2.5 - r
= 2.5-0.25 = 2.25 in

Straight Section C = 3 - (2r + 2t)

- 3 - (0.25 + 0.25 + 0.064 + 0.064)
= 3 - 0.628
= 2.372 in
Straight Section E equals straight section A
which equals 2.25 in

Calculation of Length of Bend Material

To calculate the circumference of a circle of radius r the formula 2nr is used.

To calculate the length of the circumference to go round a part of a circle we
use the formula:

Because the radius is always given to the inside of the bend and because the
inside part of the metal contracts during the bending operation we have to
calculate our material length to the centre of the metal, so we have to add on
i/2t to the radius in the formula. The formula now becomes:

This will calculate the amount of material to go round any bend given that :-

TT = 3.142
r = inside bend radius
T = metal thickness
Q = the amount in degrees that the metal is bent
through.
To Find the Complete Length of the Metal
1. Deduce all the straight sections - as described earlier.

2. Calculate the amount of bend material for each bend using the
formula.
3. Add all the straight section lengths to all the bend section lengths to
find the total length of metal before bending.

Example

Calculate the total length of material required to construct the following

bracket.
So now we can go ahead and mark the metal (with a pencil in the case of Al.
Alloy) to show the beginning and end of each section, and cut the metal to it's
total correct length.
After marking all the lengths on the metal the metal it then cut to size and
squared using a file if necessary.
The question now is how do we place the metal in the bending machine/bend
bars so that when we bend it we know that each bend starts and finishes
exactly where stated. The answer lies in the use of a SIGHTING LINE.

The Sighting Line

This is measured as 1 radius (the radius specified in the drawing and the one
we used for the calculation of the material for that bend). This radius
measurement is taken from the beginning or end of the bend - but which ever
end it is taken from THAT part of the metal goes into the bend bars.
The sighting line is so positioned that it is in line with the top of the bend bars.
The metal can now be bent knowing that the beginning and end bend lines are
exactly at the beginning and end of the bend.

QUESTION: Why is all marking out carried out in pencil (except for cut
lines on Al alloys? (5 mins).

ANSWER: Aluminium alloys are notch sensitive, which means that a

scratch, notch, or scribe line will very quickly produce a
crack when under load, which will lead to failure.

Heat Treatments
Some metals may be heat treatable to make them more malleable so that the
bending operation can be made easier.

Steels can be annealed to soften them prior to bending, and then further heat
treated afterwards to suit the final required condition.
Aluminium alloys may be annealed (check the specification document) prior to
bending, but must not be left in this state as they are prone to corrosion and
very weak.

Solution treated Al alloys must be bent within 2 hours of treatment and even
then they are not as malleable as annealed Al alloy.
Minimum Bend Radii.

The minimum bent radius that a metal may be bent around will depend on:
* Its thickness
* Its specification
* Its heat treatment
The minimum bend radius can range from zero times the metal thickness to 10
x the metal thickness.
Comprehensive tables are listed in various publications, and produced as
workshop charts, or standard tables, and the reader is directed to these for
more detailed information.
It is important to note that the metal must never be bent over a radius smaller
that the minimum bend radius specified.

Springback
When bending the metal it is often necessary to "lift" the metal slightly after
forming it to the original shape of the bend bars to counteract the tendency for
it to "spring back". When using a bending machine it is usual to bend the
metal slightly passed the required angel to allow for the same thing.
RIVETING

Riveting is a semi permanent form of joining material together and may be

divided into three categories:

1. Solid rivets.
2. Blind rivets.
3. Special rivets/fasteners/blind bolting.

Solid Rivets

These rivets need access to both sides of the material being joined during the
forming process. They have a good strength/weight ratio but require skill to
form. They are water and air tight and are less expensive than other types of
rivet. They are strong in shear but not so strong in tension.

All solid rivets are supplied from the manufacturer with the head pre-formed.
Both British and American rivets are identified by head or shank end markings
except where a material is easily identified by its weight or natural colour.
Certain British rivets are coloured all over for ease of identification.

Blind Rivets

These require access to one side of the material only. They are more expensive
and require special equipment to form. Some are not water or air tight, and
some are weaker than solid rivets. They require Less skill to form.

Special Rivets/Fasteners/Blind Bolting

There is a wide range of special fasteners and many are a cross between a rivet
and a nut and bolt assembly. Most can be used in the "blind mode". Usually
more expensive than blind rivets. Generally stronger in tension and shear and
all require special tools to form.

Selection of Rivets

When carrying out a repair it is most important to select the correct rivet. It
must be the correct size, shape of head and material. Check the specific repair
drawing in the repair manual or check the repair specification for the type of
rivet to use. When ordering the rivets from stores it is important to check the
correct rivet specification by reference to the stores specification label on the
packet of rivets.
The shear strength of rivets used is not the only factor which determines the
strength of a riveted joint. Generally, if the thickness of the sheets is less than
half the diameter of the rivets used, failure of the joint will depend on the
bearing stress rather than on the shear stress of the rivets.

In the absence of specific instructions 3/32 inch rivets should be used for 24
and 22 swg (Standard Wire Gauge) material, 1/8 inch rivets for 20 and 18 swg
and 5/32 for 16 swg. If rivets of reduced diameter have to be substituted
during repair work, the total number of rivets must be increased to provide
equivalent cross-sectional area. Where 22 swg and thinner material is used
and there are no specific instructions regarding repair after a rivet failure, the
substitution of mushroom head rivets for snap head rivets should be
considered.

When British rivets have to be used in American-built aircraft, rivets of the

material with the nearest equivalent shear strength to the material of the
original American rivets should be used. If the available British rivets have
lower shear strengths than the American rivets either the total number of rivets
should be increased or rivets of larger diameter should be used to make the
strength of the joint not less than it was originally. However, an increase in the
size of the rivets does not necessarily increase the strength of a join. If the rivet
sizes are increased beyond a certain amount, a reduction in strength will result
due to the amount of material removed from the metals to be joined.

Note. In all circumstances where the Structure Repair Manual (SRM) cannot be
adhered to, permission will be required from the chief engineer of the company,
or failing that, the manufacturer of the aircraft to carry out any "non-standard"
work.

Countersinking

When countersunk rivets are to be used, there are two methods of

accommodating the rivet head to ensure a flush fit. Cut-countersinking is
employed where sheet thickness is greater than the depth of the rivet head, but
for thinner sheets dimpling is necessary. Where sheets of different thicknesses
are joined together it may be found that both methods are used, the thin sheet
being dimpled into a cut countersunk thick sheet.

Cut-Countersinking

The table shows the minimum sheet thickness which may be countersunk for
particular rivet diameters, and is applicable where 100° or 120° countersunk
head rivets are used.
Where special rivets are used the aircraft manufacturer may specify a different
minimum sheet thickness, and when oversize rivets are being fitted it may be
recommended that the rivet heads are milled in preference to further
countersinking.

Special countersinking tools should be used for cut-countersinking. The tools

should have a centralising spigot and an adjustable depth stop which will limit
the depth of cut. The rivet head should always be slightly proud of the work
before riveting, and this can be set by trial drilling scrap material.

Aircraft manufacturers usually specify a tolerance on head protrusion after

riveting, and this is usually of the order of 0.005 in (0.13mm) above the skin
surface.' The rivet head should not be below the skin surface.

Dimpling
This is a process for indenting thin sheet material (not normally thicker than
16 swg) around a drilled hole to accommodate a countersunk rivet. If correctly
preformed dimpling has a beneficial effect on the strength of a joint, but the
method of dimpling must be related to the ductility of the material to prevent
over stressing and cracking.
To ensure correct seating, countersunk head rivets should always be installed
in dimples or countersunk holes of the same angle as the rivet head. Rivets
with countersunk heads of 70° or 82° included angle are often used in
positions where sealing is of primary importance, such as in integral fuel
tanks.
When these rivets require replacement care is necessary to ensure that rivets
with the correct angle heads are selected.
THE RIVETING PROCESS

Rivets are used extensively on aircraft to secure the various items of

components built up from sheet metal or metal tubes. Rivets are less
expensive, lighter in weight, and more rapidly fastened than bolts, but have the
disadvantage of not being suitable for tensile loads, ie loads which tend to pull
off the heads. They are supplied with one head already formed; the head at the
other end being formed by hand operated or machine tools.

Rivet Identification

While the rivets can be identified by their colour, markings or magnetic

properties, the only positive identification is by reference to the specification
number or the stores/reference number on the packet containing them.
Remember, they must come from an approved supplier, in labelled packets and
accompanied by suitable documentation (JAA form 1 etc).

Rivet Allowance
The allowance is the length of the shank of the rivet protruding through the
plates which is to be formed into the rivet head; it is stated as a multiple of the
rivet diameter (D). The allowance varies according to the shape of the head to
be formed and the material from which the rivet is made (the softer the metal,
the greater the allowance).

Snaphead 1.5D
Re-action ID to 1.5D
Countersunk 0.75D
Tubular 0.5D
Blind Rivet Consult rivet manufacturers tables for the "grip range"
for a particular rivet.

In general, the more plates a rivet has to go through, the larger the allowance.
Before doing any repair work on an aircraft it is a good idea to assemble the
correct number of sheets (the same as those on the aircraft) out of scrap
pieces, clamp them in a vice, drill a few holes and try some practice riveting.
Experiments can be carried out to ascertain the best allowance - and the
practice would help our riveting technique.

Clearance
The clearance is the difference between the size of the hole and the rivet
diameter; rivet holes are normally drilled O.OOSin (O.OSrnm) to 0.012in (0.3mm)
oversize using a clearance drill,
Clearance is necessary, particularly with light alloys, to prevent puckering of
the sheet owing to the metal spreading when the rivet head is formed. Without
clearance it would be difficult to place the rivet also. The following table gives
the drill sizes which can be used for solid rivets.

Forming a Snaphead
The rivetter must obtain the assistance of another person to support the rivet
in the dolly while the actual riveting is being done. To close a snaphead rivet
proceed as follows:
(a) Mark the positions of the rivets, centre punch and drill the correct
size holes (using one sheet as a template for the other). (Do not
centre punch titanium).

(b) Dismantle the plates and with a large drill fitted with a wooden
handle remove the burrs from the holes (or use a de-burring tool).
(c) Re-assemble plates - using jointing compound and grip together
using gripping pins.

(d) Insert a rivet of correct length. (Do not cut and file long rivets to
length, if the correct length rivet is available; it is a waste of time
and almost certain that the size of the rivet heads formed will vary.

(e) Check the dolly and snap for correct size. Support the rivet head
in the dolly and place the set-up over the shank of the rivet.
Lightly tap the set-up with a hammer to bring the plates close
together and the rivet head in the dolly tight up against the face
of the plate. Remove the set-up, and check the allowance.

(f) Give the end of the rivet a few heavy blows with the hammer; this
swells its shank to fill the hole. With the snap and hammer, form
the rivet head to the correct shape (see illustration).

(Note: A pneumatic hammer is often used).

Riveting Faults

The chief causes of faulty riveting are as follows:

(a) Holes drilled incorrect size.

(b) Shank of rivet not perpendicular to plate, prior to riveting, due to

hole not being drilled at right angles to the surface of the plates.

(c) Holes out of line due to insufficient grippers (gripping pins).

(d) Too much or too little allowance.

(e) Plates not drawn together (perhaps due to burrs).

(f) Incorrect clearance causing puckering of sheets.

(g) Head not central with shank due to incorrect use of snap.

(h) Incorrect size of dolly or snap, damaging the plate or forming bad
rivet head.
Removal of Solid Rivets ,

When removing rivets, care must be taken to avoid damage to the riveted
material, particularly if it is thin sheet. To remove a solid rivet proceed as
follows:

(a) File a small flat on the original head of the rivet; the original head
is more likely to be central than the formed head.

(b) Support the rivet in a dolly, and centre-pop the centre of the flat
with a centre punch.

(c) Brill the head to a depth slightly greater than the thickness of the
rivet head, using a drill of the same diameter as the hole.
(d) The head will normally come off the shank at this point. Support
the work locally to prevent buckling of the plate (a piece of
hardwood drilled with a hole slightly larger in diameter than the
rivet head). Drive the rivet out using a parallel pin punch slightly
smaller than the rivet shank.

Blind rivets are removed in much the same way except that they have a
tendency to spin in the hole when being drilled. Careful holding from the rear
with pliers or an ice pick held on an exposed portion of the head by a second
person might do the trick.

Joints

The position of rivets relative to one another and the edge of the sheet is
important. The rivets must not be too close together, or the excessive number
of holes will weaken the joint.

They must not be too far apart, or there will be too few to take the load. Rivets
must not be too near the edge of the sheet, or they will tear through the metal
when the joint is under load; the distance from the centre of the rivet to the
edge of the sheet is termed "rivet landing".

These considerations, modified for practical reasons, determine the rivet

spacing and pattern. The usual minimum distances are as follows:

Distance apart of rivets (centre to centre) PITCH - 4D

Distance from centre to edge of sheet LAND - 1 1/2D to 2D
Distance apart of centre lines of rivet chains SPACING 3D to 4D

Note: "D" is the rivet diameter.

f

The illustration shows three typical methods of lap joint riveting. The first
shows a single chain lap joint used on lightly loaded members. The second
method gives greater strength for more heavily loaded members.
The third method is strong, and is used where strength and water tightness are
required.

Note. The SRM will specify all dimensions.

Reaction Riveting

Solid rivets may be closed by the reaction method.

In reaction riveting, the pre-formed head of the rivet receives the blows. The
snap is struck with the hammer while a metal block is held lightly against the
end of the shank of the rivet. The block can be any convenient size or shape,
but the face held against the rivet must be smooth and flat.

The action of hammering the snap causes the reaction block to rebound, thus
forming a head on the shank end of the rivet. The depth of the finished head
should not be less than 0.5D. Reaction riveting may also be applied to
countersunk rivets, using as a snap a small round bar with a smooth flat end.

Blind Rivets

Blind rivets can only be used in place of solid rivets when specified in the SRM.
Heat Treatment of Rivets

Rivets can only be heat treated when specified in the rivet specification.

Rivets can only be SOLUTION TREATED, and the temperatures and methods of
cooling are specified in the rivet specification.

QUESTION: Where would you find the rivet specification? (2 mins)

ANSWER: Any good technical (or sometimes non technical) library.

The best way of heating the rivets is in a thermostatically controlled electrically

heated oven, though a salt bath can be used.

The following is an EXAMPLE of the solution treatment of a rivet. For a specific

case you must consult the RIVET SPECIFICATION.

Heat the rivet (in a wire basket if there are several) to a temperature
of 495+5 °C for a period (soaking time) of 15 minutes.

Remove the rivets and quench in cool water. Wash thoroughly if heated in a salt
bath. The rivet will commence to "age harden" (get stronger and harder) but can
be used within 2 hours of treatment. Some rivets must be used within 20
minutes. (Consult the specification).

Age hardening may be delayed by refrigeration, eg if the rivets are placed in a

fridge at -20 °C immediately after treatment they can be kept up to 150 hours
before they must be used - or re-heat treated.
If used they must be used within 2 hours of removal from cold storage.

If the rivets are not used within the prescribed time they can be re-treated to a
maximum of 3 times.
BLIND RIVETING SYSTEMS

There is a wide range of blind riveting systems used in the aircraft industry -
each has its own special advantages and disadvantages. They all require
special tools and procedures to fit. The general procedure is as follows:

1. Drill the correct size hole (clearance drill).

2. Check total thickness (grip length) of the materials to be joined.

3. Select correct size of rivet. The length is related to the "grip range"
of the rivet as stated in the rivet manufacturers literature.

4. Select correct forming tool and load rivet/rivet mandrel.

5. Form rivet in hole and inspect.

Tucker Pop Rivets

Each rivet is supplied complete with mandrel and can be formed by hand using
Lazy Tongs or Cranked Pliers, or may be formed using power tools.

The operation of closing a Tucker Pop rivet is as follows:

(a) Insert the mandrel into the jaws of the chuck.

(b) Hold the chuck containing the rivet firmly against the material and
square to the surface being riveted, and operate the tool. The head
of the mandrel will close the rivet and then break off.

The mandrel can be of two types, break-head or break-stem. The break-stem

type has a waisted shank and breaks below the head, thus the broken head
portion is trapped in the rivet. This type is used where it is impossible to
retrieve the broken off head of the mandrel. A sealed type rivet is supplied for
use in pressure cabin construction.

Note: Broken mandrel stems, swarf, rivet heads and shanks, etc, which are
discarded during the repair operation, must be cleaned up using a
vacuum cleaner.

The rivet will not be as strong as a solid rivet or the more sophisticated blind
rivets, but it is cheap and easy to use. Sealants may be used to weather-proof
the rivet.
Chobert Rivets

Supplied in snap or countersunk form. These rivets are similar to Tucker Pop
rivets, but have a tapered inner hole for the mandrel to pass through and are
not supplied with the mandrel. In Chobert riveting, however, the head of the
steel mandrel is pulled through the rivet and is not broken off.

The rivets are closed by a special riveting tool. A magazine type riveting tool is
available which carries a number of rivets end-to end on a long mandrel, thus
avoiding time in threading rivets individually after each closing. This tool can
close many rivets with just the one loading. (See the book in this series on
hand power tools.)
Chobert rivets can have the same strength as solid rivets and the general
forming process is as follows:

1. Check grip range and size of rivet.

2. Check the steel mandrel that it has not worn beyond limits. Go
and Not Go gauges are supplied for this - if not available use a
micrometer checking with the manufacturer's instructions.

3. Thread rivet/s on mandrel - tail first (rivets are often supplied

already pre-packed head-to-tail in long sealed wrappers - once
threaded on the mandrel the wrapper is removed).

4. Insert mandrel into jaws of forming tool (opening the front jaws
and locking the end of the mandrel in the rear jaws).

5. Place rivet in hole and operate tool. The front jaws will push the
rivet over the tapered end of the mandrel, forming the rivet. On its
return the front jaws will open to pass over the head of the next
rivet and spring closed behind the head - ready for forming next
rivet.

6. To seal the rivet and/or to increase strength lightly tap a sealing

pin into the hole using a hammer.

Avdel Rivets

These rivets are similar to Chobert rivets, but each is fitted with its own stem
(mandrel). The stem is pulled into the body to close the rivet and, at a
predetermined load, breaks proud of the manufactured head, leaving part of
the stem inside the body in the form of a plug.
Excess stem material may be nipped off and milled flush with the rivet head
when required, eg on external surfaces, but stainless steel and titanium rivet
stems break flush with the rivet head at the maximum grip range limit, and
milling is not necessary. The action of closing an Avdel rivet is shown.

Avdel rivets are lubricated by the manufacturer to facilitate forming the rivet
and on no account should the rivets be cleaned in solvent before use. The
lubricants used are specialty prepared for each type to obtain consistent
results.

The shear strength of Avdel rivets is similar to that of solid rivets.

To check that the mandrel is a firm fit in the rivet after milling a spring loaded
pin tester is used - if the mandrel pushes out the rivet must be drilled out and
a new one fitted.

The MBC Avdel rivet is a later version which:

(a) Locks itself into the hole, and

(b) Breaks flush with the surface so no milling is required.

Cheriy Rivets

These are rivets of American manufacture and are very similar to Avdel rivets.
During the final stages of forming a locking collar, located in a recess in the
rivet head, is forced into a groove in the stem, and prevents the stem from
further movement. The action of closing a cherry rivet is shown.
After forming the stem protrudes slightly beyond the rivet head and this
excess, plus part of the locking collar, may be milled off to provide a flush
finish.
Cherry rivets are installed using hand or power operated tools, and it is
important that the tools are fitted with the correct type of head for the
particular size or type of rivet. Details are normally supplied by either the
aircraft or tool manufacturer.

Cherry rivets are identified by a four figure number followed by a figure

indicating the diameter in thirty-seconds of an inch, and a further figure
indicating the maximum grip in sixteenths of an inch. As an example,
CR 2162-3-6 refers to a Cherry rivet in aluminium alloy, with a countersunk
head and standard stem, 3/32in (2.4mm) diameter and a maximum grip of
3/8in (9.5mm).

POWER RIVETING TOOLS

These are almost all operated by air which is safer as there is no possibility of
sparks which could occur if electrically powered tools were used.

Pneumatic Riveting Hammers

These come in a variety of shapes and sizes. In general air pressure (between
60 to lOOpsi) causes a steel plunger to move up and down inside a barrel. As
it does so it strikes a rivet snap secured in the end by a retaining spring.
As the plunger moves backwards and forwards so it causes a slid valve to move
in the appropriate direction reversing the air supply to the barrel and causing
the plunger to move in the opposite direction, so a reciprocating action takes
place.

The kinetic energy in the plunger is transferred to the snap which in turn
transfers it to the rivet. The rivet converts this energy into strain energy by
deforming - hopefully into the correct shape.

Do not operate the gun without the snap being restrained by pushing it onto a
surface (a supported block of wood or the actual rivet to be worked on). This
would prevent the snap from flying through the air in the unlikely event of the
retaining spring becoming loose.

Riveting Guns

There are many different types of riveting guns available and it would be
inappropriate to try and cover all of them in this book. Two have been chosen
as examples to give you some idea as to the range available.
The Avdel Rivetter and Intensifier

This equipment can be used to form rivets such as Avdel, Chobert etc,
depending on the type of front assembly fitted to the gun.

The intensifier is supplied with air pressure up to SOpsi and this pressure is
increased considerably by a hydraulic intensifier.

When the button on the gun is operated air is allowed out from one side of the
intensifier piston. The piston then moves across forcing the oil piston into the
oil cylinder. This creates hydraulic pressure to the gun to cause it to operate.

The Chobert Repetition Rivetter

This operates at air pressure between 60 to SOpsi and because it is multi

pistoned it does not require an intensifier. (The 3 pistons will give it 3 times
the force than just one piston).

It is a repetition rivetter and will form up to 50 rivets on one loading.

The long (12.5 in 317mm) steel mandrel is loaded with the rivets (supplied
packeted in line ready to load). The loaded mandrel is fed through the front
jaw assembly and locked at the rear by the tail jaw assembly. The front jaw
assembly is allowed to snap shut behind the head of the last rivet.

When the rivetter is operated air pressure pushes the barrel forward forcing the
end rivet over the tapered head of the mandrel so forming the rivet. (See the
book in this series on Metal Joining Systems).
When the trigger is released the barrel moves back; the line of rivets are
prevented from moving back by a "one way" device called a cursor and the front
jaw assembly is forced over the head of the next rivet to snap shut behind it
ready for it to be formed.

Millers

These are similar in principle to the windy drill except that they are fitted with
an adjustable milling head instead of a chuck.

Two steady legs allow accurate milling and the head can be adjusted so that a
test piece can be milled prior to milling the "real thing".

Used for milling rivet heads - where permitted - and for milling mandrels to
form a flush fit.
Warning. These give off a fine swarf and goggles should be warn.

Nibblers and Shears

These both have a motor similar to the windy drill but the drive is used to
operate either a nibbling head or a power shearing head.

Used for cutting thin sheet metal to shape.

Checks and Precautions

When using power hand tools the following points should be born in mind:

1. Always ensure you have the correct tool for the job.

2. The tool is undamaged, clean and dry.

3. Electrical leads and plugs are secure, undamaged, clean and dry.

4. Any leads, cables or pipelines are trailed such that:

(a) They do not pass over sharp edges.

(b) They do not pass through liquids.
(c) They do not pass close or over moving objects.
(d) Where they have to be suspended in the air, warning flags
are placed.

5. Protective covers and glasses for lead lamps are secure and
undamaged.

6. The batteries for rechargeable equipment are kept charged - but

every so often discharged completely (and recharged) to maintain
their life.

7. Pneumatic equipment is lubricated daily (in the air supply

connection) or as directed in the manufacturers literature.

8. Cutting heads (of millers etc) are kept sharp and well tended.

9. Eye protection is used when drilling, milling etc.

RIGID PIPES

Pipelines may be made of:-

* Al Alloy
* Steel
* Stainless steel
* Copper
* Tungum. - a copper alloy
* Brass
When replacing a pipe it is important to replace it with a pipe made of the same
material, diameter, length, shape and gauge. It is also important, of course,
that the end fittings are identical with the old ones.
Some pipes can be "made up" on site while others have to be obtained from
stores using the appropriate stores part number and reference number.
The designer of the aircraft and its systems should organise the pipes in such a
way that mis-connection is impossible, either by having different length pipes
in the same run so that unions, or connections, of one pipe do not occur at the
same place as a pipeline next to it; or by having pipelines (and unions) of
different diameters so mis-connection is impossible. This is not always done,
however, and it is important that all systems are put through a complete
functional after any pipeline replacement/disconnection/reconnection.
Flared Couplings - Many couplings use this method of assembly - flared pipe,
adapter nipple, collar, outer and inner sleeve. The nipple now in use has a
parallel extension (called a skirt) and this should always be inserted into the
flared pipe, which has the collar and outer sleeve fitted.
Flareless Couplings - A "preset" of the correct size is placed over the unflared
pipe end. The pipe is pushed fully home into it's union adapter and the union
nut is tightened to a specific torque value. This causes the "preset" to bend
inwards and form a leak proof compression joint with the pipe. It is important
that the correct torque value is used.
Compressed Rubber Couplings - With the compressed rubber gland type of
coupling, as used in pitot static systems, the pipe end must be hard against
the shoulder of the recess in the union adapter before any attempt is made to
tighten the union nut.

Prior to fitting the pipe, the pipe ends should be suitably protected against the
corrosive action of the rubber. Copper pipes should be tinned, whilst stainless
steel and aluminium alloy pipes should be protected with a varnish such as
BSX17. All sharp edges should be removed from the pipe ends.

Any hose clips used must be of an approved type and must fit correctly in
relation to the pipe ends or beading. A clearance of between 0.25 in. and 0.50
in. should be allowed between the ends of the pipes so that the ends will not
make contact should flexure of the pipe occur.

If a new pipe connection proves difficult to fit, it may be lubricated with the
fluid used in the particular system, but for some types of pipe, hot water
immersion in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions is
recommended.

Couplings are affected by expansion, contraction, vibration and heat, and

should be inspected regularly for deterioration and freedom from oil and
grease. When connectors are to be removed from pipe ends, it is essential that
levering with a screwdriver or similar tool be avoided, since this will damage
the pipe.

Brazed Nipple Couplings - A conical nipple is brazed or silver soldered to the

end of the pipe and is held in position by a union nut which butts against a
shoulder on the nipple.
Self Sealing Couplings - May be of the screw or bayonet type, and allow quick
release and assembly of the joint without fluid loss or air inlet.

When making or breaking the joint of a self-sealing coupling, care must be

taken to avoid turning between the two halves, otherwise the seating for the
valve in the union half-coupling may damage the seal in the fixed half-
coupling.

NOTE: This does not apply to Avimo type self-sealing couplings, which are
connected by a bayonet pin and socket arrangement. It is therefore necessary
to rotate this coupling to make or break the joint.

When a self-sealing coupling is disconnected, blanks should be fitted to both

halves.

A leaking half coupling should be replaced.

Vee Flange Couplings - A method of joining used on larger diameter pipes
such as fuel pipes and fuel components. The ends of the pipes to be joined
have a Vee section brazed onto them. The pipes and the two Vee sections are
butted together and retained by a Vee Flange Coupling. It is important that the
abutment faces of the two Vee flange sections are clean, absolutely flat ,
undamaged, and not strained.

This method has two main advantages over the method whereby the flanges are
held together by bolts (or studs) and nuts, namely:-

(a) Even distribution of stress around the flanges.

(b) Ease and speed of removal/installation.

The assembly also has a good strength/weight ratio and is more compact.

Examples of usage of Vee flange couplings are to:-

(a) Attach driven components to engine gearboxes.

(b) Join components such as valves to ducts.

(c) Join sections of ducting/pipework in air-conditioning/fuel systems.

Such diverse uses naturally demand a variety of designs and materials;

therefore the appropriate Maintenance Manual must always be referred to prior
to working on any Vee flange coupling.
NOTE:- The torque loading of the clamp bolt(s) on Vee flange couplings is
critical and the clamp halves need to be torque tightened then tapped with a
soft faced mallet to distribute tension, the effect of this being to reduce the
torque loading of the clamp bolt which then requires re-torqueing.

Pipe Installation
Before pipes are fitted into aircraft, they should be inspected for damage and
corrosion to the assembly or the protective treatment. If damage to the pipe is
suspected, the pipes should be pressure tested, and the roundness of the bore
checked. --)

Checks should be made that the pipes are of the specified type and should
have approved certificates identified to the pipe.
It is important that adequate precautions are taken to ensure the cleanliness of
individual pipes and the complete system.
Prior to assembly, all pipes must be blown through with clean dry air and,
where applicable, flushed out with clean filtered fluid of the type to be used in
the particular system in which the pipe is to be installed.
For oxygen systems, a final approved degreasing process must be used to
ensure cleanliness, since oil or grease in contact with oxygen under pressure
would cause an explosion.
If the pipe is not to be installed immediately, its ends must be blanked. Plugs
and caps conforming to A.G.S. Standards or the standards appropriate to the
system pipeline should be used. In instances where standard blanks cannot be
fitted, it must be ensured that the blank is so made that it is impossible for it
to be left in position when the pipe is connected.
Note: The use of rag, tape or paper for blanking off purposes is not allowed.
When installing pipes, they should not be allowed to come into contact with
materials which might cause galvanic corrosion. Some small aluminium alloy
pipes are treated internally and externally with varnish. Pipes so treated must
not be used in fuel, oil, pneumatic and oxygen systems, or in any system where
peeling varnish may cause malfunctioning of the system.

Supporting Pipes
Pipes must be supported in accordance with the Aircraft Maintenance Manual.
Multiple pipe clamps are used to support pipes. These clamps are often made
of fibre, aluminium, moulded rubber and other materials. The two halves of
the clamps are usually joined together by bolts, which also serve to secure the
clamp to the aircraft structure. It is important to ensure that the clamps are of
the correct size to prevent damage to the pipe.
Where packing is required between the pipes and the clamps, the material
used should be in accordance with the Aircraft Maintenance Manual. Typical
materials are cork sheet, tinned copper gauze and various types of tape, but
leather must never be used, since this will cause corrosion.
Some pipe clamps are self-bonding, but where this is not possible, metal gauze,
or a cork-based material having copper strands interwoven, can be used.
Where single pipes require support, standard clips such as "P" clips can be
used.
Clearance between pipes and structure should be at least 0.1 in. and adequate
clearance should be provided between pipes and moving parts, e.g. landing
gear bays (tyres may "grow" when rotating by as much as 2 in. in diameter and
1 in. in width).

Connecting Pipes
Before connecting the pipe union nuts, a check should be made to ensure that
the pipe end is of the correct type and size, that it is clean and undamaged.
Two spanners must always be used when tightening (or disconnecting) a pipe
coupling; one to hold the sleeve or adapter and one to turn the union nut.
Over-tightening of couplings must be avoided. Special tightening techniques
and torque's, when specified, must be used.

If lubrication of the threads is specified, it is essential that only the correct

lubricant is used and that it does not enter the bore of the pipe.

For oxygen systems, the following lubricants are suitable: DTD 900/4042,
which provides a dry self-lubricating film of graphite and which should be
applied to a thoroughly degreased surface and allowed to air dry before being
put into service; and DTD 900/4286, which acts as a sealant as well as a
lubricant and has a grease-like consistency; and P.T.F.E. tape.

Pipes with Standard Couplings

When connecting pipes having standard types of threaded couplings, e.g. those
complying with the A.G.S. series, the following points should be checked:

(a) That flared pipe ends are free from cracks, distortion or other damage.

(b) That union nuts are free to be withdrawn over their entire length, that
they are not impeded by bends or other obstructions and that they
rotate freely.

(c) That all loose parts such as adapter nipples, rubber glands, washers,
etc., are fitted to the coupling, are of the correct type, and are correctly
located.

(d) That the pipe end aligns correctly with its mating part. Pipe ends must
never be forced into position, since this may induce considerable stress
into the pipe and the coupling.

(e) That the pipes are never drawn together by their union nuts, since this
imposes a strain on the flaring which may cause deformation or other
damage.

Once a standard coupling has been bedded in initially, less torque will be
required on subsequent reassembly to make a leak proof joint. However,
should a leak occur, the coupling must not be over tightened in an attempt to
stop the leak, but must be disconnected and the cause of the leakage
ascertained.

Adapter nipples with skirts have replaced those without skirts but it is
important to check that the nipple sits correctly before assembly of the union.
(It has been known for unskirted nipples to rotate in the assembly prior to
tightening thus causing a weak joint and one that is not pressure proof.)
Final Inspection

After the system has been pressurised and the union checked for leaks it can
be locked/wire locked.

MANUFACTURE OF PIPELINES

Manufacture of some rigid pipelines is permissible and in this respect local

regulations must be followed.

In general the pipeline must not be damaged in anyway and all appropriate
tests must be carried out after manufacture and prior to assembly. The
pipeline must also be thoroughly cleaned prior to assembly.

Where local manufacture is not allowed the unserviceable pipe must be

replaced by a spare obtained from stores - or an approved supplier.

Pipe Bending

The pipe to be made up must be of the same specification as the one that it is
replacing. The bend radii and angles must be the same so that on the
replacement pipe and the pattern must be identical.

To lessen the possibility of kinking pipework over 0.5 in. in diameter (or pipes
that have to be bent through an acute angle) are usually filled with a fusible -
alloy.

This lead based alloy melts at below 100°C so boiling water is sufficient heat to
melt the alloy prior to pouring in the pipe; and to remove it from the pipe after
bending.

Loading the Alloy

1. Thoroughly clean the pipe bore and dry.

2. Lubricate the bore as prescribed by the manufacturers of the fusible
alloy.
3. Plug one end (bottom plug) and immerse in hot water to within a few
inches of the open end.
4. Pour in the alloy taking care not to destroy the oil film or create air
pockets.
5. Cool the whole tube in cold water working from the plugged end to
prevent formation of cavities.
6. Allow the tube to attain room temperature before bending.
Unloading (after bending)

1. Remove the top and bottom plugs and immerse the complete pipe in
boiling (or near boiling) water.
2. Support the pipe so that the molten alloy runs out.
3. Remove pipe when completely drained of alloy.
4. Allow water to cool and retrieve alloy -now solid- to be used again.

The Bending Machine

Two sizes are available: Type A2 for tubes up to 7/8" dia.

Type C for tubes 1 - 2" dia.

May be gripped in a vice or bolted to a bench. Each machine is provided with a

set of circular formers and guides to bend different diameters of tubing.

Each former provides for a mean bend radius equal approximately to four times
the diameter of the corresponding pipe. This is the safe minimum for the pipe
concerned.
Always use the correct former and guide and bend the pipe with a continuous,
steady, slow pull on the bending machine handle.

Always inspect the pipe after bending for:-

* Kinking
* Flattening
* Damage
Carry out a pressure test (see later chapters) of the pipe and carry out a ball
test (a ball of 80% of the internal diameter of the pipe should pass through the
pipe freely assisted by gravity only).

' End Fitting Manufacture

For low pressure rubber seal couplings the pipe should be finished square and
be free of burrs and debris.
The same applies to Vee flange and brazed nipple couplings prior to the brazing
of the flange/nipple.
Flareless couplings are also finished square and free from burrs and debris.

Flared End Fittings

Prior to flaring square and deburr the pipe end and fit the union adapter and
collar - in that order (failure to fit them now will mean that you cannot fit them
at all because they will not go over the flared end).
The pipe is clamped in a flaring tool which has a rotating cone which is pushed
forward into the bore of the pipe (slowly) to force it out to the flared shape of
the cone.
The process must be carried out slowly so as to minimise the possibility of the
pipe splitting.
The flaring process is continued until the flare is a specific size in relation to
the collar.
In general when the collar is pulled up under the flare the flare should
protrude in front of the collar by a small amount - Check the instructions
supplied with the tool.
Check thoroughly for pipe splitting, thinning and cracks, and carry out a
pressure test.

When fitting a replacement pipe always:

* Check that the end fittings attach without any strain.
* Check that the lay of the pipe is exactly the same as the original.
* Attach at the same support points and note that it has clearance
between it and other pipes; moving items; hot items, etc.
* Carry out a full functional test of the system and if no leaks are apparent
the unions are wire locked.
Pressure Testing Pipes
Always check with the aircraft maintenance manual.
Hydraulic. Fuel. Oil and Coolant Pipes. All pipes and complete systems (off the
aircraft) after manufacture should be tested to 1 1/2 times normal maximum
system pressure or 250 P.S.I, whichever is the greater. The ideal fluid to use is
the system fluid. Test pipes in a safety cage.
Flow test systems where valves, particularly non return valves, are fitted.
Carefully release pressure after a pressure test taking greater care if
accumulators are fitted.
Always flow test completed fuel systems.
Compressed Gas Pipes. When testing compressed gas systems/lines, air or
nitrogen is used with purging of C>2 systems with oxygen afterwards. The gas is
introduced into a suitably blanked system using a Schrader type valve. Leaks
may be checked for by noting the pressure drop over a period of time and/or
applying a leak detecting fluid around joints, etc. This fluid may be a
proprietary brand or distilled water and a non acid soapy solution.
After pressure testing, pipe lines should be inspected to ensure that they have
not been displaced by the pressure and that the correct clearance is
maintained. The pipe supports should also be checked for security of
attachment and local distortion of the pipe at its clamping points.
After all tests have been completed, it is important to ascertain that any fluid
which may have leaked into a component or structure of the aircraft, is
thoroughly cleaned off.

Locking
When the tests have been completed, the connections should be locked in
accordance with the aircraft Maintenance Manual.

Maintenance of Pipelines
Check all pipe lines for corrosion, particularly with aluminium alloy pipes .
Special attention should be given to areas under clips and supports.
Copper and brass pipes will age harden in service and should be removed for
annealing at the periods stated in the Maintenance Schedule. These pipes
should be protected with an organic material.
Pipe lines should be checked for damage, chafing, kinking, denting and leaks.
Also check for correct clearance and security of attachment.
FLEXIBLE HOSE ASSEMBLIES

From a designers point of view, the following points should be borne in mind
when selecting a hose assembly for a particular purpose:
(a) Maximum system pressure.
(b) Maximum system fluid temperature, particularly soak temperatures
after system shut down when fluid temperatures could increase by as
much as 20° C.
(c) Compatibility of hose material and its end fittings with the system fluid
and external environmental conditions. This includes fluids to be used
in other systems where they may come into contact with a particular
hose installation.

Correct Methods of Fitting a Flexible Pipe

Hose assemblies for use in high-pressure fluid systems are usually supplied by
the manufacturers complete with end fittings which, in most cases, cannot be
dismantled or altered in any way. However, there are some types of hose
assemblies on which the end fittings may be changed if necessary.
The hose lining is made of a material to withstand the pressure, temperature,
and to be compatible with the fluid in the system.
The hose is strengthened by high tensile steel wire braiding or fabric
re-inforcement.
Hose assemblies are generally designed either for specific functions or for a
limited range of functions only, and it is essential to ensure that only the hose
specified in the parts catalogue is fitted.
A material which is widely used is polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). This
material is chemically inert, is unaffected by synthetic oils and fluids, and
operates at high temperatures, and normally has an unlimited shelf life. PTFE
hose is, however, more susceptible to damage from careless handling than
rubber hose, and care is required during removal, installation and inspection.
Hose assemblies fitted in high temperature areas (e.g. near engines) may be
protected by fire protective coverings.
Hose assemblies often go through a great deal of flexing. They may also have a
natural ageing process. It is therefore important that lives as stated in the
Aircraft Maintenance Manual are not exceeded.
The end fittings on a hose assembly are made from steel or light alloy and are
designed to exert a grip on both the tube and wire braids so as to resist high
pressure, twisting and vibration loads. They also provide an electrical bond.
Length

The length of a hose assembly with straight end fittings is taken as the
distance between the extremities of the two nipples. In the case of an elbowed
end fitting, the length is taken from the centre of the elbow bore.

Construction of High-Pressure Hose Assemblies

A typical high pressure hose assembly consists of an inner lining covered by

one or two closely woven wire braids, either moulded or sandwiched between
the synthetic rubber of the lining or woven on the surface of the tube.

The whole assembly may be enclosed by an outer cover, the purpose of which
is to provide protection for the other parts of the hose, to resist abrasion and
the effects of weather and environmental fluids and chemicals, and, in some
cases, to provide a degree of fire resistance.

Low Pressure Hose Assemblies.

These are thin-walled and textile-reinforced. They are used for instrument
lines, and especially for instruments mounted on panels equipped with anti-
vibration mountings.
The rubber or canvas spirally-corrugated hose having a spiral steel spring
embedded in the corrugations, is often used for systems where there are
negative pressures.

With low-pressure hoses it is important to ensure that bends are not too acute,
since this may result in kinking of the hose at the bend. Where a sharp bends
cannot be avoided an internal support coil may be fitted.

STORAGE OF HOSE AND HOSE ASSEMBLIES

PTFE hose does not normally have a specific storage life, but rubber or
synthetic rubber hose has. A life, depending on the material, is between three
and five years.

Check storage conditions from manufacturers manual but generally:-

(a) Keep in original wrapping and issue in order of acceptance (i.e. 1st. in
1st. out).

(b) Keep in a dry store room away from sunlight and running electrical
equipment. (Ozone is the principal ageing agent of rubber and is
generated by running electrical motors/generators).

(c) Check periodically and test before issue in accordance with

manufacturers manual.

(d) Keep all documentation, check for validity and check against hose
identification.

INSTALLATION

When installing a hose assembly, it should be ensured that there is adequate

clearance between the hose and other parts of the aircraft structure, so as to
prevent chafing or galvanic corrosion.
It must be borne in mind that hose may flex when internal pressure is applied,
and considerable 'whip' may occur under surge conditions; the force exerted
when a hose 'whips' may be sufficient to cause damage to the hose assembly
and to surrounding components.
The serviceability and life of a hose assembly is affected by the degree of
bending of the hose. There may be some variation in the connecting angle and
distance between fittings for a particular hose assembly in similar installations,
and a check should be carried out to ensure that the bend radius is not less
than the minimum specified by the manufacturer.
All straight hose assemblies should be at least 3% longer than the maximum
distance between the fittings to which they are connected. In no circumstance
may a hose be fitted under tension.
Where a hose assembly is connected to a moving part it is important to ensure
that the hose can only move in the plane intended by the design. The hose
should be installed without any twists and this will be seen by the marker line
down its length.

RE-USABLE END FITTINGS

Usually consist of a socket, nipple and end nut. When the nipple is screwed
into the hose, the hose expands and is clamped firmly against the socket. This
is known as a compression seal but other methods of assembly may be used.
When cutting the hose it is important to cut it to the correct length using a fine
toothed hacksaw blade. (Remove any debris).
Actual assembly of the hose and socket is carried out by holding the socket
firmly in a vice and screwing the hose into the socket until it bottoms.
Note: Some manufacturers recommend that, after screwing the hose fully into
the socket, it should be unscrewed a quarter turn to allow for expansion
when the nipple is inserted.
After assembly of the hose to the socket it is recommended that the hose is
marked with a grease pencil, paint or tape, at the point where it enters the
socket, in order to provide a means of checking that the hose is not forced out
of the socket during subsequent insertion of the nipple.
The nipple must be screwed into the previously assembled hose and socket.
This operation must be carried out with extreme care, as misalignment of the
nipple could easily result in its tapered end cutting into the hose wall. Slices of
rubber dislodged in this way have been known to cause malfunction of
associated components.
Nipples are usually tapered over approximately half their length and are often
provided with a plain pilot extension to guide the nipples accurately into the
hose.
When the nipple does not have a pilot extension, an assembly mandrel should
be used and should extend at least 6mm beyond the end of the nipple. The
assembly mandrel also acts as a means of turning a nipple which does not
have an integral hexagon or flats.
After assembly the flexible hose must be pressure tested.

TESTING - GENERAL
The Ball Test
With the hose suspended from one end, a ball should pass freely through the
assembly under its own weight and without lubrication. The check should be
repeated from the opposite end, and if the ball fails to pass through the hose in
either direction the hose must be rejected.
The diameter and material of the ball may be specified by the manufacturer,
but in general, a steel ball bearing may be used having a diameter slightly
smaller than the specified internal diameter of the pipe. The diameter should
be:-
* 90% for hose assemblies.
* 80% for pipes.

Flow Test
In some cases a ball test may be inadequate and a flow test will show that the
assembly is capable of passing a given quantity of fluid in the time and under
the conditions specified.

Pressure Test
Are carried out as stated on the drawing or in the relevant manual or to 1.5
times its maximum working pressure. When testing fuel pipes we use paraffin
as the test fluid. For pneumatic and oxygen pipes we use water. After testing
the pipes must be cleaned and dried.
Bonding Test

If the hose has metal in its construction a bonding test will be specified. A
bonding tester is used
(See the book in this series Aircraft Electrics).

PIPE LINE IDENTIFICATION

(BS M23)

All pipes are marked with date of manufacture, drawing or part number,
inspection stamp, test stamp, and name of manufacturer. These markings can
be stencilled on the external surface or stamped on a metal tag or band
(soldered/brazed to the pipe). The date can be a colour code woven into the
cotton brand.

Flexible hose assemblies are marked along their length with one or more
continuous thin lines to indicate any twist on installation.
i •
SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION

Systems/system pipes may be identified by tape or identification labels

attached to each section of pipe. Two systems are in use:-

* The colour/symbol system. This uses words, colours and symbols to

indicate the contents/system of the pipe.
* The code system. Based on the ATA 100 chapter numbering system and
will indicate:

(a) The system - by a symbol.

(b) The component to which the pipe is fitted.

(c) The subsystem to which the pipe is fitted.

(d) Whether it is suction - pressure, etc.
The Code System

The numbering system may take the following form:

STARTING FROM THE END OF THE PIPE

1st. Part Pipe end identification number.

2nd. Part System symbol.

3rd. Part ATA chapter number.

4th. Part Component key number.

5th. Part Component connection code.

6th. Part Pipe function and sub system code.
7th. Part Flow direction - if applicable.
Supplement to book 7 module 7.

SOLDERING

Sometimes called soft soldering to distinguish it from hard soldering (brazing).

It is the process of joining two metals together using a low melting point alloy.

The joint is not as strong as a brazed joint (using brass) or a welded joint (which
is the strongest), but it does have sufficient strength for use with electrical work
and has good electrical qualities.

Soldering Irons

Usually electrically heated comprising a connecting cable, insulated handle,

heating element and a removable bit (some have an indication lamp to show
when it is on and also a light to give illumination to the work in hand).

Some are thermostatically controlled, others will require temperature control by

switching off when they get too hot.

They are classified by their wattage. The copper bit should be kept clean and
care should be exercised when they are on as they will cause painful burns. For
soldering large items a blow torch can be used.

Correct selection of a soldering iron appropriate to the mass of the joint to be

soldered is governed by two main considerations:

(i) Wattage rating of me iron.

(ii) Size (ie diameter) of the bit (access).

Before connecting a soldering iron to a power supply, the following safety checks
should be carried out:

(i) Visually inspect the iron, cable and plug for damage and security,
(ii) Check that supply/iron voltage and wattage are correct for the job
in hand and there is a serviceable tag fitted.
Solders

Supplied in stick and wire form to BS 441 and 219. Wire solder is usually flux
cored. The flux may be active or non-active. Several types of solder are
available, eg:

Fluxes

The use of a flux is essential to ensure that the surfaces of the metals to be
joined are chemically clean. It also helps to prevent the formation of oxides and
other impurities, and helps the molten solder to flow. Fluxes conform to DTD
599 and are supplied in either resin, liquid or paste form. Applied to the cleaned
surface prior to soldering if not using cored solder. If using cored solder
application occurs at the same time as the solder is applied.

Active fluxes. These are very effective but can only be used where thorough
cleaning of the joint can be carried out afterwards, as corrosion will occur
otherwise.

Non-active fluxes. Not so effective. Used where complete removal of the flux after
joint completion is not possible, eg on electrical cables.

Method of Soldering - General

1. Mechanically clean the parts to the joined, ideally leaving the

surfaces slightly roughened.
2. Degrease the surfaces using trichloroethylene (This is being
replaced by substitute degreasing agents because of its toxicity).
Stainless steel should be further cleaned using a pickling process
followed by washing.
3. For soldering al alloy special flux cored solder is available.
4. Use the correct solder and flux.
—5r- -AH«w-th«4^Fon-te^hea^up-«nd^tin^using the solder. (Tinning means
melting some solder on the end of the bit which allows for better
heat conduction between bit and the parts to be soldered.)
6. Tin' both parts to be joined separately, applying the hot iron to one
side of the part and the solder to the other. As the solder melts over
the area remove the iron and the solder. Allow to cool.
7. Bring both parts together and apply the soldering iron to melt the
solder on both parts.
8. As the solder melts, remove the iron, and allow parts to cool without
disturbing.
9. Test joint for mechanical strength. If necessary construct a second
joint and test to destruction.

Soldering a Wire to a Terminal End

Preparation of wire

(i) Strip the insulation from the end of the wire to the required length
and inspect (there must not be any cut or broken strands).

(ii) Twist the strands slightly to re-impose the lay of the wire.

(iii) Apply the already tinned and hot copper bit beneath the wire, and
the flux cored solder to the top.

(iv) When the solder flows over the wire, remove the solder and the bit,
and allow the tinned wire to cool.

NOTE: Do not allow solder to flow underneath the insulation - this will
cause a 'stiff joint'. Also make sure there is not excessive insulation -
shrinkage - caused by getting too hot.
Preparation of the Terminal End

(i) Clean the terminal and immediate area with approved cleaning
material. Support the end in a suitable heat resistant support.

(ii) Apply the soldering iron bit to one side of the terminal and the resin
cored solder to the other. Allow the heat from the soldering iron to
pass through the terminal end to melt the solder.

(iii) Tin the terminal with sufficient solder to form a good bond,
appropriate to the gauge of wire to be connected.

(iv) When tinned remove iron and solder and allow to cool.

Making The Joint

(i) Hold wire and terminal end together and apply the hot bit to one to
allow the heat to flow into both.

(ii) When the solder on both parts melt, keep joint steady and remove
bit (if necessary apply additional solder if required). Important -
joint must be held still whilst it cools.

(iii) With the solidifying of the solder a good joint should be formed.

(iv) Check joint for security, alignment of wire and terminal end. Make
sure that there is a good electrical contact area between wire and
end. (The joint can be checked for strength by trying to pull it apart
using the hands - if it fails it must be re-soldered - including re-
tinning. A 'dry'joint is a sign of poor solder adhesion to one or other
of the two items being soldered - rectified by proper cleaning of both
parts and correct fluxing.)
Multi-pin Connectors

The term 'connector' is used to cover a wide range of devices which

provide semi-permanent connection to avionic components and
electrical equipment.

A complete plug and socket connector assembly is comprised of two

mating units:

1. A unit directly attached to any structure or component is termed the

receptacle or socket.

2. A unit attached to a free length of wire loom is termed the plug.

To join one wiring loom to another a plug and socket is often used where each
unit is attached to its own loom.

A connector must have positive location for plug to socket, and be capable of
quick connection and disconnection for ease of maintenance.

The various wires going into a plug/socket are connected to individual pins. The
connection is usually made by crimping each wire to its respective pin, but in
some cases soldering is used - particularly with older systems.

Soldering Plug and Socket Pins

This requires an iron with a small bit and a steady hand. The various wires are -
identified, stripped, and tinned. Each pin in the plug/socket usually comes with
the wire receptacle end pre- soldered so it is only necessary to tin the wires.

Because of access problems soldering starts at the middle pin with each pin
thereafter being soldered in turn clockwise out from the centre. The pins may
not removable from the plug/socket.

Soldering Process.

1. Strip, clean, identify and tin each wire.

2. If pin receptacle requires extra solder apply the iron to the contact
and allow the solder to run inside.

3. Whilst keeping the solder molten in the receptacle insert the

prepared wire end.
4. When firmly in maintain relative positions, remove iron, and allow
solder to cool.
5. Inspect the completed joint:

(a) The conductor should be 'wetted' to the contact to the full

depth of the receptacle hole.

(b) The insulation should be almost flush with the top of the pin
contact and unburnt.

Note. If, during the soldering process a previously soldered pin/wire has been
touched by the hot iron, it will have become un-soldered and will require re-
doing. This will often require all the wires to be un-soldered back to this one for
access. Then they will all have to be re-soldered.

If there has been any shrinkage of the insulation (because of the heat) then the
wires will have to be cut back and re-stripped, and re-soldered. If there is
insufficient slack in the wire to allow this then replacement is the only answer.
(It can be very frustrating).