Syntax Book

Ye. Mkhitaryan, N.

Hambartsoumyan,
N. Avakyan, A. Markaryan

A BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR

•
SYNTAX
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Ye. Mkhitaryan, N. Hambartsoumyan, N. Avakyan, A.

Markaryan
A BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR: SYNTAX
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ISBN 978–99941–1–910–3
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3
CONTENTS
Preface ................................................................................... 5
Syntax
The Sentence ......................................................................... 7
The Simple Sentence .............................................................. 8
Parts of the Sentence ........................................................... 15
The Principal Parts of the Sentence ................................. 15
The Subject ................................................................. 15
The Predicate .............................................................. 17
The Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject ........ 20
The Secondary Parts of the Sentence .............................. 24
The Object ................................................................... 25
The Attribute ................................................................ 27
The Apposition ............................................................. 28
The Adverbial Modifier ................................................. 29
Homogeneous Parts of the Sentence .......................... 31
Independent Elements of the Sentence ....................... 31
The Compound Sentence ..................................................... 32
The Complex Sentence ......................................................... 33
Word Order ........................................................................... 41
Direct and Indirect Speech .................................................... 45
Punctuation .......................................................................... 50
Samples of Sentence Analysis ......................................... 53
Exercises
The Simple Sentence ............................................................ 57
The Subject ...................................................................... 59
The Predicate ................................................................... 60
The Object ........................................................................ 64
The Attribute ..................................................................... 66
The Apposition ................................................................. 67
4
The Adverbial Modifier ...................................................... 68
Homogeneous Parts of the Sentence ............................... 70
Independent Elements of the Sentence ............................ 70
The Compound Sentence ..................................................... 72
The Complex Sentence ......................................................... 75
Constructions with Verbals ..................................................... 99
Word Order ......................................................................... 112
Direct and Indirect Speech .................................................. 116
Punctuation ......................................................................... 127
References ......................................................................... 133
5
The book is dedicated to the memory of our parents
PREFACE
The textbook is intended for students of the English department

who are supposed to have completed a course of English
morphology and intend to take up syntax. The book consists of two
parts: theory and exercises. The presentation is made as practical
as possible. It contains information at various levels, ranging from
relatively simple points to more advanced problems. The
description includes not only much of the material that is in
conformity with the traditional use of English grammar, but also
some innovations which are observed in present-day usage of
English.
The textbook contains exercises in such fundamentals of syntax
as the simple sentence, parts of the sentence, the compound and
complex sentences, emphatic constructions, word order, direct and
indirect speech. The book also supplies exercises in English
punctuation as an essential part of syntax.
Emphasis is laid on practising and consolidating those syntactic
structures that students of the English department have difficulty in
mastering. This is achieved through various types of exercises,
such as transformation, space-filling, free completion, multiple-
choice, correction, etc. Translation exercises give students an
opportunity to compare English syntax with that of Armenian and
concentrate on their differences.
The material for exercises includes sentences from British and
American fiction listed in References. We have made use of a
number of books, some of which are our prior publications: English
6
Syntax (exercises) by Ye. Mkhitarian and Z. Kostanian (2006); A
Practical English Grammar by Ye. Mkhitaryan, N.
Hambartsoumyan, A. Markaryan, N.Avakyan (2009).
The book does not pretend to be exhaustive in introducing all
syntactic structures of English. However, the authors hope it will
help students’ progress in accurate uses of Basic English sentence
patterns.
Theory part is written by Ye. Mkhitaryan, Exercises by N.
Hambartsoumyan, N. Avakyan and A. Markaryan.
We wish to express our gratitude to our collegues for their
friendly and useful suggestions which were taken into account in
compiling the textbook.
7
SYNTAX
THE SENTENCE
The sentence is a means of conveying a thought and is formed

according to a certain syntactic pattern and pronounced with a
certain intonation typical of the given language. Sentences may be
described from the point of structure and their communicative
purpose.
Structural Classification of Sentences
From the point of structure sentences are divided into:

1. simple or composite
2. complete or incomplete
3. one-member or two-member
Simple sentences are characterized by having one predicative

line, i.e. one subject + one predicate. Composite sentences have
more than one predicative line. Parts of the structure that make up
a composite sentence are called clauses.
Complete sentences are characterized by the presence of the
parts of the sentence that provide its full structure.
Incomplete sentences most of which are elliptical sentences are
characterized by absence of some parts but which can be easily
inferred from the previous context:
- When did they arrive?
- They arrived yesterday. (complete)
- Yesterday. (elliptical)
-What are you doing?
-I am reading. (complete)
8
- Reading. (elliptical)
Elliptical sentences usually occur in colloquial speech.
One-member sentences have either the subject or the predicate
of the structure, while two-member sentences have both.
One- member sentences are of two types: nominal and verbal.
In nominal sentences the principal part is expressed by a noun
(with accompanying words):
Packing up. The nagging worry of departure. Lost keys,
unwritten labels, tissue paper lying on the floor. (D. du Maurier)
The memory of the youth! Happy years.
In verbal sentences the principal part is expressed by a non-
finite form of the verb:
Why go there now?
To think of him living in those conditions!
Hoping to see him after so many years!
Two-member sentences can be unextended (having only the
subject and the predicate) and extended (having more than only
the principal parts).
She smiled. He works. (unextended)
She smiled happily. He works at a lawyer’s office. (extended)
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
Communicative Types of Sentences
According to the purpose of communication simple sentences

are divided into four basic types:
1) declarative
2) interrogative
3) imperative
4) exclamatory
They express statements, questions, commands and
exclamations respectively.
9
Declarative Sentences
A declarative sentence contains a statement about various

facts, events and phenomena as well as about the speaker’s
attitudes towards them. Declarative sentences can be used either
in the positive or negative form and are usually pronounced with a
falling tone.
Time is money.
She answered all my questions with her usual honesty.
Negation in the English sentence is expressed differently.

Unlike the Armenian language in which a sentence can have more
than one negative word, an English sentence can normally contain
one negative word only. This is usually the negative particle not
which is used with the verb form. Occasionally it may be added to
other parts of the sentence:
He did not (didn’t) say anything and went out.
He said nothing and went out.
Ü³ áãÇÝã ã³ë³ó ¨ ¹áõñë ·Ý³ó:
There are other negative words that can make sentences
negative. These are negative pronouns, adverbs or conjunctions:
no, nothing, nobody, none, neither, nowhere, never, neither…nor:
No words can describe his sufferings.
Nobody knows the exact date of their arrival.
The children were seen nowhere.
I can never regret it.
Neither Jack nor Harry participated in the debates.
Besides negative words, there are other words that attach a
negative sense to a sentence: scarcely, hardly, barely (often in
combination with ever):
I can scarcely believe it.
ºë ã»Ù Ï³ñáÕ ¹ñ³Ý Ñ³í³ï³É:
They hardly ever visit me now.
10
Üñ³Ýù ·ñ»Ã» ã»Ý ³Ûó»ÉáõÙ ÇÝÓ ÑÇÙ³:
She could barely recognize you, could she?
Ü³ ·ñ»Ã» ã×³Ý³ã»ó Ó»½, ³ÛÝå»ë ã¿±:
Interrogative Sentences
Interrogative sentences fall into four major and three minor

types. The major (basic) types include the following questions:
1) general
2) disjunctive
3) special
4) alternative
The minor types comprise rhetorical, declarative and echo
questions.
1) General questions
General or yes / no questions refer to the whole utterance and
require the answers ‘Yes’ or ‘No’. They are formed by placing part
of the predicate (the auxiliary, the modal or link-verb) before the
subject and are pronounced with a rising tone. The answers can
be full or short:
- Are you satisfied with the result of the test?
- Yes, I am (satisfied with the result of the test.)
- Has the date of the meeting been fixed?
- No, it hasn’t (been fixed.)
2) Disjunctive questions
Disjunctive or tag questions are used to confirm or negate what
is stated in the basic part of the utterance. They have the form of
short general questions and are pronounced with a rising tone.
There are two types of tag questions, according to whether the
statement is positive or negative.
 Positive statement + negative tag:
You are free now, aren’t you?
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Everyone enjoyed the party, didn’t they?
 Negative statement + positive tag:
You aren’t free now, are you?
Nobody was ready, were they?
There are other types of tags which do not follow the standard
pattern. They are pronounced with a falling tone.
 Positive statement + positive tags:
He speaks Spanish fluently, does he?
 Negative statement + negative tag:
He didn’t pass the exam, didn’t he?
Tags may also be added to imperatives to make the utterance
less categorical:
Stop arguing, will you?
Turn on the light, can’t you?
Don’t make a noise, will you?
Let’s attend the Picasso exhibition, shall we?
 In colloquial speech a tag may be expressed by different
words, phrases and even clauses:
George is not coming with us, right?
They have no reason to doubt him, eh?
Ann divorced her husband, is it so?
You agree to accompany her to the theatre, OK?
3) Special Questions
Special or wh-questions begin with the interrogative pronouns
(who, what, which, whose) and the interrogative adverbs (when,
where, why, how) and require more detail about the time, place
and other circumstances in which actions take place. Like general
questions, special questions have an inverted word order, except
for the special question referring to the subject. Special questions
are normally pronounced with a falling tone:
What do you think of their suggestion?
Which story did you like best?
Whose handwriting is it?
12
When will Henry go to Canada?
Where are they going to spend their weekend?
How did you discover it?
But: Who knows the answer to this question?
What makes you think so?
4) Alternative Questions
Alternative questions imply a choice between two (or more)
possibilities. They constitute a compound of two separate
questions, in which the second element often takes elliptical forms.
Usually the first part of the alternative question is usually
pronounced with a rising tone and the second part is pronounced
with a falling tone:
Will you go abroad in summer or do you prefer to stay in town?
Would you like coffee or (would you like) tea?
Did the meeting take place on Monday or Tuesday?
5) Rhetorical Questions
Rhetorical questions are interrogative in structure, but have the
force of a statement. They often denote the emotional state of the
speaker. Rhetorical questions do not usually expect an answer
and often provide a topic for discussion or debates. They may take
the form of a general or wh-question.
Do you think I am stupid?
Should family women seek a career?
May there be other worlds out there?
Can we create peace in the modern world?
6) Declarative Questions
Declarative questions have the form of a declarative sentence,
except for the final rising intonation. Declarative questions invite
the hearer to assert or reject the statement:
You have invited Nick to your birthday party too?
Sally will be there?
13
Danny is going to marry Mary?
7) Exclamatory questions
Exclamatory questions are questions only in form as they do
not ask for information. They may express surprise, amazement,
admiration and are pronounced with a falling tone:
Isn’t she a charming child!
Didn’t John act wonderfully!
Can’t she do it better than Alice!
8) Echo Questions
Echo questions repeat part or all of what has been said and
therefore occur in dialogues:
– Have you ever been to Malta?
– Have I ever been where?
– She decided to take up the Basque Language.

– What language?
Imperative Sentences
Imperative sentences express commands as well as requests,

offers, invitations, etc. They are expressed by the form of the bare
infinitive. The negative form is formed by means of the negative
particle not added to the auxiliary do (don’t) and expresses
prohibition. Occasionally please is used to soften the imperative
force of the utterance:
Sit quiet till I come.
Come as soon as possible.
Have some more cake, please.
Don’t touch my things.
An exclamation mark (!) used at the end of an imperative
denotes the speaker’s strong feelings or emotions.
Will you stop arguing with your brother!
14
Don’t talk to me like that!
Though the subject of the imperative sentence is not
expressed, occasionally it may be used to specify the person
addressed or to express irritation, persuasion or other feelings on
the part of the speaker:
You do it now.
You wait here and I’ll come soon.
You answer the door. I am busy.
In some cases the pronouns somebody, everybody or a noun is
used:
Somebody answer the telephone.
Everybody leave the room.
Jane, close the door behind you.
To make the imperative sentence more emphatic the verb do is
used:
Do come please. I’ll be waiting for you.
Do help Ann. She is so worried about it.
There is another type of the imperative formed with the help of
the verb let followed by the personal pronoun of first (singular and
plural) or third person in the Objective Case or a noun in the
Common Case: let me (us, him, her, them, Mike):
Let me do it for you.
Let us (Let’s) spend our holidays in Spain.
Let Mike check it again.
The negative form is don’t let or it may take other forms.
Don’t let him do it again.
Let’s not tell her what we did or Don’t let’s tell her what we did.
Imperative sentences may sometimes have a conditional force:
Tell them about it and I’ll never forgive you. = If you tell them
about it, I’ll never forgive you.
15
Exclamatory Sentences
Exclamatory sentences express various emotions and feelings.

They usually begin with the words what and how and are
pronounced with a falling tone; in writing they have an exclamation
mark. The word order in exclamatory sentences is not inverted:
What fine weather we are having today!
What an intelligent boy he is!
How nice she looks in her new evening dress!
How wonderfully he plays the violin!
Exclamatory sentences are often ellipted, i.e. used without
some parts of the structure:
What awful news!
What a strange situation!
How kind of you!
One-member sentences often take the form of an exclamatory
sentence:
Fire!
Train!
To think of you suffering so!
There is another type of exclamatory sentence – the so-called
exclamatory questions. Exclamatory questions only in form are
questions as they do not seek information. They express surprise,
amazement, admiration and are pronounced with a falling tone.
Isn’t she a charming child!
Didn’t John act wonderfully!
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
Parts of the sentence are usually classified into main / principal

and secondary. The main parts of the sentence are the subject
and the predicate. The secondary parts comprise the object, the
attribute and the adverbial modifier. Besides these two kinds of
16
sentence parts there are the so-called independent elements
which include direct address, interjections and parenthesis.
The Principal Parts of the Sentence
The Subject
From the point of its grammatical meaning the subject can be

either notional or formal.
The notional subject indicates animate beings or inanimate
objects. It may be expressed by
1) a noun in the Common case:
Mary works at a bank.
The students also took part in the conference.
2) a pronoun :
We will gladly accept their invitation.
She failed to get into university.
Nobody saw Laura this morning.
This is her destiny.
One should not laugh at other people.
Who can translate this into German?
3) a numeral (cardinal or ordinal), often in combination with a
noun or pronoun:
Three of the books were missing.
Two of them won the prizes.
The second (runner) was my classmate.
4) a substantivized adjective:
The wounded were taken good care of.
The rich live in this district.
5) an infinitive or an infinitive construction:
To love means to forgive.
To deny the past is to deny the future.
For her to do this kind of work is not recommended.
6) a gerund or a gerundial construction:
17
Designing is her profession.
Collecting postcards is her hobby.
Her participating in that art contest surprised everybody.
7) any word or word-combination as quotations:
“Oh” is an interjection.
“The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” was written by M. Twain
in 1884.
The formal subject can be expressed by

1) the impersonal it, indicating various natural phenomena or
facts as well as pointing out time, distance or other measurements:
It is autumn.
It is cold today. It is snowing.
It is five o’clock.
It is a five miles’ distance.
2) the introductory (anticipatory) it which precedes the notional

subject expressed by an infinitive or a gerund or complexes with
them:
It’s impossible to believe it.
It’s no good going there at such an hour.
3) the introductory there which indicates the existence of

something or somebody in a certain place or at a certain time. Due
to this fact this kind of sentences are called existential or
sentences of presentation. The notional subject in these sentences
is expressed by different classes of words:
a) a noun (singular or plural):
There were two people waiting outside.
Suddenly there was a loud knock at the door.
Has there been an accident on the road?
There’s only three days left before the examination.
The predicate in these sentences may be expressed by the
verbs to appear, to seem, to come, etc.:
18
There seemed to be no doubt about it.
There remains the problem of finance.
There appeared to be universal agreement about the matter.
There came a point when we disagreed.
I don’t want there to be any misunderstanding between us.
b) a pronoun:
Is there anything in the box?
There is nobody in the room.
c) a gerund or a gerundial complex:
There is no worrying about it.
There was no talking about the accident.
The Predicate
The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which

expresses an action, state or quality of the person or thing
denoting the subject. From the structural point of view the
predicate is divided into two types:
1. the simple predicate
2. the compound predicate
The Simple Predicate
The simple predicate can be either verbal or nominal.

1) The simple verbal predicate is expressed by
a) a verb in a synthetic or analytic form (active or passive):
We attend French classes regularly.
The work is done perfectly.
The children are playing in the garden.
b) a phraseological unit:
The Smiths paid us a visit last Saturday.
Quite unexpectedly she changed her mind.
2) The simple nominal predicate is expressed by
19
a) a noun:
My daughter a liar!
Michael, a winner of the music contest!
b) an adjective:
My idea stupid!
Danny arrogant!
c) an infinitive or a participle:
John to fail his exam!
Mary shouting at you!
The Compound Predicate
The compound predicate falls into two types: compound

nominal predicate and compound verbal predicate.
The compound nominal predicate consists of a link-verb and a
predicative. The link-verbs express the grammatical categories of
person, number, tense, aspect and mood. They include the
following verbs: be, appear, look, get, become, feel, sound, turn,
grow, smell, seem, etc.
The predicative is expressed by
a) a noun in the Common case:
It was a curious situation.
Lily looks tired today.
He became a pilot.
b) an adjective (a stative):
She grew pale at hearing the news.
The wine tastes fine.
He fell asleep after the injection.
c) a participle:
The topic appears not thoroughly thought of.
Her voice sounded disapproving.
d) a pronoun:
That bag is mine.
It’s he.But: It’s me.
20
e) a numeral (cardinal or ordinal):
She was sixteen then.
Julia was the first in the family to go to college.
f) an infinitive or infinitive construction:
They seem to be interested in the project.
She appeared not to know about their departure.
It is for her to decide.
g) a gerund or a gerundial construction:
His hobbies include gardening and designing gates.
The point is her refusing to face the reality.
h) a phraseological unit:
Her leaving the country now is out of the question.
All his remarks were to the point.
The compound verbal predicate falls into two types: compound

verbal modal predicate and compound verbal aspect predicate.
1) The compound verbal modal predicate consists of a modal
verb or modal expression and an infinitive:
He may come any time.
We ought to care for the sick, elderly and disabled.
She is willing to join us.
Smoking is not allowed here.
2) The compound verbal aspect predicate consists of verbs

denoting the beginning, duration, repetition or cessation of the
action and an infinitive or a gerund:
a) beginning (to start, to begin, to commence, take to, to come)
They started to play table tennis.
He took to waking up early.
How did you come to learn knitting?
b) duration (to continue, to go on, to keep (on), to proceed)
She continued to speak in spite of the noise coming from
outside.
He kept on interrupting the speaker.
21
He outlined his project and then proceeded to describe it in
more detail.
c) repetition (used to, would)
He used to wake up early in the country.
They would talk about modern art for hours.
d) cessation (to stop, to finish (with))
He finished reading the will and sat down.
He finished with gambling.
He stopped teasing the cat.
But: He stopped to talk to the girl.
There are mixed types of the compound predicate. These are:

1) the compound modal nominal predicate
You may feel better in an hour.
She shouldn’t be so suspicious about him.
She can’t feel happy without him.
2) the compound aspect nominal predicate
He started to feel more confident after the examination.
She stopped feeling unsafe in that atmosphere.
3) the compound modal aspect predicate
They may continue working at the project.
You should start learning Chinese.
Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject
The agreement of the predicate with the subject is observed in

number and person. A singular noun-subject requires a singular
verb-predicate, and, conversely, a plural noun-subject requires a
plural-verb predicate. This rule is valid for all the present tenses
and also for the Past Indefinite of to be.
22
The Agreement of the Predicate with a Single Subject
1) A single noun-subject takes either a singular- or plural-verb

subject depending on the number of the noun:
The man is conscious of the seriousness of the problem.
The men were involved in a hot discussion of the problem.
2) The subject expressed by a pronoun may take either a
singular or plural verb.
 Indefinite, defining, negative pronouns usually take a
singular verb-predicate:
Somebody wants you on the phone.
Everyone is invited to take part in the discussion.
Nothing was said about it.
 The pronoun both is plural:
Both girls refused to come.
 The pronoun all takes a singular verb- predicate when it
means ‘the whole amount of uncountable things’ and a plural verb-
predicate when it means ‘the whole number of:
All is well that ends well.
All were present at the opening ceremony.
 None may be used both in the singular and plural:
We have four children, but none live(s) with us now.
None of them is/are willing to join us.
 The interrogative who usually takes a singular verb, but
when it denotes more than one person or thing, it takes a plural
verb:
Who was the first to complete the task?
Who have passed the exam? Raise your hands.
3) Noun-subjects expressing measure, weight, time, space, etc.
taken as a whole amount take a singular verb-predicate:
A thousand euros is a big money.
Twenty years is a long period.
We have another three miles to go.
23
Two kilograms of rice is not quite enough to cook a meal for so
many people.
4) Noun- subjects expressed by goods, contents, clothes,
wages, riches, eaves take a plural verb:
Wages are paid at the end of every month.
His clothes are bought at a second-hand shop.
 News takes a singular verb:
News of a serious road accident is just coming on TV.
 When many is followed by a singular noun, it takes a
singular verb:
Many a good man has been destroyed by drink.
5) The nouns ending in -ics (statistics, tactics, mathematics,
phonetics, ethics, politics, ceramics, etc.) take a singular verb
when they are used in a general (scientific) sense and a plural
verb when they imply a practical application or activities involved:
Ethics is the study of the general nature of morals.
His ethics are abominable.
Ceramics is the art of making and designing objects made of
clay.
The ceramics made by this potter are sold at a high price.
6) Subjects expressed by plural names, titles or quotations take
a singular verb. However if titles present a collection of different
pieces of writing, they may be used in either way:
“The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn” was the book I enjoyed
reading in my early childhood.
“The Canterbury Tales” was (were) written by Geoffrey Chaucer
in 1387-1400.
7) Subjects expressed by nouns of multitude take a singular
verb when they denote a group of individuals taken as a whole and
a plural verb when they present a collection of individuals taken
separately. Here belong: band, board, clergy, crew, crowd, family,
gentry, government, group, jury, team, etc.:
The crowd was cheering their favourite singer.
A wholly crowd of people are going to the square.
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All my family enjoy gardening
Almost every family in the village has a TV-set.
The government does not have an overall majority.
Nowadays, however, there is a tendency to use either form
without discrimination:
The board is/are worried about the falling sales.
The team is/are not playing very well this season.
The government is/are considering further pension increase.
 Poultry, police and cattle normally take a plural verb:
The police have arrested the robbers already.
The cattle were grazing at the foot of the mountain.
 The phrases a number of, a group of take a plural verb:
A number of people were waiting in the hall.
A group of students have to work to pay their tuition.
 A lot of, the majority of, some of can be used both with a
singular and plural verb. When they are followed by a countable
noun, the verb is plural, and, conversely, when they are followed
by an uncountable noun, the verb is singular:
The majority of the problems are difficult to solve at present.
The majority of damage was done by the storm.
A lot of people are going to the meeting.
A lot of information has to be checked.
The Agreement of the Predicate with Two or More Subjects
1) A plural verb-predicate is used when the subjects are

connected by the conjunction and:
The cabbage and the carrot were bought yesterday.
The singer and the composer have arrived.
2) However, when two subjects refer to the same person or
object, a singular verb is used. In this case the article is not
repeated:
The singer and composer has arrived. (one person)
Bacon and eggs is a traditional English meal for breakfast.
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3) Similarly, when a singular subject has two attributes
connected by and, it takes a singular verb:
The green and yellow cup has just broken into pieces.
A silky and well-designed dress costs too much.
A quick and simple dish is the label of this café.
4) If the attributes characterize different persons or objects, the
plural verb is used and the article is repeated.
The yellow and the green cup were slightly damaged.
An apricot and a peach tree blossom early.
5) In there/here constructions followed by two or more subjects,
connected by the conjunction and, the predicate agrees with the
first subject in number.
There was a coffee table, a sofa and two armchairs standing in
the corner of the room.
There are ten desks and a blackboard in the classroom.
Here is your opportunity and your future.
6) In calculations the subject expressed by a group of words
takes a singular verb:
Six and three is nine.
Five times six is thirty.
Twenty plus seven is twenty-seven.
Three fours is twelve.
Eight nines is seventy-two.
7) When subjects are connected by the conjunctions either…or,
neither…nor, not only…, but also, the predicate agrees with the
last subject:
Either his parents or his sister is likely to be at home now.
Neither Mary nor I am ready to accept the proposal.
Not only his mother, but also his teachers were proud of him.
8) When subjects are connected by the conjunctions as well as,
as much as, more than, rather than, the verb agrees with the first
subject:
Harry as well as his twin brothers is going to be a doctor.
You as much as your friend are responsible for the happening.
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Rather Mary than me has a chance to get the job.
9) A subject expressed by with- phrase (or together with) takes
a singular verb, if the first noun is singular:
A woman with her baby was standing at the door.
Ann with her sister was also invited to the wedding party.
The Secondary Parts of the Sentence
The Object
The object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes

the meaning of a verb as well as that of an adjective or a noun. It is
expressed by
a) a noun in the Common case:
She studies sociology.
b) a personal pronoun in the Objective case:
I saw her at the theatre yesterday.
c) indefinite, defining, demonstrative, possessive, reflexive,
negative pronouns:
I invited everybody to my birthday party.
I cannot see anything from here.
Give this to Kate, please.
Can you defend yourself?
I cannot find my book. Will you give me yours for a minute?
d) a numeral:
I’ll take two books and you can take three.
e) a substantivized adjective:
We ought to care for the poor.
f) an infinitive:
They decided to go on a picnic next Sunday.
g) a gerund or a gerundial phrase:
She preferred swimming instead.
He suggested playing a game of chess.
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h) a prepositional phrase:
We found plenty of dry wood near the cottage.
We saw a great many students marching along the main
avenue.
The police fired a number of warning shots.
Types of Object
There are six types of object in English:

1) direct
2) indirect
3) prepositional
4) cognate
5) complex
6) formal
1. The direct object is used after transitive verbs and takes no

preposition. It denotes a person or thing affected by the action
expressed by the verb:
We all passed the history examination.
Close the door please.
2. The indirect object is used to denote the recipient whom the
action is directed to. The indirect object is usually used with the
direct object which usually comes after it:
They offered Ann a good job.
When the indirect object comes after the direct object, it is used
with the preposition to (occasionally for):
They offered a good job to Ann.
Mother bought a new coat for me.
3. The prepositional object
He waited for the girl.
She looked after her grandmother.
4. The cognate object is usually expressed by a noun
semantically related to the meaning of the governing verb. The
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noun is usually used in combination with an adjective. It is used in
the following word combinations: to smile a (happy) smile, to live a
(miserable) life, to die a (violent) death, to laugh a (bitter) laugh, to
fight a (fierce) fight, etc.:
She smiled a happy smile.
They are living a life of luxury in the Bahamas.
He died the death of a hero.
5. The complex object is formed by a noun in the Common case
or a personal pronoun in the Objective case and an infinitive or the
Present Participle of the governing verb.
We expect the committee to find a radical solution to the
problem.
I saw them enter the library.
We heard the students discussing something in English.
She hates people to tell lies.
6. The formal object is expressed by the introductory (or
anticipatory) it which precedes the notional object. The notional
object is usually expressed by an infinitive preceded by an
adjective:
They think it easy to adapt to the new education system.
He found it difficult to tell her the sad news.
This kind of sentence can be transformed into a complex
sentence with an object subordinate clause:
They think it reasonable to accept the offer. = They think (that) it
is reasonable to accept the offer.
The Attribute
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies

a noun (or a noun equivalent) or a pronoun. The attribute may be
expressed by
1) an adjective (in the positive, comparative and superlative
degree):
Sheila is a tall slender girl.
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Lucy is the most charming girl I’ve ever met.
2) a pronoun (possessive, demonstrative, indefinite, defining,
negative):
Where have you put my gloves?
Give that journal to Sally.
There aren’t any pictures in the book.
Every child likes books with pictures.
No person can live in those conditions.
3) a numeral (cardinal or ordinal):
Three pages are missing.
Sam won first prize at the competition.
4) a noun in the Common case:
She was wearing a straw hat.
5) a proper noun:
It was a beautiful China vase.
6) a noun in the Genitive case:
Osaka is Japan’s second city.
7) an adverb:
The room above was being repaired.
8) a participle (present or past):
I enjoy looking at her smiling face.
Don’t walk on the broken glass.
9) an infinitive:
It is a problem to be solved urgently
10) a gerund (with a preposition) or a gerundial phrase:
We admired her manner of dancing.
I like her manner of singing folk songs.
11) a prepositional phrase:
Gloria is a friend of mine.
He is a man of word.
According to the way adjectives are connected with the
headword, they are detached (loose) or non-detached (close).
Non-detached adjectives stand close to the headword either in
preposition or in post-position:
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She was a sincere honest girl.
I have most unforgettable impressions of that trip.
My family has lived in this area from time immemorial.
The castle was the most striking building imaginable.
The detached attribute is loosely connected with the antecedent
and therefore is normally separated from it by commas. It may
occur in the initial, medial and final position.
Very white, he turned to the man and said something rude and
bitter.
She entered the room, pale and almost swaying, and sat quietly
in the corner.
About them was luxury, rich and delicate.
The Apposition
The apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun

(or a noun phrase), which refers to the antecedent, giving some
kind of information about it. The apposition can be of two types:
close, or non-detached and loose, or detached.
The close apposition is used before the antecedent and is in
close relation to it, denoting relationship, rank, profession:
Uncle Thomas was a man of great energy and spirit.
President John Kennedy was assassinated in Dallas, Texas, on
November 22, 1963.
Admiral Nelson destroyed Spanish and French naval forces at
Trafalgar, where he was mortally wounded
Professor Marvin retained his mental faculties till the day he
died.
The loose apposition stands after the antecedent and gives
identification, description, explanation, etc. referring to the latter. It
is usually expressed by a phrase and is separated from the
antecedent with commas:
Joseph Pervin, the father of the family, was a man of no
education.
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Mr. Sullivan, a man of sixty and highly respectable in the
neighbourhood, was honoured to open the ceremony.
The small town, the place of his early childhood, has changed
beyond recognition.
The Adverbial Modifier
The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence

which modifies another part expressed by a verb, a noun or an
adjective. The adverbial modifier is expressed by
1) an adverb:
We’ll get there slowly but surely.
He seldom visited his old uncle, but he always thought of him.
2) a noun or a noun phrase:
Wait a minute! I’ll soon be coming.
They’ll be here next weekend.
3) a prepositional phrase:
He looked at the visitor with interest.
The rate of inflation increased by 2%.
We met at John’s.
4) a participle or a participial phrase:
He looked at me, smiling.
Living in London he attended an intensive English language
course.
5) a gerund or a gerundial phrase:
On coming closer I recognized an old schoolmate of mine.
He quickly left the room without answering.
6 an infinitive or an infinitive phrase:
They stopped to talk when they saw me.
He has come to offer his help to you.
7) absolute constructions:
a) the Nominative Absolute Participial Construction
The weather being nasty, we decided to put off our trip to the
mountains.
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b) the Nominative Absolute Construction:
He stood before her, his hat in his hands.
c) the Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction:
With her heart beating fast, she rushed to the phone and took
the receiver.
d) the Prepositional Absolute Construction:
He slept in the armchair, with his hands in his lap.
Semantically adverbial modifiers denote

1) time:
They are going to visit us tomorrow.
This happened in June.
2) frequency:
We often meet for lunch.
They hold meetings every month.
3) place or direction:
They have been living here since 2004.
We went to South Africa.
4) manner:
He performs folk music magnificently.
The house is decorated richly and tastefully.
5) degree:
Very few people understand abstract art.
The team feels perfectly confident of winning the match.
6) cause:
He walked slowly because of his broken leg.
7) purpose:
He came to Nick for advice.
8) condition:
Plants grow best in cool, damp conditions.
9) result or consequence:
She is too weak to continue her study at the university.
10) concession:
In spite of all her efforts she failed to get into law school.
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11) comparison:
It is much colder today than yesterday.
12) attendant circumstances:
She went out into the bedroom, the letter still in her hand.
Homogeneous Parts of the Sentence
Two or more parts of the sentence having the same function

and referring to the same part of the sentence are known as
homogeneous parts of the sentence. These are
a) homogeneous subjects:
Wilbur and Orville Wright invented the airplane.
‘Jane Eyre’ and ‘Wuthering Heights’ were amongst the most
widely-read of British novels.
b) homogeneous appositions:
The two Bronte sisters, Charlotte and Emily, wrote their novels
under pseudonyms.
c) homogeneous predicates or predicatives:
The computer stores, processes information and does a lot of
other tasks.
Duke Ellington was a famous American jazz composer and a
pianist.
d) homogeneous objects:
Aram Khachaturian composed symphonies, ballets and
concertos for piano and violin.
e) homogeneous attributes:
This is the most authoritative and up-to-date dictionary of
linguistics.
f) homogeneous adverbials:
He sang softly and naturally.
They went to Spain and France for their holidays.
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Independent Elements of the Sentence
Independent elements of the sentence are not grammatically

dependent on any particular part of the sentence, but refer to the
sentence as a whole. Here belong: 1) direct address, 2)
interjections, 3) parenthesis.
1) Direct address:
Jane, will you pass me the salad, please.
Boys, be so kind as to take these things out.
2) Interjections:
Oh dear, I’m so sorry about it.
Why, everybody can do it.
3) Parenthesis. It can be expressed by
a) a modal adverb:
They will surely come with us.
She is probably busy now.
b) a modal phrase:
Frankly speaking, I can’t believe it.
To tell the truth, I knew about their divorce.
c) words or phrases functioning as sentence connectors:
He was a talented singer, moreover, a composer of some
music.
By the way, it turned out that he was quite innocent.
In my opinion, you should admit your fault.
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
The compound sentence is based on a relation of coordination,

which means that clauses making it up are of equal rank and form
a syntactic whole. Clauses which make up a compound sentence
are called coordinate clauses. Coordinate clauses may be linked
be means of conjunctions (syndetically) or without them
(asyndetically).
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1. Asyndetic coordination:
Light came from the windows, the curtains blew softly in the
night air.
Wait for me, I’m coming.
2. Syndetic coordination is presented by different types:
1) copulative coordination expressed by
a) the conjunctions and, nor, neither…nor, not only…but also,
as well as:
Finally Andy came and we rushed to the station.
He was not there on Saturday, nor was he seen on Sunday.
b) the conjunctive adverbs moreover, then, besides:
We lived in France, then we decided to come back to England.
I could not help him then, moreover, I needed financial help
myself.
2) disjunctive coordination expressed by
a) the conjunctions or, either…or:
He must like her, or he wouldn’t send her flowers.
Either she could not come or she did not want to.
b) the conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise:
Hurry up or else you’ll be late.
My brother lent me the money; otherwise I could not have
afforded the trip.
3) adversative coordination expressed by
a) the conjunctions but, while, whereas:
He asked everybody, but only two people agreed to come.
Some of the experience showed positive results, whereas
others did not.
b) the conjunctive adverbs nevertheless, however, yet, still:
He was feeling bad; however, he went to work and tried to
concentrate.
The weather was cold and windy; still we had a great time.
4) causative coordination expressed by the conjunction for:
It should not be mixed up with the subordinating conjunction for
meaning because. The coordinating for introduces clauses
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containing an explanation, interpretation or justification of what is
expressed in the previous clause.
She must have left already, for she didn’t answer our calls.
5) consecutive coordination expressed by
a) the conjunctions so, so that:
She worked hard so that everything would be ready in time.
b) the conjunctive adverbs therefore, hence, then, thus,
consequently:
There is much to be discussed; therefore we shall return to this
item at our next meeting.
We only rent the house, thus we can’t make any major changes
to it.
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
The complex sentence is based on a relation of subordination,

which means that one of the clauses making it up is considered
the basic constituent, while the other (or the others) refer to it by
various logical-semantic relations. These clauses are called the
main (or principal) clause and the subordinate clause respectively.
Subordination is marked by means of conjunctions (syndetic
connection) or without them (asyndetic connection).
According to their syntactic function subordinate clauses fall
into the various groups.
1. The subject subordinate clause

The subject subordinate clause functions as subject to the main
clause and joins to it by means of
a) the conjunctions that, if, whether:
That he was to blame was quite evident.
Whether he is right is uncertain.
When a subject clause is placed at the end of the sentence, it is
introduced by means of “It is…”:
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It is uncertain whether they will take legal action against their
neighbour.
It was clear that she was lying.
b) the conjunctive pronouns who, which, what:
Who committed the crime is yet unknown.
Which course of action to choose is up to you.
c) the conjunctive adverbs how, when, where, why:
How it all happened seems extremely suspicious.
Where they are going to meet is not yet decided on.
2. The predicative subordinate clause

The predicative subordinate clause functions as predicative to
the main clause. It is introduced by means of almost the same
connectives as the subject subordinate clause:
a) the conjunctions that, if, as if, as though, whether:
She seemed as if she was unaware of the whole affair.
Their suggestion was that everybody should take part in the
drama section.
The problem is whether they will agree to participate in the
debate.
b) the conjunctive pronouns who, what, which:
The point is who will accept the responsibility for the mistake.
The question is which course of action we should take.
c) the conjunctive adverbs how, when, where, why:
The question is why Julia decided to conceal it from us.
That’s what we think of the whole matter.
That's how it all happened.
3. The object subordinate clause

The object subordinate clause functions as object to the main
clause. It is connected with the main clause by
a) the conjunctions that, if, whether, lest. That is often omitted
(especially in conversational speech):
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I knew (that) they had produced a TV series about adopted
children.
I was afraid lest she would change her mind.
b) the conjunctive pronouns who, what, which, whoever,
whatever, whichever:
I wonder who is ready to take the challenge.
You may give the presents to whoever you choose.
I don’t believe whatever you say about my school friend.
c) the conjunctive adverbs how, when, where, why, however,
whenever, wherever:
We wondered how he could make it out.
I asked him when he was going to settle down.
d) by a prepositional phrase:
I am not certain of what was happening to them.
He wants to be paid for what he has done.
She was fully conscious of what she was doing.
They were quite ignorant about what had taken place during
their long absence.
An object clause may be preceded by the formal it:
I hate it when I an interrupted.
You must see to it that no one makes a noise.
4. The attributive subordinate clause

The attributive clause functions as attribute to a nominal part of
the sentence which is called the antecedent. Attributive clauses
are introduced asyndetically or by means of various connectives:
the relative pronouns who, whose, which, that and relative adverbs
when, where, why, how.
There are three types of attributive clauses: 1) restrictive (or
limiting) clause, 2) non-restrictive (or descriptive) clause, 3)
continuative clause.
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1) The restrictive attributive clause is closely connected with its
antecedent and cannot be removed without distorting the sense of
the sentence:
A bank is an organization that provides various financial
services.
This is the girl about whom I have heard a lot from my son.
A day came when I was to make a final decision.
There was something in his voice that betrayed his feelings.
A restrictive attributive clause may be connected with the main
clause asyndetically, but this is possible only if the antecedent
assumes the function of an object in the subordinate clause. In
case of the prepositional object the preposition may be placed at
the end of the sentence:
The man you see at the window is Laura’s father.
But: The man who called is Laura’s father.
2) The non-restrictive attributive clause is loosely connected
with the main clause; it contains additional information about the
antecedent and can be easily removed without distorting the sense
of the sentence:
I felt bad and rang up my friend, who came and called an
ambulance for me.
Mr. Sweet, who had a luxurious villa in the Riviera, liked to give
parties.
3) The continuative attributive clause is usually introduced by
the conjunction which. It refers to the whole principal clause and is
normally separated from it by a comma:
He began to shout at the man and then threw him out, which
was disgusting for me to witness.
He used to laugh at some of his colleagues, which I find
resentful.
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5. Adverbial Clauses
According to their semantic meaning adverbial clauses fall into
the following groups: adverbial clauses of time, place, manner,
comparison, condition, purpose, cause, result, concession.
1) The adverbial clause of time defines the time of the action

expressed in the main clause. It is introduced by the conjunctions
before, after, till, until, since, while, as, as soon as, as long as,
when, whenever, now that:
Before I could say anything, he turned around and left the room.
Until she spoke, I hadn’t realized she was a foreigner.
Can you spare a few minutes when it’s convenient?
Now that you know the whole truth, it’s up to you to make a
decision.
2) The adverbial clause of place shows the place or direction of
the action expressed in the main clause. It is introduced by the
conjunctions where, wherever, whence:
Why can’t we go where it is beneficial to your health?
They returned whence they had come.
We may go wherever you choose.
3) The adverbial clause of manner defines the manner or way in
which the action expressed in the main clause proceeds. It is
introduced by the conjunction as:
She did as I had asked.
Leave the papers as they are.
4) The adverbial clause of comparison defines the action in
comparison with that of the main clause. It is introduced by the
conjunctions than, as, as if, as though:
It was much better than I’d expected.
She doesn’t play as well as her sister.
It sounds as if you didn’t know of their arrival.
5) The adverbial clause of condition states the conditions in
which the action in the main clause takes place. It is introduced by
the conjunctions if, in case, unless, providing/ provided (that), on
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condition (that). The conjunction unless requires the verb in the
affirmative form. Clauses with if, in case, unless, provided (that)
can occur both in the initial and final position:
They would have come by now if they had not missed the train.
If you are not certain about the results of the deal, don’t take the
risk of losing everything.
In case I am late, wait for me.
Unless something unexpected happens, I’ll call on you
tomorrow.
I won’t tell them anything unless you say I can.
 Provided/ providing, on condition are used to say what
must or can be done to make it possible for something else to
happen.
We’ll buy everything you produce, providing the price is right.
Provided that you have the money in your account, you can
take risks.
I’ll lend you the money on condition that you pay it back next
month.
 Compare if and in case:
You should insure your car in case there is a fire.
You should telephone 01 if there is a fire.
The sentence with in case implies precaution; the sentence with
if expresses a result or consequence.
The adverbial clause of condition can join the main clause
without a conjunction, by inversion:
If Ann should come, tell her to wait for me. =
Should Ann come, tell her to wait for me.
6) The adverbial clause of purpose defines the purpose of the
action expressed in the main clause. It is introduced by the
conjunctions in order that, so that, lest:
Further information is needed in order that we have a complete
picture of the accident.
We decided to invite them next Sunday so that I could have
time for the preparation.
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They increased the salary lest the workers should go on a strike
again.
7) The adverbial clause of cause defines the reason or
motivation of the action expressed in the main clause. It is
introduced by the conjunctions because, since, as, lest,
considering, so, that. The position of the clause is free:
I did it because I was forced to.
Since I shared the room with Lucy, I knew her best.
As Fred was out, I left a message for him.
They divorced as they grew out of love of each other.
Considering she is too young and inexperienced, she was
offered an easy job.
8) The adverbial clause of result states the result or
consequence of the action expressed in the main clause. It is
introduced by the conjunctions that, so that:
He was so shocked that he could not say a word.
She turned out to be an arrogant and selfish girl so that I
thought of breaking our relations.
9) The adverbial clause of concession states some kind of
contradiction between the actions expressed in the main and
subordinate clauses. It is introduced by the conjunctions though,
although, even if (though, when), notwithstanding that:
Although he is a good student, he cannot win popularity with his
fellow-students.
I’ll get there even if I have to walk.
I like her even though she can be boring at times.
We shall continue the experiment notwithstanding that some
members of the group are against it.
Adverbial clauses of concession may join the main clause my
means of such connectives as no matter how, (who, what, when,
where), however, whoever, whatever, wherever:
Call me when you get there, no matter what the time is.
Whatever happens, let me know.
Whoever they are, I have no desire to negotiate with them.
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Adverbial clauses of concession can join the main clause
asyndetically, which is often accompanied by inversion.
Though it was late he decided to call her. = Late as it was, he
decided to call her.
Try as he could, nothing came out of it.
Strict as he was, he was very affectionate towards his children.
Other types of subordinate clauses include 1) parenthetical, 2)

inserted, 3) emphatic clauses.
1. Parenthetical clauses show the speaker’s attitude to the
statement expressed in the main clause. They include such
clauses as ‘I think’, ‘I believe’, ‘I suppose’, etc.:
The moment of decision has come, I’m sure.
You are not against going on a picnic on Sunday, I hope.
This was a situation he was not prepared for, I think.
2. Inserted clauses occur within another clause, containing
some explanation, description or interpretation of what is said in
the main body of the sentence. It is usually separated from the
main part by commas, dashes or brackets:
Each teen-ager in some respects has to come to terms with
himself, as he is really is, with all his strength and weaknesses,
before he is truly ready for independent life.
Mr. Funnel (it was the girl’s farther) knew nothing of his
daughter’s desire to become an actress.
In the Times - he had distaste for other papers - he read the
announcement of their engagement.
3. Emphatic clauses are used to emphasize some part of the
sentence. They are introduced by the structure “It is... that or who:
It was Michael who won first prize.
It is next Monday that we decided to meet.
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Parcellation
Parcellation is a division of a sentence into two or more units to

highlight the most important part of the utterance from the
communicative point of view. These parts are called parcellas. In
writing they are separated from the base by a full stop.
E.g. I head into the kitchen and open the fridge. Dammit. I’m out
of milk. And coffee. (S.Kinsella)
This was the beginning of the end. They had met once more
and had time to learn that they liked one another. And to say good-
bye. (E.Segal)
Parcellated are not only words and phrases, but also
subordinate clauses.
E.g. You’re staying with him? Because of what people might
say? (R.Cook)
I sound like some bitter, twisted, ex-employee with a grudge.
Which of course is what I am. (S.Kinsella)
WORD ORDER
Word order is the arrangement of elements of the sentence in a

particular order. Since English has few inflections preserved from
the past, the relations between words are usually expressed
through their place in the sentence. Therefore, the word order
especially that of the subject, predicate and object is rather fixed in
English. Its basic word order is SVO, i.e. the subject + verb +
object. The shift of the order of words may result in a substantial
change of the sentence meaning:
Bill insulted Nick. (The agent of the action is Bill.)
Nick insulted Bill. (The agent is Nick.)
In Armenian the usual word order is SOV, i.e. subject + object +
verb:
He is playing the guitar. Ü³ ÏÇÃ³é ¿ Ýí³·áõÙ:
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But in Armenian, due to the abundant presence of inflections,
the word order is rather free:
Ü³ Ýí³·áõÙ ¿ ÏÇÃ³é: ÎÇÃ³é ¿ Ý³ Ýí³·áõÙ:
The direct order of words when the predicate follows the subject
is not always observed. In this case inversion takes place when
the predicate or its part precedes the subject. This inverted word
order occurs
1) in interrogative sentences:
Are you willing to join us?
Does he prefer to go to the Art Gallery?
Why can’t you do it now?
When will you complete the course?
When the question refers to the subject, the word order does
not change:
Who will sponsor the project?
What is going on there?
2) in sentences introduced by there and here:
There were a lot of papers lying about.
There comes a point when you give up.
Here is another example.
There comes Nick.
If the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun, a direct word
order is used:
Here they are.
Here you are.
Here it is.
3) in exclamatory sentences:
Long live the king!
Come what may!
4) in conditional clauses:
Had I known it before, I wouldn’t have called her.
Should he turn up, tell him to wait.
5) in concessive clauses:
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Arrogant as he was, he had to admit his defeat.
He worked hard. Be that as it may, he could not get a
promotion.
6) in stage directions:
Enter Hester behind.
Exit footman for shawl.
7) in sentences containing scarcely, hardly, barely… when, no
sooner… than:
Scarcely had the game started, when it began to rain.
Hardly had they sat down for dinner, when there was a bang at
the door.
No sooner had she admitted her fault than she regretted it.
8) when a clause begins with So or Neither:
Mary is punctual. So is her brother.
I am not interested in politics. Neither is my friend.
9) when word groups like not a …, many a … open a sentence:
Not a man was there to be seen.
Many a time had he thought of going and apologize to her for
being so inconsiderate.
When the verb occurs in a simple form (without an auxiliary or
modal verb), the verb to do is used to mark inversion:
Not a man did I see there.
10) in sentences with phrasal verbs the second element of
which comes first.
Off the woman rushed in great anger.
In ran the boy screaming with pain.
When the subject is expressed by a personal pronoun,
inversion does not take place.
Out he rushed with a gun in hand.
Position of Adjectives
When there is more than one attribute to a noun, the following

sequence of adjectives is usually observed:
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1) size
2) general description
3) age
4) shape
5) colour
6) material
7) origin/nationality
E.g. a red velvet dress

a narrow steel stick
a nice Chinese vase
a beautiful slender girl
an elegantly-dressed French woman
a brown large bed
The adjectives little, old and young are used closest to the noun
as they serve as part of an adjective-noun combination.
E.g. an intelligent young woman
a charming little girl
a curious old lady
ambitious young men
When used to give information, these adjectives change their
position.
E.g. a young African doctor
an old wooden bench
Adjectives of emotion come after adjectives of physical
description.
E.g. a disgusting suspicious man
a kind patient person
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Position of Adverbs
The adverb has a greater freedom of position than any part of

the sentence. However, there are a number of rules that should be
observed.
1) An adverb does not normally separate the verb from the
direct object:
She is listening to him attentively.
2) Adverbs of definite time are usually placed either at the
beginning or the end of the sentence:
They are leaving tomorrow.
Today we are going to meet a delegation from Germany.
3) Adverbs of indefinite time or frequency stand before the
notional verb or follow it if the latter is an auxiliary or modal verb:
We sometimes meet for lunch.
I seldom see her now.
You should never ignore your duties.
She is always ready to help whoever needs it.
They are usually at home in the evening.
You can often find him in the court playing tennis.
4) Adverbs of place are usually placed at the end of the
sentence:
We could not find the document anywhere.
5) If a sentence has both an adverb of time and place, the
former comes last or it may appear in the initial position:
I’ll go there tomorrow.
Tomorrow we are going there.
6) Adverbs of manner come after the verb or after the object if
there is one in the sentence:
She spoke clearly and confidently.
He plays the guitar perfectly.
If the object is long, the adverb of manner may stand before the
verb (in a simple form) or after the auxiliary or modal verb:
They thoroughly checked all the figures in the list.
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He was dishonorably cheated out of his share of profits.
You should carefully consider all the chances before taking the
decision.
7) Adverbs of degree modifying an adjective or another adverb
are usually placed before them:
To be very honest, I don’t want to go to that party.
You know perfectly well what I mean.
Adverbs of degree may modify verbs as well:
We fully agree with them about the need for change.
8) The adverb enough is used after a verb, adjective or adverb
it modifies; however, it is used before a noun:
I haven’t trained enough for the game.
He seemed intelligent enough to me.
I know him well enough to trust him.
But: They have enough problems as it is.
9) The adverbs quite and rather are usually used before the
words they refer to:
It is rather absurd to think so.
The tasks were rather complicated.
She fell and hurt her arm rather badly.
I am quite satisfied with the results of the exams.
She is quite aware of what is happening with her son.
This is quite a different problem.
10) The adverb yet is usually placed at the end of the sentence.
However, it can occur before a notional verb if there is a lengthy
object or another part of the sentence:
I haven’t seen the film yet.
I haven’t yet informed them about your arrival.
The same takes place when yet occurs before a notional verb in
the positive form:
We have yet to decide what action to take.
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DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct
and indirect speech. In indirect speech the speaker’s exact words
are repeated. Direct speech usually occurs in dialogues and is
introduced by such verbs as to say, to ask, to add, to inquire, etc.:
He said, “The performance begins at 7 o’clock.”
She asked, “Where are we supposed to meet?”
Indirect speech does not necessarily report the speaker’s exact
words, but introduces some changes.
1. The quotation marks and the comma are deleted and the
conjunction that is introduced, but the latter is often omitted:
She says, “Henry works at a bank.”
She says (that) Henry works at a bank.
2. If the speaker reports someone else’s words, the pronouns of
the first person are replaced by those of the third person and the
pronouns of the second person by those of the first or third person.
Correspondingly, there are changes in the form of the verb. The
verb to say is replaced by to tell if the former is followed by an
object:
He says, “I like to play rugby.” He says he likes to play rugby.
She says to him, “You look tired.” She tells him (that) he looks
tired.
He says to me, “You are wrong to think so.” He tells me (that) I
am wrong to think so.
3. When the introductory verb is in the past, rules of the
sequence of tenses should be observed, which means that the
verb in reported speech must be used in one of the past tenses.
Shall and will take the form of Future in the Past should and would:
Direct speech Indirect speech
Present Indefinite Past Indefinite

He said, “She works at He said she worked at school.
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school.”
Present Continuous Past Continuous
She said to me, “I am
She told me she was reading.
reading.”
Present Perfect Past Perfect
He said, “I have missed the
He said he had missed the train.
train.”
Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous.
She said, “I have been She said she had been reading
reading since morning.” since morning.
Future Indefinite Future Indefinite in the Past
He said, “You will have five He said we should have five
exams in June.” exams in June.
Future Continuous Future Continuous in the Past
She said, “He will be playing She said he would be playing
at 2 o’clock.” tennis tennis at 2 o’clock.
Future Perfect Future Perfect in the Past
He said, “We shall have He said they would have done it by
done it by Monday. Monday”.
The Past Indefinite and the Past Continuous change into the
Past Perfect and the Past Perfect Continuous respectively:
He said, “I won the prize.” He said he had won the

prize.
She said, “They were gardening She said they had been
gardening
in the afternoon.” in the afternoon.
However, in spoken English these tenses often remain

unchanged provided this does not cause confusion as to the
relative times of the action:
She said they were gardening in the afternoon.
He said he finished reading the book.
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Nor the rules of the sequence of tenses may be observed when
a present or future time adverbial occurring in the clause remains
relevant for the present situation (the time of reporting).
Mary said she hopes to complete her thesis this week.
Mr. Roberts said the financial crisis will be over by 2014.
When a shifting from the Past Indefinite to the Past Perfect
occurs, there might be a change of meaning:
She said, “I wanted to attend the new exhibition.”
She said she wanted to attend the new exhibition. (It is possible
she did attend.)
She said she had wanted to attend the new exhibition. (It is
possible that she did not attend, though she wanted to.)
4. The modal verbs and modal expressions should, ought to,
would, might, had better usually remain unchanged or replaced by
synonymous semantic expressions:
They said to him, “You should keep in contact with us.”
They told him that he should keep in contact with them.
I said, “Laura had better admit her mistake.”
I advised Laura to admit her mistake.
The modal verb must remains unchanged if it expresses
obligation or supposition. But it is replaced by other modal verbs
expressing necessity arising out of circumstances or some kind of
arrangement:
She said, “Ann must be more attentive.”
She said Ann must be more attentive.
He said to me, “I must go to the bank and get some money.”
He told me he had (was) to go to the bank and get some
money.
5. The modal verb may changes into might when it expresses
possibility; when permission is implied, the modal verb could is
used instead of may.
He said to me, “It may rain.”
He said it might rain.
She said to me, “You may take my car.”
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She told me I could take her car.
6. Some adverbs and adverbial phrases may undergo changes
when direct speech is transformed into indirect speech:
Direct speech Indirect speech

now then
today that day
tomorrow the next (following) day, a day later
yesterday the day before, the previous day
this (these) that (those)
next week the next (following) week, a week later
the previous (the preceding) year, a year
last year
before
a year ago a year before (the previous year)
in four days four days from then
here there
In speech these words may remain unchanged or may be

replaced by synonymous semantic units depending on
circumstances in which they are reported. In some cases a back
shifting may occur:
He said, “The meeting will be held here.”
He said the meeting would be held there. (The place of
reporting changes)
He said the meeting would be held here. (The place of reporting
remains unchanged)
He said, “The meeting will be held there.”
He said the meeting would be held here. (The place of reporting
changes in the back direction)
He said the meeting would be held at the library. (The place is
specified)
6. Indirect questions are used without inversion. General
questions are introduced by the conjunctions if or whether; special
54
questions are introduced by the same interrogative pronoun or
adverb which the questions begin with. The verb to say changes
into to ask:
She said, “Can Ann speak Chinese?”
She asked if Ann could speak Chinese.
He said, “When will the work be completed?”
He asked when the work would be completed.
7. Commands and requests are rendered by appropriate verbs
followed by the infinitive:
He said, “Mary, give me a glass of water, please.”
He asked Mary to give him a glass of water.
She said to him, “Change your mode of life.
She advised him to change his mode of life.
Negative imperatives are rendered in indirect speech by the
negative form of the infinitive:
She said to Jim, “Don’t leave your things lying about.”
She told Jim not to leave his things lying about.
8. Greeting, leave-takings and other phrases are rendered in
indirect speech by different ways:
He said to them, “How do you do?” He greeted them.

She said to him, “Good-night!” She wished him good
night.
She said to him, “I’m glad to see you.” She welcomed him.
She said to Bob, “Fool!” She called Bob a
fool.
He said to me, “Thank you!” He thanked me.
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation is the use of standard marks and signs in writing to

separate words, phrases, clauses and sentences in order to clarify
meaning. English punctuation is somewhat different from
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Armenian punctuation, which is more established and determined
grammatically.
Different types of sentences require different punctuation
marks.
1. Full stop (.)
It is used at the end of a declarative sentence:
They have left for New Zealand.
She sings wonderfully.
2. Question mark (?)

It is used in all kinds of interrogative sentences:
Are you busy now?
Who dared tell you such a thing?
They have arrived, haven’t they?
Would you like a cup of tea or coffee?
3. Exclamation mark (!)

It is used at the end of an exclamatory sentence:
What fine weather we are having today!
How nice of you to invite me too!
Other marks and signs are used to express all kinds of
semantic and syntactic relations between parts of the sentence.
4. Comma (,)
It is used to separate
a) homogeneous parts of the sentence:
His hobbies include swimming, playing golf and gardening.
b) a loose apposition:
Mrs. Davidson, the school principal, was very kind to each
pupil.
c) a non-restrictive attributive clause:
Rose, who was present at the party, was impressed by the
presence of so many famous people.
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d) an adverbial clause preceding or following the main clause:
However, this is not always observed.
They were different, though they seemed to get on well.
When I was at school, I loved foreign literature.
If I were you, I’d start looking for another job.
Before I made a decision, I thought carefully about it.
Put that away before it gets broken.
Although the sun was shining it was not warm.
e) some parts of the sentence (usually elliptic structures) placed
in the initial position:
Extremely excited, she did not answer my question.
While in Moscow, he visited his old school friend.
f) modal phrases and words (not always):
Generally speaking, there are different ways of doing it.
Certainly, he could not say anything as he was away at that
time.
Perhaps it would be better if you didn’t interfere.
g) address, interjections:
What would you advise me to do, Mary?
Oh, how can you believe all that?
5. Colon (: )
It is used to introduce a list, summary or an explanation of what
has been said before:
The tour included the following cities: Washington, New York,
Boston and Philadelphia.
He didn’t accept the proposal: it seemed too risky.
6. Semicolon (;)
It is used to separate the parts of a complicated sentence,
especially when it is overburdened with other punctuation marks.
He would go back to Manderley, of course, in a few weeks; I felt
certain of that. (D. du Maurier)
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Here I am washing my hands, and the cracked mirror shows me
to myself, suspended as it were, in time; this is me, this moment
will not pass. (D. du Maurier)
7. Dash (−)
It is used
a) before a phrase or clause which explains or emphasizes
some parts of the sentence:
A millionaire friend came to the rescue, offering them a cottage
on the Californian coast - California! (D.H.Lawrence)
George’s childhood had been dominated by two monsters:
Joseph Stalin - and his father. (E.Segal)
b) to mark inserted clauses:
The grandparents welcomed the child ---poor expatriated boy -
and were rather cold to Valerie, but really cold to Erasmus. (D.H.
Lawrence)
c) to mark an afterthought or a faltering or hesitating speech:
They are not likely to take part in the contest – well, I think so.
It - it’s been a long time, hasn’t it? (Segal)
8. Hyphen (-)
It is used
a) to join parts of a compound word:
dark-blue, well-known, five-year-old boy
b) to divide a word at the end of a line:
brother-hood, normal-ly
9. Inverted commas (quotation marks) (“ ----- ”) or ( ‘------’)

They are used to mark the beginning and end of the quotations:
“Will he be able to preserve his reputation?” asked James.
He decided to ‘take the bull by the horns’.
10. Brackets ( )
They are used to set off inserted words, phrases or clauses:
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He is reluctant to discipline his salesmen or reprimand them,
even when he (or Brown) catches them cheating… (Heller)
Sometimes he sends for me just to have me confirm or deny
rumors he has heard (or made up) and help dispel his anxieties
and shame. (Heller)
11. Apostrophe ( ’ )
It is used
a) to indicate a contracted form:
wasn’t, haven’t, doesn’t
b) to mark the Genitive case:
John’s books, at the florist’s
12. Dots (…)

They are used to mark an unfinished phrase or sentence:
He opened the door and saw…
Samples of Sentence Analysis
1. A Simple Sentence
1) After the examination she looked very tired.

It is a simple extended two-member declarative sentence.
She is the subject expressed by a personal pronoun of the third
person singular Nominative case.
Looked tired is a compound nominal predicate consisting of two
parts: the link-verb look expressed by the verb in the Past
Indefinite and the predicative tired expressed by an adjective in the
positive degree.
Very is an adverbial modifier of degree expressed by an
adverb.
After the examination is the adverbial modifier of time
expressed by the prepositional phrase: the preposition after + the
noun in the Common case.
59
2) They are sure to win support of the company.
They to win is a complex subject expressed by the personal
pronoun in the Nominative case and a full infinitive.
Are sure is a compound nominal predicate consisting of the
link-verb be in the Present Indefinite and the predicative expressed
by the adjective sure in the positive degree.
Support is the direct object expressed by a noun in the
Common case.
Of the company is an attribute expressed by a prepositional
phrase.
3) Can he play the guitar as well as his brother?

It is a simple extended two-member interrogative (general
question) sentence.
He is the subject expressed by a personal pronoun of the third
person singular Nominative case.
Can play is the compound modal verbal predicate expressed by
the modal verb can in the Present Indefinite and the bare infinitive.
The guitar is the direct object expressed by the noun in the
Common case.
As well as his brother is the adverbial modifier of comparison:
as well as is the composite conjunction and his brother is a phrase
consisting of a noun in the Common case and the conjoint form of
the possessive pronoun his as attribute to brother.
4) The explanation being given, Maria felt much happier.

Maria is the subject expressed by a proper noun in the
Common case.
Felt happier is the compound nominal predicate expressed by
the link-verb in the Past Indefinite and the predicative expressed
by the adjective happy in the comparative degree.
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Much is the adverbial modifier of degree expressed by an
adverb.
The explanation being given is a Nominative Absolute
Participial Construction used as adverbial modifier of cause.
2. A Compound Sentence
1) Soon Larry came and the whole family sighed in relief.

It is a compound sentence consisting of two coordinate clauses
connected by the copulative conjunction and.
2) It is a small house, yet it seems surprisingly spacious.

It is a compound sentence comprising two coordinate clauses
connected by the adversative conjunctive adverb yet.
3) You must hurry or we shall miss the train.

It is a compound sentence consisting of two coordinate clauses
connected by the disjunctive conjunction or.
3. A Complex Sentence
1) I knew he would win the prize.

It is a complex sentence consisting of two clauses.
I knew is the main clause.
He would win the prize is an object subordinate clause which is
connected with the main clause asyndetically.
2) As soon as I saw him I understood there was something

wrong with him.
It is a complex sentence consisting of three clauses: one main
clause and two subordinate clauses.
I understood is the main clause.
As soon as I saw him is an adverbial clause of time introduced
by the composite conjunction as soon as.
61
There was something wrong with him is an object subordinate
clause connected with the main clause asyndetically.
3) Who broke the vase remains unknown.

Remains unknown is the main clause.
Who broke the vase is the subject subordinate clause.
4) The sun, which had shone brightly in the morning, was

overcast by noon.
The sun was overcast by noon is the main clause.
Which had shone brightly in the morning is a non-restrictive
attributive clause introduced by the relative pronoun which.
4. A Compound Sentence with Subordinate Clauses
Once there was an article on wood pigeons, and as I read it

aloud it seemed to me that once again I was deep in the deep
woods at Manderley, with pigeons fluttering above my head.
It is a compound sentence with two subordinate clauses.
Once there was an article on wood pigeons, and it seemed to
me is a compound sentence in which the second coordinate
clause has two subordinate clauses attached to it.
As I read it aloud is an adverbial clause of time introduced by
the conjunction as.
That once again I was in the deep woods at Manderley, with
pigeons fluttering above my head is an object subordinate clause
with a Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction.
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EXERCISES
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
Ex.1. Define the type of sentences according to the purpose of

utterance:
1. Let’s go to the seaside on Saturday. 2. How could any English

person want to live abroad! 3. Shall we stay here or go back to the
hotel? 4. If only I had a daughter to talk to! 5. Don’t you know the
answer to this question, Linda? 6. Don’t wait for me, Janet. 7. Step
this way, please. 8. His voice was low and resonant. 9. But you
never thought about my feelings, did you? 10. But Eleanor, you are
beautiful! 11. What a strange mistress is the English language! 12.
You should lock the door then, shouldn’t you? 13. Do not answer
me back, please. 14. I shan’t wait for them any longer. 15. What
luck! 16. Do be serious for just a few minutes! 17. You have known
them for a long time, haven’t you? 18. They started to walk up the
hill towards the town.
Ex.2. Analyse the following sentences according to their structure

(one-member or two-member, complete or elliptical):
1. The sun came out. 2. Packing up. The nagging worry of

departure. 3. A slight smile broke on his lips. 4. Just remembered,
forgot to buy nutcrackers. 5. Nobody can go on living without some
belief. 6. To lie is not my custom. 7. How could you be so
treacherous! 8. “Did you enjoy the concert?” “Yes.” 9. Still in bed
with a toothache. 10. Enjoy my precious teenage years! They are
nothing but trouble and misery. 11. A strange phone call. I said
“Yes” in a falsetto voice. 12. “So Friday at 2 o’clock. Please be
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punctual.” Then she put the phone down. 13. My mother and father
were having a discussion about feminism in the car on the way to
the supermarket this evening. 14. Mother and me will be having a
quiet time. Just the two of us. Away from our nearest and dearest.
15. Thank God! I got seven Christmas Cards. Three tasteful. Four
terrible. 16. “What were you doing?” “Reading.” 17. “I am looking
for the register.” “Register? What register?” 18. “How were the
races?” “Great!”
Ex.3. Specify the type of the questions:
1. Can people all over the world live in peace? 2. Stop teasing, will
you? 3. Calm the baby down, can’t you? 4. Do you think I am
ambitious? 5. Will you go to the party or do you prefer to stay at
home? 6. Who invented the first motor car? 7. “Lautisse decided to
take up painting.” “Take up what?” 8. Isn’t he a talented artist! 9.
Mr Nickson is going to visit us? 10. You didn’t accept his invitation,
did you? 11. You have invited Bruce to your wedding party too?
12. “Have you ever been to Tanzania?” “Have I ever been where?”
13. Are you satisfied with the result of the experiment? 14. Doesn’t
Alice dance gracefully? 15. You think Sally will disregard your
advice? 16. David broke his promise, didnt he?
Ex.4. Note the ways of forming tag questions:
1. There is nothing more, is there? 2. I am practically grown up,

aren’t I? 3. You’d hardly think so now, would you? 4. Ah! She has
hot temper, yes? 5. But it does not square your ideas, eh? 6. You
believe it, surely? 7. He’s always punctual, is he not? 8. You want
me to save him for you, is that it? 9. I thought there was something
strange in that car. Is that true? 10. He’s awfully dear and
unselfish, didn’t you think so? 11. She lived here and worked at the
Ginger Cat cafe, is that right? 12. You sent all your kids to college,
right? 13. Hailey’s got you bogged down, huh? 14. And you are out
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of charge, correct? 15. You like London, no? 16. We can go in the
club car. All right? 17. These figures are correct, yes? 18. Bad
people have fevers sometimes, eh? 19. They never took Frank,
heh? 20. But we did have a speaking acquaintance, huh? 21. He
ought to accept their proposal, shouldn’t he? 22. His book is going
to be published next year. Yes? 23. You are sorry for what you
have done. No?
THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
THE SUBJECT
Ex.1. Point out the subjects of the following sentences and say
what they are expressed by. Translate into Armenian:
1. Two girls entered the cafe. The second seemed to be a

foreigner. 2. Being in love is no joke. 3. Between him and the four
other brothers there was much difference, much similarity. 4. Thirty
is a good age to begin all anew. 5. We were talking about our
plans. Hers were quite definite. 6. My father’s ideal son was a
natural athlete, he was cheerful and outgoing… However, my
mother’s ideal son would be intelligent and witty. Hers would
fascinate girls and women at an early age. 7. There wasn’t a
policeman in sight. There is never one around when you need one.
8. To forget to send him an invitation card would be inexcusable. 9.
Me, Mom, Rosie, and Auntie Susan went to Bridgegate Park
today. 10. All he looks like is a clown. 11. The homeless
traditionally sleep in church porches. So why don’t vicars make
sure that their porches are more comfortable? Would it kill them to
provide a mattress? 12. Who cares about the car so long as Owen
is all right? 13. Personally, nothing would surprise me any more.
14. 1983 is my graduation year. 15. Woolworth’s (a shop) were
selling very cheap watches. 16. 2 p.m. saw me at the grocer’s with
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a long list. 17. Everyone was talking about the incident. 18. This
was a complete and utter lie. 19. Just mentioning Christmas put
her in a bad mood. 20. They chose their new leader today.
Ex.2. State the nature of it. Translate the sentences into Armenian:
1. After all it is New Year’s Eve! 2. It sounds divine. 3. It was only

me coming into the room with a cup of cocoa. 4. “Is it tea?” he
asked. “No, it’s cocoa. Shall I take it back and bring tea?” 5. It was
late April. It was warm and windy 6. It is called specific amnesia. It
is quite common after accidents. 7. The dog ripped the Sunday
papers up today. It had no explanation for its behaviour. 8. I went
to bed early. It had been a long day. 9. It is his ambition to join the
army. He said, “It is a good life, and when I come back, I’ll have a
trade.” 10. It’s awfully hot here, but it’s not so much the heat as the
humidity. 11. It is twenty-four days since she spoke to me! 12. It
was his broad smile that made me recognize him. 13. It was hard
for him to remember what she looked like. 14. Mrs Boland didn’t
like the house. It is too dark, she said, it smells unlived in. 15. You
said this was his home. If it’s his home, then he can’t be a visitor,
can he? 16. It was Hooper who found him. 17. It was a little after
seven o’clock.
Ex.3. Translate into English paying attention to the expression of

the subject:
1.ì³ÕÁ êáõñµ ¼³ïÇÏÝ ¿£ ¸³ ÇÙ ³Ù»Ý³ëÇñ³Í ïáÝÝ ¿£ – ÆëÏ

ÇÙÁ Üáñ ï³ñÇÝ ¿£ 2.Ð³×»ÉÇ ¿ Ù³ñ¹Ï³Ýó û·Ý»ÉÁ, µ³Ûó ÙÇßï ã¿,
áñ Ï³ñáÕ »ë£ 3.²Ù³é ¿ñ£ ²Ýï³Ý»ÉÇ ßá· ¿ñ£ êïí»ñáõÙ
ç»ñÙ³ëïÇ×³ÝÁ ÏÉÇÝ»ñ Ùáï 30o£ ÆëÏ ³ñ¨Ç ï³Ï µáÉáñáíÇÝ
³ÝÑÝ³ñ ¿ñ Ï³Ý·Ý»É£ 4.Þ³ï Ñ»ßï ¿ ³Ûë ï»ùëïÁ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý»ÉÁ£
ÆÝÓ³ÝÇó ÁÝ¹³Ù»ÝÁ Ï»ë Å³Ù Ïå³Ñ³ÝçíÇ£ 5.²ÛÝù³Ý áõÅ»Õ
ÓÛáõÝ ¿ñ ·³ÉÇë, áñ »Ã» å³ïáõÑ³ÝÇó Ý³Û»Çñ, ÙÇ³ÛÝ
Ñ³Ù³ï³ñ³Í ×»ñÙ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝ Ïï»ëÝ»Çñ£ 6.Ð»Ýó ³Û¹ å³ÑÇÝ
66
¹áõéÁ Ã³Ï»óÇÝ£ ºñ³ÅßïáõÃÛ³Ý áõëáõóÇãÝ ¿ñ: 7.Þ³Ý Ñ³ãáóÝ ¿ñ,
áñ ³ñÃÝ³óñ»ó Ýñ³Ý£ ¸»é ÙáõÃ ¿ñ, µ³Ûó ³ñ¹»Ý í»ñ Ï»Ý³Éáõ
Å³Ù³Ý³ÏÝ ¿ñ£ 8.È³í ÏÉÇÝ»ñ, áñ ³Ù»Ý Ù³ñ¹ ½µ³Õí»ñ Çñ
·áñÍáí£ 9.Ø³ñ¹ ãÇ Ï³ñáÕ áÕç ÏÛ³ÝùÝ ³åñ»É ëï»Éáí áõ
áõñÇßÝ»ñÇÝ Ë³µ»Éáí£ 10.²ëáõÙ »Ýª áï³µáµÇÏ ù³ÛÉ»ÉÝ
û·ï³Ï³ñ ¿ ³éáÕçáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ£ 11.ÚáÃÁ ÇÙ ëÇñ³Í ÃÇíÝ ¿£
12.Ò»ñ ·ÛáõÕÇó ÙÇÝã¨ ù³Õ³ù 45 ÏÙ ¿£ 13.²åñ»É` Ýß³Ý³ÏáõÙ ¿
³ñ³ñ»É:
THE PREDICATE
Ex.1. State the type of the predicate:
1. Poirot remained placidly immovable, blinking a little out of his

green cat’s eyes. 2. This morning Christine wasn’t looking her
best. 3. Time may come when this money might be of some use to
you. 4. She couldn’t stop being angry. 5. Nothing is going to
happen to you, and I suppose it wouldn’t be the end of the world if
anything did. 6. He went on eating in silence. 7. This young man
used sometimes to take tea with Miss Brown. 8. At the sound of
his words her heart gave a leap. 9. He was off at once. 10. I
always wanted to travel, and so I made several voyages as a
ship’s doctor. 11. She had always taken such good care of me. 12.
Paolo’s cousin was twenty-five, but she was exceptionally naïve.
13. I couldn’t feel my heart. It had stopped beating. 14. Gatsby
looked at me questioningly. 15. She looked pale and scared.
Ex.2. Point out the predicative and say what it is expressed by:
1. Beauty is alive and everlasting. 2. His first impulse was to cross

to the other side to avoid him. 3. Earnest was much distressed. 4.
He was only twenty-one and he had never been in love before. 5.
Further events were of little importance. 6. My father was not a rich
67
man but he was able to send me to Cambridge University where I
studied for three years. 7. It was decided that I would be kept alive.
8. I was most interested in the rope-dancing. 9. The monkeys were
amusing. 10. You could say that music is another way of thinking.
11. You won’t be mistaken if you marry her. She’ll make you a
wonderful wife. 12. When he was still a child, his father ran
bankrupt. 13. Oh, how sweet these roses smell! 14. On hearing the
news she turned pale and kept silent for a while. 15. Her first
instinct was to call up Lillian, but she thought better of it. 16. Mrs
Perry was delighted at Josephine’s new feeling of responsibility
and maturity.
Ex.3. Compare the predicates of each group of sentences and

translate them into Armenian:
1. a) We built a fire and soon got dry. b) What presents did you get
for your birthday? 2. a) A servant was to accompany him. b) The
only thing to do was to pay Ellen her wages. 3. a) The sun began
to grow hot. b) I put on my glasses and began my work. 4. a) The
next day the wind stopped blowing and the sea was calm again. b)
I didn’t stop until I found myself in some fields. 5. a) I turned my
head and saw a huge cat. b) On hearing his voice she turned pale.
6. a) Jesse kept silent for a while. b) I kept looking at my watch. 7.
a) Tell him he must come dead or alive. b) His dreams came true
at last. c) Soon I came to realize how wrong I had been.
Ex.4. Supply the necessary link verbs (to grow, to become, to fall,
to get, to keep, to remain, to run, to turn, to go, to seem, to feel):
1. The cloud lengthened out until it ___ a narrow line. 2. “And how
are you?” “We (not) ___ younger.” 3. I have known the family,
father and son, so long that I ___ confused sometimes. 4. James
___ more and more alarmed. 5. I can’t stand this any longer, I ___
mad if it goes on like this. 6. At my cry he ___ as pale as death. 7.
68
The ship ___ smaller in the distance. 8. He ___ yellow, then blue,
anger showed on his face. 9. When I entered they all ___ silent.
10. The boy ___ silent for some time. 11. Something must ___
wrong. 12. We ___ awake all night. 13. (Not) ___ excited! 14. They
came back before it ___ dark. 15. This small river ___ dry every
summer. 16. The bread ___ stale. 17. Hurry up! It ___ late. 18. He
shouted and seven other people appeared. They ___ to be his
servants. 19. The music didn’t ___ very complex, or anyhow not
difficult. It would ___ easy to play. There was a beautiful short tune
that ___ coming back. 20. The water was like ice, but it ___ good.
We ___ wet from the waist down. 21. I’m sure she’ll ___ a very
good teacher.
Ex.5. Underline the right form of the verb:
1. Official news (is/are) brief. 2. “The Times” (have/has) published

a very interesting article. 3. Have some bread and butter. The
bread and the butter (is/are) on the table. 4. A box as well as some
books (was/were) stolen. 5. The wedding party (was/were) forced
to abandon their cars and go on foot. 6. The cattle (was/were) all
gone, probably driven away. 7. None of them (was/were) going to
get against me. 8. The Himalayas (is/are) the eastern end of a
great series of mountains. 9. It is I who (am/is/are) buying this
house. 10. Forty years (has/have) brought great changes to our
life. 11. “The Merry Wives of Windsor” (is/are) one of the best
comedies in English literature. 12. I don’t care what your family
(say/says). It’s all their doing. 13. Forty pounds for a room (is/are)
too much. 14. Neither tea nor coffee (is/are) harmful. 15. The
committee (have/has) approved of your plan. 16. My family (are/is)
all workaholics. 17. My brother as well as I (is/am/are) ready to
accompany you to the station. 18. Three metres (is/are) not
enough for this dress. 19. It (was/were) his stories that amused me
so much. 20. Who (is/are) all those people? 21. There is just one
or two little things that (is/are) worrying me, Doctor. 22. I have
69
never seen anything quite like that meeting; every man, woman
and child in the city (was/were) there. 23. Harry and I (has/have)
been pals all our lives. 24. The majority of the people (has/have)
their minds made up. 25. Only those who (believes/believe) in God
(is/are) allowed to be the King’s officials. 26. Flimnap, together with
some other lords (has/have) managed to persuade the King that I
am a danger to Lilliput. 27. Nobody (knows/know) exactly where
we are.
Ex.6. Translate the sentences into English:
1.²Ûë ·ñùáõÙ Ï³ øÇ÷ÉÇÝ·Ç ÙÇ ·»Õ»óÇÏ µ³Ý³ëï»ÕÍáõÃÛáõÝ ¨ ÙÇ

ù³ÝÇ å³ïÙí³ÍùÝ»ñ: 2.àã ùáõÛñ¹ ¿ Ù»Õ³íáñ, áã ¿É ¹áõ: ºë ¿Ç,
áñ Ïáïñ»óÇ Í³ÕÏ³Ù³ÝÁ: 3.î³ÝÁ áã-áù ãÏ³ñ: ²ÙµáÕç
ÁÝï³ÝÇùÝ ³ñÓ³Ïáõñ¹áõÙ ¿ñ` üñ³ÝëÇ³ÛáõÙ: 4.È»½áõ ëáíáñ»Éáõ
Ñ³Ù³ñ »ñÏáõ ï³ñÇÝ ß³ï Ï³ñ× Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ¿: 5.²ÛÝ
»ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÁ, áñáÝù »ñ³ÅßïáõÃÛáõÝÇó É³í »Ý, Ï³ñáÕ »Ý
Ñ³×³Ë»É »ñ³Åßï³Ï³Ý ¹åñáó: 6.â»Ù ÑÇßáõÙ, Ã» áñï»Õ ¿ Ã»É
áõ ³ë»ÕÁ: ¸áõ ã»±ë ï»ë»É:– Ø³ÛñÇÏ, Ã»É áõ ³ë»ÕÁ ë»Õ³ÝÇ íñ³
¿: 7.ÐÛáõñ³ÝáóáõÙ µ³í³Ï³Ý ß³ï (plenty of) ³½³ï ë»ÝÛ³ÏÝ»ñ
Ï³ÛÇÝ: 8.§ÐÇÝ ³ëïí³ÍÝ»ñÁ¦ ¹ñ³Ù³ïÇÏ³Ï³Ý Ã³ïñáÝÇ
Ñ³çáÕí³Í Ý»ñÏ³Û³óáõÙÝ»ñÇó ¿: 9.²ß³Ï»ñïÝ»ñÇó áã Ù»ÏÁ
ãÏ³ñáÕ³ó³í ù³ñï»½Ç íñ³ óáõÛó ï³É, Ã» áñï»Õ ¿ÇÝ
üÇÉÇåÇÝÛ³Ý ÏÕ½ÇÝ»ñÁ: 10.æ»ÛÙëÇ µ»ñ³Í ÝáñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ óÝóáÕ
¿ÇÝ áõ ³ÝÑ³í³ï³ÉÇ: 11.²ÛÅÙ Ñ³ÝÓÝ³ÅáÕáíÁ ùÝÝ³ñÏáõÙ ¿ Ó»ñ
Ý³Ë³·ÇÍÁ: ²Ý¹³ÙÝ»ñÇ Ù»Í³Ù³ëÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ ÏáÕÙ ¿ ¹ñ³Ý: 12.²ÛÝ
µáÉáñ ·ñù»ñÁ, áñáÝù ³Ûë ¹³ñ³ÏáõÙ »Ý ¹ñí³Í, ¹³ë³Ï³Ý
·áñÍ»ñ »Ý: 13.Ð³Ûñë, ÇÝãå»ë ¨ Ù³Ûñë, ó³ÝÏ³ÝáõÙ »Ý, áñ »ë
áëïÇÏ³Ý ¹³éÝ³Ù: Øáñ³ùáõÛñÝ»ñë »Ý, áñ ¹»Ù »Ý ¹ñ³Ý:
14.Üñ³Ýó ïáõÝ »ÏáÕ ³Ù»Ý ³Ûó»Éáõ ÑÇ³ÝáõÙ ¿ å³ñï»½Ç ·»Õ»ó-
ÏáõÃÛ³Ùµ: 15.à°ã ê»ÙÇ ÁÝï³ÝÇùÝ ¿ í»ñç»ñë Ýñ³ÝÇó Éáõñ
ëï³ó»É, á°ã ¿É Ñ³ñëÝ³óáõÝ: 16.ê»Õ³ÝÇ íñ³ µ³í³Ï³Ý ß³ï
Ñ³ó Ï³: Î³ñÇù ãÏ³ ¿ÉÇ Ïïñ»É:
70
THE SECONDARY PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
THE OBJECT
Ex.1. Point out the objects and say what they are expressed by:
1. They were furious with him because he didn’t warn them against
it. 2. He answered my questions curtly and I felt offended. 3. It was
dark and I couldn’t see anybody there. 4. It was too late, they could
change nothing. 5. You have spoiled everything. Are you satisfied
with yourself? 6. I looked through his report and handed it to him.
7. I’ve lost my rubber. Will you give me yours for a minute, please?
8. He knew all about ancient churches. 9. He found a lot of coins in
the pocket of his old jacket. 10. They all approved of his behaviour.
11. You must help the poor. 12. His car was broken and he
borrowed mine. 13. The officer ordered the soldiers to attack. 14. I
suggested going to the concert. 15. We hated him to talk like that.
16. I noticed him put something into the drawer. 17. They greeted
each other warmly. 18. I gave a beautiful bunch of flowers to her,
and she smiled a happy smile. 19. She kissed him and thanked
him for his kindness. 20. Do you object to my staying here?
Ex.2. Specify the type of the object:
1. We found it easy to change the project. 2. She had refused him

half a dozen times and I had a notion that she had married him in
the end with hesitation. 3. Nobel made a fortune but lived a simple
life. 4. We heard him reading the lecture in a low, dull voice. 5.
They congratulated him on his success. 6. The slave died an awful
death. 7. She complained of the conditions she lived in. 8. He
dared not start a conversation with the boss. 9. We considered her
to be an experienced teacher. 10. The soldier died the death of a
hero. 11. The whole world is fighting against terrorism. 12. She
71
smiled the smile of a snake. 13. Entering the study, I noticed a
stranger stealing the documents. 14. The hotel was so full that
they had to put some of the guests two in a room. 15. The girl
laughed a hearty laugh. 16. They were looking at the great piece of
art in wonder. 17. She had a blunt manner, a quick sense of
human folly, and a sharp tongue, so that many people did not like
her.18. She didn’t understand what he was talking about and
stared at him stupidly. 19. We think him to be a self-confident
fellow. 20. He was indignant at his sister because she concealed
the news from him.
Ex.3. Paraphrase the following sentences using a complex object:
Model: I heard that the stranger made some remark to the woman.
I heard the stranger make some remark to the woman.
1. I heard that she was whispering something in his ear. 2. I

noticed how he nodded to her. 3. We saw him as he was entering
the bank. 4. The old lady liked when people greeted her politely. 5.
We expect that he will deliver a speech at the conference. 6. I felt
that somebody touched me on the shoulder. 7. We watched how
the train disappeared. 8. My little daughter likes when I am reading
to her before going to bed. 9. The nurse felt that the patient was
breathing heavily. 10. We noticed that the girl blushed at his joke.
11. I believe that he is right. 12. I expect that they will accept our
invitation. 13. They watched the sun as it was rising. 14. He
considers he is the best candidate to the post. 15. Nobody
expected that he would tell a lie. 16. He saw the professor when
he was entering the lecture-room. 17. I think he is an experienced
doctor.
Ex.4. Translate into English:
72
1.ºë ï»ë³ Ýñ³Ý é»ëïáñ³ÝáõÙ Çñ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇ Ñ»ï ×³ß»ÉÇë£
2.Ü³ ß³ï ½µ³Õí³Í ¿ñ ¨ ãÝÏ³ï»ó, Ã» ÇÝãå»ë Ù»Ýù ë»ÝÛ³ÏÇó
¹áõñë »Ï³Ýù£ 3.ºë ÝÏ³ï»óÇ, Ã» ÇÝãå»ë ¿ñ Ë»Õ× ³ÕçÇÏÁ
íßï³µ»Ï Ñ»Ï»ÏáõÙ£ 4.ºë »ñµ»ù ã»Ù Éë»É ùá »ñ·»ÉÁ£ 5.ºë ·Çï»Ù,
áñ ¹áõ ³½ÝÇí Ù³ñ¹ »ë£ 6.Ø»Ýù ëå³ëáõÙ ¿ÇÝù, áñ Ý³
×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ï³ëÇ, µ³Ûó Ý³ ß³ñáõÝ³ÏáõÙ ¿ñ Éáõé ÙÝ³É£ 7.àã
áù Ýñ³Ý Ý³ËÏÇÝáõÙ ³Û¹ù³Ý ½³Ûñ³ó³Í Ëáë»ÉÇë ã¿ñ ï»ë»É£
8.Ü³ Çñ»Ý ß³ï Ë»É³óÇ ¹Çí³Ý³·»ï ¿ Ñ³Ù³ñáõÙ£ 9.Ü³
ó³ÝÏ³ÝáõÙ ¿ñ, áñ Çñ ·áñÍÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÁ Ñ³í³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ ï³Ý Çñ
Íñ³·ñÇÝ£ 10.ºë ·Çï»Ù, áñ ³Û¹ ýÇ½ÇÏáëÝ ³ñÅ³Ý³ó»É ¿
Üáµ»ÉÛ³Ý Ùñó³Ý³ÏÇ£ 11.Ø»Ýù ½·³óÇÝù, Ã» ÇÝãå»ë Í»ñáõÝáõ
Ó³ÛÝÁ ¹áÕ³ó Ñáõ½ÙáõÝùÇó£ 12.Î³ñÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ Ý³ ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã
Ï³ÝÇ Çñ Ýå³ï³ÏÇÝ Ñ³ëÝ»Éáõ Ñ³Ù³ñ£ 13.ºë Éë»óÇ, Ã» ÇÝãå»ë
¿ÇÝ Ýñ³Ýù µ³ñÓñ³Ó³ÛÝ ùÝÝ³ñÏáõÙ ³Û¹ ïÑ³× ÙÇç³¹»åÁ£
14.ºë Ï³ñÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ Ý³ ù»½ ×Çßï ËáñÑáõñ¹ Ïï³£ 15.àã áù
ã¿ñ ëå³ëáõÙ, áñ ³Û¹ ýÇÉÙÁ Ï³ñÅ³Ý³Ý³ úëÏ³ñÇ£ 16.ºë »ñµ»ù
Ýñ³Ý ã¿Ç ï»ë»É »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÇ Ñ»ï ³Û¹å»ë í³ñí»ÉÇë£ ºë ã¿Ç
Ï³ñÍáõÙ, áñ Ý³ ³Û¹ù³Ý ÏáåÇï ³ÝÓÝ³íáñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿£ 17.ºë
ó³ÝÏ³ÝáõÙ »Ù, áñ ùá µáÉáñ »ñ³½³ÝùÝ»ñÝ Çñ³Ï³Ý³Ý³Ý£
18.Ð³ÛñÁ Ñå³ñïáõÃÛ³Ùµ ¹ÇïáõÙ ¿ñ, Ã» ÇÝãå»ë ¿ñ Çñ ÷áùñÇÏ
áñ¹ÇÝ í³ñÅ Ã»ÝÇë Ë³ÕáõÙ£ 19.ºë Ï³ñÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ ¹áõ Çñ³í³óÇ
ã»ë£ ´³Ûó »ë ã»Ù Ï³ñáÕ ù»½ ëïÇå»É ÷áË»É ùá Ï³ñÍÇùÁ£
20.Ø»Ýù ã¿ÇÝù ëå³ëáõÙ, áñ Ý³ ÏË³µÇ Ù»½£ ´áÉáñë Ýñ³Ý
³½ÝÇí Ù³ñ¹ ¿ÇÝù Ñ³Ù³ñáõÙ£
THE ATTRIBUTE
Ex.1. Point out the attributes. State what they are expressed by:
1. The young man’s ears seemed to droop on his skull. 2. These

languages are difficult to learn. 3. A sudden fear came over him. 4.
We shall have our holiday in this country. 5. January is the first
month of the year. 6. The village library occupied a small room. 7.
73
He saw a surprised look on his uncle’s face. 8. He had nothing
else to say. 9. The girl in white is his sister. 10. The wooden fence
surrounding the garden is painted green. 11. They had no
opportunity of meeting interesting people in that out-of-the-way
place. 12. His first feeling was one of awe. 13. He was never put
out by Strickland’s rudeness. 14. The depression of yesterday was
gone and he liked the people on the streets. 15. Two days later the
doctor drove slowly around the mournful countryside. 16. Tahiti is
a lofty green island with deep folds of a darker green. 17. A
mournful year went by. A year of philosophy and hatred.
Ex.2. Point out loose attributes. Translate the sentences into

Armenian:
1. She stood in the middle of the room, pale and speechless. 2.

Her manner was fawning again, intimate and unpleasant. 3.
Anxious and at a loss, Charlie shook hands with them quickly and
presented them to Lincoln and Marion. 4. I could see the terrace
below me, gray and indistinct in the white wall of fog. 5. About him
was luxury, rich and delicate. 6. Very white, he turned back to the
balcony and gazed on the square. 7. Winifred, terribly tired, could
not walk any more. 8. The lights along the waterfront cast his
shadow, long, crooked and enormous, before him. 9. She sat quiet
for a minute as they drove away, relieved and yet full of awe. 10.
He seemed, to have a strange desire, quite unreasonable, for
revenge upon women. 11. Embarrassed, he could not utter a word.
12. The narcissuses, so fragrant and delicate in the air, had turned
stale inside the room. 13. And at four, dissatisfied with her
indifference, her lack of feeling for important things, he moved
downstairs and began attending to it himself. 14. It was a white
building, one storey high. 15. Stout, middle-aged, full of energy,
the hostess hurried from the kitchen to the dining-room. 16. On the
table he found a half-finished note, abandoned in the middle of a
sentence. 17. Terribly tired, he could hardly walk.
74
1.ºñ»Ë³Ý»ñÇó Ù»ÏÁ` Ï³ñ×³Ñ³ë³Ï, ÃÙµÉÇÏ, ·³Ý·áõñ Ù³½»ñáí

ÙÇ ïÕ³, Ï³Ý·Ý³Í ¿ñ ë»ÝÛ³ÏÇ Ù»çï»ÕáõÙ: 2.Ø»ñ ¹éÝ³å³ÝÁ
µ³ñÓñ³Ñ³ë³Ï, ßÇÏ³Ñ»ñ, »ñÏ³ñ áõ ËÇï Ùáñáõùáí ÙÇ éáõë ¿ñ:
3.ä³ñáÝ ¾ÛÙ³ÝÁ ã³÷³½³Ýó ÝÇÑ³ñ áõ µ³ñÓñ³Ñ³ë³Ï ÙÇ Ù³ñ¹
¿ñ` ß³ï ÷áùñÇÏ, Ï³åáõÛï ³ãù»ñáí: 4.¸³Å³Ý, »ñÏ³ñ³ï¨
ÓÙ»é ¿ñ: ÒÛáõÝÁ Ã³÷íáõÙ ¿ñ Ù»Í, ï³ñûñÇÝ³Ï, ëåÇï³Ï
÷³ÃÇÉÝ»ñáí: 5.î³ïÇÏë ÙÇßï ÅåïáõÝ, ã³÷³½³Ýó Ù³ùñ³ë»ñ
ÙÇ ÷áùñÇÏ ÏÇÝ ¿ñ` ÷³÷áõÏ, ëåÇï³Ï Ó»éù»ñáí, Ëáßáñ, ë¨
³ãù»ñáí: 6.Ü³ ÝÇÑ³ñ, µ³ñÓñ³Ñ³ë³Ï, 45-³ÙÛ³, ³ÙáõñÇ
³Ù»ñÇÏ³óÇ ¿ñ: 7.î³ÝïÇñáõÑÇÝ ÙÇçÇÝ ï³ñÇùÇ ·»ñ,
Ï³ñ×³Ñ³ë³Ï, ³ßË³ï³ë»ñ ÏÇÝ ¿ñ: 8.ö³Ûï» ÷áùñÇÏ, ÏÉáñ
ë»Õ³ÝÇÝ ·»ñÙ³Ý³Ï³Ý ×»Ý³å³Ï» ÙÇ Ï³åáõÛï ëÏ³Ñ³Ï ¿ñ
¹ñí³Í: 9.êå³ëáõÑÇÝ ÏÉáñ, ÝÏ³ñ³½³ñ¹ ëÏáõï»Õáí Ý»ñë µ»ñ»ó
ß³Ùå³ÛÝÇ µÛáõñ»Õ³å³Ï» µ³ñÓñ µ³Å³ÏÝ»ñÁ:
THE APPOSITION
Ex.1. Specify the type of apposition (close or loose):
1. Uncle Sam and his wife, Doris, were present at Doctor

Johnson’s dinner party. 2. Anthony, the goalkeeper, failed to save
Diego’s shot. 3. Captain Cook ordered the sailors to change the
direction. 4. Alfred Nobel, the great Swedish inventor and
industrialist, was an excellent linguist. 5. Cousin George and his
wife, Jenny, lived in Stratford-on-Avon, the birthplace of
Shakespeare. 6. He was sure that his friend, Colonel Mitchell,
would approve of his behaviour. 7. Loren Spender, the father of
the family, was a self-educated man. 8. Charlie Norris, editor of the
‘Times’, didn’t share their opinion. 9. Mr Miller, the manager,
leaned back in his chair; his face looked tired and angry. 10. Uncle
75
John and his friends met at Benny’s, the nearest beerhouse. 11.
Aunt Lucy leaned her elbows on the table, her chin on her hands.
12. Mr Stanley, the manager of the company, looked at him
critically, his hands in his side pockets. 13. Mr Jefferson, the best
detective of the town, settled the problem and sighed in relief. 14.
Doctor Stapleton, our family doctor, examined Jimmy and shook
his head. 15. On his way home he met Paul, an old friend of his
father’s. 16. I was introduced to Mrs White, the lady of the family.
17. Uncle Frank laid his hand on my head as he uttered the last
words. 18. Mr Wilfred, the mayor of the city arrived, accompanied
by Inspector Carter.
THE ADVERBIAL MODIFIER
Ex.1. Specify the type of adverbials and say what parts of speech
they are expressed by:
1. After an hour he left and strolled toward Monmartre. 2. He left

soon after dinner, but not to go home. 3. He did everything quietly
now, because his heart was in a poor way. 4. I had not come down
for Maxim’s sake, for Beatrice’s, for the sake of Manderley. 5. The
room looked unreal again in the false yellow light. 6. And surely
there must be much good in one who is kind to an invalid, and
leaves the pleasures of London to sit by a bed of pain. 7. I could
hear the sounds of the sea very plainly. 8. My heart was beating in
a queer excited way. 9. I turned the handle of the door and went
inside. 10. Charlie waited for them to explain themselves. 11. He
rose as if to go. 12. With a perceptible shrug of her shoulders,
Lorraine turned back to Charlie. 13. For all his pain, Dirk Stroeve
remained a ridiculous object. 14. You are safer here than
anywhere else. 15. He went out in spite of the rain. 16. She was
too happy to conceal it. 17. You couldn’t be so heartless as to
disown him.
76
Ex.2. Point out the detached adverbials and comment on their use:
1. On the night in question, however, we had all gone to bed at

about the same time, without much fuss. 2. Cautiously, I raised my
head. 3. In the quiet, melancholy way the two girls were happy. 4.
Mrs Danvers showed herself at last; quietly, calmly. 5. The
clergyman, however, greeted her almost with reverence, and, with
some assumption of dignity, she sat down before the tray. 6.
Excitingly, he was jerking the receiver hook of the phone up and
down. 7. She was a proud and patriotic citizen, all evening. 8. You
may, with a clear conscience, consider it (the car) absolutely your
own. 9. Profound silence fell when he uttered that word, with deep
but low intonation. 10. Slowly, economically, he got dressed and
forced himself to walk. 11. And towards the mountains, on and on,
the regiment marched, between the rye fields and the meadows.
12. Then, through his daze, he heard the lieutenant, in a loud
voice, explaining something to the man outside the wood.
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ïí»óÇ Ñ»ï³ùñùñ³ëÇñáõÃÛáõÝÇó »ÉÝ»Éáí: 3.ä³ïíÇñ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ
Å³Ù³Ý»ó Ï»ëûñÇÝª Å³ÙÁ 12:00¬ÇÝ£ 4.Üñ³Ýù ÙÇ ÏáÕÙ
Ï³Ý·Ý»óÇÝ, áñ »ë ³ÝóÝ»Ù: 5.Ü³ ÑÙ³ÛÇã ¿ñª Çñ µáÉáñ
Ã»ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáí Ñ³Ý¹»ñÓ: 6.¸áõù å»ïù ¿ ï»ùëïÝ
³ÙµáÕçáíÇÝ (Ù³Ýñ³Ù³ëÝ) Ï³ñ¹³ù Ý³Ëù³Ý ³ÛÝ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý»ÉÁ:
7.Ü³ Ñ»é³ó³í` ³é³Ýó Ññ³Å»ßï ï³Éáõ: 8.Â»¨ Ý³
ë³ñë³÷»ÉÇ Ñá·Ý³Í ¿ñ, ß³ñáõÝ³ÏáõÙ ¿ñ ³ßË³ï»É: 9.ÐÇÙ³
¹áõù Ï³ñáÕ »ù Ñ³Ý·Çëï ùÝ»É` ³é³Ýó Ùï³Ñá·í»Éáõ: 10.ÂáÙÁ
»ñµ»ù ã¿ñ ÑÝ³½³Ý¹íáõÙ Çñ ÙáñÁ:
77
HOMOGENEOUS PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
Ex.1. Point out the homogenous parts of the sentence:
1. The day was wet and windy, but Michael and Mr Lawrence had
planned to go sailing. 2. They got into the car and drove down to
the harbour. 3. They were wearing heavy sweaters and wet-
weather slickers. 4. Even the long, protected, ordinarily placid
harbour was ruffled with waves. 5. He was an ardent and skilful
sailor. 6. They got the boat away from the dock and into the
harbour. 7. It often rains in spring and in autumn. 8. You are no
longer the loving smart young couple, are you? 9. Has she said
anything to you or her mother? 10. Michael tore off his tennis
shoes and threw off his sweater and his pants. 11. Lawrence was
a few feet away from him, appearing and disappearing in the
waves. 12. A shadow loomed in the mist, grew closer, darker, as
Michael waved and shouted. 13. They were given blankets and hot
coffee. 14. He went down to wake the old man and help him get
dressed and come on deck. 15. Except for the light in their
bedroom and in the second-floor hall all the lights in the house
were out. 16. The door to his and Tracy’s room opened. 17.
Standing tense and accusing, her back towards the door, she
sighed.
INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE
Ex.1. Point out the independent parts of the sentence:
1. Oh, for goodness sake, shut up, Julia! 2. There, there, I’m sorry,
darling. 3. Excuse me, madam, would you mind if I opened the
window? 4. Well, Professor, we’ve had a very interesting
discussion. 5. “More probably I shall look an awful sight.” “Oh! No,
you couldn’t possibly do that.” 6. You certainly may ask any
78
question you like. 7. Firstly, I haven’t enough money to spend.
Secondly, I have no wish to make that trip. Besides, I should take
care of my old parents. 8. You are the youngest in the family, no
doubt.
Ex.2. Point out the parentheses and say what they are expressed
by:
1. Of course I knew at once it was just a terrible mistake. 2.

Obviously this was the man I required. 3. Maybe it's a good thing;
it's made me realize something I ought to have known before. 4.
Strictly speaking, I suppose he should not have touched anything
at all. 5. You'll probably get it tomorrow morning. 6. His answer
was non-committal, to say the least. 7. As a matter of fact,
however, all the crying was done by his girl-cousin. 8. You will no
doubt wish me to make some slight allusion to this tragic domestic
affliction. 9. It is not at all a bad name. In fact, it is rather an
aristocratic name. 10. I am not sure, however, that the news
inspires me with feelings of unmixed delight. 11. Well, at any rate,
that is better than being overdressed as you are. 12. But after all,
who has the right to cast a stone against one who has suffered?
Ex.3. Supply the necessary parentheses for the following

sentences. Make use of the suggested list of words and word-
combinations:
after all, luckily, of course, fortunately, to speak frankly, probably,
first of all, by the way, as a matter of fact, on the whole, however,
certainly.
1. ... there was another entrance to the drawing-room than that

through the saloon where they were all seated at dinner. 2. ... I
liked the picture. 3. On the street ... the procedure is quite another
thing. 4. ... I am not in favour of long engagements. 5. ... Mrs
Danvers, I want to ask you a question. 6. ... Max, old chap, I came
79
to congratulate you on the inquest this afternoon. 7. I ... had fallen
asleep because I woke suddenly with a start. 8.... poor dear Roger
had been spared this dreadful anxiety. 9. Do you doubt his
statement? ... not. 10. ... did you tell Gwendolen the truth about
your being Ernest in town and Jack in the country? 11. If I didn't
write them down, I should ... forget all about them. 12. So I don't
think your guardian's consent is ... a matter of any importance. 13.
But was our engagement ever broken off? ... it was. On the 22nd
of last March.
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ã¿ñ ÝÏ³ï»É, áñ Çñ»Ý Ñ»ï¨áõÙ »Ý£
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE
Ex.1. Specify the type of coordination:
1. I heard the door behind me open and it was Mrs Danvers. 2. He

extended the telegram to the Mexican woman but she would not
touch it. 3. She must be quite hungry, I thought, for she kept
looking at the food on the table. 4. I dared not offer her the half-
worn gloves or the creased handkerchief; besides, I felt it would be
80
absurd. 5. A piercing whistle broke the silence and almost at once I
could hear the sound of his heavy footsteps. 6. He is known to be
a liar, still he is your friend and you must trust him. 7. Not only had
she some very valuable jewels, but she also kept a large sum of
money. 8. They didn’t inform me of the news, nor was I interested
in it. 9. Either you keep your promise or they won’t trust you any
more. 10. He made a fortune; nevertheless he lived a simple life.
11. He couldn’t cope with the work so we had to help him. 12.
There had been no rainfall for rather a long time; therefore the
ground was very dry. 13. She would have to be taught how to
speak, or else most men wouldn’t understand her.14. She had
finished her breakfast, so I permitted her to give a specimen of her
accomplishments.15. He was a talented writer, yet he could hardly
make both ends meet.
Ex.2. Make the connection between the clauses syndetical (where

possible):
1. He went to his friend Mr Eathorne; he was welcomed, and

received the loan as a private venture. 2. She stared at him, the
joy of festival drained from his face. 3. Light came from the
windows, the curtains blew softly in the night air. 4. We would not
talk of Manderley, I would not tell my dream. 5. He had asked for
two years; time was flying, he was achieving nothing. 6. The door
between it and his mother’s room was ajar; she had evidently been
in – everything was ready for him, even some biscuits and hot
milk. 7. Her hand pressed his forehead gently back; her white
figure disappeared. 8. She was away into her giggles again;
George looked bewildered. 9. Babbit drank with the others; his
moment’s depression was gone. 10. Again, Frederick was away
somewhere; he had not shown up for five days and nights. 11.
These things were permanent, they could not be dissolved.
Ex.3. Combine the two sentences into one (syndetically):
81
1. The curtain dropped. The first act had come to an end. 2. I’ve
had young Mont here. He asked me something about it. 3. She
was a little tired. She went to bed. 4. And not Mary alone was
missing! Two brooches and five rings of Miss Lavinia’s, three rings,
a pendant, a bracelet, and four brooches of Miss Emily’s were
missing too! 5. Mrs Harter was disturbed and unwilling. Charles
was persuasive. 6. He was a suspicious man too. Always was
convinced the servants were robbing him. 7. I know I’m not very
popular. I don’t give big parties. 8. He found her excitingly
desirable. He went to her house, at first with other officers from
Camp Taylor, then alone. 9. Michaelis opened the drawer nearest
his hand. There was nothing in it but a small, expensive dog-leash.
10. I’ll get somebody for you, Gatsby. Don’t worry. 11. I don’t want
John to suffer. I must see him once more to put an end to it. 12. I
feared now to hear my own story. I endeavoured to recall him to
the main fact.
Ex.4. Combine the two sentences into one, using the conjunctions
or else, and, but, still, yet, nevertheless, for, so:
1. She began to cry bitterly. She was at a loss what to do. 2. They
were in doubt. They accepted the proposal. 3. It was dark outside.
She preferred to stay at home. 4. I bought a new umbrella. I had
lost my old one. 5. He is known to be a nice person. I’ll rely on him.
6. You must hurry up. You’ll miss the 6 o’clock train. 7. She was
told not to take the risk. She paid no attention to their warnings. 8.
The task is difficult. I can cope with it alone. 9. The police searched
for him everywhere. The thief was not caught. 10. Many years
passed. He never stopped to ask him the same question. 11. He
gave the signal to leave. Everybody stood up. 12. You must follow
his advice. You will miss your chance. 13. She is clever and
beautiful. She is unhappy. 14. It was raining hard. I decided to wait
82
a little. 15. I didn’t go to the dinner party at the Smiths’. I had to
finish the report. 16. He couldn’t move. He was seriously wounded.
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83
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE
Ex.1. Point out the subject clauses and say how they are
connected with their principal clauses:
1. It is uncertain how Soames expected to get out of this interview.

2. What seem to us bitter trials are often blessings in disguise. 3.
Who told him the news is unknown. 4. It is likely that the article will
appear in the next issue of the journal. 5. That he will take part in
the competition is quite certain. 6. What I want is independence.
7. How he managed to do it is more than a mystery. 8. What I want
to do is to help him. 9. What you call a mystery is quite an
explicable phenomenon. 10. It was perfectly incredible that she
should not have heard that agonized appeal for help. 11. What he
does is ever to the point. 12. That the snowy peaks were radiant
among the sky that the white-green glacier-river twisted through its
pale shoals seemed almost supernatural. 13. It seemed there was
nothing to add. 14. That he will tell the whole truth is uncertain. 15.
It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her. 16. Why
he did it is unknown.
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84
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ÇÝãá±õ Ý³ ³Û¹å»ë í³ñí»óª Ñ³ëÏ³Ý³ÉÇ ã¿£
Ex.3. Point out the predicative clauses and say how they are
connected with their principal clauses:
1. The thing is whether anything can be done to save the situation.

2. The only disadvantage to the plan was that he seemed unable
to hit anything at that hour in the morning. 3. The question was
why he hadn’t been warned about it beforehand. 4. It was as if we
were all bound in a strange dream, and only feared to wake. 5. His
fear was that he wouldn’t be able to complete the work in time.
6. The thing is whether anything can be done to save him. 7. The
question was how to conceal the matter from others. 8. The
question was how was the matter to be concealed from others. 9.
What I mean is people don’t suddenly for no reason have violent
headaches. 10. The strangest thing of all was that no one had
heard the shot. 11. What I mean is people are unable to act
against nature. 12. The point is who will be responsible for the job.
13. It was as if we were in a madhouse.
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Ñ³Ù³ñ£ 5. ÂíáõÙ ¿ñ, Ã» Ý³ ·ïÝíáõÙ ¿ Ññ³ßùÝ»ñÇ ³ßË³ñÑáõÙ£
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85
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Ï³ÝÇ Ñ³ßïáõÃÛ³Ý ³é³çÇÝ ù³ÛÉÁ£ 10.²Ù»Ý³Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ µ³ÝÝ
³ÛÝ ¿, áñ Ñ³Ýó³·áñÍÁ ã¿ñ ÃáÕ»É áã ÙÇ Ñ»ïù£
Ex.5. Point out the object clauses and state what they are
introduced by:
1. I can't tell him what I really think of his painting. 2. I wondered if I

had said anything to offend him. 3. I cannot understand why he did
it. 4. I can’t understand how you are here at all. 5. The teacher
asked the boy where he lived. 6. You may rely upon what he says.
7. I see that you know everybody here. 8. It was doubtful if he
knew it. 9. He only said there might be some mistake. 10. I
remember that you promised not to talk of it. 11. He was
wondering whether Mrs Sappleton was married or a widow. 12.
What had made her yield he could never make out.
Ex.6. Combine the sentences so as to have a complex sentence

with an object clause:
1. Who was to accompany her to London? We didn’t know that. 2.

Was the mistake his or his wife’s? Nobody could tell. 3. Come on,
Evans. The lady is innocent – you’ve just said so. 4. How are you
going to help him? I can’t see it. 5. Don’t ask what their decision
was. I can’t tell you. 6. I think his coming down here disgraceful.
He knows perfectly well why. 7. And yet you have solved what may
be called an international mystery. I am convinced of that. 8. You
know your further instructions. I suppose so. 9. The case looks
pretty black against me. I know that. 10. Something terrible is
going to happen, I feel it. 11. He is the only person who will be able
to solve the mystery. I am convinced of that. 12. He had an
unusual collection of butterflies. I remember it. 13. What was it? He
was anxious to know. 14. I have always suspected him to be
86
involved in the case. I am quite sure of it now. 15. You have
realized your mistake. I hope so.
Ex.7. Supply the necessary conjunctions for the following

sentences:
1. All the way down to Reading he debated ... he should tell Fleur
of that boy’s father’s death. 2. I wonder ... she has gone through?
3. And suddenly it came to Soames ... little he knew now of his
own family. 4. The next day Paula told him ... she was rich; she
had a personal fortune of nearly a million dollars. 5. They knew …
would happen, but said nothing. 6. I’ve found out ... the silly story
started. 7. I wonder ... that chap is doing at this moment? 8. I can’t
say ... they have gone and ... they will be back. 9. Time will show
... I am right or wrong. 10. I suppose you know ... I want to see you
about and ... I really came to Paris.
1.ºë ï»ëÝáõÙ ¿Ç, Ã» ÇÝã ¿ñ Ï³ï³ñíáõÙ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇóë ß³ï»ñÇ

Ñ»ï: 2.Ø»Õ³¹ñÛ³ÉÁ Ñ³Ùá½í³Í ¿, áñ Çñ»Ý Ï³ñ¹³ñ³óÝ»Ý£
3.¶Çï»Ç, áñ Ýñ³Ý ãëÇñ»Éáõ Ñ³ïáõÏ å³ï×³é áõÝ»Ù: 4.Ð»ï³-
ùñùÇñ ¿, Ã» Ý³ áñï»ÕÇ±ó ³Û¹ù³Ý µ³Ý ·ÇïÇ ³Û¹ ÙÇç³¹»åÇ
Ù³ëÇÝ£ 5.Ðáõëáí »Ù, áñ ¹áõ ÏÇñ³Ï³Ý³óÝ»ë ùá µáÉáñ
»ñ³½³ÝùÝ»ñÁ£ 6. â»Ù Ñ³ëÏ³ÝáõÙ, Ã» ÇÝãå»±ë ¹áõ Ï³ñáÕ »ë
íëï³Ñ»É ÝÙ³Ý ³Ýå³ï³ëË³Ý³ïáõ ³ÝÓÝ³íáñáõÃÛ³ÝÁ£
7.´áÉáñÁ ÙÇ³Ý·³Ù³ÛÝ Ñ³Ù³Ó³ÛÝ »Ý, áñ ¹³ Ññ³ß³ÉÇ
·³Õ³÷³ñ ¿£ 8.â»Ù Ñ³í³ïáõÙ, áñ Ý³ Ï³ñáÕ ¿ñ ³Û¹åÇëÇ ëáõï
ÑáñÇÝ»É£ 9.ÆÝãáõ± ¨ áñï»ÕÇ±ó ¿ñ Ý³ »Ï»É Ù»½ Ùáï, áã áù
ã·Çï»ñ: 10.ºë ã·Çï»Ù, Ã» »ñµ »ë Ïï»ëÝ»Ù Ýñ³Ý ÝáñÇó: 11.â»Ù
Ñ³ëÏ³ÝáõÙ, Ã» ÇÝãå»±ë »ë Ï³ñáÕ³ÝáõÙ Ñ³Ý¹áõñÅ»É Ýñ³
ÏáåÇï í³ñù³·ÇÍÁ£ 12.Ü³ Ñ³í³ïáõÙ ¿ñ, áñ ³é»ÕÍí³ÍÁ
í»ñçÇí»ñçá Ïµ³ó³Ñ³ÛïíÇ£ 13. Ü³ ½·áõÙ ¿ñ, áñ Çñ Ñ»ï ÇÝã¬áñ
³ñï³ëáíáñ µ³Ý ¿ Ï³ï³ñíáõÙ£ 14. ²Û¹å»ë ¿É
87
ãÑ³ÛïÝ³µ»ñí»ó, Ã» áí ¿ñ ³Û¹ ³ñ»É: 15. Ð³ñóñáõ ÂáÙÇÝ,
³ñ¹Ûá±ù Ý³ ÏÑ³Ù³Ó³ÛÝÇ û·Ý»É ù»½:
Ex.9. Point out the attributive clauses and specify their type:
1. It was a situation for which I was ill-trained. 2. The story he told

us was funny. 3. They (long engagements) give people the
opportunity of finding out each other’s character, which I think is
never advisable. 4. I would like to live in a country where it never
rains. 5. At last he had stumbled on the answer to a question
which he had been asked a long time ago. 6. He has led a retired
life and has no friends whom he could appeal to. 7. I know no one
who has a higher sense of duty and responsibility. 8. I always had
the impression that he approved of me. 9. Such dreams bred in
her a powerful hope that her want of hearing was curable. 10. I
always had the impression that he approved of me. 11. There was
a glamour about it that had not been before. 12. The thought that
he may have fallen ill worries me. 13. It was evident, indeed, that
she wished me to drop the subject, which I did accordingly. 14.
From behind him came the same cry which had so startled him
before. 15. The film I watched last night was thrilling. 16. He
wanted to talk to her again in the hope that she would forgive him.
17. One day, when you reach that exalted age of thirty-six which
you told me was your ambition, I’ll remind you of this moment. 18.
“Have you read much?” “Only such books as came in my way.” 19.
One day, when we meet again, I’ll remind you of this moment. 20. I
knew no one who has a higher sense of duty and responsibility.
Ex.10. Change the two independent sentences (clauses) so as to

have complex sentences with attributive clauses:
1. I was looking at the floor. There was oil-cloth laid on the boards.
2. I hastened to Mrs Fairfax’s room. There was a fire, too, but no
candle and no Mrs Fairfax. 3. She led the way into a small cosy
88
sitting-room. A spirit lamp stood in the grate. 4. Mrs Jan Cloote
sent Maida upstairs to fetch some of Isa’s presents, things she had
been given by men. 5. With a little difficulty she pulled out a small
drawer. In it was a bundle of faded letters and a folded paper. 6. It
seemed I had found a brother: one I could be proud of. 7. She
opened her bag and extracted a small card box. Inside it, wedged
in cotton wool, was a small mirror. 8. Mr Rochester obliged me to
go to a certain silk warehouse. There I was ordered to choose half
a dozen dresses.
Ex.11. Point out the sentences in which the connective word can
be omitted:
1. He was about the best teacher that I ever had. 2. Then she rang
the bell, which was promptly answered by Elizabeth. 3. The young
man who had handed him his handkerchief was again passing. 4.
At breakfast she had spoken of the dance at Uncle Roger’s which
she wanted to go to. 5. Personally I think you are making a big
mistake – one which you will bitterly regret. 6. She was standing by
a table on which was standing a blue china jar. 7. He had an idea
that all her conversation was intended to hint at something that he
didn’t understand. 8. The moment when I spoke I regretted my
words. 9. There was a glamour about it that had not been before.
10. It was a situation which I could not understand at all. 11.
People who plucked bluebells from the woods were vandals. 12.
The hour which I had looked forward to all day must be spent by
myself alone. 13. She went on looking at me in a way that she had
never done before.
1. Ü³ ÇÝÓ Ý³ÛáõÙ ¿ñ ³ÛÝåÇëÇ Ñ³Û³óùáí, ÇÝãå»ë »ñµ»ù ã¿ñ

Ý³Û»É£ 2.ÜÏ³ñÁ, áñÁ ¹ñí³Í ¿ñ ³×áõñ¹Ç, å³ïÏ³ÝáõÙ ¿ñ ì³Ý
¶á·Ç íñÓÝÇÝ£ 3.²Ñ³ ³ÛÝ ïáõÝÁ, áñï»Õ ³åñ»É ¨
89
ëï»ÕÍ³·áñÍ»É ¿ Ù»Í ÝÏ³ñÇãÁ£ 4.îÕ³Ý ³ÝÃ³ñÃ Ñ³Û³óùáí
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áñ ù³Õ³ùÇ ³Ù»Ý³Ñ³ñáõëï Ù³ñ¹Ý ¿ñ, áõÝ»ñ ÑÝ³á× Çñ»ñÇ Ù»Í
Ñ³í³ù³Íáõ£ 6.ä³ïÙáõÃÛáõÝÁ, áñ Ý³ å³ïÙ»ó, ß³ï Ñáõ½Çã ¿ñ£
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ËÝ³ÛáõÙ µ³ÕÓ³ÉÇ Ýå³ï³ÏÇÝ Ñ³ëÝ»Éáõ Ñ³Ù³ñ£ 8.Ü³
ï³ñÇÝ»ñ ß³ñáõÝ³Ï ·áõÙ³ñ ¿ñ ïÝï»ëáõÙ, áñå»ë½Ç ·ÝÇ ³ÛÝ
ÑÇ³ëù³Ýã ïáõÝÁ, áñ ï»ë»É ¿ñ ûíÏÇ³ÝáëÇ ³÷ÇÝ£ 9.Ì»ñ
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Ý³ËÏÇÝáõÙ ã¿Ç ï»ë»É£ 10.æáõÃ³ÏÁ, áñ óáõó³¹ñí³Í ¿ñ
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²Ù³ïÇÝ£ 11.ºë áõÝ»Ù ß³ï ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñ, áñáÝó Ï³ñáÕ »Ù
íëï³Ñ»É£
Ex.13. Point out the adverbial clauses and state their type:
1. I found the magazine where I had left it. 2. He could not come to
the lecture because he was ill. 3. I shall give you this book so that
you may read it at home. 4. If I see him I shall tell him about it.
5. We didn’t feel cold though we were wet to the skin. 6. I wonder if
he knows the truth. 7. She said she had to go. 8. I am glad you
have come. 9. A friend of mine will help you when you reach the
town. 10. Unless he is busy, he will come to the meeting. 11.
Difficult as was the work, it was finished in time. 12. Write down all
the new words lest you should forget them. 13. Since he was ill, he
couldn’t take part in the concert. 14. When I last saw George he
was in very low spirits. 15. She was upset as she spilled the coffee
on her new dress.
Ex.14. Specify the type of the adverbial clauses and say how they
are connected with the principal clauses:
1. He lay in bed, breathing easily as if he were fast asleep. 2. We

ran as fast as we could, but he caught us at the fence. 3. Although
90
she said nothing I felt guilty and ashamed. 4. When she found that
he was gone she was slightly disconcerted. 5. There was an old
quiet smell around the room, as though the air in it was little
changed. 6. It was closer than I had expected. 7. Your heart won’t
get better unless you keep perfectly quiet and still. 8. If he were
younger I’d put him in the trust. 9. Sometimes he is so serious that
I think he cannot be quite well. 10. The four tenants were only on
the most distant terms with each other, since none of them had
anything in common. 11. Martin went up the roof clutching at
manuscripts so that by the time he came down he had a large
armful. 12. The doctor came and gave her sedatives, for she never
slept.
Ex.15. Combine the two independent sentences into a complex

one, with an adverbial clause of time.
Use the conjunctions when, while, as, as soon as, before, after:
1. The businessmen discussed the matter. They signed the

agreement. 2. We reached the station. The train had left. 3. I was
repairing the TV set. There was a loud knock at the door. 4. He
finished working at his report. He went out for a walk. 5. She was
speaking on the phone. She heard the front door open. 6. She
entered the room. She closed the door behind her. 7. They packed
all their things. They called a taxi. 8. The policemen found the thief.
They arrested him. 9. He entered the room. They greeted him
warmly. 10. He saved up for years. He bought a nice villa on the
coast of the ocean. 11. He was looking through the headlines. He
came across his name. 12. The professor finished his lecture. The
students asked a lot of questions.
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Ex.16. Complete the sentences using
a) an adverbial clause of place:

1. Let us stop for the night where … . 2. We shall remain wherever
… . 3. They found him where … 4. Begin to read from where … .
5. I will go wherever … .
b) an adverbial clause of cause:

1. Since … I shall not bother you any longer. 2. As … I think I may
leave. 3. We didn’t hear the doorbell because … . 4. Since … we
can start our work. 5. We shall stay at home as … . 6. We agreed
only because … .
c) an adverbial clause of purpose:

1. I’ll ring him up at once so that … . 2. He wrote down her
telephone number for fear that … . 3. We erected this memorial
lest … . 4. The child hid behind the door so that … . 5. We booked
rooms at the hotel lest … .
d) an adverbial clause of condition:

1. What will you do if … . 2. All will be well on condition … . 3. I
agree to your offer provided …. 4. He took his address in case … .
5. Her party wouldn’t have been a success if … . 6. He won’t finish
his work in time unless … . 7. She feared lest … . 8. Work is no
use unless … .
Ex.17. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form:
1. I’ll look for your glasses and if I (to find) them I (to give) you a
ring. 2. Unless you (to return) the book to the library tomorrow, you
(to have) to pay a fine. 3. The bag isn’t heavy. If it (to be) heavy, I
(not to allow) the child to lift it. 4. She (to enjoy) parties if she (not
to be) so shy. 5. If we (to have) some matches we (can) light a fire.
6. If Jim (to refuse) to help we (not to finish) the work in time. 7. I
92
didn’t know you were short of money. If I (to know) I (to lend) you
some. 8. If I (to have) a map I (to direct) you. 9. I (to send) you a
copy of my poems in case you (to care) to read them. 10. The
weather was fine yesterday. If it (not be) fine, the garden party (to
be spoiled). 11. He didn’t see the signal. If he (to see) it he (to
stop) the car. 12. If she (to pass) all her exams, I (to take) her to
Europe for a holiday. 13. If you tell the police the truth, they (to
believe) you. 14. If you told the police the truth, they (to believe)
you. 15. Why didn’t you tell the police the truth? If you (to do) it,
they (to believe) you. 16. But for this terrible toothache I (to enjoy)
the concert. 17. We wanted to play a trick on him. If we (not to
laugh) he (to believe) us. 18. If it (not to rain) tonight we (to sleep)
in the open air. 19. Jane noticed the scar on his left cheek. If she
(not to notice) it she (not to recognize) him. 20. If I ever (to have)
an opportunity to go abroad, I (to like) to go to Italy.
Ex.18. Complete each sentence with if or when:
1. ___ I am late to work, my boss gets very angry. That is why I am

always on time. 2. ___ I leave work, I usually go to the fitness
center to work out. 3. ___ he eats, he tries to choose healthy
foods. 4. His car is very reliable, and he rarely has any trouble with
it. But ___ his car breaks down or he has any problems, he calls
the auto club. 5. His car is terrible! It always breaks down. ___ his
car breaks down or he has any problems, he calls the auto club. 6.
Mary gets six weeks paid vacation a year. She loves to travel.
___she goes on vacation, she always goes somewhere exotic. 7.
Diane works harder than anyone I know. I don’t think she has
taken a day off in three years. But ___ she goes on vacation, she
goes somewhere exotic. 8. He loves going to the movies. ___ he
goes to the movies, he always gets a large popcorn with tons of
butter. 9. She hates TV. She thinks television is a waste of time.
___ she watches any television at all, it is usually a documentary
93
or a news program. 10. My friend always keeps in touch by mail.
___I get a letter, I usually write back immediately.
Ex.19. Using the words in brackets, complete the texts with the
appropriate conditional form:
a) Did you hear about that guy who won 180 million dollars in the
lottery? If I (to win) that much money, I (to quit) my job the next
day. I (to travel) round the world and (to stay) in the most luxurious
hotels. If I (to want) anything, I (to buy) it. If I (to see) a beautiful
Mercedes that I wanted, I (to buy) it. If I wanted to stay in a
beautiful hotel and the hotel (to be) full, I (to buy) the hotel and
make them give me a room. I (can) do anything in the world if I had
180 million dollars... Oh, I am starting to sound a little
materialistic... Well... I (to do) good things with the money as well.
If anybody (to need) help, I (to give) them some money to help
them out. I (to donate) money to charities. I (to give) money to help
support the arts. If I (to win) that much money, I wouldn’t keep it all
for myself. I (to help) as many people as possible.
b)After I graduated from university, I applied for a marketing

position with a prominent bank with branches all over the world. I
didn’t get the job because they wanted someone who spoke
Spanish fluently. I (can, to take) Spanish in high school, but I
didn’t. I took an acting class instead. If I (to take) Spanish, I (to get)
the job. Just imagine, if I had actually got the job, I (to move) to
Spain. My entire life (can, to go) in a totally different direction. If I
had accepted the job and moved to Spain, I (might, to meet) a
Spanish woman and (to get) married. If that had actually
happened, I probably (to stay) in Spain. We (may, to have)
children. Unfortunately, I didn’t get the job and I didn’t go to Spain.
I got a boring job and I live alone. If I had just taken Spanish, my
life (to be) much more interesting.
94
c) I am not sure what I am going to do when I (to graduate), but I
do know I want to travel. I am probably going to work at my father’s
restaurant for a few months during the summer. When I (to have)
enough money, I (to go) to Europe to visit some friends I met while
studying.
I have always wanted to visit Europe. I especially want to visit
Sweden. If I (to get) to go to Sweden, I (to stay) with my friend
Gustav. His family has a house on an island in a lake near
Stockholm. I am sure we (to spend) a few days on the island if
weather conditions (to allow).
I am not sure what other countries I will visit. If it (to be) not too
expensive, I (to spend) a couple of days in Paris sightseeing. If I
(to go) to Paris, I (to climb) the Eiffel Tower, (to take) a boat tour of
the Seine, and (to photograph) daily life in the Latin Quarter.
Ex.20. Using the words in brackets, complete the sentences with

the appropriate conditional form:
1. If I (to have) enough money, I (to backpack) around Europe.

But, unfortunately, I am broke. 2. If I (to have) enough money in
my twenties, I (to backpack) around Europe. But, unfortunately, I
was broke. 3. She would have been here earlier if she (not to miss)
the train. 4. Thank you for helping me study. If you hadn’t tutored
me, I (to fail) the test. 5. If I exercised more, I (to be) much more fit
and I (not to have) so many health problems. 6. It’s too bad Frank
isn’t with us. If he (to be) here, he (can, to translate) the letter for
us. 7. Stop asking me what Joe bought you for your birthday. Even
if I (to know) what he bought you, I (not to tell) you. 8. My business
trip to California was only two days. If the trip (to be) longer, I (to
visit) my friends in Los Angeles. 9. I’m sorry, I didn’t know you
were allergic to chocolate. If I (to know), I (to make) you a vanilla
birthday cake. 10. If I (can, to go) anywhere in the world, I (to go)
to Egypt to see the pyramids.
95
Ex.21. Complete the sentences using an adverbial clause of
concession:
1. Paul can play the piano although … . 2. Dark as … we found the

house without difficulty. 3. Difficult as … it was finished in time. 4.
Though … there were few people in the street. 5. No matter … I
couldn’t persuade him to change his mind. 6. No matter how … we
shall cope with the task. 7. Whatever … I don’t believe him.
Ex.22. Join the sentences (with so or such) using an adverbial

clause of result:
1. The night was dark. They couldn’t see where they were going.
2. He laughed very infectiously. Everybody began laughing, too. 3.
The children were making noise. I couldn’t concentrate on my
work. 4. He was a gloomy man. The children thought he never
laughed. 5. The night was very beautiful. He had a sudden wish to
write a poem. 6. The place was delightful. We stayed there all
summer. 7. The Chinese language is very difficult to learn. Few
foreigners take it up. 8. The fruit looked very tempting. The child
couldn’t help eating it. 9. The task was very difficult. None of the
students did it correctly. 10. He is a very rude person. No one
wants to be friends with him.
Ex.23. Finish the sentences using an adverbial clause of

comparison:
1. She looked very excited as if … . 2. He seemed older than … .

3. The weather was not so cold as … . 4. The faster you drive … .
5. They burst out laughing as if … . 6. She loved the child as
though … . 7. The sooner we get to the station … .
96
Ex.24. State whether the clauses introduced by means of the
conjunctions while and for are subordinate or coordinate. Translate
the sentences into Armenian:
1. His own trouble seemed small while he was looking at that face.
2. While my back was turned he had quietly succeeded in opening
the door of the safe and had extracted a huge, blue-steel revolver.
3. He ordered tea on the telephone while she fumbled in her bag.
4. I understood her very well, for I had been accustomed to her
fluent speech. 5. I think she was poor, for she had no fine house
as mamma. 6. They were all quiet, for they did not intend the
mystified servant to learn anything. 7. While I was in Wandsworth
Prison I longed to die. 8. One moonlight winter evening I called
upon Beethoven, for I wished him to take a walk and afterward to
sup with me. 9. He paused and coloured up, for the girl looked full
at him, and he saw that she was blind. 10. After the lapse of a few
seconds he must have obtained his connection for he shouted into
the transmitter. 11. Then they sauntered over to my house and sat
on the steps for half an hour, while at her request I remained
watchfully in the garden. 12. We ate in silence, for Mrs Van Hooper
liked to concentrate on food.
Ex.25. State whether the conjunction as introduces an adverbial

clause of a)time, b)cause, c)manner, d)comparison. Translate the
sentences into Armenian:
1. He laid particular stress on your German as he was leaving for

town yesterday. 2. The composer smiled as he only could smile,
tenderly, kindly. 3. I was weeping wildly as I walked along my
solitary way. 4. He allowed me to get into the car, as the vehicle
was empty. 5. I only begged permission to sit down a moment as I
was tired. 6. Your suitcases were left packed as they had been
prepared for the bridal tour. 7. She was as touchy as she could be.
8. She turned her head as there was a light knocking at the door.
97
9. Felise gasped, as her eyes fell on it. 10. As Uncle Mathew grew
older, he got more and more suspicious. 11. Just as he
disappeared from view a woman rushed into the room. 12. She
who sat there before me had not wasted her time, as I was doing.
Ex.26. State whether the conjunction since introduces an adverbial

clause of time or reason. Translate the sentences into Armenian:
1. I had not seen him since they disappeared the day before.
2. Since you won’t ask the governess’s name, I must tell it of my
own accord. 3. She had worked for the telephone company since
she graduated from high school. 4. But since you ask it, I answer
simply to have a talk with you. 5. I have watched you ever since
we first met. 6. Then since it was summer time and the room had
begun to feel stifling, I stepped casually over to the window and
opened it. 7. And where do you hear the music since you frequent
no concerts? 8. I have never seen her since we departed. 9. For
the first time since I had known him he was at a loss for the usual
conventional phrase.
Ex.27. Insert the conjunctions if, unless, lest, provided, in case:
1. You wouldn’t be in a good temper … you were in the fix I’m in.
2. Don’t tell me so … I should say something disparaging to your
judgement. 3. He felt he must stay in his own house … Donald
came back. 4. … I can find some decent chap to swallow my story
and lend me some money I seem likely to spend the night on the
Embankment. 5. I fear it will be getting out of order … Mr
Rochester should take it into his head to come and reside here
permanently. 6. It will look so extraordinary … you don’t accept the
invitation. 7. We needn’t talk to each other … we feel like it. 8. I will
promise to paint you a careful and faithful duplicate of this very
picture … you admit that gift would be acceptable to you. 9. She
feared … she should miss the first act. 10. You cannot easily go
98
against what you were brought up to do … you are a rebel by
nature. 11. … you are going to make personal remarks I won’t stay
here a moment. 12. Work is no use … you believe in it. 13. I’ll tell
you everything … you keep it to yourself. 14. Now one of them was
always at home … the telephone rang.
Ex.28. Supply the necessary conjunctions (or connectives) for the

following sentences:
1. He was nervous … the time for reading his paper approached.

2. Ulysses moved in closer … finally he was directly behind the
man. 3. … I came to the end of the long drive at last I saw that
Maxim’s car was standing in front of the house. 4. I wondered …
had told him about Favell. 5. I felt … a very long time had passed
… he had left me yesterday. 6. She gripped his hand … his fingers
ached. 7. I hid the paper under the cushion of the chair … Maxim
should not see it. 8. I have been crying all night … I thought I
should never see him again. 9. … the lecturer paused, they burst
into vigorous applause. 10. … he was bored there, his health for a
while improved. 11. … they realised what had happened, they ran
after him, calling to him to come back. 12. He dashed out of the
post-office … anybody had a chance to say anything to him or stop
him. 13. It seemed a lifetime … she had received a letter from Ray
Buffin. 14. … they left the telephone exchange Gracie cried for a
long time.
Ex.29. Combine the following simple sentences into a complex

sentence: use the conjunctions as, when, after, that, though:
Model: Lucy opened the window. She wanted to air the room.
Lucy opened the window as she wanted to air the room.
1. He walked with care. He didn’t want to fall. 2. Bill returned

home. He had finished the work. 3. The weather was bad. We
99
stayed at home. 4. The boy was very small. He couldn’t reach the
bell. 5. I shall never clearly understand this. So I think. 6. You have
made a mistake. It is quite evident. 7. I have seen that man’s face
before somewhere. I cannot now remember his name. 8. A
traveller says something. His baggage is missing.
Ex.30. Insert appropriate conjunctions or relative pronouns:
1. … you are here, you had better help me. 2. Say it loudly … I can
hear. 3. … you want to succeed, you must plan your time carefully.
4. … the story was amusing, it didn’t make us laugh. 5. … he went,
he saw nothing but ruins. 6. I didn’t quite know … she meant. 7. …
I was tired; I did not stop to rest. 8. … the storm tides struck the
coast, they were 25 feet high.
1.ØÇÝã æáÝÁ å³ñï»½áõÙ Í³é ¿ñ ïÝÏáõÙ, Ý³ å³ï³ÑÙ³Ùµ

Ñ³ÛïÝ³µ»ñ»ó ·³ÝÓ, áñÁ Ñ³í³Ý³µ³ñ í³Õáõó Ã³ùóñ»É ¿ÇÝ
³ÛÝï»Õ£ 2. Ü³ ³ÛÝù³Ý µ³ñ»Ñ³ÙµáõÛñ Ù³ñ¹ ¿, áñ Ñ³×»ÉÇ ¿ Ýñ³
Ñ»ï ·áñÍ áõÝ»Ý³É£ 3.ì»ñ³µ»ñíÇ°ñ Ù³ñ¹Ï³Ýó ³ÛÝå»ë, ÇÝãå»ë
ÇÝù¹ Ïó³ÝÏ³Ý³ÛÇñ, áñ ù»½ í»ñ³µ»ñí»Ý£ 4.ºÃ» Å³Ù³Ý³ÏÇÝ
³Û¹ Ù³ëÇÝ Ùï³Í³Í ÉÇÝ»ÇÝù, ³Ûëù³Ý ³Ý³ËáñÅáõÃÛáõÝ ã¿ÇÝù
áõÝ»Ý³£ 5.Â»¨ Ñ³ñóÝ ³Ýëå³ë»ÉÇ ¿ñ, ³ÕçÇÏÁ ãß÷áÃí»ó£
6.Ð³ñóÝ ³ÛÝù³Ý ³Ýëå³ë»ÉÇ ¿ñ, áñ µáÉáñÁ ½³ñÙ³ó³Í Çñ³ñ
Ý³Û»óÇÝ£ 7.ÈáÕ³÷Ý ³ÛÝù³Ý Ù³ñ¹³ß³ï ¿ñ, áñ Ù»Ýù Ù»Í
¹Åí³ñáõÃÛ³Ùµ ·ï³Ýù Ù»ñ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇÝ£ 8.Ð»Ýó áñ ÷áÃáñÇÏÁ
¹³¹³ñ»ó, Ýñ³Ýù ß³ñáõÝ³Ï»óÇÝ Çñ»Ýó áõÕ¨áñáõÃÛáõÝÁ£ 9.ø³ÝÇ
áñ ã»Ù ¹Çï»É ýÇÉÙÁ, »ë ã»Ù Ï³ñáÕ áñ¨¿ µ³Ý ³ë»É ¹ñ³ Ù³ëÇÝ£
10.ºë Ó»½ Ïï³Ù ³Û¹ ·áõÙ³ñÁ å³ÛÙ³Ýáí, áñ áã áù ãÇÙ³Ý³ ³Û¹
Ù³ëÇÝ£ 11.Üñ³Ýù ³ÛÝù³Ý Ùáï ¿ÇÝ Ï³Ý·Ý³Í Çñ³ñ, ³ë»ë
Ùï»ñÙÇÏ ½ñáõóáõÙ ¿ÇÝ£ 12.Ø»ñÇÝ ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã ³ÝáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÝå»ë,
ÇÝãå»ë Ù³ÛñÝ ¿ ëáíáñ»óñ»É£ 13.àñù³Ý ¿É áñ Ý³ ½µ³Õí³Í ¿,
Å³Ù³Ý³Ï Ï·ïÝÇ Ó»½ û·Ý»Éáõ Ñ³Ù³ñ£ 14.Ü³ í³Ë»ÝáõÙ ¿ñ
100
áñ¨¿ µ³é ³ë»É, áñå»ë½Ç ãíÇñ³íáñÇ ³ÕçÏ³ ½·³óÙáõÝùÝ»ñÁ£
15. Üñ³Ýù áñáß»óÇÝ Ñ³Ý¹Çå»É ³ÛÝï»Õ, áñï»Õ ³Ýó ¿ÇÝ
Ï³óñ»É Çñ»Ýó Ù³ÝÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ£ 16.Ü³ ï³ùëÇ å³ïíÇñ»ó, áñ
ãáõß³Ý³ ÇÝùÝ³ÃÇéÇó£ 17. ºÃ» áõ½áõÙ »ë, áñ ùá Ï³ñÍÇùÁ
Ñ³ñ·»Ý, Ñ³ñ·Çñ áõñÇßÝ»ñÇ Ï³ñÍÇùÁ£ 18.¸áõù ³í»ÉÇ É³í
Ï½·³ù, »Ã» ß³ï Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ³ÝóÏ³óÝ»ù Ù³ùáõñ û¹áõÙ£ 19.Ü³
Ó»½ áãÇÝã ãÇ Ñ³ñóÝÇ, ÙÇÝã¨ áñ ¹áõù ÇÝùÝ»ñ¹ Ýñ³Ý ãå³ïÙ»ù
³Ù»Ý ÇÝã£ 20.ºë »ñµ»ù Ýñ³Ý Ñáõë³Ë³µ ã¿Ç ³ÝÇ, »Ã» ÇÝÓ
íëï³Ñ»ñ£
Ex.32. Avoid unnecessary complexity in grammatical structure:
Model: If you collect soft toys, it’s a lot of fun.

Collecting soft toys is a lot of fun.
1. If you solve crosswords, it’s a waste of time. 2. If the weather is

rainy, people prefer to stay in. 3. The title of this film is “Titanic”
and it’s a story about the greatest shipwreck in the world. 4. We
enjoy not only music, but we also like painting and sculpture. 5. He
used to go to London in winter, but his summer was spent in the
south of the country. 6. She was not pleased with the results of the
experiment. Jack was not pleased either. 7. Julia can speak two
foreign languages quite well. Gloria can do so as well. 8. When the
performance was a success, we were expecting it. 9. When they
accepted our proposal, we didn’t expect it. 10. On our flight across
the Atlantic, it was wonderful. 11. If you sail a boat, it’s a lot of fun.
12. When the factory closed down, he lost his job and his pension
was also lost. 13. They did not approve of him when he spoke out
against political powers in the country. 14. My favourite writer is
Virginia Woolf among all the women writers that I like best. 15 My
friend Herbert loves to watch TV for hours on end, but his wife
whose name is Pauline does not approve of his doing so.
101
Ex.33. Point out the parenthetical clauses and comment on their
use. Translate into Armenian:
1. This is the whole incident, gentlemen, told, I trust, without bias

or rancor. 2. At that time, I believe, he worked at the Ministry. 3.
Well, I’m not very much of a dancer, you know. 4. It is, I regret to
say, one of the Rector’s most constant duties in this parish. 5. We
are going to get married, you see, and settle down in Brisport. 6.
Where is my wedding gown, I wonder? 7. He is, as I told you, their
only son. 8. I was defeated, I must admit. 9. That pretty girl is your
daughter, I guess. 10. I’ve been made a school-dinner monitor, I
am proud to report. 11. You’re completely wrong, I daresay. 12.
Nothing further eventuated, except that Mr Plankton repeated the
word “cadet,” which, if I am not mistaken, is a contemptuous
expression. 13. My experience, I’ll confess, has been with a higher
order of criminals than yourself. 14. You see, I wrote to my mother
regularly, telling her most of my doings.
Ex.34. Make the sentences emphatic by introducing the necessary

changes:
1. She only decided yesterday. It was all done in a hurry. 2. Maxim

loses his temper once or twice a year 3. But he kept his eyes on
the two sheets of paper. 4. Not until the post mistress returned to
her post did Mrs Marple go upstairs and explain to Miss Politt that
she wanted her own grey crepe altered. 5. And confidence is a
quality I prize, although it has come to me a little late in the day. 6.
A little before three the Lutheran minister arrived from Flushing. 7.
From upstairs came a long scream. 8. Shortly after nine on the
morning of Saturday Billy let himself in, with the newspapers. 9.
Nobody but George told me about it.
Ex.35. Make the sentences non-emphatic by introducing the

necessary changes. Follow the example given below:
102
Model: Angry as I was. I was tempted to laugh whenever he
opened his mouth.
Though I was angry, I was tempted to laugh whenever he opened
his mouth.
1. Shut my eyes as I would, these last words of his succeeded in

making the way. 2. Perfunctory as it was though, it succeeded in
its object. 3. Utterly differentiated creatures that they were they
were lonely in their misery. 4. However glorious might be his future
as Jay Gatsby, he was at present a penniless young man without a
past. 5. Certain as a man can be that she was his own daughter,
he (Soames) often wondered whence she got herself her red-gold
hair... 6. However badly he may have behaved to you in the past
he is still your brother. 7. Try as I do, I simply can't like it. 8. I could
scarcely see my master's face, near as I was. 9. Trivial, transitory
though the deed was, it was yet an active thing. 10. Loud as the
wind blew, near and deep as the thunder crashed, fierce and
frequent ... I experienced, no fear and little awe. 11. Unlikely as it
seemed, the girl herself might be playing a trick on him. 12.
Troubled as he was he never exposed his difficulties to her. 13.
Serious as the episode was, it went completely out of his mind
after he had satisfied Thompson's curiosity about it at tea-time.
Ex. 36. Change the sentences so as to make them emphatic.

Follow the example given below:
Model: Though I look comfortably accommodated, I am not tranquil

in my mind.
Comfortably accommodated as I look, I am not tranquil in my mind.
1. Even though he was running it was impossible for Stranger not

to notice the girl's isolation. 2. Although her heart beat faster, she
was not surprised when the same break occurred. 3. Though the
103
storm was terrible we continued our way. 4. Though I was
hampered by the tightness across the upper arms of my off-the-
shoulder dress 1 brought myself back to an upright position. 5. But
though my aunt was a brave woman, this adventure was too much
even for her. 6. Though she was extremely excited she tried not to
show it. 7. At last it was good to be on one's legs again, and
though the night was hideous, the situation seemed less
precarious than it did when one was sitting in there. 8. I enjoyed
that day though it was cold.
Ex. 37. Make the sentences non-emphatic by introducing the

necessary changes. Follow the example given below:
Model: Not only did he speak correctly, but he spoke more easily.
He spoke not only more correctly, but he spoke more easily.
1. Never once in their dialogue did I hear a syllable of regret at the

hospitality they had extended to me. 2. Never for a moment did he
interrupt or glance at his watch. 3. My companion expressed no
surprise at my emotion, nor did he questioned me as to its cause.
4. Convention was too strong for me, nor did I know how I should
frame my sentence. 5. No sooner have you got settled in a
pleasant-resting place than a voice calls out to you to rise and
move on. 6. Only gradually did I become aware that automobiles
which turned expectantly into his drive stayed for just a minute and
then drove sulkily away. 7. Scarcely dared I answer her, for I
feared the next sentence might be rough. 8. But never till today
had he descended from the general to the particular. 9. Never had
he seen a tiger marked after this fashion.
Ex. 38. Change the sentences so as to make them emphatic.

Follow the examples given below:
Model: a) I never saw a busier person than she seemed to be.
104
Never did I see a busier person than she seemed to be.
b) She had never seemed to me more exquisite than that evening.
Never had she seemed to me more exquisite than that evening.
1. Not for the first time 1 resented the part that I just play in her
schemes. 2. But I never dared to ask Mrs Danvers what she did
about it. 3. She never once adverted either to her mother's illness
or her brother's death, or the present gloomy situation. 4. She had
never in her life suffered from even momentary fear that she would
not get what she had set her heart on. 5. He had no sooner struck
the first cord than I knew how grand he would be that night. 6. I
never heard him play as he then played to that blind girl and her
brother. 7. She breathed more freely and for the first time for many
months she really admired her son. 8. Tonight, for the first time, I
became conscious that Romeo was hideous, and old, and painted,
that the moonlight in the orchard was false, that the scenery was
vulgar. 9. I had hardly ever seen a handsome youth; never in my
life spoken to one. 10. They had no sooner started than it began to
rain. 11. We had hardly gone half a mile when we noticed dark
clouds gathering in the sky. 12. I scarcely knew what school was.
13. I had hardly set a tentative foot on it when something caught
ms behind the knees.
Ex. 39. Change the sentences so as to make them non-emphatic.

Model: It was seldom that Mrs Jan Cloote opened the door of her
apartment wide enough for anyone to see the inside.
Mrs Jan Cloote seldom opened the door of her apartment wide
enough for anyone to see the inside.
1. It was on that same house-party that we had a curious

conversation about driving a car. 2. It was that very day that the
nuisance occurred. 3. It was he who persuaded them to emigrate
105
to Canada. 4. It was a page-boy in the end who released him. 5. It
was my lack of poise of course that made such a bad impression
on people like Mrs Danvers. 6. But it was through Skinny that I
went to Africa. 7. But it was Stewart Snyder whom she
encouraged. 8. It was not until they were leaving gardens that old
Jolyon found an opportunity of speaking to his son on the matter
next his heart. 9. It was the grey look on his face that made me
stop abruptly. 10. It is when I remember these things that I return
with relief to the prospect from our balcony. 11. I suppose it is his
dependence upon me that has made me bold at last. 12. It was the
expression on her face that gave me my first feeling of unrest.
Ex.40. Point out the inserted clauses and comment on their use:
1. She was in fact a woman of forty (a charming age, but not one
that excites a sudden and devastating passion at first sight) and
she gave me the impression of having more teeth, white and even,
than were necessary for any practical purpose. 2. The effect of this
change on Deronda – he afterwards smiled when he recalled it –
was oddly embarrassing and humiliating. 3. And Miss Estella –
that’s her niece, I think – handed her in cake and wine at a coach
window. 4. But – he eyed severely – as if I had done anything to
him! – and departed with the words reproachfully delivered. 5. She
burst into a loud sobbing, got out the dust pan – which was always
a bad sign – put on her coarse apron, and began cleaning up to a
terrible extent. 6. Dr Macphail bent down – he was not a man to
lose his head in an emergency – and turned the body over. 7. As I
passed the church, I felt (as I had felt during service in the
morning) a sublime compassion for the poor creatures who were
destined to go there. 8. I had some shadowy idea (and I am afraid
I must add, hope) that Joe had divorced her in favor of the Lord of
Admiralty. 9. She naturally gave it back to them – she couldn’t do
anything else, I suppose though it must have been a wrench and
they returned her own string to her. 10. Presently – it may have
106
been within a few days or a few weeks – my reading glasses
arrived and I wore them whenever I remembered to do so.
Ex.41. Translate into English concentrating on rendering the

parenthetical and inserted clauses and emphatic constructions:
1.ÎÇñ³ÏÇ ûñÁ, ³é³íáïÛ³Ý Å³ÙÁ ÛáÃÇÝ (Ï³ñÍ»ë Ñ»Ýó ³Û¹ Å³-

ÙÇÝ ¿É Ù»Ýù å³ÛÙ³Ý³íáñí»É ¿ÇÝù) ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñë »Ï³Ý Ù»ñ ïáõÝ:
àñáß»É ¿ÇÝù ¿ùëÏáõñëÇ³ Ï³ï³ñ»É ¹»åÇ µÉáõñÁ, Ý³Ë³×³ß»É
³Û¹ µ³ñÓáõÝùÇ íñ³ (¹³ ¿É Çñ Ñ»ï³ùñùñáõÃÛáõÝÝ áõÝ»ñ) ¨ Ù»Ï-
»ñÏáõ Å³ÙÇó Ñ»ïá ó³Í ÇçÝ»É: Ø»ñ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇó Ù»ÏÁª ²ñÙ»ÝÁ,
Ññ³Å³ñí»ó Ù»½ Ñ»ï ·Ý³Éáõó (Ý³ ß³ï Ï³Ù³Ïáñ ïÕ³ ¿), ¨ Ù»ñ
ïñ³Ù³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ ÁÝÏ³í: 2.ä»ïù ¿ Ëáëïáí³Ý»Ù, ÇÙ ÏáÕÙÇó
ÑÇÙ³ñáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ñ Ýñ³Ý ³Û¹å»ë Ïáõñáñ»Ý Ñ³í³ï³ÉÁ£ 3.Ð»Ýó
ÝáõÛÝ »ñ»ÏáõÛÃÇ ÁÝÃ³óùáõÙ ¿ñ, áñ »ë áñáß»óÇ ³ÙáõëÝáõÃÛ³Ý
³é³ç³ñÏáõÃÛáõÝ ³Ý»É ê³é³ÛÇÝ: 4.Ü³ ¿ñ, áñ Ñ³Ùá½»ó ÇÝÓ
Î³Ý³¹³ Ù»ÏÝ»É: 5. ÆÝãåÇëÇÝ ÏÉÇÝÇ Ù»ñ ÏÛ³ÝùÁ 20 ï³ñÇ
Ñ»ïá, ß³ï Ïáõ½»Ç ÇÙ³Ý³É£ 6.ØÇ »ñÇï³ë³ñ¹ ½ÇÝíáñ ¿ñ, áñ
³ÕçÏ³Ý ÷ñÏ»ó ïÑ³× Çñ³íÇ×³ÏÇó: 7.²Û¹ µ³éÁ, »Ã» ã»Ù
ëË³ÉíáõÙ, Ó»ñ É»½íáõÙ ³ñÑ³Ù³ñÑ³Ýù ¿ ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïáõÙ:
Ex.42. Point out the compound-complex sentences and comment

on the way the clauses are joined. Make a morphological and
syntactic analysis of the first five sentences:
1. He laughed so uproariously that the people sitting near us

looked round, and some of them began to laugh too. 2. His gaze
rested on the passing throng, but I do not think he saw it. 3. It must
be remembered that I was very young, and I looked upon him as a
middle-aged man. 4. Ryan saw at once that something had
happened and she saw in the same moment what it was that had
happened. 5. At first glance he seemed conventionally handsome
but there was a faint disgust always in his face which marred the
full fierce lustre of his brown eyes. 6. He had seen them though, as
107
they left their pavilion, and he followed them with his eyes until
they disappeared again. 7. I was puzzled by him, and I was eager
to see how he regarded the tragedy he had caused in the lives of
people who had used him with so much kindness. 8. All she had to
do after seeing him was to buy her ticket to Utica and get in one
coach, and he would buy his separately and get in another.
Ex. 43. Avoid run-on sentences:
Model: Jack could not accept their invitation, he was too busy.
(incorrect)
Jack could not accept their invitation. He was too busy. (correct)
Jack could not accept their invitation; he was too busy. (correct)
Because he was too busy, Jack could not accept their invitation.
(correct)
1. He took aside and whispered, she was too stunned at first to

cry. 2. Andy does not like it when I mention this sort of thing, in
fact, he was pretty unreceptive to my whole sermon. 3. Jennifer
watched as Michael Moretti rose to his feet, he looked calm and
relaxed. 4. George and Ann looked at each other, this was first
time they had been in days. 5. One thing was clear, if Mrs. Bunting
had a vote, Sara would have it. 6. He turned and walked over to
the guard, a moment later they were both gone. 7. Now they could
hear the kitchen phone ringing, she went to answer it. 8. He
checked his watch, fifteen minutes before the car would be waiting
downstairs. 9. He walked out of the office without a word, Jennifer
pressed the intercom button. 10. Dr. Kennedy shrugged his
shoulders, it was impossible to explain it to these people. 11.
There was no applause, people were too upset. 12. He glanced at
Maria again, they seemed to be thinking as one. 13. Just hearing
this made me sick at heart, I could scarcely bear to listen. 14.
Andrew was stunned, no one had applauded him before. 15. After
we hung up, I asked myself why the hell George had done it, he
108
had so much to live for. 16. They left me to my anguish, I finally
gathered the courage to pick up the phone.
Ex. 44. Avoid faulty parallelism:
Model: It is better to phone her than waiting.

It is better to phone her than wait.
1. This club offers facilities for learning arts and crafts and how to
train dogs. 2. He likes swimming and to play tennis very much. 3.
He planned playing a game of chess and to go to the cinema. 4.
Excessive smoking and drinking, overeating and work overtime -
these things will damage even the strongest constitution. 5. He
remembered speaking about it to Henry and that he mentioned her
name in the conversation. 6. There is a great difference between
liking a man and to love him. 7. To err is human, forgiving is divine.
8. Which would you prefer: to go there by car or walking? 9. He felt
a gratifying feeling of being respected and appreciation. 10.
Jennifer had dinner at her desk, working on briefs and prepared a
trial deposition for the next day. 11. Going there without warning or
to phone her at this late hour was out of the question. 12. That will
mean a nice invitation to go to Paris and visiting some of my
friends.
Ex. 45. Rewrite the sentences without parcellation. Comment on

the stylistic effect of parcellation:
Model: The housekeeper said that they had left for Israel on the
previous night’s plane. To attend the funeral.
The housekeeper said that they had left for Israel to attend the
funeral.
1. Whatever he had expected had not come true. Yet. 2. We’ve

only half-begun. When, in truth, it was half-over. 3. Kids are
109
smarter than we think. Which is why we end up hurting them so
much. 4. And somebody else will be Secretary of State. Maybe
me. 5. I got the message and happily entertained her the next few
days. And nights. 6. He stood up shyly, lost in the unfamiliarity of
public appreciation. Pleased. Surprised. And overcome by this
display of affection. 7. It had been a time of hope. Of confidence.
Of boundless optimism. 8. I have never betrayed my sources. And
I never will. 9. Then she leaned over, kissed him on the forehead,
and started out. Leaving him alone at the top of the world. 10.
They had met once more and just had time enough to learn that
they liked one another. And to say good-bye. 11. They flew on in
triumph. And in sorrow. 12. He kept asking if this character was
sober. And if I was sober. 13. I got us on my mind, Sid. Night and
day. 14. She says it’s absolutely and positively urgent that she
speak to you. Not her husband. Absolutely and positively. 15.
None of the crew noticed this subtle discrepancy. But Danny did.
Ex. 46. Study the parcellated dialogues and try to restore their
original form in direct speech:
a) The stood there painfully for a few moments, exchanging

platitudes. Yes, she said she was married now. Yes, she had four
children. And how was he? Retired now? Was he enjoying it? Not
much to do? But surely he had always had plenty to do in the
district. What was she doing here? Just looking around a little.
Yes, it has changed. Yes, that’s right, for old times’ sake. Yes, it
has changed. A lot of new buildings. Nice for the young people.
b) She was Virginia Hill, who told the Kefauver Crime Committee in
1951 that they were friends. She did not know exactly how much
she had. Yes, she knew Bugsy Siegel, he was one of the friends.
No, she didn’t know what he did for a living.
c) Every few minutes a group or a family with children would pass.
Sometimes they would merely not. At others, they'd exchange
what meagre information they possessed. Yes, we think the
110
frontier is in that direction. Yes, we did hear that most of the
Boarder Patrol has deserted. No, we haven’t seen any Russian
troops.
CONSTRUCTIONS WITH VERBALS
Ex. 1. Point out the ing-form constructions and state their syntactic
functions in the sentence:
1. She took the news calmly, being much in love with him. 2. He
got up and wandered away, lighting a cigarette. 3. I thought of him
standing before the looking-glass in his bare bachelor bedroom. 4.
I drank some to please him not wanting it a bit. 5. An errand-boy
passed us whistling on his bicycle. 6. Having stifled my sobs,
wiped my eyes, and muttered something about not being very well
that morning, I resumed my task and succeeded in completing it.
7. When he went over the letters left lying on his bed he found one
from her. 8. He reread the letter adoringly, dwelling over her
handwriting, loving each stroke of her pen, and in the end kissing
her signature. 9. She even considered it the hopeful side of the
situation, believing that sooner or later it would arouse him and
compel to abandon his writing. 10. The whole composite vision
was achieved with the speed of light, producing no pause in the
conversation, nor interrupting his calm train of thought. 11. He
went downstairs and out into the street, breathing great breaths of
air. 12. And she, glancing at him across her shoulder, saw
something of all this in his face.
Ex. 2. Change the sentences so as to have ing-form constructions.

Model: a) We have no secrets now from one another. All things are
shared.
111
We have no secrets now from one another, sharing all things.
b) She laughed, she shrugged her shoulders.
She laughed, shrugging her shoulders.
1. Clarice was waiting for me in my bedroom. She looked pale and

scared. 2. As soon as she saw me she burst into tears. 3. He read
each letter through, then returned again to the top and read it a
second time. 4. Children's tears are very near the surface and
come at the first crisis. 5. As I wrote in halting, laboured fashion, 1
noticed for the first time how cramped and unformed was my own
handwriting. 6. I felt tired suddenly and unable to cope. I went and
sat down on the bed; 7. When I look back at my first party at
Manderley, I can remember little isolated things standing alone out
of the vast black canvas of the evening. 8. When he reached the
yard, Ulysses saw the cow. 9 The moon shone brightly in through
the window and lighted up his glorious rugged head and massive
figure. 10. Trouncer lumbered to his feet and took the paper. He
stared at it blankly. 11. He paused. He looked at every one of us in
turn. 12. He laid his hand on my head as he uttered the last words.
13. Frank came up after breakfast. He looked pale and tired as
though he had not slept. 14. In the doorway stood the maid. She
held a big tortoise- shell cat pressed against her and swung down
against her body.
Ex. 3. Point out the participial constructions and state their

syntactic functions in the sentence:
1. Another car arrived half an hour afterwards, followed by three

local people. 2. It would be the drawing-room, not used much in
the summer. 3. Where he stood it was not so light, and, unseen,
he would be able to see her as she passed by. 4. Lulled by the
sound, I at last dropped asleep. 5. He sat by her bed, bewildered.
6. Though insulted, he controlled himself. 7. He decided he would
go if sent for. 8. The news man arrived, accompanied by a
112
photographer. 9. He said he did not drink wine unless invited to do
so. 10. As though compelled, she told me all her story. 11. He
looked at me astonished. 12. I stopped, half suffocated with the
thoughts that rose faster than I could receive, comprehend, settle
then. 13. My little servant, after helping me to clean the house, was
gone, well satisfied with the fee of a penny for her aid. 14. When
told to go, the girl looked at them in surprise. 15. Wholly untaught,
with faculties quite torpid, they seemed to me hopelessly dull. 16.
Flushed and kindled thus, he looked nearly as beautiful for a man
as she for a woman. 17. Isa came in, painted as before.
Ex. 4. Complete the sentences choosing the right variant out of

those given. Make sure that the non-finite verb forms refer to
appropriate subjects:
1. Being confined to bed with a bad cold...

a) his friends called on him
b) he missed classes
c) the doctor was sent for
2. While studying late one night...

a) there was a terrible noise outside the house
b) I heard a terrible noise outside the house
c) a terrible noise was heard outside the house
3. Having a bad headache ...

a) the concert was not pleasant for her
b) she did not enjoy the concert
c) they gave her some pills
4. Having read the newspaper ...

a) my little daughter and I went for a walk
b) I took my little daughter for a walk
c) my little daughter wanted to be taken for a walk
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5. When invited to the tea-party ...
a) he refused to go
b) they did not expect him to refuse to come
c) I expected him to come
6. Being behind the group ...

a) his teachers took much time with him
b) much time was given to him by his teachers
c) he was given much time by his teachers
7. Repairing the television-set...

a) several tubes needed to be replaced
b) he found that several tubes needed to be replaced
c) replacement was needed for several tubes
8. While hanging the picture ...

a) the stool fell out from under Bill
b) Bill fell off the stool
c) down fell the stool from under Bill
9. Having been baked for two hours ...

a) it was time to serve the pie
b) the mother took the pie out of the oven
c) the pie was ready to serve
10. When in doubt ...

a) refer to the dictionary
b) the dictionary should be referred to
c) the dictionary is on the table
11. Having informed John about it ...

a) it made them feel much easier
b) they felt much easier
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c) he was glad to hear it
12. To train a dog ...

a) the dog must be disciplined
b) one should maintain discipline
c) discipline must be maintained.
Ex. 5. Correct the wrong constructions making the necessary

changes. Follow the example given below:
Model: While eating breakfast, the telephone rang. While eating

breakfast, I heard the telephone ring.
1. Being of a romantic nature, this book did not thrill her in any
way.
2. Not being invited to the party, it hurt her very much.
3. Hearing a shriek, the cup fell out of her hand.
4. Passing through a dark narrow street, sounds of music were
heard from one of the windows.
5. When baked in the oven, I like potatoes.
6. Considering from an objective point of view, the situation was
not so hopeless.
7. When cleaned and shined, John put on the boots.
8. To take a good picture, the lighting must be right.
9. Living in a dark room, injury was done to Jane's eyes.
10. Passing through the corridor, the lights went out.
11. When in need, I am at your service.
12. To buy this picture a lot of money is needed.
13. While looking at the shop window, my purse was stolen.
Ex. 6. Complete the sentences:
1. Insulted by his rudeness ...

2. Being unable to move ...
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3. Overwhelmed by his grief ...
4. Though bored with the book ...
5. Hearing the shriek ...
6. Born into a doctor’s family ...
7. When questioned about the incident...
8. Being shocked by his manners ...
9. Thinking only of herself ...
10. Overburdened with a large family...
11. To be a good teacher...
12. Entering the house...
Ex. 7. Insert the appropriate prepositions. Make use of the

suggested list of words:
1. Nobody can go on living ... believing. 2. "She cannot sleep ...

seeing and speaking to you once more", I said. 3. He felt better ...
having written the letter. 4. ... washing his heavy stone cup and tin
plate, he stretched himself wearily on the bed. 5. ... passing under
a lamp, Graham encountered my eye. 6. ... awakening she
dressed quickly and left the house. 7. He greeted me noisily, but I
cut him short ... giving him the telegram. 8. She does not like the
thought ... leaving you. 9. Stephen was absorbed the greater part
of the time ... wishing he were not forced to stay in town another
day. 10. ... returning home from school I found my lunch ready for
me. 11. He hesitated ... ringing the bell. 12. He turned ... hearing
the footsteps.
(by, without, at, after, before, in, on, upon, for, of).
Ex. 8. Read the text. Change the style (where possible) by using
ing-form complexes. Follow the examples given after the text:
Two Gifts
Jim and Delia were a newly married couple. They loved each other
but the trouble was they were very poor. They lived in New York in
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the suburbs. They had a very small room to live in. They worked
from early morning till late at night but they got very little money for
their work. And yet, they had two treasures. They were: Jim's gold
watch and Delia’s beautiful hair.
New Year Day was coming. Delia wanted to present Jim with
something but she had no money for it. The thought that she could
not make a present to her husband made her very unhappy. She
sat down on the sofa and began to cry. Suddenly an idea struck
her. She got up and went up to the looking-glass. In it she saw her
beautiful hair. Then she left the house and a few minutes later she
was at a shop.
"Will you buy my hair?" she asked.
The owner looked at Delia's hair and answered: "Yes, I shall give
you twenty dollars for it".
Delia was very glad. She took the money and went to buy
something for Jim. Soon she saw a very beautiful chain, "I shall
have it", she said to herself and bought it.
When she came home, Jim had already been there waiting for her.
When he looked at his wife he understood everything.
"Why did you do it?" he asked.
"Dear Jim, I wanted to give you a present. Here it is".
She gave him the chain that she had bought. But he did not need
that present any more. He had sold his watch to make a present to
his wife. He took a package out of his pocket and gave it to Delia.
Opening the package Delia saw two beautiful combs.
Model: After getting the money Delia hurriedly left the shop.
Delia looked at the chain, admiring it more and more.
Ex. 9. Change the sentences (clauses) so as to have complex

objects. Follow the examples given below:
Model: a) You are not to talk of Miss Cardew like that. I don't like it.
I don t like you to talk of Miss Cardew like that.
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b) Carol saw that they were staring at her intently.
Carol saw them staring at her intently.
1. I hope you are behaving well. 2. I really think that should satisfy
you. 3. I saw an elderly woman. She was carrying a lot of parcels.
4. I expect she will come and give an explanation. 5. They watched
as he got out and went over to the girl. 6. I really think that the
girl's visit to you was just pure spite. 7. We heard that they were
talking about something in a hardly audible voice, 8. I felt the
colour flooded my face and I left the room immediately. 9. I noticed
that she was hiding something from me and it made me resentful.
10. I hope you will have a pleasant journey. 11. I know she is a
talented girl. 12. He saw that the girl had calmly resumed her
weeding. 13. I don't think Sir Ambrose knew him very well. 14. I
believe you understand me.
Ex. 10. Change the sentences following the example given below:
Model: You are absolutely careless about sending out invitations. It

is very foolish of you.
It is very foolish of you to be absolutely careless about sending out
invitations.
1. I certainly won't leave you so long as you are in mourning. It

would be most unfriendly. 2. I hate people who are not serious
about meals. It is so shallow of them. 3. He never mentioned to me
that he had a ward. How secretive of him. 4. Why should he have
letters from Germany? It seems queer. 5. You thought I wanted to
kill George. How stupid of you! 6. You have come at last! It is so
kind of you. 7. He has made such a nice present. It is wonderfully
good of him. 8. You trust him though you have known him such a
comparatively short time. It is so unwise of you.
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Ex. 11. Change the sentences with subjective infinitives so as to
have complex sentences. Follow the example given below:
Model: A girl like Gwendolyn could hardly be expected to reside in

the country.
You could hardly expect that a girl like Gwendolyn should reside in
the country.
1. I happened to be spending a day in Paris. 2. Carol felt that she

was expected to explain. 3. His wife was supposed to be half-
Russian. 4. He was seen to walk his dog. 5. I chanced to know that
man. 6. People always seem to think they are improper. 7. She
would never be allowed to know the entrancing pleasure of a
single solitude. 8. She happened to be walking with me on the
terrace that morning. 9. That is hardly believed to be pure
coincidence. 10. Is he likely to remember having done so? 11.
They are said to have arrived already. 12. They were heard to
quarrel with each other. 13. She was overheard to talk by long-
distance telephone with her brother.
Ex.12. Point out the Absolute Constructions with the ing-form

(prepositional or non-prepositional). State their syntactic functions
in the sentence:
1. I had heard so much of the Manderley parties in the old days,

with people sleeping in bathrooms and on the sofa because of tile
squash. 2. She went into the bathroom, her bangles jingling with
her every movement. 3. Later I saw her by the supper table, her
keen eyes searching the food. 4. A short distance away lookouts
were set, their task being to watch the lighted ends of the bridge.
5. With the maid holding the umbrella over her, she walked along
the gravel path until she was under their window. 6. Such being
the case, I felt not a little surprised. 7. That same evening, Charles
again being absent, Mrs Harter sat listening to the wireless with
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feverish impatience. 8. Several of his letters being ignored, Martin
indited an angry one which drew a reply. 9. The case being so, we
have nothing in the world to wait for. 10. There he lay, still as a
prostrate column, his eye beaming, watchful, and keen. 11. Then
Wilson shot, the roar deafening him, and he could see the bull
stagger. 12. Then, with her heart beating fast, she went up and
rang the bell. 13. The weather being dark and piercing cold, he
had no great temptation to loiter.
Ex. 13. Change the sentences (clauses) so as to use absolute

constructions with the ing-form (prepositional or non-prepositional).
Model: We went on eating awhile in silence. Frith stood behind my

chair.
We went on eating awhile in silence, (with) Frith standing behind my
chair.
1. When the telephone rang, suddenly, alarmingly, on the desk in

front of me, my heart leapt and I started up in terror, thinking I had
been discovered. 2. The door was shut. I hesitated a moment
before going in. 3. The rain rushed down. He hurried me up the
walk, through the grounds, and into the house. 4. I approached
him with the now half-filled glass; Pilot followed me, still excited. 5.
Mrs Marooned leaned forward, watching him. A little smile crossed
her lips. 6. We passed the reception desk and no one even looked
at us. 7. He left the terrace without a word and I followed him to the
lift. 8. I put my hand on his knee. My teeth were chattering. 9.
There was nobody in the gallery either. The band must be having
their dinner too. 10. It was dark in the passage, none of the lights
had been turned on. 11. He and I were the only occupants of the
parlour: Diana was practising her music in the drawing-room, Mary
was gardening. 12. To Martin the future did not seem so dim.
Success trembled just before him. 13. You three, then, are my
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cousins, half our blood on each side flows from the same source.
14. There would be no sense of strain. He would not ask me
questions on history. 15. Above my head was the evening sky. A
lone gull flew across the sky. 16. We live very much by routine,
and I have developed a genius for reading aloud.
Ex. 14. Point out the Absolute Participial Constructions

(prepositional and non-prepositional). State their syntactic
functions in the sentence:
1. Poirot was lying back across the rude couch, his face horribly
convulsed. 2. In half an hour we should be sitting to our bridge, the
windows tightly closed, the central heating turned to the full. 3.
Even with the windows closed and the shutters fastened I could
hear it; a low sullen murmur as the waves broke on the white
shingle in the cove. 4. The gray hairs in the folds of his neck
oscillated as he drank, his eyes fixed on the end of the narrow
brown bottle. 5. He (the lion) was standing almost broadside, his
great head up and turned towards them. 6. He staggered into his
room and sat down on the bed, the envelope still unopened. 7. The
letter posted, remorse overwhelmed her. 8. This explanation given,
the subject was dropped, and no further reference was made to it
by either Mr Rivers or his sisters. 9. Monday morning he was hard
at work, sorting clothes, while Joe, a towel bound tightly around his
head, was running the washer and mixing soft soap.
Ex. 15. Change the sentences (clauses) so as to use Absolute

Participial Constructions (prepositional or non-prepositional).
Model: a) Permission was readily granted. I went.

Permission readily granted, I went.
b) As there was no company, he began to talk to himself.
There being no company, he began to talk to himself.
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1. She opened the oven door. The steam breathed across the
room to wrap him up. 2. There was no room in his brain for the
universe and its mighty problems. All the broad and spacious
corridors of his mind were closed and hermetically sealed. 3.
These burglaries continued for nearly five years and the London
police began to be much worried by them. 4. The clocks chimed
the hour. The street was filling up now. 5. A piercing whistle broke
the silence and almost at once I could hear clop-clop of his
wooden leg against stone paving. 6. Once the first rush was over,
business generally became easier as the day progressed. 7.
During the summer evenings her windows were generally open
and I walked to and fro to listen to her. 8. As it was a dark night he
could not see his way, and after a while he lost it in the middle of a
wood. 9. As soon as the tune started, he began to dance and he
danced as he used to when he was ten years old. 10. After orders
were delivered, he departed hastily. 11. The revolving door from
the street groaned and Hamilton Rutherford came into the lobby.
His face was flushed, his eyes were restless and impatient.
Ex. 16. Point out the Absolute Constructions (prepositional or non-

prepositional). Change them supplying the ing-form or the Past
Participle for them. Follow the examples given below:
Model: a) The priest waited in his white surplice at the lowly altar,
the clerk beside him.
The priest waited in his white surplice at the lowly altar, the clerk
standing beside him.
b) I sat with my hands in my lap, watching while he put down the
pot of coffee.
I sat with my hands folded in my lap, watching while he put down
the pot of coffee.
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1. I see Mr Rochester sitting there, a book and a pencil in his hand.
2. I went into the bathroom and locked the door, and sat down on
the cork mat, my head in my hands. 3. After supper Maxim would
read his paper, boots on the fender and I reach for a great pile of
mending in the dresser drawer. 4. He stood before me, hat in
hand, looking composed. 5. And as I sat there, brooding, my chin
in my hands, fondling the sift ears of one of the spaniels, it came to
me that I was not the first one to lounge there in possession of the
chair. 6. She looked at me critically, her head on one side. 7. He
was leaning forward, his chin in his hands, his eyes fixed on the
Coroner, Mr Horridge. 8. Maxim was sitting in his chair, Jasper at
his feet, the old dog in her basket. 9. The door would stand half
open as we had left it, with my handkerchief on the table beside
the bowl of autumn roses. 10. He stood erect, his hands in his side
pockets, his pipe puffing slowly. 11. She leaned her elbows on the
table, her chin on her hands. 12. She stood watching me, rocking
on her heels, her hands in her pockets and a smile on her face.
Ex. 17. Change the sentences (clauses) so as to have Absolute

Constructions (prepositional or non-prepositional) without non-
finite forms. Follow the example given below:
Model: In the deepening twilight three figures were walking across

the lawn towards the window; they all carried guns under their
arms.
In the deepening twilight three figures were walking across the
lawn towards the window, (with) guns under their arms.
1. She had then on a dark-blue silk dress; her arms and her neck
were bare. 2. Jack stirred slightly, his head was heavy as lead. 3.
Favel began to speak. His voice was different, careless, but his
face was still grey. 4. The old lady had been reading her morning
portion of Scripture; her Bible lay open before her and her
spectacles were upon it. 5. At half-past seven they sat in their
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room, with Elbert and two up-state delegates. Their coats were off,
their vests open, their faces red, their voices emphatic. 6. She was
sitting right at the back. And Favel was beside him. 7. His head
dropped upon his breast, his hands rested upon his knees, he
seemed absorbed in deep thought. 8. He approached the porch,
still holding Jim's hand in his. 9. The matter having been settled,
she sighed in relief. 10. Presently she appeared in a dinner gown,
holding two blue telegrams in her hand. 11. He leaned back in his
chair; his face looked tired and angry. 12. Edward groaned. He sat
and buried his face in his hands.
Ex. 18. Turn the sentences with Absolute Constructions into

complex sentences, making the necessary changes. Follow the
example given below:
Model: Tea ready, I was going to approach the table but she
desired me to sit still.
When tea was ready, I was going to approach the table but she
desired me to sit still.
1. His store of money exhausted, he had shipped before the mast

on the treasure hunting schooner. 2. The prayer over, we took
leave of him. 3. The letter despatched to the letter-box by Teresa,
Martin lay back and thought. 4. This explanation given, the subject
was dropped altogether. 5. The meal over, prayers were read by
Miss Miller. 6. A chapter having been read through twice, the
books were closed and the girls examined. 7. This accomplished, I
turned around to see how my expert was coming along with the
task. 8. The flame of the candle going out, I threw open the
shutters admitting a flood of brilliant moonlight. 9. George yawning
the conversation dropped. 10. Weather changing, we shall start
next Monday. 11. This done, both followed me. 12. Mrs. Mackey
was lying on the floor.
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Ex. 19. Read the text. Change the style (where possible) by using
Absolute Constructions. Follow the examples given after the text:
The Lost Gold Piece

Once a rich merchant arranged dinner for poor people, ex-soldiers.
Mr Lebeau was among his guests. After dinner Grandin, the host,
showed his guests a large gold coin. Each man examined it with
interest as it passed around the long table. However, talking and
drinking the men soon forgot all about the coin. Later on the guests
were about to leave the house. Grandin thought of the coin and
asked for it. But the coin was gone. The village lawyer being one of
the guests suggested that everybody should be searched. All at
once. agreed but Lebeau. His friends looked at him with surprise.
"I cannot allow it", he said, "I did not steal the coin. 1 will not allow
anybody to search me", he repeated. One by one the rest turned
out their pockets but the coin was not found. Lebeau would not
turn out his pocket though his friends were persuading him to. It
seemed suspicious to everybody. From that day on nobody
respected Lebeau. A few years passed. When this episode had
become almost legendary, Grandin decided to rebuild his house. A
workman found the gold piece between two planks of the floor of
the room in which the dinner had taken place. Grandin hurried to
Lebeau’s poor home and told him that he had found the coin and
apologised for having suspected him. "But why did you not allow
us to search you if you had not taken the coin?" he asked. Lebeau
answered: "Because I was a thief all the same. For weeks my
family and I had not enough to eat and my pockets were full of
food that I had taken from the table to carry home for my wife and
hungry children".
Model: The dinner-party over, Grandin asked for the coin.

The coin not having been found, the lawyer suggested that
everybody should be searched.
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WORD ORDER
Ex.1. Use the correct word order:
1. Divorce most of all affects children. 2. They both speak very well
two foreign languages. 3. She did not realize that he had met with
great hardships until Friday. 4. It is important that he should bring
with him all the documents. 5. Though she lives in great comfort,
she misses still her parents. 6. She decided to immediately phone
Mr. Dunnet. 7. The weather has unusually been warm for this
season. 8. He rather would work on a farm than in an office. 9. I
don’t know this word. I’ll look up it in the dictionary. 10 Europeans
and Asians in various ways are different. 11. This journal is read
mostly by people with literary keen interests. 12. Shakespeare
wrote many plays, the famous “Hamlet” including. 13. Her coat
cost $1000 approximately. 14. I am very fond of the opera. So my
husband is. 15. Jack had been looking forward to getting married
for several months to Gloria. 16. He hardly could check his anger.
17. His book is going to be published at best next spring. 18. After
getting the money, Della left hurriedly the shop.
Ex.2. Use the attribute in brackets in the right sequence:
1. She looked at me with her (grey, calm) eyes. 2. He remained

fat, and his (round, red) cheeks shone like ripe apples. 3. Then of
course children came: a (little, blonde, lovely) daughter with a head
of thistle-down... 4. The doctor came − a (country, fat) practitioner,
pleasant and kind. 5. It is a (nursing, small) home for children. 6.
The child lay on the bed in her (summer, little) frock. 7. She was
like a pansy altogether, in her (straight, linen, purple) gown. 8. It
had been a (mild, serene, spring) day. 9. Both she and her mother
had put on (pale, thin, low) frocks. 10. Mrs Fairfax assumed her
(black, satin, best) gown. 11. It was a suite of two rooms: a
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waiting-room with straight chairs a (pine, shaky) table and those
coverless and unknown magazines which are found only in the
offices of dentists and doctors. 12. A classmate named Stewart
Snyder, a (young, bulky, competent) man in a (flannel, grey) shirt,
a (black, rusty, bow) tie, and the (class, green-and-purple) cap,
grumbled to her as they walked behind. 13. He was handsome,
well-coloured, with (Cornish, well-drawn) eyebrows and the (usual,
dark, Cornish, bright, mindless) eyes. 14. The mother was buxom
and healthy, with dark hair and (brown, quick, small) eyes. 15. She
wore a rather (flannelette, loud-patterned) blouse, and a dark skirt.
16. There was (military, German) aggression and the (non-military,
English) idea of liberty.
Ex.3. Use the correct word order in the following composite

sentences:
1. All the students must stay after school whose names I call. 2.
The year 1930 was most disastrous for our family, when the crisis
broke out. 3. There was something that chilled her in his voice. 4.
He did not though he was wet to the skin feel cold. 5. She saw
them as they walked into her bedroom in the mirror. 6. The day
arrived at last when I was to leave for Paris. 7. The oak tree near
the house was struck by lightning last night which I intended to cut
down anyway. 8. The car was a bulletproof limousine in which the
president arrived. 9. In the evening they returned and put the
things on the table in front of the general they had bought. 10.
Thirty minutes later Joshua was lying on the floor, unconscious,
when Jennifer returned to the study. 11. The surrounding
countryside had wonderful views, to which he took me last
Saturday.
Ex.4. Change the inverted word order into uninverted:
127
1. Scarcely had he entered the office, when the secretary told him
the boss was waiting for him. 2. So greatly was he disappointed
that for a moment he couldn’t speak. 3. Little did she know his
character. 4. Before him lay a splendid garden, full of blossom and
scent. 5. Not only did he give us a piece of good advice, but he
helped us to carry out our task. 6. Out ran a crowd of children,
laughing and talking excitedly. 7. No sooner had they settled down
when their troubles began. 8. So troubled was he that he scarcely
heard the driver’s reply. 9. Lucky it is that we know her address.
10. Only once had the grandfather been angry. 11. Alone in the
house was Miss Brown. 12. Not a moment’s peace does she have
during the day. 13. Hardly had I left the house when it began to
rain. 14. Crisp and fresh was the morning air!
Ex.5. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct place so as to have

inverted word order:
1. The news didn’t cheer me up, so I by the terrible catastrophe

(was overwhelmed). 2. Such the state of affairs as the carriage
crossed Westminster Bridge (was). 3. There, above us, bright and
fascinating the moon (was). 4. There in the crown the huge
diamond (gleamed). 5. Near the house a woman he didn’t know at
all (stood). 6. Here trees and green fields, a few old-fashioned
shops and houses (were). 7. Up the whip (rose) and off the
carriage (went). 8. Not only he a great poet (was) but an
outstanding artist as well. 9. Not a single word he to justify himself
(could say). 10. Terrible the pain in his injured leg (was). 11. Out a
woman with a cry (rushed). 12. Dreamless his sleep (was) as he
was very tired. 13. No sooner I the question than I regretted (had
asked). 14. Here love, feeling, understanding (was). 15. Hardly he
the receiver when the phone rang again (had hung).
128
Ex.6. Change the sentences so as to have inverted word order:
1. I will not give a dollar, a penny, to any one who could be guilty of
such crime. 2. He had nowhere felt so happy before. 3. A woman
and her two children lived in the shabby cottage. 4. You never told
me a story in all your life. You didn’t tell me a lie. 5. The grey walls
of an ancient city were in the distance. 6. I scarcely dared answer
her. 7. The vase fell down with a crash. 8. She had no sooner
opened her bag than she realized she had left her money at home.
9. The plane flew up and soon we were high above the city. 10.
The miners walked out into the daylight, chattering and laughing.
11. He is right: you can improve your pronunciation only by reading
out loud. 12. She had hardly managed to do the rooms and cook
dinner when the children came back from school. 13. The song
was so beautiful that he was deeply touched. 14. They had no
sooner entered the hall than the lights went out. 15. Our progress
was so slow that we reached the town late at night.
Ex. 7. Translate into English using inverted word order:
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DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
Ex. 1. Convert the statements into indirect speech paying special

attention to the adverbial modifiers of time and place:
1. “You behaved very badly yesterday,” Nelly says to her friend. 2.

“Mary arrived last night and I’m expecting her every minute,” says
Bessie. 3. “I’ll have another talk with him tomorrow,” said Agnes. 4.
“A minute ago I wouldn’t have thought I would do it,” said Flora. 5.
He said, “Though I never expected such things to happen, I am not
shocked for I always knew life is full of surprises.” 6. “You have
never looked so beautiful as you look tonight,” he said to his wife.
7. “I spoke to him on the telephone two weeks ago,” she said. 8.
“I’m sorry to disturb you,” Tom said to Nelly. 9. He said, “I’m going
to the theatre tonight to watch ‘Macbeth’. Shakespeare’s plays will
never lose their beauty, I’m sure!” 10. “Tom wants to know if you
are free tomorrow,” Nelly said. 11. He said, “It’s a pity you missed
the concert yesterday. Verdi’s operas are wonderful.”12. He said,
“I decided not to respond to his remark. It’s no use arguing with
stupid people.” 13. He said, “I don’t know why she suddenly
invented the story. Obviously she was lying. It’s almost impossible
to make you understand strange people.” 14. The McMillans
moved to Manchester three months ago and I have lived in their
house since then,” said Mary. 15. “I’m deeply grateful to you for all
you’ve done for my daughter,” Mrs. Brown said to Stella. 16. “Eliza,
130
you’ll strain your eyes reading too much,” said Mrs. Miller. 17. She
said, “The old need to be taken care of.” 18. “I don’t think anyone
can accuse me of not being frank,” says Martha. 19. “You’re the
best assistant I’ve ever had, Charles,” the manager says. 20. “Now
everything has changed here and you won’t recognize a thing in
this company,” said the manager.
Ex.2. Convert the following general questions into indirect speech:
1. I said to Kate, “Did anybody meet you at the station?” 2. She

said to the young man, “Can you call a taxi for me?” 3. Mike said to
Jane, “Did you send them a telegram yesterday?” 4. “Do you like
my pie, Ann?” asked her grandmother. 5. “Will you play football
with us?” said the boys to Peter. 6. “Are you fond of going to the
theatre?” asked my friend. “Have you seen any plays by
Shakespeare?” 7. “Do you know where the Browns live?” we
asked a passerby. 8. “Did you live in St. Petersburg ten years
ago?” She said to me. 9. My friend said to me: “Where you present
at the meeting yesterday?” 10. Alec asked me, “Have you ever
been to the National Gallery?” 11. “Will you be able to find their
house without me?” John said to me. 12. “Am I speaking to
Martha?” asked a voice over the telephone. 13. “Have you
anything to declare?” asked the customs officer. 14. “Is Jack
coming for dinner tonight?” asked my mother.
Ex.3. Convert the following special questions into indirect speech:
1. Henry asked, “How did you manage to see him enter the house
if it was pitch dark?” 2. I said to him: “How long are you going to
stay in Japan?” 3. They said to him, “What time does the train
start?” 4. Mary said to me: “Who has given you this nice kitten?” 5.
I said to my friend, “Where can I buy an English-Armenian
dictionary?” 6. I said to Lily, “How much did you pay for this hat?”
7. “Why don’t you play with your friends, Alex?” says his mother. 8.
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One of the students asked the lecturer, “What novels shall we read
next year?” 9. “When do you go shopping?” asked my neighbor.
10. “Which of you can answer my question?” the professor asked
the students. 11. “What’s the time? My watch has stopped,” said
Nelly. 12. “Where have you put my glasses? I can’t find them,” said
Granny. 13. “Why are there no people in the streets at this hour?”
asked the boy. 14. “How did you find me? I did not leave my
address to anyone when I was leaving,” said Nora. 15. “How many
times have you seen this film? It seems to be one of your most
favorite films,” said Jane.
Ex.4. Convert the following requests, orders, etc. into indirect

speech:
1. “Don’t tell me any more if it upsets you,” he said to me. 2. “Sit

down and have something to eat, children,” said Mother. 3. “Put
out the lights and see that the windows are properly closed,” I said
to my sister. 4. “Take off your coat and have a cup of tea with me,”
said Nelly. 5. “Don’t tell anyone what you have just heard,” said my
friends. 6. “Behave yourself, you are not a little girl,” said mother to
Lizzy. 7. Mr Patt said to the porter, “Please, take this luggage to
Room 16.” 8. Greg said to his brother, “Don’t forget to arrange
everything before I return!” 9. Doctor Bradford said, “Take this
medicine three times a day!” 10. Mother said, “Don’t be late for
dinner, Freddie.” 11. The guide said, “Don’t touch anything here,
children.” 12. “Don’t make so much noise,” she said. “The baby is
asleep.” 13. “Tell me the truth, Helen,” she said. “I want to know
everything.” 14. I asked a passer-by, “Please, show me the way to
the nearest drugstore.” 15. The manager said to the secretary:
“Phone Mr Salinger right now. I want to make an appointment with
our clients.”
Ex.5. Rewrite the sentences in direct speech. Include necessary

punctuation:
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1. I asked Doris whether he had heard anyone cry in the garden
the night before. 2. We doubted whether the picture was a real
Michelangelo. 3. Mary suspected that they had not told her the
truth. 4. George asked me not to interfere with his work because
he was in the middle of the most difficult part of it. 5. Mike asked
Helen where he had spent the previous weekend. 6. The professor
demanded that the students should all come to the conference the
next day and ask any questions they had. 7. Mr. Morris was
interested to know if Nick had completed his work by the time he
had to do it. 8. Stella warned her husband if he did not hurry up he
would be late. 9. Harry said he would go to see the doctor the next
day. 10. The old man said he had spent a month at a health resort.
11. Ted complained that they didn’t have enough money to carry
out that plan. 12. We said that we had not expected him that day.
13. She told Jane that there was a parcel for her from Dublin. 14. I
asked him why he had got us involved in that quarrel. 15. I told the
waiter that the chicken was underdone. The waiter apologized. 16.
Nick greeted Barbara and congratulated her on her birthday.
Ex.6. Retell the following using indirect speech:
a) Lester: How old is the child?

Jennie: She is a little over five.
Lester: Where have you been keeping her all the time?
Jennie: She was at home until you went to Cincinnati last spring. I
went down and brought her then.
Lester: Was she there the times I came to Cleveland?
Jennie: Yes, but I did not let her come out anywhere where you
could see her.
(After T. Dreiser)
b) Constance: What are you doing here, John? Haven’t you got
any patients today?
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John: Yes, there are two or three waiting. I’m just going down. As a
matter of fact I thought I deserved a cigarette. I’ve mislaid my
cigarette-case. Have you seen it about, Constance?
Constance: No, I haven’t.
John: I looked for it everywhere this morning. I can’t think where I
left it. I am going to ring up the nursing home and ask if I left it
there.
Constance: I hope you haven’t lost it.
John: Oh, no. I’m sure I haven’t. I’ve just put it somewhere.
(After S. Maugham)
Ex.7. Match the sentences (a – h) with the same words reported (1

– 8):
a) This is how you turn on the 1. He explained how to turn on

DVD player. the DVD player.
b) I wouldn’t turn on the 2. He warned me not to turn on
computer if I were you. the DVD player.
c) I’ll turn on the DVD player 3. He invited me to turn on the
d) It’s not true – I didn’t turn on DVD player.
the DVD player. 4. He refused to turn on the
e) Careful – don’t turn on the DVD player.
DVD player. 5. He suggested I turned on the
f) Why don’t you turn on the DVD player.
DVD player? 6. He denied turning on the
g) Would you like to turn on the DVD player.
DVD player? 7. He offered to turn on the
h) No, I won’t turn on the DVD DVD player.
player! 8. He advised me not to turn on
the DVD player.
Ex.8. Report what was said using the words below:

announce, command, complain, decide, plead, promise, remark,
wonder
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1. “I’ll certainly help you with your work,” John said. 2. “This coffee
is cold,” Mary said. 3. “We are getting married!” Jean said. 4. “I
think Brian was right after all.” Leo said. 5. “Please let me go to the
party,” Dan said. 6. “Those flowers look nice,” Lisa said. 7. “Why
did they do that?” Robert said. 8. “Don’t come near me,” Sheila
said.
Ex.9. Change the sentences into reported speech using the words
suggested:
allege, announce, boast, confess, confirm, moan, protest
1. She said, “I knew nothing about the weapons.” 2. He said, “I’ve

found my keys!” 3. John said, “It’s true, we’re losing.” 4. He said,
“The police forced me to confess.” 5. She said, “Oh, I’m too hot.” 6.
Tom said, “I easily beat everyone else in the race.” 7. She said, “I
must say that at first I was confused by the question.”
Ex.10. Change the sentences into reported speech using one of

the words below and a to-infinitive clause:
ask, demand, invite, remind, threaten, volunteer, warn
Model: He said, “Would you like to go on a picnic with us?”

He invited me to go on a picnic with them.
1. He said, “If you can’t find anyone else, I’ll drive you to the
airport.”
2. Ben said, “I must know your decision soon.”
3. Lucy said, “Stay away from me!”
4. Sam said, “Can you give me a lift to the station?”
5. She said, “Don’t forget to go to the supermarket after work.”
6. Fred said, “If you don’t give me a pay rise, I’ll resign.”
135
Ex.11. Report what was said using the words below and an -ing
clause. Use each verb twice:
admit, deny, mention, report
Model: He said, “I didn’t take the money.”

He denied taking the money.
1. Greg said, “I didn’t hear the police warnings.”

2. Helen said, “I saw Megan in town.”
3. Henry said, “Yes, I lied to the police.”
4. Brad said, “I saw bright flashing lights in the sky.”
5. The boy said, “I saw a flying object in the sky.”
6. Tony said, “I met Emma at a conference in Spain.”
7. Bob said, “Yes, I broke the shop window.”
Ex. 12. Convert the following sentences into indirect speech,

making the necessary changes:
1. "American men make the best husbands," the American lady

was saying.
2. "Pardon me," said Beethoven, "but I heard music and was
tempted to enter".
3. Miss Prism: "Cecily, I have not mentioned anything about a
headache".
4. "I don't believe he is your husband," the woman said.
5. "Hello, girls! How are you this evening?" said Elwood.
6. Algernon: "Oh! Of course, I have been rather reckless."
7. Merriman (to Mr Monarieff): "The dog-cart is waiting, sir."
8. "Farewell! I will soon come again," said he.
9. Ruth (to the woman): "Thank you for the breakfast."
10. He (to the elderly man): "Let me help you in."
11. She said, "Oh, no! I have no mother, nor in fact, any relations."
12. He (to the old man): "You'll be right now, won't you, until you
get home."
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13. "All right, I'll sit here and think", said Bessie.
14. "I wish I had offered you a sovereign instead of ten pounds,
Jane," said Mr Rochester.
15. "Afterward they were all so happy," said the girl.
16. "It's such a fine old hotel," said the American lady.
17. The brother and sister (to Beethoven): "Play to us once more -
only once more - please."
18. Jack: "I beg your pardon for interrupting you, lady Bracknell."
19. Dorothy said, "Don't force your ideas on other people, Jack."
20. "Oh, don't send me away," cried the boy clinging to his aunt.
21. The doctor said to the patient, "Stay in bed for some days."
Ex. 13. Convert the following sentences into indirect speech,

following the example given below. Make use of the suggested list
of adverbs and adverbial phrases:
Model: "And where do you hear the music since you frequent no
concerts?” he asked the girl.
He asked in surprise where the girl heard the music since she
frequented no concerts.
1. "Wonderful man!" he said in a low tone. "Who and what are

you?"
2. "I could never do a thing like that," she exclaimed.
3. "I've done the silliest thing I've ever done in my life," he said.
4. "Mr Dorian Gray? Who is he?" asked Fermor.
5. "Harry, Harry! It's terrible!" cried the lad.
6. Algernon (to Cecil): "But why on earth did you break it (the
engagement) off?"
7. "If you don't write we'll have to go and find somebody else to do
it," Ralph said to the girl.
8. "Have courage, Poirot," I cried. "You will succeed. You will find
him, I am sure of it."
137
9. "Come on, Gracie. We won't tell Ray or anybody else that you
wrote it. You won't have to worry about it," Ralph said.
10. Dorian (to Sibyl): "My God! How mad I was to love you! What a
fool I have been!"
11. Sibyl: "You are not serious, Dorian? You are acting?"
12. "Why didn't you let me know about it?" he asked her.
13. "Here they are at last!" she cried. "Just in time for tea."
(in admiration, regretfully, in despair, joyfully, reproachfully, bitterly

(with bitterness), reassuringly, in a threatening way, in
astonishment, in surprise, indignantly, hopefully)
Ex. 14. Turn direct into indirect speech. Follow the example given
below:
Model: Jennifer to Mrs. Mackey: “I have to go to work now. Take

good care of Joshua. Don’t let him get too much sun”.
Jennifer told Mrs. Mackey that she had to go to work and asked
her to take good care of Joshua and not let him get too much sun.
1. Vivien to Mrs. Warren: “You know very well that has nothing to
do with it. From this time I go my own way in my own business and
among my friends. And you will go yours”. 2. Amanda to Tom: “Do
you realize he’s the first young man we’ve introduced to your
sister? It’s terrible, dreadful that you poor little sister has never
received a single gentleman caller”. 3. Mrs. Meldon to Corrie: “I
shall take it down there after tea. Will you come with me?” 4.
Solness to Hilda: “And what is to become of me when you are
gone? What shall I have to live for then?” 5. Miss Parker to La
Guardia: “My calendar is full for the next few months. I’ll be glad to
recommend some other attorneys to you”. 6. Jennifer to Cynthia:
“Get me reservations on an Air France flight to Nice. I’ll want a car
to meet and drive me to Monte Carlo”. 7. Keller to Chris: “Let me
go up and talk to your father. In ten minutes you’ll have the
138
answer”. 8. Dick to Peter: “Why did you tell the gaffer he was to
blame?” Peter: “If I had kept the blame off him it might have fallen
on me”. 9. Dorian to Lord Henry: “I wish now I had not told you
about Sibyl Vane”. Lord Henry: “You could not have helped telling
me, Dorian. All through your life you will tell me everything you do”.
10. The old gentleman: “Is she pretty?” Lord Henry: “She behaves
as if she was beautiful. Most American women do so. It is the
secret of their charm”.
Ex. 15. Change from indirect into direct speech:
Model: There was a woman on the other end, who said that she
was called Frances Wingate and that she was a great-niece of
Constance Ollerenshaw and that she had come up to fix the
funeral.
There was a woman on the other end who said: “I am Frances
Wingate. I’m a great-niece of Constance Ollerenshaw. I’ve come
up to fix the funeral”.
1. He kept asking if this character was sober. And if I was sober. 2.

The doctor told me that the major’s wife, who was very young and
whom he had not married until he was definitely invalided out of
the war, had died of pneumonia. 3. So he explained what he had
been doing: that he had been in the city, visiting his own Institute,
and that he was rather bored, because his rocks hadn’t turned up.
4. Marshall Fine asked the club member where he was standing in
front or behind the others, what exactly took place during the
incident and, in all that condition he couldn’t be absolutely certain
of his identification, could he? 5. She said she wanted to think it
over and would call me when she had decided. 6. She said to
leave alone. She said she was finished with me and my kind. 7. I
asked girl if he (Strickland) was not well enough to come down to
see me, I asked her what she thought was the matter with him. 8. I
told her quite truthfully that I didn’t think she would do any good
139
coming over. That you did not want to see anybody but Mrs. de
Winter. 9. She said that most of the wounds had been wonderfully
healed but the cheek was permanently disfigured and one eye
gone. 10. She asked if that was because she had tied her hair
back, and was it the hair itself or the ribbon, or rather the colour of
the ribbon which she’d feared might be just a little too bright and
set off the tone of her complexion wrong.
Ex. 16. Change from direct into indirect dialogues:
Model: Amanda: “What is his salary?”

Tom: “I would judge it to be approximately eighty-five dollars a
month”.
Amanda asked Tom what was his (John’s) salary and Tom
answered that he would judge it to be approximately eighty-five
dollars a month.
1. Michael to Jennifer: “All you have to do is to listen. I’ll pay you

for your time”. Jennifer: “You’ll never have enough money”.
2. Frank: “Did you ever hear the story of Duke of Wellington and
his letters”. Samuel: “No, and I don’t want to hear it”.
3. Chris: “Don’t you think Annie looks well?” Mother: “There is no
question about it. She’s a beauty”.
4. Ann: “Why does your heart tell you he is alive?” Mother:
“Because he has to be”.
5. Solness: “May he not be cheered by what I wrote?” Ragnar: “It
came too late”.
6. Hilda: “Was that a great misfortune for you?” Solness: “That
depends how you look at it”.
7. Redfern: “I have lived on hopes. I can’t live on regrets”. Lucinda:
“Change them to memories”.
8. Lucinda: “Are you going to make your future home in Cranford,
colonel?” Redfern: “I hope so, Lucy”.
140
9. Victoria: “What are they coming for? They haven’t been here for
ages”. Mrs. Slater: “They’re coming to talk over poor grandpa’s
affairs”.
10. Alton: “Are you making this happen to fool me?” Thariel: “You
are too busy fooling yourself for any one else to fool you”.
Ex. 17. Find mistakes in indirect speech and correct them:
1. She said she had car trouble and could I fix it. 2. I asked him did
the vitamins make it difficult for him to sleep. 3. She sent me over
to ask can she use the garage for a stage. 4. I just said that Tom
Palmer had got a suit for nineteen pounds and why you didn’t do
the same? 5. He said he doesn’t like being married. 6. I told her I
have every intention of setting up a home of my own. 7. She
asserted that it is a matter of universal similarity, of flimsiness of
construction. 8. He asked me had I seen Dickson. 9. They asked
was it a fire. 10. She said she saw him the previous night. 11. We
asked him had he ever shot a duck. 12. And she told me she goes
to Mass every Sunday, and all the kids go excepting James. 13. I
asked how was she going to do it. 14. She answered she doesn’t
know herself. 15. She said she is still working there and won’t quit
her job yet.
Ex.18. Translate the following sentences into English:
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141
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PUNCTUATION
Ex.1. Specify the type of the attributive clauses and use

punctuation marks where necessary:
1. Actually he was one of those for whom the sensual world does
not exist. 2. She was a red-haired girl from Tennessee whom they
met on the train this morning 3. The painter turned to his servant
who stood blinking in the sunlight. 4. She had no idea what he was
talking about. 5. The man walked a little ahead of him and fixed
him with eyes that were practically menacing. 6. He sat at the side
of the Headmaster’s littered desk which was illuminated by a
142
reading-lamp. 7. And those few critical observations which seemed
to him so natural and proper for his father’s eyes now appeased
despicable and profoundly out of place. 8. I’ll be in the library if
either of you wants to see me which is unlikely. 9. This was the
question Mor had dreaded most. 10. She was dressed today in a
dress which he had not seen before. 11. Blakey who always acted
the unrewarding part of the goalkeeper failed to save Gerald’s
shot. 12. When she wrote a letter which was seldom she sent
regards to all her relatives. 13. One English woman spoke to him
always about a subject which she considered her own. 14. She
knew these facts from the English who had known them for over
two hundred years. 15. I felt certain shyness at referring to matters
which were no concern of mine.
Ex.2. Point out the detached subordinate clauses. Comment on

their punctuation:
1. Their voices came from far off, as if they were having

experiences different from hers. 2. She had not done so because
he had reduced her to the same frenzy that he was himself. 3. It
must have slid out of your overcoat pocket when you sat down on
the seat. 4. Two lads were talking, as I passed. 5 His wife looked
high up along him as if he were timber ripe for cutting. 6. It was my
last sight of him because the war pitched me out of the printing
trade into all sorts of odd occupations. 7. Yesterday afternoon I
was cordial and even tolerant of Mr Bright, although his bridge
game is such that I lost eighteen dollars as his partner in half an
hour. 8. There was much less snow, as it seemed to have been
blown off this exposed face (the summit). 9. He offered to
accompany her as the distance was considerable and the days
were short. 10. That was long ago, before you were born. 12. Only
the Swedish girl talked, after they had gone. 13. He turned them
from the garden to the terrace where he poured a cocktail. 14. He
143
must be walking on soft earth now, because I couldn’t hear him.
15. He was gathering his harvest while it was yet spring.
Ex.3. Put the punctuation marks where necessary:
1. I must find a more interesting job or I’ll go mad. 2. I went out to

buy some books and came back with some records. 3. The climate
here is cold but not damp. 4. I’ll bring the drink and you provide the
food. 5. Stay here and have a drink and I’ll ring for the taxi. 6. We
found a flat piece of ground unloaded the car and began to put up
the tent. 7. Western detective stories old fashioned comedies
Brazilian soap-operas and such like rubbish are all we see on TV
these days and daddy says he is going to sell the set. 8. My best
friend for example has never driven a bicycle. 9. However I will
come if you want me to. 10. In other words you are refusing to help
me. 11. Silently and swiftly David opened the door. 12. This
Saturday I start painting my house which hasn’t been done for
many years. 13. Mr Heath who has been headmaster for twenty
years is retiring in the summer. 14. Jack said I’ve had no trouble
with the old car which I bought last year. 15. My mother’s favourite
film the Sound of Music is on at our local cinema. 16. Wilson the
police superintendent took charge of the case. 17. Mr Morison’s
illness the result of too many years in the tropics has made him
return to England. 18. Mrs Kennedy can you spare me a moment
please. 19. You can swim Mary can’t you 20. Thomas and Helen
stop playing in the mud please said the nurse. 21. It was a horrible
ugly thing with a massive tail the boy said. 22. We looked with
interest at what we’d found in Arthur’s pockets a knife some
change a wallet and most surprising a key to Florence’s flat. 23.
The car stopped after only six miles there was a leak in the petrol
tank. 24. Our highest score 10 goals to nil came in our last match.
25. The puppies there were seven of them were getting bigger. 26.
Well I m not coming I m staying at home. 27. Can you help me
mend my car I asked it s Renault you re good at mending cars
144
aren’t you. 28. Help Throw me a rope 29. The race was won
believe it or not by Joseph Lee. 30. The police you must agree
have been most helpful.
Ex.4. Put the punctuation marks where necessary:
1. I’ve just finished reading King Lear have you read it no but I saw
the film last week have you seen the film I don’t go to the cinema
much in fact I’ve not been for ages was it a good film 2. Stay
where you are can’t you see it s a trap careful there s a wire
running across the floor have you got a torch 3. A dog and a cat
and a goat and some white mice I liked animals but this seemed
rather a strange company to live with and I said I was sorry but I
could not rent the house after all 4. Interviewed by the police
Michael refused to talk about the stolen goods found in his house
5. We were seized by the greatest fear we had ever known but our
leader who seemed to know no fear at all kept cheerful he was
very brave 6. Unless I can win a scholarship I shall not be able to
go abroad to study though I’d like to very much 7. The man who
was interviewing me asked whether I knew what family of animals
bears belonged to and I did not really know but in the end and after
much help from him I managed to get the right answer what
puzzles me is why I was accepted by the university I made such a
fool of myself.
Ex. 5. Read the text, commenting on the use of punctuation marks:
Mrs Strickland asked me for my address, and a few days later I

received an invitation to luncheon. My engagements were few, and
I was glad to accept. When I arrived, a little late, because in my
fear of being too early I had walked three times round the
cathedral, I found the party already complete. Miss Waterford was
there and Mrs Jay, Richard Twining, and George Road. We were
all writers. It was a fine day, early in spring, and we were in a good
145
humour. We talked about a hundred things. Miss Waterford torn
between the aestheticism of her early youth, when she used to go
to parties in sage green, holding a daffodil, and the flippancy of her
maturer years, which tended to high heels and Paris frocks, wore a
new hat. It put her in high spirits. I had never heard her more
malicious about our common friends. Mrs Jay, aware that
impropriety is the soul of wit, made observations in tones hardly
above a whisper that might well have tinged the snowy table-cloth
with a rosy hue. Richard Twining bubbled over with quaint
absurdities, and George Road, conscious that he need not exhibit
a brilliancy which was almost a byword, opened his mouth only to
put food into it. Mrs Strickland did not talk much, but she had a
pleasant gift for keeping the conversation general; and when there
was a pause she threw in just the right remark to set it going once
more. She was a woman of thirty-seven, rather tall, and plump,
without being fat; she was not pretty, but her face was pleasing,
chiefly, perhaps, on account of her kind brown eyes. Her skin was
rather sallow. Her dark hair was elaborately dressed. She was the
only woman of the three whose face was free of make-up, and by
contrast with the others she seemed simple and unaffected.
(from "The Moon and Sixpence" by S.Maugham)
Ex. 6. Use punctuation marks where necessary:
On Sunday morning when Holly had gone with her governess to

Church he (old Jolyon) visited the strawberry beds There
accompanied by the dog Balthasar he examined the plants
narrowly and succeeded in finding at least two dozens berries
which were really ripe Stooping was not good for him and he
became very dizzy and red in the forehead Having placed the
strawberries in a dish on the dining-table he washed his hands and
bathed his forehead with eau-de-Cologne There before the mirror
it occurred to him that he was thinner What a "thread-paper" he
had been when he was young It was nice to be slim he could not
146
bear a fat chap and yet perhaps his cheeks were too thin She was
to arrive by train at half-past twelve and walk up entering from the
road past Gage's farm at the far end of the coppice And having
looked into June's room to see that there was hot water ready he
set forth to meet her leisurely for his heart was beating The air
.smelled sweet larks sang end the Grand Stand at Epsom was
visible A perfect day On such a one no doubt six years ago
Soames had brought young Bosinney down with him to look at the
site before they began to build It was Bosinney who had pitched on
the exact spot for the house as June had often told him In these
days he was thinking much about that young fellow as if his spirit
were really haunting the field of his last work on the chance of
seeing her Bosinney the one man who had possessed her heart to
whom she had given her whole self with rapture At his age one
could not of course imagine such things but there stirred in him a
queer vague aching as it were the ghost of an impersonal jealousy
and a feeling too more generous of pity for that love so early lost
All over in a few poor months Well well He looked at his watch
before entering the coppice only a quarter past, twenty-five
minutes to wait. And then turning the corner of the path he saw her
exactly where he had seen her the first time on the log and
realized that she must have come by the earlier train to sit there
alone for a couple of hours at least
(from "The Forsyte Saga" by J.Galsworthy)
THE FUMBLERULES OF GRAMMAR
The following humorous piece by William Safire appeared in The

New York Times Magazine section on November 4, 1979, in the
column “On Language.” Each rule commits the exact fault it tells
the reader to avoid; this is the reason for the use of the invented
word “fumble rule,” fumble being an attempt to grab hold of
something but missing it.
147
1. Avoid run-on sentences they are hard to read.
2. Don’t use no double negatives.
3. Use the semicolon properly, always use it where it is
appropriate; and never where it isn’t.
4. Reserve the apostrophe for it’s proper use and omit it when its
not needed.
5. Do not put statements in the negative form.
6. Verbs has to agree with their subjects.
7. No sentence fragments.
8. Proofread carefully to see if you any words out.
9. Avoid commas, that are not necessary.
10. If you reread your work, you will find on rereading that a great
deal of repetition can be avoided by rereading and editing.
11. A writer must not shift your point of view.
12. Eschew dialect, irregardless.
13. And don’t start a sentence with a conjunction.
14. Don’t overuse exclamation marks!!!
15. Place pronouns as close as possible, especially in long
sentences, as of 10 or more words, to their antecedents.
16. Hyphenate between syllables and avoid un-necessary
hyphens.
17. Write all adverbial forms correct.
18. Don’t use contractions in formal writing.
19. Writing carefully, dangling participles must be avoided.
20. It is incumbent on us to avoid archaisms.
21. If any word is improper at the end of a sentence, a linking verb
is.
22. Steer clear of incorrect forms of verbs that have snuck in the
language.
23. Take the bull by the hand and avoid mixed metaphors.
24. Avoid trendy locutions that sound flaky.
25. Never, ever use repetitive redundancies.
26. Everyone should be careful to use a singular pronoun with
singular nouns in their writing.
148
REFERENCES
1. Mkhitaryan Ye., Hambartsoumyan N., Markaryan A., Avakyan

N. A Practical English Grammar (with exercises). Yerevan:
“Zangak-97” Publishing House, 2009.
2. Mkhitarian Ye., Kostanian Z. English Syntax (exercises).
Yerevan: Yerevan University Press, 2006.
3. Kobrina N.A., Korneyeva E.A,, Ossovskaya M.I., Guzeyeva K.A.
An English Grammar. Morphology. Syntax. Sanct-Petersburg:
Soyuz, 2004.
4. Kreidler Ch. W. Introducing English Semantics. Routledge,
2002.
5. Adams W. Royce. Think, Read, React, Plan, Write, Rewrite.
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975
6. Frank Marcella. Writing as Thinking, Prentice Hall Regents,
1990.
7. McCuen, Jo Ray and Winker Anthony C. From Idea to Essay,
Science Research Associates, 1980.
Fiction
1. Albom M. Tuesdays with Morrie, New York, 1997.
2. Bronte, Ch. Jane Eyre, Penguin Books, 1965.
3. Christie, A. Selected Stories, M., 1976.
4. Fitzgerald, F. Scott. The Great Gatsby, Kiev, 1973.
5. Fitzgerald, F. Scott Tender Is the Night, M., 1983.
6. Fuller, R. The Ruined Boys, M.-L., 1964.
7. Galsworthy, J. The Forsyte Saga, M., 1973.
8. Hemingway, E. Selected Stories, M., 1971.
9. Henry, O. The Skylight Room and Other Stories, M. 1972.
10. Lawrence, D. The Odour of Chrysanthemums, M., 1977.
11. Lewis, S. Babbitt, New York, 1961.
12. Lewis, S. Main Street, New York, 1962.
13. London, J. Martin Eden, M., 1960.
149
14. Maugham, S. The Moon and Sixpence, M., 1972.
15. Maurier, D. Rebecca, London, 1978.
16. Murdoch, I. The Sandcastle, London, 1975.
17. One-Act Plays selected by John Hampden, London, 1966.
18. Six Great Modern Plays, New York, 1956.
19. Salinger, J.D. The Catcher in the Rye, M., 1979.
20. Saroyan,W. Selected Stories, M., 1975.
21. Saroyan, W. The Human Comedy, New York, 1974.
22. Segal, E. The Class, Bantam Books, 1986.
23. Sheldon, S. Race of Angels, Pan Books, 1980.
24. Spark, M. The Public Image, M., 1976.
25. Wilde, O. Selections, vol. 1-2m, M., 1979.
150
Ye. Mkhitaryan, N. Hambartsoumyan,
N. Avakyan, A. Markaryan
A BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR: SYNTAX
(with exercises)
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Ye. Mkhitaryan, N.

A BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR

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Ye. Mkhitaryan, N. Hambartsoumyan, N. Avakyan, A.

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References ......................................................................... 133

The textbook is intended for students of the English department

The sentence is a means of conveying a thought and is formed

Structural Classification of Sentences

From the point of structure sentences are divided into:

Simple sentences are characterized by having one predicative

THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

Communicative Types of Sentences

According to the purpose of communication simple sentences

A declarative sentence contains a statement about various

Negation in the English sentence is expressed differently.

Interrogative sentences fall into four major and three minor

– She decided to take up the Basque Language.

Imperative sentences express commands as well as requests,

Exclamatory sentences express various emotions and feelings.

PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

Parts of the sentence are usually classified into main / principal

The Principal Parts of the Sentence

From the point of its grammatical meaning the subject can be

The formal subject can be expressed by

2) the introductory (anticipatory) it which precedes the notional

3) the introductory there which indicates the existence of

The predicate is the second principal part of the sentence which

The Simple Predicate

The simple predicate can be either verbal or nominal.

2) The simple nominal predicate is expressed by

The Compound Predicate

The compound predicate falls into two types: compound

The compound verbal predicate falls into two types: compound

2) The compound verbal aspect predicate consists of verbs

There are mixed types of the compound predicate. These are:

Agreement of the Predicate with the Subject

The agreement of the predicate with the subject is observed in

1) A single noun-subject takes either a singular- or plural-verb

The Agreement of the Predicate with Two or More Subjects

1) A plural verb-predicate is used when the subjects are

The Secondary Parts of the Sentence

The object is a secondary part of the sentence which completes

There are six types of object in English:

1. The direct object is used after transitive verbs and takes no

The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies

The apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun

The Adverbial Modifier

The adverbial modifier is a secondary part of the sentence

Semantically adverbial modifiers denote

Homogeneous Parts of the Sentence

Two or more parts of the sentence having the same function

Independent elements of the sentence are not grammatically

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

The compound sentence is based on a relation of coordination,

THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

The complex sentence is based on a relation of subordination,

1. The subject subordinate clause