Algae Morphology

MACROALGAE STRUCTURE

FROND- Entire body

GAS BLADDER- Air pockets to keep blades and stipe difloat and closer to light

BLADE- Leaf like; to collect sunlight

STIPE- Stem like; to hold up blades

HOLDFAST- Root like’ keep algae fastened to rock

ALGAE CELL

NUCLEUS- Controlling the function and reproduction

GOLGI APPARATUS- Transporting, sorting and modification of both protein and lipid

RIBOSOME- Are the sites of protein synthesis

CELL WALL- Is surrounded by a thin, rigid cell wall. Have an outermatrix laying putside the cell
wall outer matrix is flexible and gelatinous like bacterial capsule
CENRIOLES- They are involved in cell division

CHLOROPLAST- It has membrane bound sac called thylakoids

FLAGELLUM- They reacts to the mechanical, chemical gravitational and light stimulation of the
cell

STARCH VACUOLE- Storage, catabolism, maintenance of the cell homeostasis

Importance of Studying Bacterial Morphology

● Algae are significant in their natural habitat. They provide food for aquatic creatures.
Some of them, like lichens, also coexist in symbiosis. In terrestrial settings, algae and
fungi work together to form lichen.
● As an illustration, kelps (brown macroscopic algae) are gathered, dried, and processed
for use in the manufacturing of goods like soap and glass.
● Additionally, they serve as fertilizers. They are also used to make agar, which is a growth
medium for microorganisms in scientific research.
● Seaweeds are a significant source of food, particularly in Asia. They are a valuable
source of vitamins (A, B1, B2, B6, niacin, and C), iodine, potassium, iron, magnesium,
and calcium, among other nutrients.

Algae

● Are photosynthetic organisms that have chlorophyll along with other

photosynthetic pigments. But they lack the real roots, stalks, and leaves that
vascular plants have.
● While others are multicellular, some of them are unicellular.
● Aquatic algae are predominant.
● Some are terrestrial and can be found on damp rocks, trees, and soil.
● Algae are often green, although they can also be found in other colors.

MOROHOLOGY

● The primary characteristics of algae are that they are eukaryotes that are both aquatic
and photoautotrophic.
● All species are photosynthetic, and in comparison, to other phototrophic eukaryotes,
they have comparatively basic anatomies.
● However, they could have a single-celled, colonial, or multicellular body plan. The
majority of algae species have only one cell.
● While some of them are non-motile, others are. While some of them form colonies or
filaments, others exist alone.
● Multicellular forms have a moderately complicated structure divided into components
that each serve a specific purpose. In contrast to bryophytes and tracheophytes, which
have real leaves, stems, and roots, these organisms have body components that
resemble organs.
● Algae, however, have cell walls that are primarily composed of cellulose. Algae are rather
slimy because of the pectin in their cell walls.

Classification of Algae

Algae along with protozoa are categorized in one and the same kingdom, Protista, within the
five-kingdom classification. The categorization of algae uses the suffix – phyta and further
divides the algae into the following phyla: Euglenophyta (euglenids), Chrysophyta (diatoms),
Pyrrophyta (dinoflagellates), Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae), and
Rhodophyta (red algae). Blue-green algae, or Cyanophyta, had previously been included in this
kingdom but are currently associated with bacteria under the Kingdom Monera.

TYPES OF ALGAE

Red Algae

It is a peculiar species that is also known as Rhodophyta, and it may be found in both freshwater
and marine settings. The distinctive red color of the algae is caused by the pigments
phycocyanin and phycoerythrin. There are other pigments that give things their green color, like
chlorophyll A. But neither beta-carotene nor chlorophyll B is present.

Green Algae

The basic photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, as well as auxiliary pigments
like xanthophylls and beta carotene, are present in this broad, loosely grouped group of algae.
Green algae carry out photosynthesis for higher creatures. Symbiotic relationships exist
between different species of green algae and other living things. Members include flagellates,
colonies, flagella, and unicellular organisms. Spirogyra, Ulothrix, and Volvox are among other
well-known examples of green algae.

Blue-Green Algae

One of the most well-known forms of algae in the past was blue-green algae. However, because
all algae are categorized as eukaryotic creatures, blue-green algae are not officially included
under the category of algae because they are prokaryotes. These creatures, often known as
cyanobacteria, live in damp or aquatic conditions exactly like other algae. Dams, rivers,
reservoirs, creeks, lakes, and oceans are some of them. This group of bacteria uses
photosynthesis to produce energy. Some types of blue-green algae are important to the
ecosystem ecologically because they fix nitrogen in the soil. They are also known as
nitrogen-fixing bacteria because of this. Anabaena, Nostoc, etc.

Brown Algae

The phylum Phaeophyta includes algae in the color brown. Due to the addition of brown
pigments like fucoxanthin to chlorophyll, they have a brown or greenish-brown tint that
distinguishes them. In addition to chlorophyll, the phyla Phaeophyta, Dinoflagellata
(dinoflagellates), and the olive-colored Bacillariophyta (diatoms) exhibit a predominance of
brown pigment.

Golden Algae

The phylum Chrysophyceae includes all golden algae. Their two unique flagella, one of which
possesses mastigonemes and the other of which is smooth, serve as their primary distinguishing
feature. One of the well-known golden algae is Prymnesium parvum because of its connection
to fish fatalities.

REFERENCES

What is Algae? It’s Types and Characteristics with Examples. (n.d.).

https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/algae-types-characteristics-and-examples/amp/?fbclid=IwAR2s
MfV956Aaf-4UlmZNcQOAS9MCblPbnRCpHvP6almAwwUlO_R2mQV_vDs

Microalgae as a Feedstock for Biofuel Production: Current Status and Future Prospects -
Scientific Figure on ResearchGate. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-broad-classification-of-the-algae-71_fig2_337925810
[accessed 17 Sep, 2023]
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTOZOA

● Protozoa exhibit diverse morphology.

● Ciliates have two nuclei: a larger macronucleus (metabolism) and a smaller
micronucleus (reproduction).
● Variable mitochondria presence and type; some lack mitochondria.
● Protozoa mitochondria have unique cristae because their appearance is discoid or
tubular, unlike the usual plate-like appearance.
● Some protozoa possess contractile vacuoles for water removal.
● Generally heterotrophic and nutrition is holozoic.
● Protozoa have trophozoite (motile feeding) and cyst (resistant resting) stages.

Figure 1. Holozoic nutrition in Amoeba. As the amoeba approaches its food, pseudopods are
formed. These will surround the food, forming a food vacuole. Once inside the food vacuole, the food
will be digested with the help of the enzymes released from the cytoplasm. After digestion, the
nutrients will be released in the cytoplasm for absorption, and the waste product of digestion will be
ejected into the environment.

Table 1. Differences between Trophozoite and Cyst Stages of Protozoa

Trophozoite Stage vs. Cyst Stage

Trophozoite Cyst
Growing stage of parasitic protozoans Dormant stage of protozoans that
that absorb nutrients from their host helps them survive unfavorable
environmental conditions

Disease-causing state of protozoans Transmission state of protozoans

Cannot survive outside the host Can survive outside the host
Surface is covered with cilia Covered with a thick, hard wall

Figure 2. Mastigophora
Figure 3. Amoeba

Figure 4. Ciliate
Figure 5. Sarcodina

FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF PROTOZOA

● Flagellum - primarily used for locomotion. It is composed of a protein called tubulin.

Nine microtubule pairs surround another two microtubule pairs in the center to form
the core of the flagellum. It is called the nine-plus-two arrangement. The
nine-plus-two structure uses Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) to bend back and forth
in a whip-like motion or manner.
● Ribosome - the site of protein synthesis. It is made up of 60s large subunit and 40s
small subunit. The 60s and 40s are based on the Svedberg unit, which was named
after Theodor Svedberg, a chemist who discovered ultracentrifuge. The Svedberg
unit is a non-SI metric unit used to determine the sedimentation rate of particles
when centrifuged.
● Mitochondrion - produces ATP─an energy-carrying molecule.
● Endoplasmic reticulum - flattened sacs that serve as pathway for transporting or
delivering lipids and proteins throughout the cell.
● Nucleus - contains the genetic material of the cell and controls all the activities of
the cell.
● Pellicle - thin, flexible layer that gives shape to the cell during locomotion.
● Nucleolus - produces and assembles ribosomes.
● Cell membrane - a bilayer composed of phospholipids and proteins that surrounds
the cell and separates the cytoplasm from its extracellular environment.
● Golgi apparatus - transports, packages, and modifies proteins into vesicles for
delivery to the targeted locations or destinations.
● Water or Contractile vacuole - helps in osmoregulation, a process of mantaining
the balance between the amount of water and solute inside a cell. This vacuole
takes up excess water and expel it to the extracellular environment. One of the
importance of osmoregulation is to prevent the lysis or rupturing of the cell due to
excessive amount of water.
● Centrioles - serve as basal bodies of flagella and cilia.
● Pseudopods - used for locomotion and feeding by amoebae. These are formed
when the actin filaments in the cytoplasm push the cell membrane, creating
temporary projections. Pseudopods adhere to the surface and pull the cell’s body to
move.
● Oral groove - contains cilia that pushes the food particles to the cytostome or cell
mouth.
● Macronucleus - polyploid, contains genes that are expressed, and controls the
non-reproductive functions of the cell.
● Micronucleus - diploid, contains genes that are not expressed, and controls the
reproductive functions of the cell.
● Gullet - forms food vacuoles where ingested food particles are digested.
● Apical complex - allows parasitic protozoans to attach to or invade host cells.
● Secretory vesicle - carries materials or substances that are to be excreted from the
cell.

CLASSIFICATION OF PROTOZOA

The Mastigophora (Also Called Zoomastigophora)

● Motility is primarily by flagella.

● Single nucleus.
● Reproduction by binary fission.
● Several parasitic forms lack mitochondria and Golgi apparatus.
● Members include: Trypanosoma and Leishmania, important blood pathogens
spread by insect vectors; Giardia, an intestinal parasite spread in water
contaminated with feces.

Figure 6.
Binary
Fission in

Mastigophora. The cell duplicates its genetic material or DNA, then divides along its length to form
two equal daughter cells, with each of them receiving a copy of the DNA.
Figure 7. Trypanosoma brucei that caused the African Sleeping Sickness.

Figure 8. Leishmania that causes Visceral Leishmaniasis.

Figure 9. Giardia duodenalis that causes Giardiasis.

The Sarcodina (Amoebas)

● Cell form is primarily an amoeba.

● Major locomotor organelles are pseudopods.
● Asexual reproduction by binary fission.
● Mostly uninucleate; usually encyst.
● Most amoebas are free-living and not infectious.
● Entamoeba histolytica is a parasite of humans.
Figure 10. Binary Fission in Amoeba. The nucleus of the cell elongates and divides, forming two
nuclei, both containing a copy of the genetic material or DNA. After this, cytoplasmic division occurs,
forming two equal daughter cells, with each daughter cell receiving a copy of the parent’s DNA.
Figure 11. Entamoeba histolytica that causes Amebiasis. A single red blood cell can be perceived
within the cytoplasm of the two amoebas.

The Ciliophora (Ciliates)

● Trophozoites are motile by cilia. Some have cilia in tufts for feeding and attachment;
most develop cysts.
● Have both macronuclei and micronuclei; division by transverse fission.
● Most have a well-developed mouth and feeding organelle.
● The majority of ciliates are free-living and harmless.
Figure 12. Transverse Binary Fission in a Ciliate. The macronucleus divides amitotically─a
division that occurs without mitosis. In contrast, the micronucleus divides mitotically. As the two
nuclei divide, the oral groove disappears. After nuclear division, new oral grooves and contractile
vacuoles are formed. Then, the cytoplasm divides to produce two daughter ciliates.

Figure 13. Nutrition in Ciliates. The tufts move the food particles to the cell mouth. Once inside the
cell mouth, the gullet will form a food vacuole. The food vacuole will move in the cytoplasm and start
the digestion process. Enzymes will be released from the cytoplasm to digest the food particles in
the food vacuole. At the beginning of the digestion process, the food vacuole will decrease in size,
and the food particles will aggregate. The food vacuole will increase in size again, and its content will
gradually become acidic. Near the end of the digestion process, the content of the food vacuole will
gradually become alkaline. After digestion, the nutrients will be released in the cytoplasm for
absorption while the undigested food will be ejected from the cell through the cytoproct or cell anus.

Figure 14. (From Left, Clockwise) Lacrymaria;

Coleps; Stentor; Dileptus; Paramecium.

DESCRIPTIONS

● Lacrymaria - commonly found in freshwater ponds. They can grow up to 100

micrometers and eat smaller ciliates, flagellates, and amoebas.
● Coleps - live in lakes. They can grow up to 250 micrometers. Coleps eat living and
dead ciliates, flagellates, bacteria, and algae.
● Stentor - most common planktonic ciliates. They are usually found in freshwater,
and eat bacteria and algae.
● Dileptus - live in freshwater and salt water. Dileptus eat algae.
● Paramecium - can be found in aquatic habitats (e.g. freshwater). Their diet include
bacteria, yeast, unicellular algae, milk powder, starch, and powdered charcoal.
The Apicomplexa (Sporozoa)

● Motility is absent in most cells except male gametes.

● Sporozoa produce special spore-like cells called sporozoites following sexual
reproduction, which are important in transmission of infections.
● Most form thick-walled zygotes called oocysts; entire group is parasitic.
Figure 15. Plasmodium falciparum that causes Malaria.

Figure 16. In malarial parasite, the ookinete embeds itself in the gut of the mosquito, then form an
oocyst. After 9-14 days, the oocyst will break open and release sporozoites. The sporozoites, which
are elongated and sickle-shaped, will migrate to the salivary glands of the female Anopheles
mosquito. Once inside the human body, they will enter the bloodstream and the liver where they will
mature as schizonts. After one or two weeks, the schizonts will multiply and become merozoites.
The merozoites, amoeboid in shape, will enter the bloodstream and invade red blood cells where
they will reproduce asexually, and cause the symptoms of the disease.
Table 2. Parasitic protozoa, disease, and symptoms.
Pathogen Disease Symptoms
Trypanosoma brucei African Sleeping First stage: Fever,
(Mastigophora) Sickness headache, joint pains,
and itching
Second stage:
Confusion, poor
coordination, and sleep
disturbances
Leismania Visceral Leishmaniasis Irregular bouts of fever,
(Mastigophora) weight loss, anemia,
and enlargement of
spleen and liver
Giardia duodenalis Giardiasis Foul smelling greasy
(Mastigophora) diarrhea
Entamoeba histolytica Amebiasis Mild diarrhea to severe
(Sarcodina) dysentery with blood,
and liver abscess
Plasmodium Malaria Mild symptoms: Fever,
(Apicomplexa) headache, and chills
Severe symptoms:
Fatigue, seizure,
confusion, and difficulty
breathing

IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING PROTOZOA

Studying of Protozoa provides understanding on how these organisms can cause

diseases, and how these diseases can be prevented or treated. One example is the use
of Pentamidine, a drug used to treat infections caused by fungi and protozoa, including
Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. It is administered into a muscle. Another is Suramin, a
drug used to treat the first stage symptoms caused by Trypanosoma brucei
rhodesiense. It is injected into a vein.
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PROKARYOTES

Prokaryotes: archaebacteria, eubacteria

Prokaryotes – refers to a single-celled organism that lacks a distinct nucleus and other
organelles due to the absence of internal membranes. These organisms are smaller than
eukaryotes.

STRUCTURE OF PROKARYOTIC CELL

Prokaryotic cell. (n.d.). pinterest.ph. https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/223983781445388388/

Archaebacteria
Archaebacteria is a kingdom under the domain Archaea. Archaebacteria are asexual, unicellular
prokaryotes that live in extreme environments and are different from organisms in the domains
Bacteria and Eukarya.

STRUCTURE OF ARCHAEBACTERIA

structure of Archaebacteria. (n.d.). byjus.com. https://byjus.com/biology/archaebacteria/

CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCHAEBACTERIA
• They can easily survive under very harsh conditions such as the bottom of the sea and
volcanic vents and are thus known as extremophiles.
• Obligate or facultative anaerobes, i.e., they flourish in the absence of oxygen and that is why
only they can undergo methanogenesis.
• Their cell membranes are composed of lipids.
• Their rigid cell wall provides shape and support as well as protects the cell from bursting
under hypotonic conditions.
• Their cell wall is composed of Pseudomurein, which prevents them from the effects Lysozyme.
Lysozyme is
an enzyme released by the immune system of the host, which dissolves the cell wall of
pathogenic bacteria.
• Do not possess membrane-bound organelles such as nuclei, endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, lysosomes, or chloroplast.
• Their thick cytoplasm contains all the compounds required for nutrition and metabolism.
• They can live in a variety of environments and are hence called extremophiles. They can
survive in acidic and
alkaline aquatic regions, and also in temperature above boiling point.
• They can withstand a very high pressure of more than 200 atmospheres.
• They are indifferent towards major antibiotics because they contain plasmids which have
antibiotic resistance enzymes.
• The mode of reproduction is asexual, known as binary fission.
• They perform unique transcription.
• The differences in their ribosomal RNA suggest that they diverged from both prokaryotes and
eukaryotes.
• They are sphere, rod, plate, spiral, flat or square-shaped
• Exhibit neither glycolysis nor Kreb’s cycle

TYPES OF ARCHAEA (based on the environment they live in)

Halophiles – live in environments with have high levels of salt.
Thermophiles – live in extremely hot environments.
Methanogens – live in some strange places such as swaps and inside the guts of cows and
termites. They help these animals break down cellulose, a tough carbohydrate made by plants.

IMPORTANCE OF ARCHAEBACTERIA
Archaebacteria have compelled the scientists to reconsider the common definition of species.
Species are a group with gene flow within its members. The archaebacteria exhibit gene flow
across its species. The Archaebacteria are methanogens, i.e., they are capable of producing
methane. They act on the organic matter and decompose it to release methane which is then
used for cooking and lighting.

Eubacteria
Eubacteria, also referred as true bacteria, are prokaryotic microorganisms consisting of a single
cell lacking a nucleus and containing a single cellular DNA chromosome. Eubacteria can be
either gram-negative or gram-positive, they have economic, agricultural, and medical
importance.

Eubacteria. (n.d.). microbenote.com.

https://microbenotes.com/eubacteria-definition-characteristics-structure-types-examples/

CHARACTERISTICS OF EUBACTERIA
• More complex that archaebacteria

• These are prokaryotic organisms that are single-celled.

• Eubacteria have stiff cell walls due to peptidoglycans.

• Cell wall is composed of peptidoglycans with muramic acid

• Found everywhere on earth.

• Cocci, bacilli, vibrio, rods, filaments, or spirochetes in shape.

• Capable of producing spores in order to remain dormant during unfavorable conditions

• RNA polymerase consists of a simple subunit pattern

• The majority of Eubacteria are heterotrophic. However, a few are photosynthetic or chemosynthetic.

• Some bacteria have pili, which are small appendages present on the surface of the cell which assists in
sexual reproduction. Pili also helps in the attachment of pathogens to their hosts.
• The size of these bacteria ranges from 0.2 to 50 micrometers.

• Depending on the type of cell wall and the gram stain they take, they are classified as gram-positive or
gram negative. The gram-negative bacteria do not take the gram stain and are harmful to humans.
Whereas the gram-positive bacteria take up the gram stain and are beneficial to human health.

TYPES OF EUBACTERIA Based on their shape

Coccus – bacteria that have spherical shape (e.g. Staphylococcus, Pneumococcus)

Coccus. (n.d.). vecteezy.com.

https://www.vecteezy.com/vector-art/23334377-coccus-bacteria-type-with-circular-shape-isolated-biology-education
al-vector-illustration-isolated-on-horizontal-landscape-white-template-background-simple-flat-biology-art

Bacillus – rod-shaped bacteria (e.g. Anthracis, B. megaterium and B. thuringiensis)

Bacillus Subtilis. (n.d.). biologydictionary.net. https://biologydictionary.net/bacillus-subtilis/

Vibrio – comma-shaped bacteria (e.g. V. cholera, V. parahaemolyticus, and V. vulnificus)

Spirillum – spiral-shaped bacteria (e.g. Spirochaete, Treponema, Borrelia, and Leptospira)

Eukaryotes: fungi, algae, protozoans

Eukaryotes refers to any cell or organism that possesses a clearly define nucleus. Eukaryotes
have a nuclear membrane that surrounds the nucleus, in which the well-defined chromosomes
are located. Eukaryotes also contain organelles including mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, an
endoplasmic reticulum, and lysosome.)

Eukaryotic cell. (n.d.). www.sciencefacts.net. https://www.sciencefacts.net/eukaryotic-cell.html

Archaea have rigid cell walls with diverse structures. They contain many unusual lipids with
repeating isoprenyl groups linked to glycerol and an S layer of glycoproteins in a lattice-like
arrangement attached to the membrane.

Anatomy of an Archaeal Cell. (n.d.). rsscience.com. https://rsscience.com/archaea/

Anatomy of Bacteria
Bacteria are prokaryotes, lacking well-defined nuclei and membrane-bound organelles, and
with chromosomes composed of a single closed DNA circle. They come in many shapes and
sizes, from minute spheres, cylinders and spiral threads, to flagellated rods, and filamentous
chains.

STRUCTURE OF BACTERIA

Buckley, G. (n.d.). Prokaryotic Cell. Biology Dictionary. https://biologydictionary.net/prokaryotic-cell/

Capsule – third protective covering, made up of polysaccharides, keeps the bacterium from
drying out, and protects it from phagocytosis by larger microorganisms.
Cell envelope – made up of two to three layers: the interior cytoplasmic membrane, the cell
wall, and -- in some species of bacteria -- an outer capsule
Cell wall – composed of peptidoglycan, a protein-sugar (polysaccharide) molecule, gives the cell
its shape and surrounds the cytoplasmic membrane, protecting it from the environment. It also
helps to anchor appendages like the pili and flagella.
Cytoplasm (protoplasm) – where the functions for cell growth, metabolism, and replication are
carried out. It is a gel-like matrix composed of water, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, and gases and
contains cell structures such as ribosomes, a chromosome, and plasmids.
Cytoplasmic membrane – a layer of phospholipids and proteins, encloses the interior of the
bacterium, regulating the flow of materials in and out of the cell.
Flagella – hair like structures that provide a means of locomotion for those bacteria that have
them
Nucleoid – a region of cytoplasm where the chromosomal DNA is located.
Pili – small hairlike projections emerging from the outside cell surface
Ribosomes – microscopic "factories" found in all cells. They translate the genetic code from the
molecular language of nucleic acid to that of amino acids—the building blocks of proteins.

REFERENCES:
Admin. (2021). Archaebacteria - Characteristics & Types Of Archaebacteria. BYJUS.
https://byjus.com/biology/archaebacteria/

Buckley, G. (2020). Prokaryotic cell. Biology Dictionary.

https://biologydictionary.net/prokaryotic-cell/

Mukherjee, S. (2023, February 3). Eukaryotic cell: Definition, Structure, & Examples. Science
Facts. https://www.sciencefacts.net/eukaryotic-cell.html

Sharma, B. (2023). Eubacteria- definition, characteristics, structure, types, examples. Microbe

Notes. https://microbenotes.com/eubacteria-definition-characteristics-structure-types-examples/
BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY

Learning Outcomes :

● List the structures bacteria possess.

● Describe the major shapes of bacteria.
● Describe bacterial arrangements.
● Describe the composition, function, and relevance to human health of the
glycocalyx.
● Distinguish capsules from slime layers.
● Discuss the structure and function of bacterial flagella.
● List and describe four bacterial flagellar arrangements.
● Describe the sugar and peptide portions of peptidoglycan.
● Compare and contrast the cell walls of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
in terms of structure and
● Gram staining.
● Describe bacterial cytoplasm and its basic contents.
● Define inclusion, and give two examples.
● Describe the formation and function of endospores.
● Briefly discuss the major classes of antibiotics (Beta-lactams)
● Briefly define and discuss microbiotas
● Relate bacterial morphology to food safety and bacterial pathogenicity.

Link to the presentation with visuals :

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1vqw9S8kkRbX-dlfGC0UqLJnbMm8v2l22/edit?us
p=sharing&ouid=108105629219661373360&rtpof=true&sd=true

TOPICS TO BE DISCUSSED :

Importance of Studying Bacterial Morphology

•The study of bacteria provides an excellent route for probing the nature of
biological processes, many of which are shared by multicellular organisms.
•At an applied level, normal bacterial processes can be customized to benefit
society on a mass scale.
•From a pharmaceutical and healthcare perspective, it is important to be able to
know how to kill bacterial contaminants and disease-causing organisms.
Morphology
● Cocci – spherical
● Bacilli – rod shaped
● Vibrio – curved rods
● Spirilla – spiral shaped
● Spirochetes - flexible spiral shape

Cell Number Descriptive Prefixes

● Diplo - two cells
● Tetra - four cells
● Sarcinae - cube of 8 cells
● Staphylo - clusters of cells
● Strepto - chains of cells

Glycocalyx
•Polysaccharide cover that surrounds
cell membranes of some bacteria
•Biofilm formation and evasion of host defenses
•Capsule - neatly organized and
attached to the cell wall and prevent
phagocytosis by the host’s immune system.
•Slime layer - unorganized and
loosely attached to the cell wall

Cell Wall
•Bacterial cell walls, composed of peptidoglycan (PG), determine shape and
provide structural support, with PG consisting of glycan chains (NAG and NAM)
cross-linked by short peptides.
• Peptidoglycan composition varies among bacterial groups.
•Bacteria in low solute environments rely on peptidoglycan to prevent rupture
from excess water uptake
• Antibiotics like penicillin and cephalosporins target peptidoglycan's peptide
cross-links, disrupting cell wall integrity.
•Lysozyme in tears and saliva naturally breaks down peptidoglycan bonds.

Fimbriae
•Small, bristlelike fibers on the surface of many bacterial cells.
•They contain protein and have an inherent tendency to stick to surfaces.
•Fimbriae play a role in the formation of biofilms and cell aggregation on
surfaces.
•Some pathogens use fimbriae to tightly adhere to host epithelial cells.

Prokaryotic Flagella
•Used for locomotion
•Made of flagellin
• Anchored by hook and motor proteins.
•Rotational movement propels bacteria.
•Flagella vary in number and distribution.
• Flagella can be monotrichous, peritrichous, lophotrichous, amphitrichous
•Direction of rotation changes in response to chemicals.
•Facilitates movement toward favorable environments.

Biofilms
Biofilms are structured communities of bacteria or fungi that grow on surfaces,
including biotic and abiotic ones, as well as within aggregates. They are held
together by a matrix of polymeric substances, such as polysaccharides,
extracellular DNA (eDNA), and proteins, that they produce themselves.

Properties of Biofilms
•Can serve as a reservoir of different pathogenic microorganisms
•High tolerance against biocides
•Resistance to environmental stress
•Quorum sensing
•Detachment resistance

Quorum Sensing
•A process where bacteria communicate with each other by detecting and
responding to small chemical molecules, similar to pheromones, that they
secrete.
•Bacteria release signaling molecules as they grow, and as population density
increases, molecule concentration rises.
•Quorum sensing triggers collective behaviors, such as biofilm formation, in
bacterial communities.

Consequences of Biofilms
•Contamination of food and drug manufacturing
•Reduced food quality
•Reduced productivity in pharmaceutical manufacturing
•Increased costs in hygiene maintenance
•Hospital-acquired infections ( nosocomial infection)
•Antibiotic resistance
•Device-related infections
•Reduced functionality of medical devices and prosthesis
•Need for device replacement

Cytoplasm
•The cytoplasm is a substance inside the plasma membrane that is ~80% water. It
contains proteins, enzymes, carbohydrates, lipids, inorganic ions, various
compounds, a nuclear area, ribosomes, and inclusions.

Nuclear Area (Nucleoid)

● There is a single circular chromosome made of DNA that has no histones
or introns in bacteria. The chromosome is attached to the plasma
membrane at a point along its length, where proteins synthesize and
partition new DNA for division during binary fission.

Plasmid
•Plasmids are small circular DNA molecules and are used in genetic engineering.
•Plasmids can be gained or lost without harming the cell
•Usually contain less than 100 genes
•May contain genes for antibiotic resistance, tolerance to toxic metals, production
of toxins, or synthesis of enzymes
Clinical Significance of Plasmids
•Plasmids transfer antibiotic resistance and virulence genes.
•Versatility makes plasmids potent mutagenic agents.
•Loss of plasmids results in avirulence.
•Plasmids can carry entire pathogenicity islands.
•Enables rapid acquisition of new virulence traits.

Ribosomes
•Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis and are composed of a large and
small subunit, both made of protein and rRNA.
•Prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S ribosomes
•Made of a small 30S subunit and a larger 50S subunit
•Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S ribosomes
•Made of a small 40S subunit and a larger 60S subunit
•Certain antibiotics target only prokaryotic ribosomal subunits without targeting
eukaryotic ribosomal subunits

Inclusion Bodies
Inclusion bodies are reserve deposits of nutrients that can be used in times of
low resource availability.

Endospore
•Endospores are dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structures produced by
some Gram-positive bacterial cells that form when essential nutrients can no
longer be obtained.
•Resistant to environmental hazards
•Sporulation (sporogenesis) - process of endospore formation within vegetative
cells
•Endospore is metabolically inert
•Contains the chromosome, some RNA, ribosomes, enzymes, other molecules,
and a very small amount of water
•Can remain dormant for millions of years
Clinical Significance of Endospores
•Endospores are formed by certain pathogenic bacteria, such as Clostridium and
Bacillus species
•Endospores can persist in soil, water, and various surfaces, serving as reservoirs for
pathogenic bacteria.
•Endospores in certain foodborne pathogens, like Clostridium botulinum, can survive
cooking and other food processing methods, posing a risk to food safety and human
health.

Bacteria are classified by various ways:

1.Differential method of staining bacteria and assigning them into one

of two groups :
•Gram positive (gm+ve) / stain blue or purple
•Gram negative (gm-ve) / stain red.

Exceptions to the Gram Stain Classification

•Mycobacteria and Nocardia are acid-fast stains.
•Mycoplasma: no cell wall, cannot be stained
•Spirochetes: darkfield microscope, too small
•Obligate intracellular bacteria

2. Use of oxygen
•Obligate aerobes: Require oxygen for survival. They have catalase, peroxidase, and
superoxide dismutase to breakdown H2O2 and neutralize superoxide radicals .
•Anaerobe: Cannot survive in oxygen, and do not have any enzymes.
•Facultative anaerobe: Can live with or without oxygen. Have catalase and superoxide
dismutase.
•Microaerophilic: Does not have catalase, uses fermentation for energy needs. Can
tolerate oxygen with low concentration.
Gram-Positive Bacteria
•Gram-positive cell walls are thick, ranging from 15 to 80 nanometers in
thickness.
• They contain a significant amount of peptidoglycan, making up about 40–80% of
the cell wall's dry weight.
• Peptidoglycan is present in several layers within the cell wall structure.
•Contains teichoic and teichuronic acids.

Gram-Negative Bacteria
•Outer membrane & thin peptidoglycan.
•Contains toxic LPS & structural proteins.
•LPS:Acts as an endotoxin, affects virulence.
•Porins control molecule passage.
•The lower outer membrane resembles a cell membrane, and has lipids.
•Thin peptidoglycan; Some rigidity, lysis sensitivity.
•Has periplasmic space

Exotoxin
These are heat-sensitive soluble protein molecules released by both gram-positive
and gram-negative bacteria. They are of various types and cause various pathological
conditions in a human.

Endotoxin
Part of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria. Also called lipid A. It is
secreted during the lysis of gram-negative bacteria and is responsible for sepsis,
septic shock, bacteremia, and other conditions in humans. These are heat-stable
molecules.

Microbiota

•The human microbiota refers to the collection of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses,

fungi, etc.) that live in and on the human body.
•Each individual's microbiome is unique and influenced by factors such as diet,
medications, genetics, geographic location, and social interactions.

•The gut microbiome, which includes numerous bacterial species, has been a major
focus of research.

•The gut microbiota primarily consists of known phyla, such as Actinobacteria,

Firmicutes, and Bacteroidetes, but about 25% of niches in the body remain unexplored.

•Research indicates that the average person houses thousands of bacterial species
and contains many more microbial genes than human genes.

•The development of commensal microbiota begins before birth and continues after
delivery, influenced by maternal microbiota, birthing methods, breastfeeding, and
environmental exposure.

•Escherichia coli, often considered a gram-negative pathogen, is among the first

commensal microbes in the infant gut, contributing to immunity and reduced
infections.
REFERENCES :

•Bauman, R. W., Primm, T. P., Siegesmund, A. M., Cosby, C. D., & Montgomery, J.
E. (2017). Microbiology with Diseases by Body System. Pearson Education, Inc.

•Maresso, A. W. (2019). Bacterial virulence: A Conceptual Primer. Springer.

•Parija, S. C. (2023). Textbook of Microbiology and Immunology. Springer Nature.

•Talaro, K. P., Cowan, M. K., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.).
McGraw-Hill.

•Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case, C. L., Bair, W. B., & Weber, D. (2021). Microbiology:
An Introduction. Pearson.